Power System Protection, 2nd Edition
Paul M. Anderson
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POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION 2nd Edition
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TechnicalReviewers
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PowerSystemProtection
SecondEdition
PaulM.Anderson†
CharlesHenville
HenvilleConsultingInc.
RasheekRifaat
RifaatEngineeringInc.
BrianJohnson UniversityofIdaho
SakisMeliopoulos
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology
† Deceased.
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Contents
AuthorBiographies xxv
PrefacetotheSecondEdition xxvii
ListofSymbols xxix
PartIProtectiveDevicesandControls 1
1Introduction 3
1.1PowerSystemProtection 3
1.2PreventionandControlofSystemFailure 3
1.2.1ReactionaryDevices 4
1.2.2SafeguardDevices 5
1.2.3ProtectiveDeviceOperation 6
1.3ProtectiveSystemDesignConsiderations 8
1.4DefinitionsUsedinSystemProtection 9
1.5SystemDisturbances 11
1.6BookContents 12 Problems 14 References 15
2ProtectionMeasurementsandControls 17
2.1GraphicSymbolsandDeviceIdentification 17
2.2TypicalRelayConnections 19
2.3CircuitBreakerControlCircuits 22
2.4InstrumentTransformers 23
2.4.1InstrumentTransformerSelection 24
2.4.2InstrumentTransformerTypesandConnections 30
2.5RelayControlConfigurations 37
2.6OpticalCommunications 38 Problems 42 References 44
3ProtectiveDeviceCharacteristics 47
3.1Introduction 47
3.2FuseCharacteristics 48
3.2.1DistributionFuseCutouts 48
3.2.2FuseTypes 50
3.2.3FuseTime–CurrentCharacteristics 53
3.2.4FuseCoordinationCharts 56
3.3RelayCharacteristics 61
3.3.1RelayTypes 62
3.3.2ElectromechanicalRelayCharacteristics 66
3.3.3StaticAnalogRelays 74
3.3.4DifferentialRelays 74
3.3.5DigitalRelays 76
3.3.6DigitalOvercurrentRelays 84
3.4PowerCircuitBreakers 87
3.4.1CircuitBreakerDefinitions 87
3.4.2CircuitBreakerRatings 88
3.4.3CircuitBreakerDesign 91
3.5AutomaticCircuitReclosers 93
3.5.1RecloserRatings 94
3.5.2RecloserTime–CurrentCharacteristics 95
3.6AutomaticLineSectionalizers 98
3.7CircuitSwitchers 100
3.8DigitalFaultRecorders 101 Problems 103 References 103
4RelayLogic 109
4.1Introduction 109
4.2ElectromechanicalRelayLogic 110
4.2.1TheOvercurrentRelay 110
4.2.2TheDistanceRelay 110
4.3ElectronicLogicCircuits 111
4.3.1AnalogLogicCircuits 111
4.3.2DigitalLogicCircuits 116
4.4AnalogRelayLogic 125
4.4.1AnInstantaneousOvercurrentRelay 125
4.4.2PhaseComparisonDistanceRelay 126
4.4.3ADirectionalComparisonPilotRelay 127
4.4.4ConclusionsRegardingSolid-StateAnalogLogic 128
4.5DigitalRelayLogic 128
4.5.1DigitalSignalProcessing 129
4.5.2TheDataWindowMethod 133
4.5.3ThePhasorMethod 134
4.5.4DigitalRelayingApplications 136
4.5.5ExampleofaDigitalRelaySystem 138
4.6HybridRelayLogic 139
4.7RelaysasComparators 140
4.7.1RelayDesign 140
4.7.2PhaseandAmplitudeComparison 141
4.7.3TheAlphaandBetaPlanes 142
4.7.4TheGeneralComparatorEquations 142
4.7.5TheAmplitudeComparator 146
4.7.6ThePhaseComparator 147
4.7.7DistanceRelaysasComparators 149
4.7.8GeneralBetaPlaneCharacteristics 151 Problems 153 References 157
5SystemCharacteristics 163
5.1PowerSystemFaults 163
5.1.1SystemFaultCharacteristics 164
5.1.2FaultCurrentsNearSynchronousMachines 167
5.1.3SaturationofCurrentTransformers 175
5.2StationArrangements 176
5.2.1SingleBus,SingleBreakerArrangement 176
5.2.2MainandTransferArrangement 177
5.2.3DoubleBus,SingleBreakerArrangement 178
5.2.4DoubleBus,DoubleBreakerArrangement 179
5.2.5RingBusArrangement 179
5.2.6Breaker-and-a-HalfArrangement 180
5.2.7OtherSwitchingArrangements 180
5.3OverheadLineImpedances 182
5.4ComputationofAvailableFaultCurrent 184
5.4.1Three-Phase(3PH)Faults 186
5.4.2DoubleLine-to-Ground(2LG)Faults 186
5.4.3Line-to-Line(LL)Fault 186
5.4.4One-Line-to-Ground(1LG)Fault 187
5.4.5SummaryofFaultCurrents 188
5.5SystemEquivalentforProtectionStudies 188
5.5.1TheOpen-CircuitImpedanceMatrix 189
5.5.2ComputationoftheTwo-PortRepresentation 190
5.5.3ASimpleTwo-PortEquivalent 192
5.5.4TestsoftheEquivalentCircuit 193
5.5.5SystemEquivalentfromTwo-PortParameters 193
5.5.6EquivalentofaLinewithShuntFaults 194
