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PREFACExvii

c PREFACE

Asthedigitallandscapecontinuestoevolveatarapidpace,newvariationsofmoral, legal,andsocialconcernsarisealongwithit.Notsurprisingly,then,anadditionalcluster ofcyberethicsissueshasemergedsincethepublicationofthepreviouseditionof EthicsandTechnology inlate2009.Consider,forexample,thewaysinwhichCloudbasedstoragethreatenstheprivacyandsecurityofourpersonaldata.Alsoconsiderthe increasingamountofpersonaldatathatsocialnetworkingsitessuchasFacebookand majorsearchenginecompaniessuchasGooglenowcollect.Shouldweworryabouthow thatinformationcanbesubsequentlyused?Shouldwealsoworryaboutthe fi ltering techniquesthatleadingsearchenginesnowusetotailoror “personalize” theresultsof oursearchqueriesbasedonprofilesderivedfrominformationaboutourprevioussearch requests?Someanalystsnotethatthecurrentinformation-gathering/pro filingpractices andtechniquesusedinthecommercialsectorcanalsobeadoptedbygovernments,and theypointoutthatthesepracticescouldnotonlysupportthesurveillanceinitiativesof totalitariangovernmentsbutcouldalsothreatentheprivacyofcitizensindemocratic countriesaswell.

Alsoconsidertheimpactthatrecentcyberwarfareactivities,includingtheclandestinecyberattacksallegedlylaunche dbysomenationsates,couldhaveforour nationalinfrastructure.Additionally,consid erthenational-security-relatedconcerns raisedbytheWikiLeakscontroversy,which hasalsoexacerbatedanongoingtension betweenfreespeechontheInternetvs.standardsfor “ responsiblereporting ” onthe partofinvestigativejournalists.Andtherecentdebateabout “ networkneutrality ” causesustorevisitquestionsabouttheextenttowhichtheserviceprovidersresponsiblefordeliveringonlinecontentshouldalsobeabletocontrolthecontentthatthey deliver.

Otherkindsofconcernsnowarisebecauseofdevelopmentsinarelativelynew subﬁeldofcyberethicscalled “machineethics” (sometimesreferredtoas “robo-ethics”). Forexample,shouldwedevelopautonomousmachinesthatarecapableofmaking decisionsthathavemoralimplications?Somesemiautonomousrobots,whichserveas companionsandcaregiversfortheelderlyandas “babysitters” foryoungchildren,are alreadyavailable.Recentandcontinueddevelopmentsinroboticsandautonomous machinesmayprovidemanyconveniencesandservices,buttheycanalsocauseusto questionourconventionalnotionsofautonomy,moralagency,andtrust.Forexample, can/shouldthesemachinesbefullyautonomous?Cantheyqualifyas(arti ﬁcial)moral agents?Also,willhumansbeabletotrustmachinesthattheywillincreasinglyrelyonto carryoutcriticaltasks?Ifwedonotyetknowtheanswerstothesequestions,andif noclearandexplicitpoliciesareinplacetoguideresearchinthisarea,shouldwe continuetodevelopautonomousmachines?Theseandrelatedquestionsintheemerging

ﬁeldofmachineethicsarebutafewofthemanynewquestionsweexamineinthefourth editionof EthicsandTechnology.

Althoughnewtechnologiesemerge,andexistingtechnologiescontinuetomature andevolve,manyoftheethicalissuesassociatedwiththemarebasicallyvariationsof existingethicalproblems.Atbottom,theseissuesreducetotraditionalethicalconcerns havingtodowithdignity,respect,fairness,obligationstoassistothersinneed,andso forth.So,weshouldnotinferthatthemorallandscapeitselfhasbeenalteredbecauseof behaviorsmadepossiblebythesetechnologies.Wewillseethat,forthemostpart,the newissuesexaminedinthiseditionof EthicsandTechnology aresimilarinrelevant respectstothekindsofethicalissuesweexaminedinthebook’spreviouseditions. However,manyemergingtechnologiespresentuswithchallengesthat,initiallyatleast, donotseemto ﬁteasilyintoourconventionalethicalcategories.So,amajorobjectiveof thistextbookistoshowhowthosecontroversiescanbeanalyzedfromtheperspectiveof standardethicalconceptsandtheories.

Thepurposeof EthicsandTechnology,asstatedintheprefacestothethreeprevious editionsofthisbook,istointroducestudentstoissuesandcontroversiesthatcomprise therelativelynew ﬁeldofcyberethics.Theterm “cyberethics” isusedinthistextbookto refertothe ﬁeldofstudythatexaminesmoral,legal,andsocialissuesinvolving cybertechnology. Cybertechnology,inturn,referstoabroadspectrumofcomputing/ informationandcommunicationtechnologiesthatrangefromstand-alonecomputersto thecurrentclusterofnetworkeddevicesandtechnologies.Manyofthesetechnologies includedevicesandapplicationsthatareconnectedtoprivatelyownedcomputer networksaswellastotheInternetitself.

Thistextbookexaminesawiderangeofcyberethicsissues fromspeciﬁcissuesof moralresponsibilitythatdirectlyaffectcomputerandinformationtechnology(IT) professionalstobroadersocialandethicalconcernsthataffecteachofusinourdayto-daylives.Questionsabouttherolesandresponsibilitiesofcomputer/ITprofessionals indevelopingsafeandreliablecomputersystemsareexaminedunderthecategoryof professionalethics.Broadersocialandethicalconcernsassociatedwithcybertechnology areexaminedundertopicssuchasprivacy,security,crime,intellectualproperty,Internet regulation,andsoforth.

c NEWTOTHE FOURTHEDITION

Newpedagogicalmaterial includes anewlydesignedsetofend-of-chapterexercisescalled “ScenariosforAnalysis,” whichcanbeusedforeitherin-classanalysisorgroupprojects; newand/orupdated(in-chapter) scenarios,illustratingbothactualcasesand hypotheticalsituations,whichenablestudentstoapplymethodologicalconcepts/ frameworksandethicaltheoriescoveredinChapters1and2; new samplearguments insomechapters,whichenablestudentstoapplythetools forargumentanalysiscoveredinChapter3; updated “reviewquestions,”“discussionquestions,” and “essay/presentation questions” attheendofchapters;

anupdatedandrevisedglossaryofkeytermsusedinthebook; anupdated EthicsandTechnology CompanionSitewithnewresourcesand materialsforstudentsandinstructors.

