Chapter 3: Theoretical Constructs in Motor Behavior
Information-Processing Theory
Ecological Approach
Dynamic Systems Approach
Summary
Chapter 4: Stages of Skill Acquisition
Mountain of Motor Development
Motor Learning Stages
Link to Dynamic Systems Approach
Practical Use of the Learning Models
Summary
Chapter 5: Assessing Motor Learning
Indicators of Motor Skill Learning
Performance and Learning Tests
Games Classification for Promoting Transfer
Promoting Positive Transfer for Any Motor Skill
Summary
Part II: Life Span Physical Activity and Movement
Chapter 6: Infant Motor Development
Prenatal Development
Sensory Capabilities
Early Movements
Infants At Risk
Assessment
Summary
Chapter 7: Fundamental Skills in Childhood
Fundamental Movement Skills
Fundamental Locomotor and Manipulative Skills
Summary
Chapter 8: Movement in Adulthood
Aging
Physical Activity
Peak Athletic Performance
Movement Patterns
Summary
Part III: Functional and Structural Constraints
Chapter 9: Physical Development
Nature and Nurture
Physical Growth and Maturation
Body System Constraints
Summary
Chapter 10: Physical Aging
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Aerobic Capacity
Cardiovascular System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Body Composition
Sensory Systems
Summary
Chapter 11: Cognitive Development
Intellectual Development
Types of Knowledge
Attention
Memory
Sport Expertise
Summary
Chapter 12: Psychosocial and Social–Affective Development
Psychosocial Constraints
Social–Affective Constraints
Self-Regulation
Summary
Chapter 13: Psychosocial and Cognitive Factors in Adulthood
Psychosocial Factors
Cognitive Function
Summary
Part IV: Designing Developmentally Appropriate Programs
Chapter 14: Physical, Affective, and Instructional Factors
Gold Standards Versus Variability
Physical Factors
Affective Factors
Instructional Factors
Summary
Chapter 15: Prepractice Considerations
Goal Setting
Demonstrations
Verbal Instruction
Directing Attention and Providing Guidance
Summary
Chapter 16: Practice
Amount of Practice
Variable Practice
Contextual Interference Effect
Practice Specificity
Part and Whole Practice
Mental Practice and Imagery
Distribution of Practice
Summary
Chapter 17: Feedback
Functions of Feedback
Types and Modalities of Feedback
Providing Effective Feedback
Summary
Chapter 18: Devising a Plan
Ecological Task Analysis
Case Studies
Summary
References
About the Authors
Preface
Whether it be outsmarting the opponent on the field of play or simply walking down the street, we are consistently faced with the challenge of solving movement problems. When we walk down the street, we often have to avoid obstacles or other pedestrians while keeping in mind the wet, slippery pavement. In a competitive sporting environment, we may have to consciously think about faking out an opponent No matter the setting, our skill level, or our age, we cannot avoid the fact that movement is a vital part of our lives and affects us in terms of our overall physical well-being, our intellectual functioning, and the development of our social skills. These effects are ever present and ever changing and take place over the course of our lives.
Clearly, then, how we develop, in addition to our previous movement experiences, affects how we acquire new motor skills and how we refine old skills. The learning of new motor skills and the refinement and adjustment of existing motor skills are critical aspects of our lives aspects that we don’t always appreciate. When performing everyday movements, we often do not appreciate how difficult it is to coordinate our limbs so that we can execute activities As an example, we use a knife and fork to eat without giving these actions a second thought. This was a very difficult task when we were small children, however. We had to learn how to control both limbs in a coordinated fashion to cut meat and feed ourselves. Over time, though, this initially challenging feat became second nature, and the frustration caused by the complexity of these actions was soon forgotten. That feeling of frustration in learning those early everyday tasks returns, however, if as adults we must relearn these basic movements following a serious accident or medical event (such as a stroke) The intense physical and occupational therapy required to relearn even the simplest of tasks reminds us of the intricacy of motor skills. No matter the time of life infancy through old age the ongoing interactions between our ever-changing abilities, the environment, and the task we ’ re solving at the moment determine how we proceed
Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, provides a framework for understanding both fields and for exploring how motor learning and motor development interact with and affect each other. Having a thorough understanding of the factors that “push” the development of motor skill across the life span will better prepare you to teach movement skills effectively to learners at any chronological age and at any skill level Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, examines the development of movement skill in humans from infancy to older adulthood (referred to as life span motor development) and examines how having different motor, cognitive, and social abilities affects how, when, and why we learn motor skills. As movement educators, we must understand the complexities of teaching movement skills to people of various backgrounds, interests, experiences, and abilities. As we have noted, learning a motor skill (or a combination of motor skills) can be
quite challenging, and many elements must be taken into consideration. Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, guides you in an accessible and interesting manner into the fields of motor development and motor learning. The book includes a variety of methods to facilitate learning and keep you engaged with the material.
Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, is an undergraduate text written for students and professionals pursuing careers in physical education, athletic training, early childhood education, gerontology, kinesiology, special education, adapted physical education, primary and secondary education, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and related fields The text presents a strong theoretical foundation in an engaging and accessible way. You will learn how to develop, implement, and critically assess motor skill programs for learners at all developmental levels
Although the fields of motor learning and motor development have been addressed in a variety of undergraduate texts, none have merged these two fields into one textbook. Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, fills this void The content is based on the latest research in the fields of motor development and motor learning. This text also provides a framework for developing movement programs that facilitate skill acquisition for all types of learners from those with significant disabilities to elite athletes. This book also prepares you for meeting national standards and Praxis exams.
Life Span Perspective
This book adopts a life span perspective that goes beyond the developmental and neuromotor changes associated with childhood and younger adulthood. This perspective provides an in-depth look at all ages throughout the human life span, including the many large life changes associated with younger and older adults These changes can include leaving home, entering the workforce, getting married, and having children. We also examine the social and psychological changes associated with life transitions. Societal mores and expectations can have a huge impact on the motor development of various cohorts. For instance, in today’s highly technological age, adolescents are much more likely to spend a larger portion of their free time playing with cell phones, iPods, and video games than participating in physical activity. On the other hand, many adults have changed their focus to health and wellness, which has resulted in a surge of people who are eating healthier meals, giving up unhealthy habits such as cigarette smoking, and participating in more physical activity. These healthy decisions are certainly having a large impact on older adults’ motor development and on slowing their rate of functional decline However, what motivates an adolescent to participate in sport or physical activity may be of little interest to a middle-aged adult or, indeed, a child
It is important to take a broad view and consider many variables when examining individual motor development and performance. This book details these variables to prepare movement educators to teach motor skills to a broad array of people representing many ages, developmental levels, and degrees of physical proficiency in a variety of settings, including educational, athletic, clinical, and fitness settings.
Changes to the Second Edition
Motor Learning and Development has undergone a thorough revision since the first edition, including a reorganization of the structure of the book, the addition of three new chapters and several new ancillaries, updated material based on the latest research, and revised examples throughout the book A main focus of these changes has been to more thoroughly cover both motor learning and motor development as well as to unite these fields to best prepare practitioners to devise developmentally appropriate programs for people of any age or skill level. Much of the content in part I has been reorganized, and a new chapter, Understanding Movement Control, has been added. The theories outlined in chapter 1 of the first edition have been moved to a new chapter titled Theoretical Constructs in Motor Behavior, which focuses solely on the theories. Parts II and III have been reorganized to reflect similar topics rather than separate age groups as in the first edition. These changes have enabled us to better infuse the two fields of motor learning and motor development. In addition, two more chapters have been added: chapter 6, Infant Motor Development, and chapter 18, Devising a Plan
New ancillaries in the second edition include laboratories and PowerPoint presentations for each chapter and video clips for chapters 6, 7, and 17. This edition has also been updated with the latest research and includes new opening vignettes for each chapter.
Organization
Part I, Theory and Foundational Concepts, provides a basic outline of the fundamental concepts in motor learning and motor development. Chapter 1 introduces the subfields of motor behavior, motor control, motor learning, and motor development, as well as important concepts and terminology Chapter 2 emphasizes movement control, including reaction time, attention, arousal, sensory contributions, and memory. The major tenets and theoretical perspectives from the fields of motor behavior are explained in chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses motor skill progression as well as three models of motor learning stages. Instructors who have a thorough understanding of the strengths and shortcomings of each model will have more and better-developed tools to engender positive behavioral, cognitive, and physical changes in performers. It is at this point (chapter 5) that we discuss important methodological considerations, including how to measure and assess motor learning and organize the learning experience to facilitate positive transfer and long-term retention.
