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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions
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Contributors and Reviewers
CONTRIBUTORS
Christy J. Bomer-Norton , PhD, RN, CNM, IBCLC Concord, Massachusetts
Kathryn M. Daniel , PhD, MS, BSN, BA Associate Professor, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas
REVIEWERS
Sue Ellen Bingham , PhD, RN Professor of Nursing, Clayton State University, Morrow, Georgia
Sara L Clutter , PhD, RN Professor of Nursing, Waynesburg University, Waynesburg, Pennsylvania
Angela N. Cornelius , DNP, RN, CNE, CNL Associate Professor of Nursing, Central Methodist University, Fayette, Missouri
Polly A. Hulme , PhD, CNP, RN Professor, College of Nursing, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota
Tamara M. Kear , PhD, RN, CNS, CNN Associate Professor of Nursing, College of Nursing, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania
Llynne C. Kiernan , DNP, MSN, RN-BC Assistant Professor of Nursing, Norwich University School of Nursing, Northfield, Vermont
Kathleen S. Murtaugh , MSN, RN, CNA Assistant Professor, Saint Joseph College St Elizabeth School of Nursing Cooperative Program, Rensselaer, Indiana
Michael Perlow , DNS, RN Professor of Nursing, School of Nursing and Health Professions, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
Dedication
To all nurses who change the lives of patients, families, and students through applying the best research evidence in practice and education
Susan and Jennifer
In memory of my beloved sister, and to my husband Jay Suggs and my daughters Monece Appleton and Nicole Horn who have provided me love and support during my 30 years of developing research textbooks
To my husband Randy Gray, our children, and grandchildren who give me space when I am writing and love me anyway
Susan
Jennifer
Preface
Research is a major force in nursing, and the evidence generated from research is constantly changing practice, education, and health policy A major goal of professional nursing and health care is the delivery of evidence-based care By making nursing research an integral part of baccalaureate education, we hope to facilitate the movement of research into the mainstream of nursing. Our aim in developing this essentials of research text, Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-Based Practice, is to create excitement about research in undergraduate students The text emphasizes the importance of baccalaureate-educated nurses being able to read, critically appraise, and synthesize research so this evidence can be used to make changes in practice. We also hope this text increases student awareness of the knowledge that has been generated through nursing research and that this knowledge is relevant to their practice Only through research can nursing truly be recognized as a profession with documented effective outcomes for the patient, family, nurse provider, and healthcare system.
Developing a seventh edition of Understanding Nursing Research has provided us with an opportunity to update, clarify, and refine the essential content for an undergraduate research text The text is designed to assist undergraduate students in overcoming the barriers they frequently encounter in understanding the language used in nursing research. The revisions in this edition are based on our own experiences with the text and input from dedicated reviewers, inquisitive students, and supportive faculty from across the country who provided us with many helpful suggestions
Chapter 1, Introduction to Nursing Research and Its Importance in Building an Evidence-Based Practice, introduces you to nursing research, the history of research, and the significance of research evidence for nursing practice The most relevant types of research synthesis being conducted in nursing systematic review, meta-analysis, meta-synthesis, and mixed-methods systematic review are described. The definition of evidence-based practice (EBP) has been updated based on current literature and EBP activities implemented in nursing The discussion of research methodologies and their importance in generating an EBP for nursing has been updated and expanded to include mixed methods research. A discussion of the Quality and Safety Education for Nursing (QSEN) competencies and their link to research has been included to increase students’ understanding of the importance in delivering quality, safe health care to patients and families
Chapter 2, Introduction to Quantitative Research, presents the steps of the quantitative research process in a concise, clear manner and introduces students to the focus and findings of quantitative studies. Extensive, recent examples of descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies are provided, which reflect the quality of current nursing research
