BriefContents
Preface
CHAPTER 1 CommunicationCompetenceandPublicSpeaking
CHAPTER 2 SpeechAnxiety
CHAPTER 3 AudienceAnalysisandTopicSelection
CHAPTER 4 GatheringMaterial
CHAPTER 5 UsingSupportingMaterialsEffectively
CHAPTER 6 Attention: GettingPeopletoListen
CHAPTER 7 IntroductionsandConclusions
CHAPTER 8 OutliningandOrganizingSpeeches
CHAPTER 9 SpeakingStyle: UsingLanguage
CHAPTER 10 DeliveringYour Speech
CHAPTER 11 Visual Aids
CHAPTER 12 Skepticism: BecomingCritical ThinkingSpeakersand Listeners
CHAPTER 13 Argument,Reasoning,andEvidence
CHAPTER 14 InformativeSpeaking
CHAPTER 15 Foundationsof PersuasiveSpeaking
CHAPTER 16 PersuasiveSpeakingStrategies
CHAPTER 17 Speechesfor Special Occasions
APPENDIX A Text of anInformativeSpeech: “TheAnnual Plague”
APPENDIX B Text of aPersuasiveSpeech: “Get BigMoneyOut of CollegeSports”
Glossary
References
Credits
Index
Contents
Preface
CHAPTER 1 Communication Competence and Public Speaking
DEFINING COMMUNICATION
Communication as a TransactionalProcess:Working with an Audience
Communication as Sharing Meaning:Making Sense
DEFINING COMMUNICATIONCOMPETENCEINPUBLIC SPEAKING
Effectiveness:Achieving Goals
Degrees of Effectiveness: From Deficiency to Proficiency
Audience Orientation: YouAre Not Talking to Yourself
Appropriateness:Speaking by the Rules
ACHIEVING COMPETENTPUBLICSPEAKING
Knowledge:Learning the Rules
Skills:Showing NotJustKnowing
Sensitivity:Developing Receptive Accuracy
Commitment:Acquiring a Passion for Excellence
Ethics:Determining the Rightand Wrong of Speaking
EthicalStandards: Judging MoralCorrectness of Speech
Plagiarism: Never Inconsequential
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 2 Speech Anxiety
SPEECH ANXIETYASACHALLENGE
Pervasiveness of Speech Anxiety:A Common Experience
Intensity of Speech Anxiety:Fate Worse Than Death?
[Box Feature] FirstSpeech:Sample Narrative Speech of Introduction on Speech Anxiety
SYMPTOMS: FIGHT-OR-FLIGHTRESPONSE
Basic Symptoms:Your Body’s Response to Threat
Appropriateness of Symptoms:Relevance to Public Speaking
CAUSESOFDYSFUNCTIONALANXIETYANDBASIC STRATEGIES
Self-Defeating Thoughts:Sabotaging Your Speech
Catastrophic Thinking: Fear of Failure
Perfectionist Thinking: No Mistakes Permitted
Desire for Complete Approval: Trying Not to Offend
The Illusionof Transparency: Being Nervous about Looking Nervous
Anxiety-Provoking Situations:Considering Context
Novelty of the Speaking Situation: Uncertainty
Conspicuousness: Inthe Spotlight
Types of Speeches: Varying Responses
SUBSTANTIALSTRATEGIESFORMANAGING SPEECH ANXIETY
Prepare and Practice:Transforming Novelty into Familiarity
Gain Realistic Perspective:RationalNotIrrationalThinking
Adopta Noncompetitive Communication Orientation:Reframing
Use Coping Statements:RationalReappraisal
Use Positive Imaging:Visualizing Success
Use Relaxation Techniques:Reducing Fight-or-FlightResponse
Try Systematic Desensitization:IncrementalRelaxation
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 3 Audience Analysis and Topic Selection
TYPESOFAUDIENCES
Captive Audience:Disengaged Listeners
Committed Audience:Agreeable Listeners
Contrary Audience:Hostile Listeners
Concerned Audience:Eager Listeners
CasualAudience:Unexpected Listeners
AUDIENCECOMPOSITION
Age:Possible Generation Gaps
Gender:Go Beyond Simplistic Stereotypes
Ethnicity and Culture:Sensitivity to Diversity
Group Affiliations:A Window into Listeners’ Views
ADAPTING TO DIVERSEAUDIENCESANDSITUATIONS
Establish Identification:Connecting with Your Audience
Likeability: I CanRelate to You
Stylistic Similarity: Looking andActing the Part
Substantive Similarity: Establishing CommonGround
Build Credibility:Establishing Believability