Part II, Life Span Physical Activity and Movement, provides a solid background on movement patterns across the life span, from infancy to older adulthood Chapter 6 examines infant motor development, including prenatal growth and development, spontaneous and reflexive movements in early infancy, and the development of motor milestones. Chapter 7 picks up where chapter 6 ends by examining fundamental motor skills developed during childhood, including locomotor and manipulative skills. The development of fundamental movement skills is essential to healthy development in childhood. Children who are given a strong movement foundation will have the skill sets and the confidence to be physically active with their families, with peers, and on their own. Chapter 8 explores physical activity and movement in young, middle, and older adulthood. The discussion focuses first on physical activity in adulthood and peak athletic performance, and then explores the changing movement patterns observed in older adults
Part III, Functional and Structural Constraints, examines the changing individual constraints throughout the life span. Chapter 9 discusses some of the structural factors that constrain the acquisition and development of movements throughout childhood and adolescence. Chapter 10 discusses the physiological changes that affect physical function and movement, including age-related changes in the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular, nervous, endocrine, and sensory systems. Movement educators who work with older adults must understand the effects of aging on the physiological systems and the impact these changes have on movement. Chapters 9 and 10 address how structural constraints may interact with functional factors (the focus of chapters 11 through 13), tasks, and environments Chapters 11 through 13 examine the potential affective, cognitive, behavioral, and psychomotor differences that affect the learning of movement skills over the life span. Chapter 13 discusses a variety of psychological, sociological, and cognitive variables in adulthood. It is important to distinguish psychological and sociocultural factors
in adulthood from those that are present in childhood and adolescence, because they change considerably.
Part IV, Designing Developmentally Appropriate Programs, gets you ready to prepare, design, and implement developmentally appropriate movement programs Chapter 14 examines the physical, affective, and instructional dimensions that affect motor learning, and prepares you to structure the environment appropriately with these factors in mind Chapter 15 discusses prepractice considerations, including how to set goals and introduce motor skills through the use of demonstrations, verbalizations, attention directing, and physical guidance The discussion continues in chapter 16, which addresses the design and structure of effective practice sessions. Topics include variable practice, practice specificity, part and whole practice, and practice distribution Just like practice, feedback should be designed around the person and the task. Chapter 17 discusses the functions and types of feedback as well as effective feedback scheduling. The book closes with a new chapter, Devising a Plan, which brings all of the book’s concepts together to help you design developmentally appropriate programs. The chapter includes examples of developmentally appropriate programs as well as case studies
Pedagogical Features
Many features throughout the book will help you understand the concepts introduced in each chapter.
Opening vignette: Each chapter opens with a vignette, a practical example that introduces one or more of the main concepts explored in the chapter.
Research Notes: Each chapter includes sections that present important research experiments. Many of these research notes have been updated for the second edition.
Try This: This feature supplements the text with a variety of short applications that you can perform at home or at your desk. Answering questions will help you think critically about the concepts
What Do You Think ?: Each chapter includes opportunities to stop and think about the material. This feature provokes critical thinking and stimulates further thought about the material You can answer these questions on your own or discuss them in class.
Summary: A brief summary of the key elements and concepts is provided at the conclusion of each chapter.
Supplementary Activities: Two additional activities are presented at the conclusion of every chapter. These are intended either as outside activities or as classroom laboratory activities.
Glossary: Key terms and concepts are printed throughout the text in bold type for emphasis and are defined at the end of each chapter.
Note: In this text we use English measurements followed by metric conversions in parentheses The exception is with yards, which convert to approximately the same number of meters.
Web Resource
The student web resource includes laboratories for each chapter, the What Do You Think? and Try This activities, and videos for chapters 6, 7, and 17 with accompanying study questions. The labs provide experiential learning for difficult concepts or topics and typically require some equipment and additional space such as a gymnasium or outside area. The videos accompany the laboratory activities for chapters 6, 7, and 17, and can be used as part of a lecture.
When an activity, form, or video mentioned or appearing in a chapter is available on the web resource, you will see an icon that looks like this:
The web resource can be accessed by visiting www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndDevelopment. If you purchased a new print book, follow the directions included on the orange-framed page at the front of your book That page includes access steps and the unique key code that you’ll need the first time you visit the Motor Learning and Development website. If you purchased an e-book from HumanKinetics.com, follow the access instructions that were e-mailed to you following your purchase.