Chapter 3, Introduction to Qualitative Research, describes four approaches to qualitative research and the philosophies upon which they are based. These approaches include phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and exploratory-descriptive qualitative. Data collection and analysis methods specific to qualitative research are discussed Guidelines for reading and critically appraising qualitative studies are explained using examples of published studies
Chapter 4, Examining Ethics in Nursing Research, provides an extensive discussion of the use of ethics in research and the regulations that govern the research process, including recent changes to the Common Rule being implemented by the U S Department of Health and Human Services to protect human subjects The implications of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) for research are described. Guidelines are provided to assist students in critically appraising the ethical discussions in published studies and to participate in the ethical review of research in clinical agencies
Chapter 5, Examining Research Problems, Purposes, and Hypotheses, clarifies the difference between a problem and a purpose. Example problems and purpose statements are included from current qualitative and quantitative studies. Detailed critical appraisal guidelines are applied to current studies to assist students in critically appraising the problems, purposes, hypotheses, and variables in studies
Chapter 6, Understanding and Critically Appraising the Literature Review, begins with a description of the content and quality of different types of publications that might be included in a
review. Guidelines for critically appraising published literature reviews are explored with a focus on the differences in the purpose and timing of the literature review in quantitative and qualitative studies. The steps for finding appropriate sources, reading publications, and synthesizing information into a logical, cohesive review are presented
Chapter 7, Understanding Theory and Research Frameworks, briefly describes the components of theory and the different types of theories that serve as the basis for study frameworks The purpose of a research framework is discussed with the acknowledgement that the framework may be implicit Guidelines for critically appraising the study framework are presented as well The guidelines are applied to studies with frameworks derived from research findings and from different types of theories
Chapter 8, Clarifying Quantitative Research Designs, addresses descriptive, correlational, quasiexperimental, and experimental designs and criteria for critically appraising these designs in studies The major strengths and threats to design validity are summarized in a table and discussed related to current studies.
Chapter 9, Examining Populations and Samples in Research, provides a detailed discussion of the concepts of sampling in research Different types of sampling methods for both qualitative and quantitative research are described Guidelines are included for critically appraising the sampling criteria, sampling method, and sample size of quantitative and qualitative studies.
Chapter 10, Clarifying Measurement and Data Collection in Quantitative Research, has been updated to reflect current knowledge about measurement methods used in nursing research Content has been expanded and uniquely organized to assist students in critically appraising the reliability and validity of scales; precision and accuracy of physiological measures; and the sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios of diagnostic and screening tests.
Chapter 11, Understanding Statistics in Research, focuses on the theories and concepts of the statistical analysis process and the statistics conducted to describe variables, examine relationships, predict outcomes, and examine group differences in studies. Guidelines are provided for critically appraising the results and discussion sections of nursing studies. The results from current studies are critically appraised and presented as examples throughout this chapter to assist students in understanding this content
Chapter 12, Critical Appraisal of Quantitative and Qualitative Research for Nursing Practice, was revised to include three major criteria for critically appraising quantitative and qualitative studies. These criteria are: (1) to identify the steps or elements of studies; (2) to determine the strengths and weaknesses of studies; and (3) to evaluate the credibility, trustworthiness, and meaning of studies These criteria include questions for critically appraising quantitative and qualitative studies. This chapter also includes a current qualitative and quantitative study, and these two studies are critically appraised using the guidelines provided in this chapter