Adaptto the Situation:Influence of Circumstances
AdaptWhile Speaking:ExhibitSensitivity
TOPICCHOICEANDAUDIENCEADAPTATION
Exploring PotentialTopics:ImportantChoice
Do a PersonalInventory: Youas Topic Source
Brainstorm: New Possibilities
Crowdsourcing for Topics: GroupWisdom
Scanning for Topics: QuickIdeas
Appropriateness of Topic:Blending Topic and Audience
Speaker Appropriateness: Suitability for You
Audience Appropriateness: Suitability for Your Listeners
OccasionAppropriateness: Suitability for the Event
Narrowing the Topic:Making Subjects Manageable
SUMMARY
Search Engines
Directories
Metasearch Engines
VirtualLibraries
GovernmentSites
Survey Sites
InternetSearch Tips
Wikipedia:Credible Scholarship or Mob Rule?
Blogging Sites:Be Very Choosy
Famous Quotation Sites:The Wisdom of Others
Evaluating InternetInformation:Basic Steps
LIBRARIES: BRICKS-AND-MORTARRESEARCH FACILITIES
Librarian:ExpertNavigator
Library Catalogues:Computer Versions
Periodicals:Popular Information Sources
Newspapers:An Old Standby
Reference Works:Beyond Wikipedia
Databases:Computerized Collections of Credible Information
INTERVIEWING: QUESTIONING EXPERTS
Interview Plan:Be Prepared
Interview Conduct:ActAppropriately
Interviewing by Email:Surprise Yourself
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 5 Using Supporting Materials Effectively USING EXAMPLESCOMPETENTLY
Types of Examples:Specific Illustrations
HypotheticalExamples: It CouldHappen
RealExamples: It DidHappen
Brief Examples: Short andto the Point
ExtendedExamples: Telling a Story
Using Examples Effectively:Choose Carefully
Use Relevant Examples: Stay onPoint
Choose VividExamples: Create Images
Use Representative Examples: Reflect What Is Accurate
StackExamples: WhenOne Is Not Enough
USING STATISTICSCOMPETENTLY
Measures of CentralTendency:Determining WhatIs Typical
Mean: Your Average Statistic
Median: Anin-the-Center Statistic
Mode: Most Frequent Statistic
How to Use Statistics Effectively:Beyond Numbing Numbers
Use Accurate Statistics Accurately: No Distorting
Make Statistics Concrete: MeaningfulNumbers
Make StatisticalComparisons: Gaining Perspective
StackStatistics: Creating Impact
Use Credible Sources: BuildBelievability
USING TESTIMONYCOMPETENTLY
Types of Testimony:Relying on Others
Testimony of Experts: Relying onThose inthe Know
Eyewitness Testimony: YouHadto Be There
Testimony of Non-Experts: Ordinary Folks Adding Color to Events
How to Use Testimony Effectively
Quote or Paraphrase Accurately: Consider Context
Use QualifiedSources: Credibility Matters
GENERALCONSIDERATIONSACROSSTYPES
Choose Interesting Supporting Materials:Counteracting Boredom
Cite Sources Completely:No Vague References
Abbreviate Repetitive Source Citations:Reference Reminders
Combine Examples, Stats, and Quotes:The Power of Three
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
NATUREOFATTENTION
Selective Attention of Listeners:Filtering Stimuli
MindfulListening:Focused Attention
[Box Feature] How to Be a MindfulListener
SPEAKER’SATTENTIONSTRATEGIES: TRIGGERING LISTENING
Novelty:The Allure of the New
UnusualTopics: Choosing Outside the Box
UnusualExamples: The Anti-Sedative
UnusualStories: Nothing Like a GoodTale
UnusualPhrasing: It Is inthe Wording
Startling Appeal:Shake Up Your Listeners
Startling Statements, Facts, or Statistics: The “OhWOW” Effect
Inappropriate Use: Beware Bizarre Behavior
The VitalAppeal:Meaningfulness
Humorous Appeal:Keep Listeners Laughing
Do Not Force Humor: Not Everyone Is Funny
Use Only Relevant Humor: Stay Focused
Be Sensitive to Audience andOccasion: Humor CanBackfire
Consider Using Self-Deprecating Humor: “I’m Not Worthy”
Movementand Change:Our Evolutionary Protection