Letter to Instructors
Although there are many excellent books that examine motor development from a life span perspective and books that explore the field of motor learning, there is not, to our knowledge, a book that combines the two. You will find that Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, achieves the goal of combining the two fields in an accessible and interesting way, and explains how motor development and motor learning inform each other and intersect.
Those with a thorough understanding of the multiple factors that set in motion the development of motor skills from infancy to older adulthood are in a good position to teach movement skills efficiently and to individualize their instruction. This individualization is a point of emphasis throughout the text, given the complexity of teaching learners of various backgrounds, interests, abilities, and ages. Furthermore, learners’ abilities and interests are hardly static; rather, they are very dynamic. Thus, to work with learners at all life stages, we must be continually aware of the ongoing interactions between ever-changing abilities, an ever-changing environment, and the tasks at hand The intersection of these three factors determines how to proceed
And so, this textbook based on the latest research in the fields of motor learning and motor development provides both the theoretical foundation and applied information for developing movement programs for all types of learners from those with identifiable disabilities to those at both ends of the ability spectrum.
Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, is divided into four parts. Part I, Theory and Foundational Concepts, lays the groundwork by outlining the fundamental concepts of motor control, motor learning, and motor development. Part II, Life Span Physical Activity and Movement, provides a solid background in physical activity and movement patterns from infancy through older adulthood, examining not only what skills are developed but also how they are developed. Part III, Functional and Structural Constraints, delineates the constraints that may, in combination, hinder or promote optimal development. The fourth and final part, Designing Developmentally Appropriate Programs, gives detailed information that prepares students to organize, develop, implement, and evaluate movement programs for a variety of learners. Although the material that precedes part IV has a direct bearing on the development of appropriate programs, the students need not have read every chapter of the text to benefit from part IV.
Although this textbook is written from a life span perspective and details how skill is acquired over the course of one ’ s life, a particular course may emphasize a certain time frame. If, as an example, motor learning and motor development in school-age children and adolescents is the focus of the course, you may decide to bypass chapters 8, 10, and 13. The
same applies to a course focusing more on adult development and aging. In this case, the emphasis may be on chapters 8, 10, and 13 in addition to parts I and IV. As noted in the sample syllabus, the material in Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, can be taught over the course of a 15-week semester.
Each chapter in Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, has the following features that engage students in their reading and help them to understand the concepts.
Chapter objectives: Each chapter begins with approximately six learning objectives related to the most important concepts. These objectives guide the students’ reading and allow you to spend less class time lecturing and more time on interactive, student-focused learning activities and skill development. If you believe that the best approach to teaching the material is to use the lecture as your primary methodology, the chapter objectives provide a road map for both you and the students
Research Notes: Research experiments pertinent to the chapter material are presented throughout the text Beyond their importance to the fields of motor learning and motor development, these research notes allow you to engage the students in debates and discussions about topics such as research design, the appropriateness of the question (i.e., why is this a good question to ask or is it?), what the next question might be, and how to design the next question. Students can work on these questions and others during or outside of class, either individually or in small groups Much of the research presented can lead to robust debate.
What Do You Think ?: This feature gives students the opportunity to think about the course content both critically and creatively. Examples include thinking back to how the students acquired a challenging skill, considering how to teach a diverse group of learners, and explaining how plasticity is demonstrated when a stroke patient regains the ability to hit a slice backhand. The key point is to stimulate critical thinking. Students can use this feature individually, in pairs, as a group, or in a class discussion either inside or outside of the classroom.
Try This: This feature engages students in a practical application that clarifies a given concept Students actively engage in a physical activity to attain a more thorough understanding of the concept at hand. This feature stimulates critical thinking and can be incorporated into the course either in or outside of the classroom
Supplemental Activities: At the end of each chapter, two activities are provided that can be completed as either classroom laboratory activities or at-home activities. These activities give students a chance to deepen their understanding of the topics presented in the chapter.
Key terms: Key terms are the most important concepts in the chapter and appear in bold text. They are defined at the end of each chapter.
Five ancillaries facilitate the teaching of this material:
Instructor guide: This ancillary includes sample answers to the What Do You Think? sections and, as appropriate, the Try This activities. It also includes troubleshooting tips for each chapter and its labs
Test package: This ancillary includes 170 multiple-choice, true-or-false, and shortanswer questions and their answers These test questions can be used for building quizzes or as a supplement to your own exam questions.
