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Preface
Purpose
One look at today’s headlines is all it takes to see that every American citizen needs to be able to think critically about what is going on in the nation and in the world. Biased reporting slants the news, and it is hard even to discern what is fact. More than ever, people of conscience need to be able to take a stand and articulate a position.
College has long been a place where values and beliefs are tested. Exposure to new ideas and new perspectives is a part of coming of age. A course in argumentation is a place where students can learn the tools to critically examine the ideas they come in contact with. It is also a place where they can learn to construct their own arguments in defense of what they believe.
In order to get our students really thinking critically about argument, we have to get them to slow down and practice the art of critical reading and listening. We have to provide timely, accessible readings, we have to get them to analyze sustained argumentative discourse, and we have to give them a vocabulary to be able to talk about it. The vocabulary we use in this text incorporates Aristotle’s ancient rhetoric, the stasis theory questions, Carl Rogers’s notion of common ground, and Stephen Toulmin’s three principal elements of argument: claim, support, and assumption (warrant). In addition, we present the concepts of definition, language, and logic as critical tools for understanding and responding to arguments.
We also have to get our students to write sustained argumentative discourse. They have to learn to apply their knowledge of claim, support, and warrant. They have to learn to define key terms and to recognize, write, and support claims of fact, value, and policy, or, in the language of stasis theory, they have to be able to consider Questions of Fact, Questions of Definition, Questions of Quality, and Questions of Policy. They have to understand that successful arguments require a blend of logos, pathos, and ethos.
They have to appreciate the significance of audience as a practical matter. In the rhetorical or audience-centered approach to argument, to which we subscribe in this text, success is defined as acceptance of the claim by an audience. Arguers in the real world recognize intuitively that their primary
goal is not to demonstrate the purity of their logic, but to win the adherence of their audiences.
To do so, students must read critically and think critically about what others have to say. The Internet has redefined what research means to our students. A large part of the challenge is not to find sources but to eliminate the thousands of questionable ones. Faced with the temptation to cut and paste instead of read and understand, students need more help than ever with accurate and fair use of sources. We provide that help in the context of an increasingly digital world.
New to This Edition
In this edition, a new Chapter 5 focuses early in the text on how to write arguments, particularly in an academic context. This new chapter provides a clearer distinction between writing arguments generally and writing researched arguments, which is the focus of Chapters 12-14. It also makes it possible to make a clearer distinction between analyzing argument (Chapter 4) and writing argument (Chapter 5).
An introduction to stasis theory has been added to Chapter 1. This instruction is intended to help students further understand how logical questions can be used as a means of invention and to structure arguments effectively.
The concept of the warrant has always been a difficult one for students. In this edition we use the term assumption to make the concept more accessible.
As is the case with each edition of The Structure of Argument, we have updated readings throughout to keep information current and subjects interesting. In this ninth edition, over one-third of the readings are new. In the Debating the Issues section, new issues include the value of student evaluations of faculty, the pros and cons of gender-neutral bathrooms, and wisdom of providing trigger warnings in college classes.
Acknowledgments
This book has profited by the critiques and suggestions of instructors who responded to a questionnaire: John Adrian, University of Virginia; Patricia Andujo, Azusa Pacific University; Carol Bledsoe, Florida Gulf Coast University; Rebecca Briley, Midway University; Joe Davis, North Iowa Area Community College; Hedda Fish, San Diego State University; Deanna Gabrielson, Morehead State University; Steve Holland, Community College; Jeffrey Hotz, East Stroudsburg University; Tammy Jabin, Chemeketa Community College; Jess Koski, Hibbing Community College; Mark Meritt, University of San Francisco; Steven Mohr, Terra State Community College; Daniel Powell, Florida State College at Jacksonville; Jennifer Roscher, De Anza College; Kent Ross, Northeastern Junior College; and Guy Shebat, Youngstown State University. We also thank those reviewers who chose to remain anonymous.
We are grateful to those at Bedford/St. Martin’s and Macmillan Learning who have helped in numerous ways large and small: John Sullivan, Leasa Burton, Jennifer Prince, Kalina Ingham, Jennifer Kennett, Angie Boehler, Richard Fox, Kerri Cardone, and, most especially, Alicia Young.
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Diagnostics that help establish a baseline for instruction. Assign diagnostics to identify areas of strength and areas for improvement and to help students plan a course of study. Use visual reports to track performance by topic, class, and student as well as improvement over time.
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Student access is packaged with The Structure of Argument at a significant discount. Order ISBN 978-1-319-19261-7 for Writer’s Help 2.0, Hacker Version, or ISBN 978-1-319-19267-9 for Writer’s Help 2.0, Lunsford Version, to ensure your students have easy access to online writing support. Students who rent or buy a used book can purchase access and instructors may request free access at macmillanlearning.com/writershelp2.