Intensity:Extreme Degree of a Stimulus
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 7 Introductions and Conclusions
OBJECTIVESFORCOMPETENTINTRODUCTIONS
Gain Attention:Focusing Your Listeners
Beginwitha Clever Quotation: Let Others GrabAttention
Use Questions: Engage Your Listeners
Tella Relevant Story: Use Narrative Power
Beginwitha Simple VisualAid: Show andTell
Refer to Remarks of Introduction: Acknowledging Praise
Make a Clear Purpose Statement:Providing Intent
Establish Topic Significance:Making Your Listeners Care
Establish Your Credibility:Why Listeners Should Believe You
Preview the Main Points:The Coming Attractions
OBJECTIVESFORCOMPETENTCONCLUSIONS
Summarize the Main Points:Connecting the Dots
Refer to the Introduction:Bookending Your Speech
Make a Memorable Finish:Sizzle Do NotFizzle
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 8 Outlining and Organizing Speeches
EFFECTIVEOUTLINING
Standard Formatting:Using CorrectSymbols
Division:Dividing the Pie
Coherence:LogicalConsistency and Clarity
Completeness:Using FullSentences
Balance:No Lopsided Time Allotment
[Box Feature] A StudentOutline:Rough Draftand Revision
EFFECTIVEORGANIZATION: CREATING PATTERNS
TopicalPattern:By the Subjects
ChronologicalPattern:According to Time
SpatialPattern:Visualization
CausalPattern:Who or WhatIs Responsible
Problem–Solution Pattern:Meeting Needs
Problem–Cause–Solution Pattern:Knowing Why and How
Comparative Advantages Pattern:Who or WhatIs Better
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence:Five-Step Pattern
Narrative Pattern:Telling a Story
CONNECTING THEDOTS: ADDITIONALTIPS
Provide Definitions
Use Signposts
Make Transitions
Use InternalPreviews
Give InternalSummaries
PREPARATIONVERSUSPRESENTATIONOUTLINES
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 9 Speaking Style:Using Language
ORALVERSUSWRITTENSTYLE
STYLEINTHEELECTRONICAGE
STANDARDSOFCOMPETENTORALSTYLE
Clarity:Saying WhatYou Mean Precision:Picking the AptWords
Vividness:Painting a Picture
Metaphor andSimile: Figures of Speech
Alliteration: Severalof the Same Sounds
Repetition: Rhythmic Cadence
Antithesis: Using Opposites
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 10 Delivering Your Speech
METHODSOFCOMPETENTDELIVERY
ManuscriptSpeaking:Looking for Precision
Memorized Speaking:Memory Do NotFailMe Now Impromptu Speaking:Off-the-Cuff Presentations
Extemporaneous Speaking:The Virtues of an Outline
DEVELOPING COMPETENTDELIVERY
Eye Contact:Connecting with Your Audience
Voice:Developing VocalVariety
Fluency:Avoiding Excessive VocalFillers
Speaking Rate:Finding the RightPace
Articulation and Pronunciation:Striving for Clarity of Speech
Body Movements:Finding the RightBalance Nonverbally
Podium Usage:Avoiding the Lectern Lean
Microphone Usage:Amplifying Your Delivery
Distracting Behaviors:Avoiding Interference
Audience-Centered Delivery:Matching the Context
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 11 VisualAids
BENEFITSOFVISUALAIDS: REASONSTO USETHEM
TYPESOFVISUALAIDS: MAKING APPROPRIATE CHOICES
Objects:Show and Tell
Models:PracticalRepresentations
Graphs:Making Statistics Clear and Interesting
Maps:Making a PointGeographically
Tables:Factualand StatisticalComparisons
Photographs:Very VisualAids
Drawings:Photo Substitutes
VISUALAIDSMEDIA: SIMPLETO TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED
Chalkboard and Whiteboard:AllDinosaurs Are NotExtinct
Poster Board:Simplicity Itself
Handouts:An Old Standby
Video Excerpts:DVDs, YouTube, and VisualPower
Projection Equipment:Blowing ItUp
Computer-Assisted Presentations:PowerPoint
[Box Feature] PowerPoint:Lots of Power, Little Point?