5.5.7ApplicationsoftheEquivalenttoSeriesFaults 195
5.5.8ConclusionsRegardingTwo-PortEquivalents 198
5.5.9MultiportEquivalents 199
5.6TheCompensationTheorem 202
5.6.1NetworkSolution Before Changing Y 3 203
5.6.2NetworkSolution After Changing Y 3 203
5.6.3TheIncrementalChangeinCurrentandVoltage 204
5.6.4TheCompensationTheoreminFaultStudies 205
5.7CompensationApplicationsinFaultStudies 205
5.7.1PrefaultConditions 205
5.7.2TheFaultedNetworkCondition 206
5.7.3TheFaultConditionsWithoutLoadCurrents 208
5.7.4SummaryofLoadandFaultConditions 208 Problems 210 References 214
PartIIProtectionConcepts 215
6FaultProtectionofRadialLines 217
6.1RadialDistributionSystems 217
6.2RadialDistributionCoordination 219
6.2.1SupplySystemInformation 219
6.2.2DistributionSubstationInformation 220
6.2.3DistributionSystemInformation 220
6.2.4ProtectiveEquipmentInformation 221
6.2.5Step-by-StepStudyProcedure 221
6.3RadialLineFaultCurrentCalculations 222
6.3.1GeneralConsiderationsforRadialFaults 222
6.3.2MainLineFeederFaults 223
6.3.3BranchLineFaults 230
6.4RadialSystemProtectiveStrategy 233
6.4.1ClearingTemporaryFaults 234
6.4.2IsolatingPermanentFaults 235
6.5CoordinationofProtectiveDevices 236
6.5.1Recloser–FuseCoordination 236
6.5.2Recloser–RelayCoordination 239
6.6RelayCoordinationonRadialLines 241
6.6.1CoordinationProcedure 242
6.6.2ProcedureforPhaseandGroundRelays 245
6.6.3ProcedureforInstantaneousRelaySettings 252
6.7CoordinatingProtectiveDevicesMeasuringDifferentParameters 258
6.7.1CombinedTime–CurrentCharacteristics 259
6.7.2CoordinatingTime–CurrentCharacteristicsAcrossTransformers 265
6.7.3CoordinatingTwoOvercurrentRelaysNotMeasuringtheSameCurrents 268 Problems 269
6.7.4Time–CurrentCharacteristicsforProblemSolving 275 References 276
7IntroductiontoTransmissionProtection 277
7.1Introduction 277
7.2ProtectionwithOvercurrentRelays 278
7.2.1LoopswithOneCurrentSource 280
7.2.2LoopswithMultipleCurrentSources 282
7.3DistanceProtectionofLines 285
7.3.1DistanceRelayCharacteristics 285
7.3.2ZonedDistanceRelays 291
7.3.3EffectofFaultResistance 293
7.3.4SummaryofDistanceRelayConcepts 299
7.4UnitProtection 299
7.5GroundFaultProtection 301
7.5.1ImportanceofGroundFaultProtection 301
7.5.2UniqueCharacteristicsofGroundFaults 302
7.5.3PolarizationofGroundRelays 303
7.5.4TypesofGroundRelays 309
7.6Summary 310
Problems 311
References 315
8ComplexLociinthe Z and Y Planes 317
8.1TheInverse Z Transformation 317
8.2LineandCircleMapping 320
8.2.1TheHalf Z Plane: a = c = 0 321
8.2.2TheHalf Z Plane: R ≤ k2 323
8.2.3TheHalfPlane: a = b = 0 323
8.2.4TheHalfPlane: a = 0 324
8.2.5TheHalfPlane: d = 0 325
8.3TheComplexEquationofaLine 327
8.4TheComplexEquationofaCircle 328
8.5InversionofanArbitraryAdmittance 330
8.5.1Inversionof Y with|Y K |Constantand �� Variable 331
8.5.2Inversionof Y with �� Constantand|Y K |Variable 332
8.5.3Summaryof Y InversionEquations 332
8.6InversionofaStraightLineThrough(1,0) 333
8.7InversionofanArbitraryStraightLine 335
8.8InversionofaCirclewithCenterat(1,0) 336
8.9InversionofanArbitraryCircle 338
8.10SummaryofLineandCircleInversions 340
8.11AnglePreservationinConformalMapping 341
8.12OrthogonalTrajectories 342
8.13ImpedanceattheRelay 346 Problems 348 References 350
9ImpedanceattheRelay 351
9.1TheRelayApparentImpedance, Z R 351
9.2ProtectionEquivalentMParameters 353
9.2.1NetworkTestwith EU Shorted 354
9.2.2NetworkTestwith ES Shorted 355
9.3TheCircleLoci Z = P/(1 ± Y K ) 356
9.4 Z R LociConstruction 357
9.4.1 k Circles 359
9.4.2 �� Circles 360
9.5RelayApparentImpedance 363
9.5.1TheUnfaultedSystem 365
x Contents
9.5.2 ABCD ParametersforaFaultedSystem 367
9.6RelayImpedanceforaSpecialCase 371
9.7ConstructionofMCircles 375
9.7.1Short-CircuitTestwith EU Shorted 375
9.7.2Short-CircuitTestwith ES Shorted 376
9.7.3SummaryofShort-CircuitTestResults 378
9.8PhaseComparisonApparentImpedance 378 Problems 384 References 388
10AdmittanceattheRelay 391
10.1AdmittanceDiagrams 391
10.2InputAdmittanceLoci 392
10.2.1 Y I LociForConstant m393
10.2.2 Y I LociforConstant �� 393
10.3TheRelayAdmittanceCharacteristic 395
10.4ParallelTransmissionLines 400
10.5TypicalAdmittancePlaneCharacteristics 404