Chapter 13, Building an Evidence-Based Nursing Practice, has been significantly updated to reflect the current trends in health care to provide evidence-based nursing practice. Detailed guidelines are provided for critically appraising the four common types of research synthesis conducted in nursing (systematic review, meta-analysis, meta-synthesis, and mixed-methods systematic review) These guidelines were used to critically appraise current research syntheses to assist students in examining the quality of published research syntheses and the potential use of research evidence in practice. The chapter includes updated models to assist nurses and agencies in moving toward EBP Translational research is introduced as a method for promoting the use of research evidence in practice
Chapter 14, Introduction to Additional Research Methodologies in Nursing: Mixed Methods and Outcomes Research, was significantly revised to include both mixed methods and outcomes studies Mixed methods studies, including both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, are increasing in the nursing literature and require an expanded focus in this text The goal of this chapter is to increase students’ knowledge of the influence of mixed methods and outcomes research on nursing and health care Content and guidelines are provided to assist students in reading and critically appraising the mixed methods and outcomes studies appearing in the nursing literature
The seventh edition is written and organized to facilitate ease in reading, understanding, and critically appraising studies The major strengths of the text are as follows:
• State-of-the art coverage of EBP a topic of vital importance in nursing
• Balanced coverage of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies
• Introduction to mixed methods and outcomes research methodologies
• Rich and frequent illustration of major points and concepts from the most current nursing research literature from a variety of clinical practice areas
• A clear, concise writing style that is consistent among the chapters to facilitate student learning
• Electronic references and websites that direct the student to an extensive array of information that is important in reading, critically appraising, and using research knowledge in practice
This seventh edition of Understanding Nursing Research is appropriate for use in a variety of undergraduate research courses for both RN and pre-licensure students because it provides an introduction to quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and outcomes research methodologies This text not only will assist students in reading research literature, critically appraising published studies, and summarizing research evidence to make changes in practice, but it also can serve as a valuable resource for practicing nurses in critically appraising studies and implementing research evidence in their clinical settings
The teaching and learning resources to accompany Understanding Nursing Research have been revised for both the instructor and student to reflect content updates to the seventh edition and to promote a maximum level of flexibility in course design and student review
EvolveInstructorResources
A comprehensive suite of Instructor Resources is available online at http://evolve.elsevier.com/Grove/understanding/ and consists of a Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, Image Collection, Answer Guidelines for the Appraisal Exercises provided for students, and TEACH for Nurses, which include teaching strategies and other educator resources for research and EBP courses.
TestBank
The Test Bank consists of approximately 550 NCLEX® Examination–style questions, including approximately 10% of questions in alternate item formats Each question is coded with the correct answer, a rationale from the textbook, and the cognitive level in the new Bloom’s Taxonomy The Test Bank is provided in ExamView and Evolve LMS formats.
PowerPointSlides
The PowerPoint slide collection contains approximately 550 slides, including seamlessly integrated Audience Response System Questions, images, and Unfolding Case Studies The PowerPoints have been simplified, with the Notes area of the slides featuring additional content details Unfolding Case Studies focus on practical EBP/PICO or PICOS questions, such as a nurse on a unit needing to perform a literature search or to identify a systematic review or meta-analysis to address a practice problem PowerPoint presentations are fully customizable
ImageCollection
The electronic Image Collection consists of all images from the text This collection can be used in classroom or online presentations to reinforce student learning
TEACHforNurses
TEACH for Nurses is a robust, customizable, ready-to-use collection of chapter-by-chapter teaching strategies and educational resources that provide everything you need to create an engaging and effective course. Each chapter includes the following:
• Chapter Objectives
• Student Resources
• Instructor Resources
• Teaching Strategies
• In-Class/Online Case Study
• Nursing Curriculum Standards
• BSN Essentials
EvolveStudentResources
The Evolve Student Resources include interactive Review Questions, a Research Article Library consisting of 10 full-text research articles, and Appraisal Exercises based on the articles in the Research Article Library.