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How This Book Supports WPA Outcomes for FirstYear Composition
In 2014, the Council of Writing Program Administrators updated its desired outcomes for first-year composition courses. The following chart provides information on how The Structure of Argument helps students build proficiency and achieve the learning outcomes that writing programs across the country use to assess their students’ work.
Rhetorical Knowledge
Learn and use key rhetorical concepts through analyzing and composing a variety of texts.
The organization of The Structure of Argument supports students’ understanding of rhetorical strategy. Part One (Chapters 1–5) introduces students to the Aristotelian, Rogerian, and Toulmin approaches to argumentation and to stasis theory. Next, it addresses the critical reading of written as well as visual and multimodal arguments. It then provides instruction on writing analytical responses to arguments and writing arguments, particularly in an academic context. Part Two (Chapters 6–8) devotes one chapter apiece to the chief The Structure of Argument: claim, support, and assumption. Part Three (Chapters 9–11) details important matters of reading and writing effective argument: definition, language, and logic. Part Four (Chapters 12–14) takes up the process of planning, writing, and documenting arguments based on independent research. Coverage of traditional rhetorical issues such as audience and purpose spans all chapters, helping students grasp the importance of clear communication in a variety of rhetorical
Gain experience reading and composing in several genres to understand how genre conventions shape and are shaped by readers’ and writers’ practices and purposes.
situations.
The 68 readings in the book span a variety of topics and disciplines. Each selection features apparatus that gives students practice analyzing and writing for a variety of purposes and in a range of styles. Throughout the text chapters, Writers’ Guides, Research Skills boxes, end-ofchapter Assignments, and post-reading questions prompt students to compose different kinds of arguments and responses.
Develop facility in responding to a variety of situations and contexts calling for purposeful shifts in voice, tone, level of formality, design, medium, and/or structure.
Understand and use a variety of technologies to address a range of audiences.
Chapter introductions for Chapters 1 through 11 explain how each rhetorical element and strategy helps to achieve an author’s purpose. Throughout the text, postreading questions call attention to the form and function of different arguments.
Chapter 3 shows students how arguments can be made using a variety of multimodal contexts, including photographs, print advertisements, political cartoons, graphics, commercials, speeches, debates, broadcast news, print news, social media, and interactive Web sites.
Match the capacities of different environments (e.g., print and electronic) to varying rhetorical situations.
Chapter 3 shows students how a variety of print and electronic environments can be used to build persuasive arguments.
Critical Thinking, Reading, and Composing
Use composing and reading for inquiry, learning, critical thinking, and communicating in various rhetorical contexts. Part 1 guides students through the process of understanding how arguments function, reading them critically, analyzing them in writing, and composing them effectively. In
Read a diverse range of texts, attending especially to relationships between assertion and evidence, to patterns of organization, to the interplay between verbal and nonverbal elements, and to how these features function for different audiences and situations.
Locate and evaluate (for credibility, sufficiency, accuracy, timeliness, bias and so on) primary and secondary research materials, including journal articles and essays, books, scholarly and professionally established and maintained databases or archives, and informal electronic networks and internet sources.
Use strategies such as interpretation, synthesis, response, critique, and design/redesign to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
particular, Chapters 3 and 4 focus on critical reading of different kinds of arguments, and Part Four provides guidance on researching and crafting effective arguments using inquiry and critical thinking.
Throughout the text, diverse selections illustrate different rhetorical elements, and post-reading questions prompt students to analyze the relationship between assertion and evidence. Further, Chapter 3 shows students how to analyze the relationship between verbal and nonverbal elements of multimodal texts. Chapter 6 explores different kinds of claims, and Chapter 7 offers instruction on how to effectively support assertions.
Chapter 12 offers practical instruction for locating and evaluating primary and secondary research materials, and Chapter 13 illustrates best practices for reviewing research.
The questions and prompts that accompany each reading ask students to interpret, respond, and critique the writer’s choices, thereby engaging in academic conversation. Chapter 13 helps students compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
Processes
Develop a writing project through multiple drafts.
Develop flexible strategies for reading, drafting, reviewing, collaborating, revising, rewriting, rereading, and editing.
Use composing processes and tools as a means to discover and reconsider ideas.
Chapter 12 illustrates best practices for planning and research, and Chapters 13 and 14 take students through the process of drafting, revising, and presenting effective arguments.
Part Four offers strategies for reading, drafting, reviewing, revising, and rewriting arguments.
Experience the collaborative and social aspects of writing processes.