10.6SummaryofAdmittanceCharacteristics 407 Problems 408 Reference 411
PartIIITransmissionProtection 413
11AnalysisofDistanceProtection 415
11.1Introduction 415
11.2AnalysisofTransmissionLineFaults 415
11.2.1SequenceNetworkReduction 417
11.2.2PhaseFaultsat F418
11.2.3GroundFaultsat F424
11.3ImpedanceattheRelay 429
11.3.1RelayImpedanceswhen C1 = C2 430
11.3.2ApparentRelayImpedancePlots 434
11.4DistanceRelaySettings 439
11.5GroundDistanceProtection 447
11.6DistanceRelayCoordination 449 Problems 452 References 454
12TransmissionLineMutualInduction 457
12.1Introduction 457
12.2LineImpedances 458
12.2.1Self-andMutualImpedance 458
12.2.2EstimationofMutuallyCoupledVoltages 461
12.2.3ExampleofTransmissionLineImpedances 462
12.3EffectofMutualCoupling 469
12.3.1SelectingaReferencePhasor 469
12.3.2TransmissionSystemWithoutMutualCoupling 471
12.3.3TransmissionSystemwithMutualCoupling 472
12.3.4OtherExamplesofMutualCoupling 474
12.4ShortTransmissionLineEquivalents 476
12.4.1GeneralNetworkEquivalentsforShortLines 476
12.4.2Type1Networks 478
12.4.3Type2Networks 481
12.4.4Type3Networks 481
12.4.5LineswithAppreciableSusceptance 482
12.4.6OtherNetworkEquivalents 483
12.5LongTransmissionLines 484
12.5.1TheIsolatedLongTransmissionLine 484
12.5.2MutuallyCoupledLongTransmissionLines 486
12.6LongTransmissionLineEquivalents 493
12.6.1ReciprocityandtheAdmittanceMatrix 493
12.6.2TheLong-lineType3NetworkEquivalent 497
12.6.3Long-lineType1NetworkEquivalents 498
12.6.4Long-lineType2NetworkEquivalents 499
12.7SolutionoftheLong-lineCase 501
12.7.1DeterminationoftheSequenceImpedances 502
12.7.2ComputationofSequenceVoltagesandCurrents 504 Problems 504 References 507
13PilotProtectionSystems 509
13.1Introduction 510
13.2PhysicalSystemsforPilotProtection 512
13.2.1GeneralConceptsofPilotCommunications 513
13.2.2WirePilotSystems 516
13.2.3Power-LineCarrierPilotSystems 517
13.2.4MicrowavePilotSystems 518
13.2.5Fiber-OpticPilotSystems 520
13.2.6Relay-to-Relay(Peer-to-Peer)CommunicationsSystems 521
13.2.7GuidelinesforPilotCommunicationsSelection 521
13.2.8PilotCommunicationsProblems 522
13.2.9PilotProtectionClassifications 522
13.3Non-unitPilotProtectionSchemes 523
13.3.1DirectionalComparisonSchemes 523
13.3.2DistanceSchemes 523
13.3.3TransferTripPilotProtection 525
13.3.4BlockingandUnblockingPilotProtection 529
13.3.5SelectivityinDirectionalComparisonSystems 532
13.3.6OtherFeaturesofDirectionalComparison 532
13.3.7HybridSchemes 534
13.4UnitProtectionPilotSchemes 536
13.4.1PhaseComparisonSchemes 536
13.4.2LineCurrentDifferentialSchemes 544
13.5AnExampleofEHVLineProtection 548
13.5.1ConsiderationsinEHVProtection 548
13.5.2DescriptionoftheEHVPilotProtection 549
13.6PilotProtectionSettings 554
13.6.1InstrumentTransformerSettings 554
13.6.2Characteristic(MaximumTorque)Angle 555
13.6.3DistanceElementReachandTimeDelay 555
13.6.4PhaseOvercurrentElementSettings 557
13.6.5ResidualOvercurrentElementSettings 558
13.6.6Switch-onto-FaultLogic 559
13.6.7CurrentReversalLogicandTimers 559
13.6.8EchoKeying 560
13.6.9WeakInfeedLogicandSettings 560
13.6.10LossofPotentialLogic 561
13.6.11ConclusionsRegardingPilotProtectionSettings 561
13.7TravelingWaveRelays 561
13.8MonitoringofPilotPerformance 567 Problems 567 References 569
14ComplexTransmissionProtection 573
14.1Introduction 573
14.2Single-phaseSwitchingofExtra-high-voltageLines 573
14.2.1ControlofSecondaryArcsinTransposedLines 574
14.2.2SecondaryArcsinUntransposedEHVLines 578
14.3ProtectionofMultiterminalLines 581
14.3.1DistanceProtectionforaThree-terminalLine 584
14.3.2PilotProtectionforaThree-terminalLine 587
14.4ProtectionofMutuallyCoupledLines 590
14.4.1MutualCouplingofParallelLines 590
14.4.2GroundDistanceProtectionofType1Networks 591
14.4.3DistanceProtectionofType2Networks 612
14.4.4DistanceProtectionofType3Networks 612 Problems 613 References 617
15SeriesCompensatedLineProtection 619
15.1Introduction 619
15.1.1TheDegreeofCompensation 620
15.1.2VoltageProfileonSeriesCompensatedLines 620
15.2FaultswithUnbypassedSeriesCapacitors 621
15.2.1End-of-LineCapacitors–BusSideVoltage 622
15.2.2End-of-LineCapacitors–LineSideVoltage 628