• The interactive Review Questions (approximately 25 per chapter) aid the student in reviewing and focusing on the chapter material
• The Research Article Library is an updated collection of 10 research articles taken from leading nursing journals
• The Appraisal Exercises are a collection of application exercises, based on the articles in the Research Article Library, that help students learn to critically appraise and apply research findings Answer Guidelines are provided for the instructor
StudyGuide
The companion Study Guide, written by the authors of the main text, provides both time-tested and innovative exercises for each chapter in Understanding Nursing Research, 7th Edition Included for each chapter are a brief Introduction, Terms and Definitions exercises, Linking Ideas exercises, Web-Based Information and Resources exercises, and Conducting Critical Appraisals to Build an Evidence-Based Practice exercises. An integral part of the Study Guide are the appendices, which feature three published research studies that are referenced throughout the critical appraisal exercises These three recently published nursing studies (a quantitative study, a qualitative study, and a mixed methods study) can be used in classroom or online discussions, as well as to address the Study Guide questions. The Study Guide provides exercises that target comprehension of concepts included in each chapter Exercises including fill-in-the-blank, matching, and multiplechoice questions encourage students to validate their understanding of the chapter content Critical Appraisal Activities provide students with opportunities to apply their new research knowledge to evaluate the quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies provided in the back of the Study Guide in Appendices A, B, and C
Unique to this edition are the following features: an increased emphasis on evidence-based practice, new Web-Based Activities, an increased emphasis on high-value learning activities, updated back matter for quick reference, and quick-reference printed tabs.
• Increased emphasis on EBP: This edition of the Study Guide features an expanded focus on EBP to match that of the revised textbook. This focus helps students who are new to nursing research see the value of understanding the research process and applying it to promote evidence-based nursing practice
• Web-Based Activities: Each chapter includes a current Web-Based Activity section, to teach students to use the Internet appropriately for scholarly research and EBP.
• Increased high-value learning activities: The exercises in this study guide have been updated to promote nursing students’ understanding of research methodologies, critical appraisal of studies, and use of research evidence in practice
• Back matter was updated for quick reference: An “Answer Key” is provided for the exercises developed for each chapter. Each published study is in a separate appendix (three appendices total), which simplifies cross referencing in the body of the Study Guide
• Quick-reference printed tabs: Quick-reference printed tabs have been added to differentiate the Answer Key and each of the book’s three published studies (four tabs total), for improved navigation and usability.
Acknowledgments
Developing this essentials of research text was a 2-year project, and there are many people we would like to thank. We want to extend a very special thank you to Dr. Christy Bomer-Norton for her revision of Chapter 6 focused on literature review and Chapter 12 with emphasis on critical appraisal of quantitative and qualitative studies We also want to thank Dr Kathryn M Daniel for her revision of Chapter 2 focused on quantitative research We are very fortunate that these individuals were willing to share their expertise and time in developing the seventh edition of this text.
We want to express our appreciation to faculty of our universities, The University of Texas at Arlington College of Nursing and Health Innovation and Oklahoma Christian University, for their support and encouragement. We also would like to thank other nursing faculty members across the world who are using our book to teach research and have spent valuable time to send us ideas and to identify errors in the text Special thanks to the students who have read our book and provided honest feedback on its clarity and usefulness to them We would also like to recognize the excellent reviews of the colleagues, listed on the previous pages, who helped us make important revisions in the text
In conclusion, we would like to thank the people at Elsevier who helped produce this book We thank the following individuals who have devoted extensive time to the development of this seventh edition, the instructor’s ancillary materials, student study guide, and all of the web-based components These individuals include Lee Henderson, Lisa Newton, Laurel Shea, Anne Konopka, and Hari Maniyaan Laurel Shea has been in constant communication with us to promote the quality and consistency of the format and content in this text It has been such a pleasure working with you.
Susan K. Grove PhD, RN, ANP-BC, GNP-BC
Jennifer R Gray PhD, RN, FAAN
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Nursing Research and Its Importance in Building an Evidence-Based Practice
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define research, nursing research, and evidence-based practice.
2 Discuss the past and present activities influencing research in nursing
3 Examine ways of acquiring nursing knowledge tradition, authority, borrowing, trial and error, personal experience, role modeling, intuition, and reasoning.