Throughout each chapter, the text emphasizes the importance of rereading and rewriting to discover and reconsider ideas. In particular, Chapter 2 provides strategies for evaluating arguments and ideas, and Chapter 13 reemphasizes evaluation as part of the writing process.
Writer’s Guides and Research Skills boxes throughout the text provide insights into the writing and research processes that can be used as prompts for discussion of the writing process.
Learn to give and to act on productive feedback to works in progress.
Post-reading questions, as well as the Writer’s Guides, Research Skills boxes, and end-of-chapter Assignments in Chapters 1 through 11, can be used as prompts for peer feedback.
Adapt composing processes for a variety of technologies and modalities.
Reflect on the development of composing practices and how those practices influence
Chapter 3 shows students how a variety of technologies and modalities can be used to build persuasive arguments.
Post-reading questions and end-of-chapter Assignments often encourage students to reflect on their knowledge, assumptions, and
their work. writing habits.
Knowledge of Conventions
Develop knowledge of linguistic structures, including grammar, punctuation, and spelling, through practice in composing and revising
Chapter 9 teaches the importance of defining key terms to build effective arguments. Chapter 10 focuses on language, drawing students’ attention to the rhetorical effectiveness of connotation, slanting, concrete and abstract language, clichés, and figurative language. Chapter 11 helps students to understand logical linguistic structures. LearningCurve activities (available in LaunchPad Solo for Readers and Writers) provide extensive practice with grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Understand why genre conventions for structure, paragraphing, tone, and mechanics vary
The text’s overarching emphasis on rhetorical context and situation in the text chapters fosters critical thinking about genre conventions. In particular, Chapter 2 teaches students how to read arguments for content and structure, and chapter introductions for Chapters 1 through 11 explain how each element of argument serves a writer’s purpose.
Gain experience negotiating variations in genre conventions
Learn common formats and/or design features for different kinds of texts
The variety of formats and genres represented in the 68 selections gives students plenty of experience negotiating variations in genre conventions. Post-reading questions encourage students to apply the rhetorical strategies to real-world genres and situations.
Annotated selections throughout the text, including student essays, impart awareness of common formats and/or design features for difference kinds of texts, and Chapter 14
Explore the concepts of intellectual property (such as fair use and copyright) that motivate documentation conventions
Practice applying citation conventions systematically in their own work
provides specific instruction on formatting and design, including MLA- and APA-style student research papers with annotations highlighting the genre conventions.
Chapter 13 teaches students how to avoid plagiarism, and Chapter 14 on documenting sources raises issues of different documentation conventions, specifically MLA and APA formats.
Chapter 13 offers detailed guidance on avoiding plagiarism, and Chapter 14 shows students how to apply citation conventions of MLA and APA styles in their own writing.
19 Economics and College Sports: Should College Athletes Be Paid?
Glossary
Index of Subjects
Index of Authors and Titles
Contents
Preface
PART ONE Understanding Argument
1 Approaches to Argument
What Is Argument?
Aristotelian Rhetoric
Ethos
Logos
Pathos
RESEARCH SKILL Using Databases
Ancient Rhetoric Today
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Aristotelian Rhetoric
RICHARD J. DAVIS, In Gun Control Debate, Logic Goes out the Window
An attorney and former Assistant Treasury Secretary for Enforcement and Operations argues in favor of a federal database of firearms transactions.
THE SHELTER PET PROJECT, A Person Is the Best Thing to Happen to a Shelter Pet (advertisement)
LIZA LONG, I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother
In the context of the 2012 massacre at Sandy Hook Elementary
School in Newtown, Connecticut, a mother describes what it is like to live in fear of her mentally ill son.
Stasis Theory
The Stasis Questions
Stasis Theory Claims
Rogerian Argument
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Rogerian Argument
JULIA BELLUZ AND STEVEN J. HOFFMAN, Katie Couric and the Celebrity Medicine Syndrome
A health journalist and a professor of clinical epidemiology and biostatistics analyze why the public take medical advice from unqualified celebrities.
SARAH SELTZER, Teaching Trigger Warnings: What Pundits Don’t Understand about the Year’s Most Controversial Higher-Ed Debate
A journalist defends trigger warnings as more nuanced than a simple pro-con debate.
The Toulmin Model
The Claim
The Support
The Assumption
Toulmin and the Syllogism
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS The Toulmin Model
ROBERT J. SAMUELSON, In Health, We’re Not No. 1
A conservative columnist reports that despite Americans’ assumption that, in health as in other areas, the United States is Number 1, the health of our citizens rates lower than many other
industrialized nations.