GUIDELINESFORCOMPETENTUSE: AIDSNOT DISTRACTIONS
Keep Aids Simple
Make Aids Visible
Make Aids Neat, Attractive, and Accurate
Do NotBlock the Audience’s View
Keep Aids Close to You
Putthe Aid Outof SightWhen Notin Use
Practice with Aids
Do NotCirculate Your Aids
Do NotTalk in the Dark
Anticipate Problems
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 12 Skepticism:Becoming CriticalThinking Speakers and Listeners
SKEPTICISM,TRUEBELIEF,ANDCYNICISM
DANGERSOFTRUEBELIEF
THEPROCESSOFTRUEBELIEVING
Confirmation Bias:Searching for Support
Rationalization of Disconfirmation:Clinging to Falsehoods
Shifting the Burden of Proof:Whose Obligation Is It?
THE
PROCESS
OFSKEPTICISM: INQUIRING MINDS WANTTO KNOW
Probability Model:Likely ButNotCertain
Possibility: CouldHappen, But Do Not Bet onIt
Plausibility: Making a LogicalCase
Probability: What Are the Odds?
Certainty: Without Exception
Skepticism and Open-Mindedness:Inquiring Minds, NotEmpty Minds
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 13 Argument, Reasoning, and Evidence
ANARGUMENT: STAKING YOURCLAIM
Syllogism:FormalLogic
Toulmin Structure of Argument:InformalLogic
CRITERIAFORREASONING ANDEVIDENCE: ISITFACT ORFALLACY?
Credibility:Should We Believe You?
Manufacturedor Questionable Statistics: Does It Make Sense?
BiasedSource: Grinding anAx
Expert QuotedOut of Field: No Generic Experts Allowed
Relevance:Does ItFollow?
AdHominem Fallacy: Diversionary Tactic
AdPopulum Fallacy: Arguing from Public Opinion
Sufficiency:GotEnough?