15.2.3CapacitorsattheCenteroftheLine 629
15.2.4ConclusionsonSeriesCompensationEffects 633
15.3SeriesCapacitorBankProtection 634
15.3.1SeriesCapacitorBypassSystems 635
15.3.2AFundamentalFrequencyVaristorModel 641
15.3.3RelayQuantitiesIncludingVaristorBypass 644
15.3.4EffectofSystemParameters 647
15.4RelayProblemsDuetoCompensation 653
15.4.1TheEffectofTransientPhenomena 654
15.4.2TheEffectofPhaseImpedanceUnbalance 655
15.4.3SubsynchronousResonanceEffects 656
15.4.4VoltageandCurrentInversions 656
15.4.5ProblemsDuetoVoltageInversions 665
15.4.6ProblemsDuetoMutualInduction 667
15.4.7ProblemsinReachMeasurement 668
15.5ProtectionofSeriesCompensatedLines 674
15.5.1LineCurrentDifferentialand/orCurrentPhaseComparison 674
15.5.2DirectionalComparisonSchemes 675
15.5.3DirectionalOvercurrentGroundProtection 677
15.6LineProtectionExperience 678
15.6.1TheEffectofTransientPhenomenaonProtection 678
15.6.2TheEffectofPhaseImpedanceUnbalance 678
15.6.3TheEffectofVoltageandCurrentInversions 678
15.6.4TheEffectofFaultLocatorError 679
15.6.5TheEffectofTransducerError 679
15.6.6AutoreclosingofTransmissionLines 679
15.6.7RequirementsforProtectionSystemStudies 679
15.6.8GeneralExperiencewithLineProtection 680 Problems 680 References 683
PartIVApparatusProtection 685
16BusProtection 687
16.1Introduction 687
16.2BusConfigurationsandFaults 688
16.3BusProtectionRequirements 689
16.4BusProtectionbyBackupLineRelays 691
16.5BusDifferentialProtection 692
16.5.1CurrentTransformersforBusProtection 692
16.5.2DifferentialProtectionConceptsandProblems 694
16.5.3DifferentialProtectionwithOvercurrentRelays 696
16.5.4BusProtectionwithPercentDifferentialRelays 698
16.5.5BusDifferentialProtectionwithLinearCouplers 699
16.5.6High-ImpedanceBusDifferentialProtection 701
16.6OtherTypesofBusProtection 708
16.6.1Zone-Interlocking/BlockingBusProtection 708
16.6.2Time-CoordinatedOvercurrentorDistanceProtection 709
16.6.3FaultBusProtection 709
16.6.4CombinedBusandTransformerProtection 710
16.6.5OpticalArcFlashBusProtection 711
16.6.6BusProtectionUsingAuxiliaryCTs 711
16.6.7DirectionalComparisonBusProtection 716
16.7AuxiliaryTrippingRelays 716
16.7.1LockoutRelays(Function86) 716
16.7.2NonlockoutRelays(Function94) 716
16.8Summary 717 Problems 717 References 719
17TransformerandReactorProtection 721
17.1Introduction 721
17.2TransformerFaults 722
17.2.1ExternalFaults 722
17.2.2InternalFaults 723
17.2.3FaultProtectionPhilosophy 729
17.3MagnetizingInrush 729
17.3.1MagnetizingCurrentMagnitude 730
17.3.2MagnetizingInrushCurrentHarmonics 732
17.3.3SympatheticInrushinParallelBanks 732
17.4ProtectionAgainstIncipientFaults 732
17.4.1ProtectionAgainstExternalIncipientFaults 733
17.4.2ProtectionAgainstInternalIncipientFaults 734
17.5ProtectionAgainstActiveFaults 735
17.5.1ConnectionsforDifferentialProtection 736
17.5.2DifferentialProtectionofTransformers 739
17.5.3OvercurrentProtectionofTransformers 744
17.5.4GroundFaultProtectionofTransformers 745
17.5.5TransformerProtectionUsingDigitalMultifunctionRelays 746
17.6CombinedLineandTransformerSchemes 748
17.6.1NonunitProtectionSchemes 749
17.6.2LineandTransformerUnitProtection 749
17.7RegulatingTransformerProtection 750
17.8ShuntReactorProtection 752
17.8.1DryTypeReactors 752
17.8.2Oil-ImmersedReactors 753
17.9StaticVarCompensatorProtection 755
17.9.1ATypicalSVCSystem 756
17.9.2SVCProtectionRequirements 757 Problems 759 References 761
18GeneratorProtection 763
18.1Introduction 763
18.2GeneratorSystemConfigurationsandTypesofProtection 764
18.3StatorProtection 766
18.3.1PhaseFaultProtection 766
18.3.2GroundFaultProtection 769
18.3.3Turn-to-TurnFaultProtection 777
18.3.4StatorOpenCircuitProtection 777
18.3.5OverheatingProtection 778
18.3.6OvervoltageProtection 778
18.3.7UnbalancedCurrentProtection 778
18.3.8BackupProtection 781
18.4RotorProtection 781
18.4.1ShortedFieldWindingProtection 781
18.4.2GroundedFieldWinding 782
18.4.3OpenFieldWinding 784
18.4.4OverheatingoftheFieldWinding 784
18.5LossofExcitationProtection 785
18.5.1OperationasanInductionGenerator 785
18.5.2LossofFieldProtection 786
18.6OtherGeneratorProtectionSystems 789
18.6.1OverspeedProtection 790