STEVEN REINBERG, Embryo Selection May Help Prevent Some Inherited Disorders
A journalist for a health newsletter explains how, with in vitro fertilization, it is now possible to screen embryos for certain diseases before they are implanted.
Assignments for Understanding Approaches to Argument
2 Critical Reading of Written Arguments
Prereading STRATEGIES FOR PREREADING
CAROL ROSE, On Pins and Needles Defending Artistic Expression
A lawyer and journalist defends tattoos as a form of artistic expression.
AMIN AHMAD, I Belong Here
An American of Indian descent feels a sense of solidarity with foreigners going through immigration screening at the airport.
Reading for Content and Structure
Working with the Text
STRATEGIES FOR ANNOTATING A TEXT
CHRISTOPHER ELLIOTT, A Tale of Two Airlines
A travel editor compares Spirit, a villain of an airline, and Southwest, a hero.
Summarizing
RESEARCH SKILL Summarizing
STRATEGIES FOR WRITING RHETORICAL SUMMARIES
MALLORY SIMON, Gun Debate: Where Is the Middle Ground?
An editor focuses on the son of a shooting victim as he pleads for some middle ground in the gun debate.
STEPHANIE FAIRYINGTON, The Gay Option
A freelance journalist argues that homosexual practice and identity are a choice but regrets that she could not admit her choice in the matter when she came out to her family.
Evaluation
STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATING ARGUMENTS
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Examining Written Arguments
BRUCE SCHNEIER, The Internet Is a Surveillance State
A security technologist warns that we have given up our privacy on the Internet without even a fight.
WHITNEY CRAMER, Giving Up Our Privacy: Is It Worth It? (student essay)
Assignments for Critical Reading of Written Arguments
3 Critical Reading of Multimodal Arguments
Visual Rhetoric Photographs
DAVE MARTIN, Looting (photograph)
CHRIS GRAYTHEN, Finding (photograph)
RICK LOOMIS, Los Angeles Airport Police Remove the
Camouflaged Gun Case That Caused the Evacuation (photograph)
CHARLIE RIEDEL, Rio Olympics Refugees (photograph)
DINENDRA HARIA, Hey Mister! Hands Off My Sister! (photograph)
MICHAEL KRASOWITZ, Texting and Driving (photograph)
Print Advertisements
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Visual Rhetoric
WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, Stop Climate Change before It Changes You (advertisement)
AD COUNCIL, It Only Takes a Moment to Make a Moment (advertisement)
Political Cartoons
PETER STEINER, No Caption (cartoon)
DAVID SIPRESS, If One Political Party or the Other . . . (cartoon)
Graphics
THEWORLD.ORG, Tobacco’s Shifting Burden (infographic)
UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS, Where Your Gas Money Goes (infographic)
Audiovisual Rhetoric
Television Commercials
TOYOTA, Let’s Go Places (advertisement)
Speeches and Debates
SENATOR ELIZABETH WARREN, Remarks at the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate, September 27, 2015
The senior U. S. senator from Massachusetts addresses violence, voting, and economic injustice as tools used to discriminate against blacks in America.
Broadcast News
STRATEGIES FOR CRITICAL LISTENING
CNN CORRESPONDENTS, Coverage of Obama’s
Announcement in Support of Gay Marriage
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Audiovisual Rhetoric
Online Environments
Networking Sites
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Online Environments
WILLIAM WHARTON, “Peaceful” Act of Compassion
Online News and Blogs
LUKE T. HARRINGTON, Summer Shootings, Pokémon Go: Rebuilding Community in the Wake of Destruction (online blog)
A columnist for Christianity Today and social media manager for Christ and Pop Culture finds in the game Pokémon Go an unconventional means of drawing people closer together during a time of crisis.
Visual Lectures
RESEARCH SKILL Evaluating Online Sources
Interactive Web Sites
AD COUNCIL, embracerefugees.org (Web site)
Assignments for Critical Reading of Multimodal Arguments
4 Writing Argument Analysis
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Argument Analysis
Writing the Claim
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Writing the Claim
Planning the Structure
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Planning the Structure
Providing Support Summarizing Paraphrasing Quoting
ARGUMENT ESSENTIALS Providing Support
RESEARCH SKILL Incorporating Quotations into Your Text
Documenting Your Sources
WRITER’S GUIDE Documenting Use of Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation
MICHAEL ISIKOFF, The Snitch in Your Pocket
An investigative journalist argues that in spite of the help that tracking cell phones may be to law enforcement, we should still be concerned about the privacy we are sacrificing.
RAY CHONG, Misuse of Cell-Phone Tracking (student essay)
DERON WILLIAMSON, How Our Technology Is Used against Us (student essay)
HEALTHCARE MANAGEMENT, The Science Facts about