Self-SelectedSample: PartisanPower
Inadequate Sample: Large Marginof Error
Hasty Generalization: Arguing from Example
CorrelationMistakenfor Causation: X Does Not Necessarily Cause Y
False Analogy: Mixing Apples andOranges
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 14 Informative Speaking
DISTINGUISHING INFORMATIVEFROMPERSUASIVE SPEAKING
NoncontroversialInformation:Staying Neutral
Precursor to Persuasion:No Callto Action
TYPESOFINFORMATIVESPEECHES
Reports:Facts in Brief
Explanations:Deeper Understanding
Demonstrations:Acting Out
Narratives:Storytelling
Speeches ThatCompare:Balancing the Pros and Cons
GUIDELINESFORCOMPETENTINFORMATIVE
SPEAKING
Be Informative:TellUs WhatWe Do NotKnow
Adaptto Your Audience:Topic Choice and Knowledge Base
Avoid Information Overload:Beware the Data Dump
TellYour Story Well:Narrative Tips
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 15 Foundations of Persuasive Speaking
DEFINING PERSUASION
GOALSOFPERSUASION
Conversion:RadicalPersuasion
Modification:Do NotAsk for the Moon
Maintenance:Keep ’Em Coming Back
ATTITUDE–BEHAVIORCONSISTENCY
DirectExperience:No Secondhand Attitudes
SocialPressure:Getting Heatfrom Others
EffortRequired:Degree of Difficulty
ELABORATIONLIKELIHOODMODEL
PROPOSITIONS: FACT,VALUE,ANDPOLICYCLAIMS
CULTUREANDPERSUASION
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 16 Persuasive Speaking Strategies
ENHANCETHESPEAKER: IDENTIFICATIONAND CREDIBILITY
USELOGICANDEVIDENCE: APERSUASIVEFOCUS
Persuasive Arguments:Quality and Quantity
Persuasive Evidence:Statistics Versus Narratives
TRYEMOTIONALAPPEALS: BEYONDLOGIC
GeneralEmotionalAppeals:Motivating Change
Fear Appeals:Are You Scared Yet?
Anger Appeals:Moderately Upset
Ethics and EmotionalAppeals:Is ItUnethicalTo Be Peripheral?
FRAMING: USING LANGUAGETO SHAPEATTITUDES ANDBEHAVIOR
INDUCECOGNITIVEDISSONANCE: CREATING TENSION
USETHECONTRASTEFFECT: MINIMIZETHE MAGNITUDE
USEATWO-SIDEDORGANIZATIONALPATTERN: REFUTATION
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS CHECKLIST
CHAPTER 17 Speeches for SpecialOccasions
TRIBUTEADDRESSES
Toasts:Raising a Glass in Tribute
Roasts:Poking Fun with Admiration
Tribute to Colleagues:Honoring the Departing Eulogies:Praising the Departed
INTRODUCTIONSOFFEATUREDSPEAKERS
SPEECHESOFPRESENTATION
SPEECHESOFACCEPTANCE
COMMENCEMENTADDRESSES
AFTER-DINNERSPEECHES
SUMMARY
TEDTALKSANDYOUTUBEVIDEOS
APPENDIX A Textof an Informative Speech:“The AnnualPlague”
APPENDIX B Textof a Persuasive Speech:“GetBig Money Outof College Sports”
Glossary
References
Credits
Index
Preface
Lately, public speaking texts have taken two main approaches. One could be called the all-you-can-eat buffet approach. These works are resplendent with almost every conceivable tasty feature that only the most dedicated and motivated students will ever sample. They can be wonderful books as a kind of “everything you ever wanted to knowabout public speaking, and then some” reference work, but public speaking novices may see them as excessive. A second is the cookbook approach. These works offer little beyond a list of recipe steps for constructing and presenting a speech. Striving to cover “only the basics,” they achieve this purpose, but few are likelytofindtherecipeapproachinterestingreading. Each approach has its merits and supporters. The significant success of the first editionof Practically Speaking suggests a clear desire by many to go in a different direction. Practically Speaking offers that different direction.It is a relativelyshort text that is loadedwithpractical advice.It covers the essentials, however, without sacrificing reader interest or scholarship. Understanding this third approach can be ascertained by addressingkeyobjectivesfor bothstudentsandteachers.
OBJECTIVESFORSTUDENTS
Practically Speaking aims to address four key objectives for students: (1) readability, (2) clarity, (3) applicability, and (4) affordability. Regarding the first objective readability—the wisdom of Samuel Johnson seems apt: “What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure.” Maximum effort has been devoted to writing a textbook that might ignite theinterest of student readers,not induceacoma.Textbooks arenot meant to read like spy or mystery novels, but they need not read like an instruction manual for setting up your new flat-screen TV. Therefore, I attempted to practice what I teach about gaining and maintaining attention by using the attention-getting strategies discussed in Chapter 6. The text includes novel and humorous examples, stories, quotations, photos, and
cartoons; intense, dramatic, and poignant illustrations; colorful and vivid language and metaphors; and startling statistics and historical facts sprinkled throughout every chapter. The writing style is conversational, and the perpendicular pronoun “I” is used when relating personal narratives. First-person singular is more engaging than impersonal references such as “this author experienced” or “a student in the author’s class.” In addition, second-person pronoun references to “you” are employedfrequentlytoaddressreadersdirectly.