18.6.2GeneratorMotoringProtection 791
18.6.3VibrationProtection 791
18.6.4BearingFailureProtection 792
18.6.5CoolantFailureProtection 792
18.6.6FireProtection 792
18.6.7GeneratorVoltageTransformerFuseBlowing 792
18.6.8InadvertentEnergizing 793
18.6.9ProtectionofPowerPlantAuxiliaries 793
18.7SummaryofGeneratorProtection 794
18.7.1UnitGenerator-TransformerProtection 794
18.7.2UnitGenerator-TransformerTripModes 797
18.7.3BreakerFailureProtectionoftheGenerator 797 Problems 800 References 803
19MotorProtection 805
19.1Introduction 805
19.2InductionMotorAnalysis 806
19.2.1NormalizationoftheBasicEquations 806
19.2.2InductionMotorEquivalentCircuits 810
19.2.3TheNetAcceleratingTorque 815
19.2.4MotorElectricalandMechanicalPerformance 817
19.3InductionMotorHeating 824
19.3.1HeatTransferFundamentals 824
19.3.2AMotorThermalModel 828
19.4MotorProblems 837
19.4.1MotorProblemsDuetoInternalHazards 838
19.4.2MotorProblemsDuetoExternalHazards 839
19.5ClassificationsofMotors 843
19.5.1MotorsClassifiedbyService 843
19.5.2MotorsClassifiedbyLocation 844
19.5.3SummaryofMotorClassifications 845
19.6StatorProtection 845
19.6.1PhaseFaultProtection 845
19.6.2GroundFaultProtection 846
19.6.3LockedRotorProtection 846
19.6.4OverloadProtection 848
19.6.5UndervoltageProtection 848
19.6.6ReversePhaseRotationProtection 849
19.6.7UnbalancedSupplyVoltageProtection 849
19.6.8LossofSynchronisminSynchronousMotors 850
19.6.9LossofExcitationinSynchronousMotors 850
19.6.10SuddenSupplyRestorationProtection 850
19.7RotorProtection 851
19.7.1RotorHeating 851
19.7.2RotorProtectionProblems 851
19.8OtherMotorProtections 852
19.8.1BearingProtection 852
19.8.2CompleteMotorProtection 852
19.9SummaryofLargeMotorProtections 853 Problems 854 References 858
PartVSystemAspectsofProtection 861
20ProtectionAgainstAbnormalSystemFrequency 863
20.1AbnormalFrequencyOperation 863
20.2EffectsofFrequencyontheGenerator 864
20.2.1OverfrequencyEffects 864
20.2.2UnderfrequencyEffects 864
20.3FrequencyEffectsontheTurbine 866
20.3.1OverfrequencyEffects 869
20.3.2UnderfrequencyEffects 869
20.4ASystemFrequencyResponseModel 869
20.4.1EffectofDisturbanceSize, Pstep 874
20.4.2Normalization 875
20.4.3SlopeoftheFrequencyResponse 876
20.4.4TheEffectofGovernorDroop, R877
20.4.5TheEffectofInertia, H878
20.4.6TheEffectofReheatTimeConstant, T R 879
20.4.7TheEffectofHigh-PressureFraction, F H 880
20.4.8TheEffectofDamping, D880
20.4.9SystemPerformanceAnalysis 881
20.4.10UseoftheSFRModel 882
20.4.11RefinementsintheSFRModel 883
20.4.12OtherFrequencyResponseModels 885
20.4.13ConclusionsRegardingFrequencyBehavior 886
20.5OffNormalFrequencyProtection 886
20.6SteamTurbineFrequencyProtection 887
20.7UnderfrequencyProtection 889
20.7.1ATypicalTurbineProtectionCharacteristic 890
20.7.2LoadSheddingTraditionalRelayCharacteristics 890
20.7.3LoadSheddingRelayConnections 902 Problems 903 References 905
21ProtectiveSchemesforStabilityEnhancement 909
21.1Introduction 909
21.2ReviewofStabilityFundamentals 909
21.2.1DefinitionofStability 909
21.2.2PowerFlowThroughanImpedance 910
21.2.3Two-PortNetworkRepresentation 911
21.2.4TheSwingEquation 913
21.3SystemTransientBehavior 918
21.3.1StabilityTestSystem 918
21.3.2EffectofPowerTransfer 919
21.3.3EffectofCircuitBreakerSpeed 923
21.3.4EffectofReclosing 924
21.3.5RelayMeasurementsDuringTransients 924
21.4AutomaticReclosing 929
21.4.1TheNeedforFast(HighSpeed)Reclosing 930
21.4.2DisturbanceConsiderationsinReclosing 931
21.4.3ReclosingConsiderations 933
21.4.4ReclosingRelays 937
21.4.5ReclosingSwitchingOptions 943
21.4.6ReclosingatGeneratorBuses 945
21.5LossofSynchronismProtection 949
21.5.1SystemOut-of-StepPerformance 949
21.5.2Out-of-StepDetection 952
21.5.3Out-of-StepBlockingandTripping 953
21.5.4CircuitBreakerConsiderations 956
21.5.5PilotRelayingConsiderations 956
21.5.6Out-of-stepRelayingPractice 957
21.6VoltageStabilityandVoltageCollapse 957
21.7SystemIntegrityProtectionSchemes(SIPS) 960
21.7.1SIPSCharacteristics 961
21.7.2DisturbanceEvents 962
21.7.3SIPSDesignProcedure 963
21.7.4ExampleofaSystemIntegrityProtectionScheme 965
21.8Summary 968
Problems 968
References 970
22LineCommutatedConverterHVDCProtection 973