4 Describe the common types of research quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and outcomes conducted to generate evidence for nursing practice
5 Describe the purposes of research in implementing an evidence-based nursing practice
6. Discuss your role in research as a professional nurse.
7 Describe the following strategies for synthesizing healthcare research: systematic review, meta-analysis, meta-synthesis, and mixed-methods systematic review
8 Examine the levels of research evidence available to nurses for practice
Welcome to the world of nursing research. You may think it strange to consider research a world, but it is a truly new way of experiencing reality Entering a new world means learning a unique language, incorporating new rules, and using new experiences to learn how to interact effectively in that world. As you become a part of this new world, you will modify and expand your perceptions and methods of reasoning. For example, using research to guide your practice involves questioning, and you will be encouraged to ask such questions as these:
• What is the patient’s healthcare problem?
• What nursing intervention(s) would effectively manage this problem in your practice?
• Are these interventions based on sound research evidence that enable you to select the most affective one for your patient population?
• How can you use research most effectively in promoting an evidence-based practice (EBP)?
Because research is a new world to many of you, we have developed this text to facilitate your entry into this world and your understanding of its contribution to the delivery of quality, safe nursing care Chapter 1 clarifies the meaning of nursing research and its significance in developing an EBP for nursing The research accomplishments in the profession over the last 170 years are discussed. The ways of acquiring knowledge in nursing are described, and the common research methodologies conducted for generating research evidence for practice are introduced. Nurses’ roles in research are described based on their level of education and their contributions to the implementation of EBP The chapter concludes with the critical elements of evidence-based nursing practice, such as strategies for synthesizing research evidence, levels of research evidence, and evidence-based guidelines.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Animated cartoons
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Animated cartoons How they are made, their origin and development
Author: Edwin George Lutz
Release date: April 24, 2024 [eBook #73455]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920
Credits: Gísli Valgeirsson, A. Marshall and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Footnote anchors are denoted by [number] , and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the chapter.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
ANIMATED CARTOONS
ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD OF MAKING ANIMATED CARTOONS BY CUT-OUTS.
Above: Background scene and the separate items.
Below: Completed scene showing one phase of the performance of the little cardboard actors and stage property.
[Seepage 90]
ANIMATED CARTOONS
HOW THEY ARE MADE
THEIR ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
BY E. G. LUTZ
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1920
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
Published February, 1920
INTRODUCTION
WE learn through the functioning of our senses; sight the most precious shows us the appearance of the exterior world. Before the dawn of pictorial presentation, man was visually cognizant only of his immediate or present surroundings. On the development of realistic picturing it was possible, more or less truthfully, to become acquainted with the aspect of things not proximately perceivable. The cogency of the perceptive impression was dependent upon the graphic faithfulness of the agency—a pictorial work—that gave the visual representation of the distant thing.
It is by means of sight, too, that the mind since the beginning of alphabets has been made familiar with the thoughts and the wisdom of the past and put into relationship with the learning and reasoning of the present. These two methods of imparting knowledge— delineatory and by inscribed symbols—have been concurrent throughout the ages.
It was nearly a century ago that Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (17651833), at Châlons-sur-Saône, in France, invented photography. Since that time it has been possible to fix on a surface, by physicochemical means, pictures of the exterior world. It was another way of extending man’s horizon, but a way not dependent, in the matter of literalness, upon the variations of any individual’s skill or intent, but rather upon the accuracy of material means.
Thoughts and ideas once represented and preserved by picturewriting, recorded by symbolical signs, and at last inscribed by alphabetical marks were, in 1877, registered by mere tracings on a
surface and again reproduced by Mr. Edison with his phonograph. As in the photograph, the procedure was purely mechanical, and man’s artificial inventions of linear markings and arbitrary symbols were totally disregarded.
Through photography we learn of the exterior nature of absent things and the character of the views in distant places. Or it preserves these pictorial matters in a material form for the future. The phonograph communicates to us the uttered thoughts of others or brings into our homes the melodies and songs of great artists that we should not otherwise have the opportunity to hear.
And now a new physicochemical marvel has come that apprehends, reproduces, and guards for the future another sensorial stimulus. It is the motion-picture and the stimulus is movement.