Laboratories: Labs for chapters 1–17 are available to students through the web resource The labs engage students in practical applications of important concepts from the chapters; they require more time and preparation than the Try This activities Most labs require students to complete an activity, record their data, and for some, calculate and compare their data to class data. Instructor's tips for the labs are available in the instructor's guide.
Presentation package: PowerPoint presentations are available for each chapter and include objectives, important figures and tables, key concepts, and summary points. Video clips: Video clips are available in the web resource for chapter 6, Infant Motor Development; chapter 7, Fundamental Skills in Childhood; and chapter 17, Feedback. The Study Questions links in the web resource contain questions focused on these videos, but you can use these videos to demonstrate these reflexes, motor milestones, and motor skills as you see fit.
The ancillaries are available at www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndDevelopment.
We hope we have laid some groundwork for using Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, in your course, allowing you to teach and, more important, engage students in these essential subjects. Be sure to familiarize yourself with the text so that you can manage your time to ensure that you cover the appropriate material for your course. Clearly, you will need to determine the amount of time required for covering each chapter and concept. Keeping track of material that required more time or less time to cover than you anticipated will help you make informed changes to future courses
How much time you take to cover material from the text is, of course, an individual decision that has much to do with your pedagogical philosophy and course content goals.
We wish you the best as you use the first textbook to combine the fields of motor learning and motor development.
Acknowledgments
Motor Learning and Development, Second Edition, is a comprehensive book, combining two fields of study into one textbook. We have presented the material that we felt was most relevant and current, while also unifying these two fields. There are many topics covered throughout this book, so for some areas we have called on the expertise of others. Therefore, we are grateful to colleagues who have provided input In particular, we would like to extend our deep appreciation to Dr. Melanie Perreault for her contributions to chapter 2, Understanding Movement Control, and to Dr Stephen Gonzalez for his invaluable advice on psychosocial assessments and related references. We are also deeply grateful to our colleagues and students who read drafts of the content and provided editorial suggestions throughout the process
In addition, we would like to acknowledge those who made possible the photos used in chapter 7 and the cover: the children, who demonstrated the fundamental motor skills during the photo shoot; the parents, who facilitated their children’s involvement; and Jim Dusen, whose photography was exceptional.
Part I Theory and Foundational Concepts
In the first chapter of this section, we define the three fields of motor behavior: motor control, motor learning, and motor development. The key terms of each field are explained, and some core areas of research in each field are introduced. Motor skill classification, including sport skills, developmental classifications, single-dimensional classifications, and multidimensional classifications, is also detailed in this chapter. The classification of motor skills is important for any movement educator with an interest in rehabilitation, education, or athletics, because the appropriate practice and feedback schedules often depend on the type of motor skills.
Chapter 2 examines the many factors involved in understanding movement control, including reaction time, attention, arousal, sensory contributions, and memory. Because these factors have a profound impact on movement throughout the life span, they are discussed throughout the book. We then turn to the theoretical constructs of motor behavior, as well as the evolution of the field of motor development from its inception in the late 18th century to the present day, in chapter 3 The three main theoretical constructs that drive research in motor behavior (the information-processing theory, ecological approach, and dynamic systems approach) differ not only in the way they define development and learning, but also in how they examine behavior.
In chapter 4, we examine the developmental and motor learning stages. First, we use Clark’s mountain of development to explain how skills evolve from prenatal development through skill proficiency. This is followed by a discussion of the stages of learning, including Fitts and Posner’s, Bernstein’s, and Gentile’s learning stages, providing a framework for categorizing the skill level of learners from novices to experts These models enable practitioners to assess the level of the learner and, more appropriately, to prepare practice sessions
Part I concludes with methodological considerations (chapter 5), including how to measure and assess motor learning. Indicators of motor learning beyond basic performance measures are described (the best indicator of motor learning is performance following a retention interval). Also examined is transfer of learning, which is a critical component of learning a motor skill. Practitioners need to know how to promote positive transfer in any setting.
Chapter 1
Perspectives in Motor Behavior
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Define the fields of motor learning, motor control, and motor development.
Explain the importance of motor skill classification.
Classify motor skills using single-dimensional and multidimensional classifications.