22.1Introduction 973
22.2LCCDcConversionFundamentals 974
22.2.1RectifierOperation 974
22.2.2InverterOperation 981
22.2.3MultibridgeConverters 984
22.2.4CharacteristicLCCConverterHarmonics 988
22.2.5BasicHVDCControl 989
22.3ConverterStationDesign 992
22.3.1ATypicalConverterStation 992
22.3.2HVDCControlHierarchicalStructure 993
22.3.3GeneralPhilosophyofHVDCProtection 997
22.3.4GeneralCategoriesofHVDCProtection 998
22.4AcSideProtection 999
22.4.1AcLineProtection 999
22.4.2AcBusProtection 1000
22.4.3ConverterTransformerProtection 1000
22.4.4FiltersandReactiveSupportProtection 1001
22.4.5GeneratorProtection 1001
22.5DcSideProtectionOverview 1002
22.5.1ValveProtection 1002
22.5.2OtherDcSideProtectiveFunctions 1007
22.6SpecialHVDCProtections 1012
22.6.1GeneralDescription 1012
22.6.2ReversePowerProtection 1012
22.6.3TorsionalInteractionProtection 1013
22.6.4Self-ExcitationProtection 1014
22.6.5DynamicOvervoltageProtection 1014
22.7HVDCProtectionSettings 1015
22.8Summary 1016 Problems 1016 References 1018
23VoltageSourceConverterHVDCProtection 1021
23.1Introduction 1021
23.2VSCHVDCFundamentals 1022
23.2.1VoltageSourceConverterTopologies 1022
23.2.2VSCHVDCSystemTopologies 1027
23.3ConverterControlSystems 1028
23.3.1Synchronization 1029
23.3.2CurrentControllers 1029
23.3.3OuterControllers 1030
23.4HVDCResponsetoAcSystemFaults 1030
23.5AcSystemProtection 1031
23.5.1ConverterStationAcProtection 1031
23.5.2AcLineProtection 1034
23.6DcFaults 1035
23.6.1AcSystemResponsetoDcFaults 1035
23.6.2DcProtectionSchemes 1036
23.7MultiterminalSystems 1037
23.8HybridLCC–VSCSystems 1037
23.9Summary 1038 Problems 1038 References 1039
24ProtectionofIndependentPowerProducerInterconnections 1041
24.1Introduction 1041
24.2RenewableResources 1042
24.3TransmissionInterconnections 1042
24.3.1InterconnectionSubstations 1043
24.3.2TransmissionTappedInterconnections 1045
24.3.3TransmissionInterconnectionProtection 1052
24.4DistributionInterconnections 1053
24.4.1DistributedResourceSize 1054
24.4.2DedicatedInterconnectionFeeders 1055
24.4.3SharedInterconnectionFeeders 1056
24.5Summary 1060 Problems 1061 References 1061
25SSRandSSCIProtection 1063
25.1Introduction 1063
25.2SSROverview 1063
25.2.1TypesofSSRInteractions 1068
25.2.2ABriefHistoryofSSRPhenomena 1070
25.3SSRandSSCISystemCountermeasures 1073
25.3.1NetworkandSourceControls 1073
25.3.2GeneratorandSystemModifications 1078
25.4SSRSourceCountermeasures 1079
25.4.1FilteringandDamping 1079
25.4.2RelayProtectionandMonitoring 1084
25.5Summary 1093 Problems 1093 References 1095
PartVIReliabilityofProtectiveSystems 1101
26BasicReliabilityConcepts 1103
26.1Introduction 1103
26.2ProbabilityFundamentals 1103
26.2.1TheProbabilityAxioms 1104
26.2.2EventsandExperiments 1104
26.2.3VennDiagrams 1105
26.2.4ClassesandPartitions 1106
26.2.5RulesforCombiningProbabilities 1107
26.3RandomVariables 1110
26.3.1DefinitionofaRandomVariable 1110
26.3.2TheCumulativeProbabilityDistributionFunction 1111
26.3.3TheProbabilityDensityFunction 1111
26.3.4DiscreteDistributions 1112
26.3.5ContinuousDistributions 1113
26.3.6Moments 1114
26.3.7CommonProbabilityDistributionFunctions 1115
26.3.8RandomVectors 1123
26.3.9StochasticProcesses 1124
26.3.10PowerSystemDisturbances 1126
26.4FailureDefinitionsandFailureModes 1127
26.4.1FailureDefinitions 1127
26.4.2ModesofFailure 1128
26.5ReliabilityModels 1129
26.5.1DefinitionofReliability 1129
26.5.2TheRepairProcess 1132
26.5.3TheWholeProcess 1134
26.5.4ConstantFailureandRepairRateModel 1138 Problems 1141 References 1143
27ReliabilityAnalysis 1145
27.1ReliabilityBlockDiagrams 1145
27.1.1SeriesSystems 1146
27.1.2ParallelSystems 1147
27.1.3Series–ParallelandParallel–SeriesSystems 1148
27.1.4StandbySystems 1149
27.1.5BridgeNetworks 1151
27.1.6CutSets 1152
27.2FaultTrees 1154
27.2.1FaultTreeConventions 1154
27.2.2SystemAnalysisMethods 1155
27.2.3SystemComponents 1156
27.2.4ComponentFailures 1157
27.2.5BasicFaultTreeConstruction 1158
27.2.6DecisionTables 1162
27.2.7SignalFlowGraphs 1165
27.3ReliabilityEvaluation 1166
27.3.1QualitativeAnalysis 1166
27.3.2QuantitativeAnalysis 1170
27.4OtherAnalyticalMethods 1174