A second objective clarity—is addressed in a variety of ways. The organizationof eachchapter follows the rules of goodorganizational logic presented in Chapter 8. Such logic can be examined by perusing the Table of Contents. In addition, headings and subheadings were carefully chosen and worded to produce maximum clarity as well as originality. Finally, copious illustrations and explanations are provided to clarify all important publicspeakingconceptsandprocesses.
A third objective applicability—requires concerted effort to demonstrate the practical utility for students of becoming competent public speakers. The first chapter addresses in detail such applicability. The remaining chapters elaborate on this important objective. Numerous pop-culture references and newsworthy events are used as illustrations, further revealing the applicability of competent public speaking for students.
A fourth objective affordability—has become a national issue shared by students and faculty alike. A 2012 Oxford University Press national survey of 327 professors who teach public speaking at U.S. universities and community colleges revealed that almost 75% of respondents viewed price as an “extremely or very important” feature of a public speaking text. All reviewers of this second edition agreed with this view about price. Every effort has been exerted to make Practically Speaking an attractive but affordable alternative to other much more expensive choices. Oxford University Press is a nonprofit publishing company, so this alone provides considerable price advantage for students surviving on tight budgets. The lean size of Practically Speaking also helps reduce the price.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Mysincerethanksareextendedtoreviewersof thistext.Theyinclude:
Brent E.Adrian, Central Community College–Grand Island
KennethR.Albone, Rowan University
ShirleyBrownfox, Laney College
AmyBryant, Nashville State Community College
DianaM.Cooley, Lone Star College–North Harris
LauraCrosswell, Arizona State University
AdrienneHacker Daniels, Illinois College
KeithForrest, Atlantic Cape Community College
TonyaForsythe, Ohio State University
PatrickGagliano, Newberry College
GinaGiotta, California State University–Northridge
Gai Grannon, Montclair State University
Paul T.M.Hemenway, Lamar University
LawrenceA.Hosman, University of Southern Mississippi
CynthiaIrizarry, Suffolk University
LavedaI.Joseph, Columbus State University
E.GraceLager, Eckerd College
JessicaN.Lawson, Wright State University
LeolaMcClure, MiraCosta College
MumbaMumba, Illinois College
Kekeli Nuviadenu, Bethune-Cookman University
DavidC.Oh, Ramapo College of New Jersey
KarenOtto, Florida State College at Jacksonville
ElainePascale, Suffolk University
EvelynJeanPine, Berkeley City College
PatriciaD.Richardson, Cecil College
CarynD.Riswold, Illinois College
BetsyRosenblum, Quinnipiac University
KimberlyRosenfeld, Cerritos College
TheresaC.Shaton, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania
JoannaShowell, Bethune–Cookman University
Jo-AnnSickles, Everett Community College
Cheryl Skiba-Jones, Trine University
MyronSkulas, Cincinnati State Technical and Community College
SonjaStetzler, Queens University of Charlotte
SharonTaxin, St. John’s University
DexinTian, Yangzhou University
J.DavidTrebing, Kent State University
ElaineZweig, Collin College
I also want to thank the many professionals at Oxford University Press who worked to bring Practically Speaking to the marketplace. They include Toni Magyar, acquisitions editor; Micheline Frederick, production editor; Renata de Oliveira, senior designer; Amy Gehl, project manager; andPaul Longo,assistant editor.
I want to make a final, special thanks to my wife, Marcy, for the wonderful custom cartoons. I gave her ideas and she produced beautiful, animated renderings. Artist, singer, writer, musician, computer program analyst—her talentsseem boundless.