Photography and the rendering of sounds by the phonograph have both been adopted for instruction and amusement. The motionpicture also is used for these purposes, but in the main the art has been associated with our leisure hours as a means of diversion or entertainment. During the period of its growth, however, its adaptability to education has never been lost sight of. It is simply that development along this line has not been as seriously considered as it should be. Motion-pictures, it is true, that may be considered as educational are frequently shown in theatres and halls. Such, for instance, are views in strange lands, scenic wonders, and pictures showing the manufacture of some useful article or the manner of proceeding in some field of human activity. But these are effected entirely by photography and the narration of their making does not come within the scope of this book.
Our concern is the description of the processes of making “animated cartoons,” or moving screen drawings. Related matters, of course, including the inception and the development of motionpictures in general, will be referred to in our work. At present, of the two divisions of our subject, the art of the animated comic cartoon has been most developed. It is for this reason that so much of the book is given to an account of their production.
But on the making of animated screen drawings for scientific and educational themes little has been said. This is not to be taken as a measure of their importance.
It is interesting to regard for a moment the vicissitudes of the word cartoon. Etymologically it is related to words in certain Latin tongues for paper, card, or pasteboard. Its best-accepted employment—of bygone times—was that of designating an artist’s working-size preliminary draft of a painting, a mural decoration, or a design for tapestry. Raphael’s cartoons in the South Kensington Museum, in London, are the best-known works of art coming under this meaning of the term. (They are, too, the usual instances given in dictionaries when this meaning is explained.) The most frequent use of the word up to recently, however, has been to specify a printed picture in which the composition bears upon some current event or political topic and in which notabilities of the day are generally caricatured. The word cartoon did not long particularize this kind of pictorial work but was soon applied to any humorous or satirical printed picture no matter whether the subject was on a topic of the day or not.
When some of the comic graphic artists began to turn their attention to the making of drawings for animated screen pictures, nothing seemed more natural than that the word “animated” should be prefixed to the term describing their products and so bringing into usage the expression “animated cartoons.” But the term did not long remain restricted to this application, as it soon was called into service by the workers in the industry to describe any film made from drawings without regard to whether the subject was of a humorous or of an educational character. Its use in this sense is perhaps justified as it forms a convenient designation in the trade to distinguish between films made from drawings and those having as their basic elements actuality, that is, people, scenes, and objects.
Teachers now are talking of “visual instruction.” They mean by this phrase in the special sense that they have given to it the use of motion-picture films for instructional purposes. Travel pictures to be
used in connection with teaching geography or microcinematographic films for classes in biology are good examples of such films. But not all educational subjects can be depicted by the camera solely. For many themes the artist must be called in to prepare a series of drawings made in a certain way and then photographed and completed to form a film of moving diagrams or drawings.
As it is readily understood that any school topic presented in animated pictures will stimulate and hold the attention, and that the properties of things when depicted in action are more quickly grasped visually than by description or through motionless diagrams, it is likely that visual instruction by films will soon play an important part in any course of studies. Then the motion-picture projector will become the pre-eminent school apparatus and such subjects as do not lend themselves to photography will very generally need to be drawn; thereupon the preponderance of the comic cartoon will cease and the animated screen drawing of serious and worth-while themes will prevail.
E. G. L.
Three elements that complete a scene
Phenakistoscope with cycle of drawings of a face to show a movement of the mouth 80
Cardboard model of an airplane with separate cut-out propellers Facingpage84
The laws of perspective are to be considered in “animating” an object 86
Perspective applied in the drawing of birds as well as in the picturing of objects 87
Articulated cardboard figures 89
Illustrating the animation of a mouse as he runs around the kitchen 95
Successive phases of movements of the legs in walking101
Illustrating the action of the foot in rolling over the ground
Contractions and expansions as characteristic of motion109
Order in which an animator makes the sequence of positions for a walk 112 and 113 Phases of movement of a walk.