27.4.1ReliabilityBlockDiagrams 1174
27.4.2SuccessTrees 1176
27.4.3TruthTables 1176
27.4.4StructureFunctions 1179
27.4.5MinimalCutSets 1181
27.4.6MinimalPathSets 1182
27.5StateSpaceandMarkovProcesses 1182
27.5.1TheMarkovProcess 1182
27.5.2StationaryStateProbabilities 1185
27.5.3GeneralAlgorithmforMarkovAnalysis 1185
27.5.4ModelofTwoRepairableComponents 1187
27.5.5MarkovModelswithSpecialFailureModes 1188
27.5.6FailureFrequencyandDuration 1189 Problems 1190 References 1195
28ReliabilityConceptsinSystemProtection 1197
28.1Introduction 1197
28.2SystemDisturbanceModels 1197
28.2.1AProbabilisticDisturbanceModel 1197
28.2.2DisturbanceDistribution 1200
28.2.3DisturbanceClassifications 1202
28.2.4ProbabilisticModelofDisturbances 1203
28.2.5DisturbanceJointProbabilityDensity 1208
28.3Time-IndependentReliabilityModels 1208
28.3.1TheProtectionandtheProtectedComponent 1209
28.3.2SystemReliabilityConcepts 1210
28.3.3CoherentProtectionLogic 1217
28.3.4ProtectiveSystemAnalysis 1229
28.3.5SpecificationsforTransmissionProtection 1242
28.4Time-DependentReliabilityModels 1246
28.4.1FailureDistributionsofRandomVariables 1246
28.4.2CompositeProtectionSystem 1252 Problems 1256 References 1259
29FaultTreeAnalysisofProtectiveSystems 1261
29.1Introduction 1261
29.2FaultTreeAnalysis 1262
29.2.1SystemNomenclature 1262
29.2.2CalculationofComponentParameters 1263
29.2.3ComputationofMinimalCutSetParameters 1267
29.2.4ComputationofSystemParameters 1269
29.3AnalysisofTransmissionProtection 1273
29.3.1FunctionalSpecificationfortheProtectiveSystem 1273
29.3.2TheTopEvent 1278
29.3.3FailureoftheCircuitBreakers 1279
29.3.4ProtectiveSystemFailure 1284
29.4FaultTreeEvaluation 1297
29.4.1BreakerFailureEvaluation 1298
29.4.2ProtectiveSystemFailureEvaluation 1300
29.4.3DeterminationofMinimalCutSets 1302
29.4.4ConstantFailureRate-SpecialCases 1304 Problems 1306 References 1310
30MarkovModelingofProtectiveSystems 1311
30.1Introduction 1311
30.2TestingofProtectiveSystems 1312
30.2.1TheNeedforTesting 1314
30.2.2ReliabilityModelingofInspection 1316
30.3ModelingofInspectedSystems 1317
30.3.1OptimalInspectionInterval 1317
30.3.2OptimizationforRedundantSystems 1323
30.3.3OptimalDesignof k-out-of-n:G Systems 1325
30.4MonitoringandSelf-testing 1331
30.4.1MonitoringTechniques 1332
30.4.2Self-CheckingTechniques 1332
30.4.3MonitoringandSelf-CheckingSystems 1333
30.4.4AutomatedTesting 1335
30.4.5IntelligentMonitoringandTesting 1336
30.5TheUnreadinessProbability 1337
30.6ProtectionAbnormalUnavailability 1341
30.6.1Assumptions 1342
30.7EvaluationofSafeguardSystems 1350
30.7.1DefinitionsandAssumptions 1351
30.7.2TheUnconditionalHazardRate 1352
30.7.3ExpectedNumberofFailures 1352 Problems 1354 References 1356
AppendixAProtectionTerminology 1359
A.1ProtectionTermsandDefinitions 1359
A.2RelayTermsandDefinitions 1361
A.3ClassificationofRelaySystems 1363
A.4CircuitBreakerTermsandDefinitions 1366 References 1368
AppendixBProtectiveDeviceClassification 1371
B.1DeviceFunctionNumbers 1371
B.2DevicesPerformingMorethanOneFunction 1371
B.2.1SuffixNumbers 1373
B.2.2SuffixLetters 1373
B.2.3RepresentationofDeviceContactsonElectricalDiagrams 1374
AppendixCOverheadLineImpedances 1375 References 1387
AppendixDTransformerData 1389
AppendixE500kVTransmissionLineData 1393
E.1TowerDesign 1393
E.2UnitLengthElectricalCharacteristics 1393
E.3TotalLineImpedanceandAdmittance 1394
E.4NominalPi 1395
E.5 ABCD Parameters 1395
E.6EquivalentPi 1395
E.7SurgeImpedanceLoading 1397
E.8Normalization 1399
E.9LineRatingsandOperatingLimits 1399
References 1400
Index 1401
AuthorBiographies
CharlesHenville hasmorethan50yearsofexperienceasapowersystemengineer,including 40yearsasaprotectionengineer.Heworkedfor30yearsasacommissioningengineerandprotectionengineerforalargeCanadianutilitybeforestartinghisownconsultingengineeringcompany. HehasbeenanactiveparticipantintheIEEEPowerandEnergySociety,PowerSystemRelaying andControlCommittee(PSRCC).ThiscommitteeisresponsibleforcreatingnumerousIEEEstandardsandtechnicalpapersdealingwithpowersystemprotection.CharleswastheChairmanof thatCommitteeandoneofitssubcommitteesandofseveralofitsworkinggroups.