Distinguish between motor skills and abilities
Understand Fleishman’s taxonomy.
Understand the evolution of motor development.
Explain why the fields of motor behavior are important for teaching and assessing motor skills in sport, physical activity, and health professions.
Is Nathaniel’s Improvement Motor Learning or Motor Development?
Nathaniel, an energetic toddler, loved to play with balls of many shapes and sizes To encourage his motor skill development, his mom would ask Nathaniel to throw the balls to her, and then catch them when she would throw them back. In only a couple of months, his throwing had improved considerably. Nathanial was now able to throw three times farther and was throwing with much better form. In this example, a young child demonstrated significant improvement in his motor skills over a relatively short period of time. Would these changes be considered motor learning or motor development?
Practitioners need to understand not only motor learning and motor development, but also how each field influences the other These two fields are strongly related but often separated in textbooks. This chapter provides a background for each of these fields, discussing the main motor learning and development concepts, tenets, and theoretical frameworks Subsequent chapters use a life span perspective to explain how to prepare, implement, and assess motor skill programs for anyone regardless of age, developmental level, or motor skill. In the opening scenario, a mom taught her son how to throw and catch a ball, and the child exhibited significant improvement. Can this improvement be attributed solely to practice effects (motor learning), or, because toddlers develop and grow at such a rapid rate, was it due to growth and maturation (motor development)?
Defining Terms in Motor Behavior
A full understanding of the fields of motor behavior is necessary before designing, implementing, or assessing a motor skill program. Motor behavior is an umbrella term for the fields of motor control, motor learning, and motor development. Motor control researchers investigate the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of human movement An understanding of all three fields motor learning, motor development, and motor control optimizes skill acquisition. Motor learning is the study of the processes involved in the acquisition of a motor skill and the factors that enhance or inhibit the ability to perform a motor skill. Researchers in the field of motor development examine the products and underlying processes of motor behavior changes across the life span (See table 1 1 for a summary of each field.)
A practitioner with a strong background in motor behavior has a solid foundation in how humans develop across the life span; can explain why particular behaviors have manifested; and can design programs that assess, diagnose, or teach motor skills for the purposes of instruction or rehabilitation. In this book, the term practitioner refers to any type of movement educator, including physical education teachers, clinicians, trainers, instructors, and coaches Let’s take a closer look at the fields of motor behavior
Motor Control
Motor control is a subdiscipline of motor behavior that focuses on the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of human movement. One area of study for motor control researchers is the role of the neurological system in the function of the body. Some researchers examine reaction time as an indicator of processing speed and nerve conduction velocities under varying conditions. Researchers in the field of motor control also investigate how the system moves in a controlled and coordinated fashion. Even fundamental motor skills and movements are quite complex. The number of movement possibilities is nearly infinite because of the degrees of freedom available. The field of motor control deals with three core issues: the degrees of freedom problem, the serial order problem, and the perceptual–motor integration problem. This section provides a brief overview of these motor control problems.
Degrees of Freedom Problem
Degrees of freedom are the number of independent elements that must be constrained to produce coordinated motion (Bernstein, 1967) At the joint level, there are dozens of movement possibilities even for simple actions such as reaching for a glass. Minimally, the wrist, elbow, and shoulder are involved in the reach, each of which has multiple axes of rotation. If the person is standing during the reach, the hips, knees, and ankles are also involved in coordinating the movement. At the muscular level, the number of movement possibilities, or degrees of freedom, increases to the hundreds If extended to the neuronal level, there could be millions, if not billions, of movement possibilities.
Coordination involves constraining the number of degrees of freedom to decrease the complexity of the movement task so as to produce a movement pattern and achieve a task goal (Sparrow, 1992). Coordination involves bringing parts into proper relationship (Turvey, 1990) Increased coordination leads to a more positive task outcome But in addition to coordinating the body parts, the person must also complete the task with control. The person must be able to manipulate the movements in such a way as to meet the demands of the task. For example, a dancer can coordinate her body parts to execute all of the correct steps. However, what distinguishes her as a dancer is her ability to accentuate certain movements while also moving with style and grace, making each movement appear seamless and effortless. A softball pitcher must constrain his degrees of freedom by deciding when to initiate the pitch and the speed of the pitch. The timing, the initiation and release, and the speed of the pitch are all variables of control.