Piano practice 164
Three drawings used in sequence and repeated as long as the particular effect that they give is desired 165
A constellation 166
Simple elements used in animating a scene 167
Symbolical animation of snoring 172
Series of drawings used to show a baby crying 173
A “close-up” 175
Illustrating the use of little “model” hats to vivify a scene176
“Cut-out” eyes 178
Illustrating the making of “in-between” drawings 179
Illustrating the number of drawings required for a movement 180
Illustrating a point in animating a moving limb 182
Making drawings in turning the head 183
Easily drawn circular forms and curves 186
Foreground details of a pictorial composition 190
Making an animated cartoon panorama 193
Illustrating the apparent slowness of a distant object compared to one passing close to the eye 195
Distinguishing marks on wheels to give the illusion of turning 197
Elements used in giving a figure the effect of trembling198
Typical arrangement of camera and lights 203
Part of a length of film for a title 208
Vignetter or iris dissolve 211
THE BEGINNING OF ANIMATED DRAWINGS
CHAPTER I
THE BEGINNING OF ANIMATED DRAWINGS
THE picture thrown on the wall by the magic-lantern, although an illusion, and no more tangible than a shadow, has nevertheless a certain tactile quality. If it is projected from a drawing on a glass slide, its design is definite; and if from a photographic slide, the tones are clearly discernible. It is—unless it is one of those quaintly moving amusing subjects operated by a crude mechanism—a quiescent picture. The spirited screen picture thrown by the lens of a motion-picture projector is an illusion, too. It exemplifies, however, two varieties of this class of sensory deceptions. First: it is an illusion for the same reason that the image from the magic-lantern is one; namely, a projected shadow of a more or less opaque design on a transparent material intervening between the illuminant and the lens. And secondly, it is an illusion in that it synthesizes mere pictorial spectres into the appearance of life and movement. This latter particular, the seeming activity of life, is the fundamental dissimilarity between pictures projected by the magic-lantern and those thrown on the screen by the motion-picture apparatus.
And it is only the addition to the magic-lantern, of a mechanism that makes possible this optical vibration of life and motion, that constitutes the differing feature in the two types of projecting machines.
In the magic-lantern and its improved form, the stereopticon, separate views of different subjects are shown in succession. Each picture is allowed to remain on the screen long enough to be readily beheld and appreciated. But the picture is at rest and does not move. With the motion-picture projector a series of slightly varying pictures of the same subject are projected in quick succession. This
succession is at such a rapid rate that the interval of time during which one picture moves out of place to make way for the next is so short that it is nearly imperceptible. In consequence, the slightly varying pictures blend on the screen and we have a phantasmagoria of movement.
The phenomenon of this movement—this semblance to life—takes place, not on the screen, but within the eye. Its consideration, a subject proper for the science of physiology (and in some aspects psychology), has weight for us more particularly as a matter of physics.
Memory has been said to be an attribute of all organic matter. An instance of this seems to be the property of the eye to retain on its retina an after-image of anything just seen. That is to say, when an object impresses its image upon the retina and then moves away, or disappears, there still remains, for a measurable period, an image of this object within the eye. This singularity of the visual sense is spoken of as the persistence of vision or the formation of positive after-images. And it is referred to as a positive after-image in contradistinction to another visional phenomenon called the negative after-image. This latter kind is instanced in the well-known experiment of fixing the eyes for a few moments upon some design in a brilliant color and quickly turning away to gaze at a blank space of white where instantly the same design will be seen, but of a color complementary to that of the particular hue first gazed at.
The art of the motion-picture began when physicists first noticed this peculiarity of the organ of sight in retaining after-images. The whole art is based on its verity. It is the special quality of the visual sense that makes possible the appreciation of living screen pictures.
An interesting matter to bear in mind is the circumstance that the first attempt at giving to a screen image the effect of life was by means of a progressive series of drawings. When photographs came later, drawings were forgotten and only when the cinematographic art had reached its great development and universality, were drawings again brought into use to be synthesized on the screen.