Heisalsoactivelyinvolvedinteachingandtrainingworkingengineers.Hehaspresentedseveral shortcoursesforcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentandhasservedasaninstructoratGonzagaUniversity,theUniversityofWisconsin,andtheUniversityofBritishColumbia.Asatrainer forutilityengineers,hehashadbroadexposuretoprotectionpracticesinNorthAmericaand worldwide.
RasheekRifaat (P.Eng.,IEEELifeFellow)graduatedfromCairoUniversity(Egypt),1972,BSc andMcGillUniversity,(Montreal,QC,Canada),1979,MasterEngineering.Hehasover45years ofexperiencewithindustrialandutilityelectricalpowersystemsinCanada,NorthAmerica,and overseas.Hisexperienceextendstorenewableandtraditionalpowergeneration,cogeneration, industrialplants,powertransmission,sub-transmissionanddistributionsystems,andlargesystem interconnections.Hislongtimeexperienceencompassespowersystemprotectiondesign,coordinationandsettings,andpowersystemstudiesincludingtransientstudies,insulationcoordination, surgeprotection,powersystemreliability,andoperationalrequirements.
Heauthoredandpresentedover40peer-reviewedtechnicalpapersandpublicationsandpresentedmanytutorialsonpowersystemprotectionandtransientstudies.HeisalsothecurrentChair oftheWorkGrouplookingaftertheIEEEStandardsforProtectionandCoordinationofIndustrial andCommercialPowerSystems(formerlyknownastheBuffBook,ReproducedasStandardsSeries 3004).HehasbeeninvolvedwiththeInstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineersInc.(IEEE) forover40yearsandbecameaLifeFellowMembersince2016.Hehasbeenawardedtheyear2020, R.H.TannerAwardforindustryleadershipfortheCanadianRegion(Region7).
HeispresentlyregisteredasaP.Eng.inAlberta,Saskatchewan,andOntarioandisamemberof theEnergyIndustryElectricalEngineeringAssociation.
BrianJohnson isaUniversityDistinguishedProfessorandtheSchweitzerEngineeringLaboratoriesEndowedChairinPowerEngineeringintheUniversityofIdahoDepartmentofElectrical andComputerEngineering.HereceivedBS,MS,andPhDdegreesinelectricalengineeringfrom theUniversityofWisconsin-Madison.HehasworkedattheUniversityofIdahoforover25years, wherehewaschairoftheDepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineeringfrom2006to2012.
Histeachingandresearchinterestsincludepowersystemprotection,HVDCtransmission,power electronicapplicationsinpowersystems,andresiliencecontrolsforcriticalinfrastructuresystems. HeisactivewiththeIEEEPowerandEnergySociety,wherehewasthechairofthePowerand EnergyEducationCommitteefrom2014to2015andoftheIEEEHVDCandFACTSsubcommitteein2018–2020.HeiscurrentlyamemberoftheeditorialboardforIEEEPowerandEnergy Magazine.HeisaregisteredprofessionalengineerintheStateofIdaho.
SakisMeliopoulos obtainedaDiplomainElectricalandMechanicalEngineeringfromthe NationalTechnicalUniversityinAthens,Greece,in1972andaMasterinEE(1974)andaPhD degree(1976)fromtheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyinAtlanta,Georgia,USA.Hejoinedthe facultyoftheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyasanAssistantProfessor(1976),AssociateProfessor (1982–1988)andfullprofessor(1989topresent).In2006hewasnamedtheGeorgiaPower DistinguishedProfessor.Heisactivelyinvolvedineducationandresearchforimprovedsafety andelectromagneticcompatibilityofelectricpowerinstallations,protection,andcontrolofpower systemsandtheapplicationofnewtechnologyintheseareas.Since1999heistheGeorgiaTech SiteDirectorofPSERC,anNSFI/URC.Since2016heistheassociatedirectorforcyber-physical securityoftheGeorgiaTechInstituteforInformationSecurityandPrivacy(IISP).Hehaspioneered severalnewanalysisanddesigntechniquesforbulkpowerreliabilityanalysis,safety,protection, andelectromagneticcompatibilityofelectricpowersystems.Mostwell-knownistheEPRItransmissionreliabilityprogramTRELLS(nowrenamedTransCARE),theGPS-synchronizedharmonic statemeasurementsystemfortransmissionsystems(first[1993]wideareameasurementsystem onNYPA),thedistributeddynamicstateestimationmethod(SuperCalibrator),thesetting-less relay,theCYMSAsoftware(Cyber-PhysicalModelingandSimulationforSituationalAwareness), hisinventionoftheSmartGroundMultimeter,theEPRIgroundinganalysisprograms,andthe WinIGS(IntegratedGroundingSystemanalysisanddesign).Hehasmodernizedmanypower systemcoursesatGeorgiaTech,initiatedthepowersystemcertificateprogramforpracticing engineers,andheco-developedtheMasterofScienceCybersecurity,EnergySystemsdegree.He isaFellowoftheIEEE.Heholdsthreepatents,andhehaspublishedthreebooks,andover430 technicalpapers.Hehasreceivedanumberofawards,includingtheSigmaXiYoungFaculty award(1981),theoutstandingContinuingEducationAward,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology (twice2002and2014),the2017D.ScottWillsECEDistinguishedMentorAward,the2020ECE DistinguishedFacultyAchievementAward,hereceivedthe2005IEEERichardKaufmanAward andthe2010GeorgeMontefioreinternationalaward.In2019hereceivedtheDoctorHonoris Causafromhisalmamatter,NTUA.