To describe how these drawings are made, their use and application to the making of animated cartoons, is the purpose of this book.
Before proceeding with a sketch of the development of the art of making these cartoons, it will make the matter more readily understood if we give, at first, in a few paragraphs, a brief description of the present-day method of throwing a living picture on the screen by the motion-picture projector.
MAGIC-LANTERN AND MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTOR COMPARED.
The projector for motion-pictures, like the magic-lantern, consists of an illuminant, reflector, condenser, and objective. This last part is the combination of lenses that gather and focus the light rays carrying the pencils of lights and shadows composing the picture and throwing them on the screen. There is, in the magic-lantern, immediately back of the objective, a narrow aperture through which the glass slide holding a picture is thrust. In the motion-picture apparatus, the transparent surface containing the picture also passes back of the objective, but instead of the simple process of pushing one slide through to make way for another, there is a complicated mechanism to move a long ribbon containing the sequence of
pictures that produces the image on the screen. Now this ribbon consists of a strip of transparent celluloid[1] each with a separate photograph of some one general scene but each with slight changes in the moving details—objects or figures. These changes record the movements from the beginning to the end of the particular story, action, or pantomime.
Along the edges of the ribbons are rows of perforations that are most accurately equalized with respect to their size and of the distances between them. It is by means of wheels with teeth that engage with the perforations and the movement of another toothed part of the mechanism that the ribbon or film is carried across the path of light in the projecting machine. The device for moving the film, although not of a very intricate character, is nevertheless of an ingenious type. It is intermittent in action and operates so that one section of film, containing a picture, is held in the path of light for a fraction of a second, moved away and another section, with the next picture, brought into place to be projected in its turn. This way of working, in most of the projectors, is obtained by the use of a mechanical construction known as the Geneva movement. The pattern of its principal part is a wheel shaped somewhat like a Maltese cross. The form shown in the illustration is given as a type; not all are of this pattern, nor are they all four-parted.
FOUR PHASES OF THE ACTION OF THE INTERMITTENT GEARING KNOWN AS THE GENEVA MOVEMENT.
It is obvious that while one picture moves out of the way for the next, there would be a blur on the screen during such a movement if some means were not devised to prevent it. This is found by
eclipsing the light during the time of the change from one picture to another. The detail of the projector that effects this is a revolving shutter with a solid part and an open section. (This is the old type of shutter. It is noticed here because the way in which the light rays project the picture is easily explained by using it as an example.) This shutter is so geared with the rest of the mechanism that (1) the solid part passes across the path of light while another picture is moving into place; and that (2) the open section passes across the path of light while a rectangular area containing a picture is at rest and its details are being projected on the screen.
It may be asked, at this point, why the eye is not aware on the screen of the passing shadow of the opaque part of the shutter as it eclipses the light. It would seem that there should be either a blur or a darkened period on the screen. But the mechanism moves so rapidly that the passing of the solid portion of the shutter is not ordinarily perceptible.
A MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTOR.
A. Film. B. Upper magazine. C. Feed reel. D. Lower magazine, containing the take-up reel. E. Crank to operate mechanism by hand. F . Motor. G. Where the film stops intermittently to be projected. H. Lamp-house. I. Port, or window in the fireproof projection booth. J. Rotating shutter. K. Lens. L. Condenser. M. Switches. N. Fire shutter; automatically drops when the film stops or goes too slowly.
One foot of celluloid film contains sixteen separate pictures, and these pass in front of the light in one second. One single tiny picture of the film takes up then one-sixteenth of a second. But not all of this fraction of a second is given to the projection of the picture as some of the time is taken up with moving it into place immediately before projection. The relative apportionment of this period of onesixteenth of a second is so arranged that about five-sixths of it (five ninety-sixths of a second) is given to the holding of the film at rest and the projection of its picture, and the remaining one-sixth (one ninety-sixth of a second) is given to the movement of a section of