Newissues examinedandanalyzedinclude ethicalandsocialaspectsofCloudcomputing,includingconcernsaboutthe privacyandsecurityofusers’ datathatisincreasinglybeingstoredin “theCloud”; concernsaboutthe “personalization ﬁlters” thatsearchenginecompaniesuseto tailoroursearchresultstoconformtotheirperceptionsofwhatwewant. questionsaboutGoogle’s(2012)privacypolicyvis-a-vistheamountofuserdata thatcanbecollectedviathesearchenginecompany’ssuiteofapplications; concernsaboutcyberwarfareactivitiesinvolvingnationstatesandtheiralleged launchingoftheStuxnetwormandFlamevirus; controversiessurroundingWikiLeaksandthetensionitcreatesbetweenfree speechandresponsiblejournalism,aswellasforconcernsinvolvingnational security; concernsaffecting “networkneutrality” andwhetherregulationmayberequired toensurethatInternetserviceprovidersdonotgaintoomuchcontroloverthe contenttheydeliver; controversiesin “machineethics,” includingthedevelopmentofautonomous machinescapableofmakingdecisionsthathavemoralimpacts; questionsaboutwhetherwecantrustartiﬁcialagentstoactinwaysthatwill alwaysbeinthebestinterestsofhumans.

Inrevisingthebook,Ihavealsoeliminatedsomeolder,nowout-of-date,material. Additionally,Ihavestreamlinedsomeofthematerialthatoriginallyappearedin previouseditionsofthebookbutstillneedstobecarriedoverintothepresentedition.

c AUDIENCEANDSCOPE

Becausecyberethicsisaninterdisciplinary ﬁeld,thistextbookaimsatreachingseveral audiencesandthuseasilyrunstheriskoffailingtomeettheneedsofanyoneaudience.I havenonethelessattemptedtocomposeatextbookthataddressestheneedsofcomputer science,philosophy,social/behavioralscience,andlibrary/informationsciencestudents. Computersciencestudentsneedaclearunderstandingoftheethicalchallengestheywill faceascomputerprofessionalswhentheyentertheworkforce.Philosophystudents,on thecontrary,shouldunderstandhowmoralissuesaffectingcybertechnologycanbe situatedinthe ﬁeldofappliedethicsingeneralandthenanalyzedfromtheperspectiveof ethicaltheory.Socialscienceandbehavioralsciencestudentswilllikelywanttoassessthe sociologicalimpactofcybertechnologyonoursocialandpoliticalinstitutions(government,commerce,andeducation)andsociodemographicgroups(affectinggender,race, ethnicity,andsocialclass).Andlibraryscienceandinformationsciencestudentsshould beawareofthecomplexitiesandnuancesofcurrentintellectualpropertylawsthat threatenunfetteredaccesstoelectronicinformation,andshouldbeinformedabout recentregulatoryschemesthatthreatentocensorcertainformsofelectronicspeech.

Studentsfromotheracademicdisciplinesshouldalso ﬁndmanyissuescoveredinthis textbookpertinenttotheirpersonalandprofessionallives;someundergraduatesmay electtotakeacourseinsocialandethicalaspectsoftechnologytosatisfyoneoftheir generaleducationrequirements.Although EthicsandTechnology isintendedmainlyfor undergraduatestudents,itcouldbeused,inconjunctionwithothertexts,ingraduate coursesaswell.

Weexamineethicalcontroversiesusing scenarios thatincludebothactualcasesand hypotheticalexamples,whereverappropriate.InsomeinstancesIhavedeliberately constructedprovocativescenariosandselectedcontroversialcasestoconveythe severityoftheethicalissuesweconsider.Somereadersmaybeuncomfortablewith, andpossiblyevenoffendedby,thesescenariosandcases forexample,thoseillustrating unethicalpracticesthatnegativelyaffectchildrenandminorities.Althoughitmighthave beenpoliticallyexpedienttoskipoverissuesandscenariosthatcouldunintentionally offendcertainindividuals,Ibelievethatnotextbookinappliedethicswoulddojusticeto itstopicifitfailedtoexposeandexamineissuesthatadverselyaffectvulnerablegroupsin society.

Alsoincludedinmostchaptersaresamplearguments thatareintendedtoillustrate someoftherationalesthathavebeenputforthbyvariousinterestgroupstodefend policiesandlawsaffectingprivacy,security,property,andsoforth,incyberspace. InstructorsandstudentscanevaluatetheseargumentsviatherulesandcriteriaestablishedinChapter3toseehowwell,orhowpoorly,thepremisesinthesearguments succeedinestablishingtheirconclusions.

Exercisequestionsareincludedattheendofeachchapter.First,basic “review questions” quizthereader’scomprehensionofkeyconcepts,themes,issues,and scenarioscoveredinthatchapter.Thesearefollowedbyhigherlevel “discussion questions” designedtoencouragestudentstoreﬂectmoredeeplyonsomeofthecontroversialissuesexaminedinthechapter.Inadditionto “essay/presentationquestions” that arealsoincludedineachchapter,anewsetof “ScenariosforAnalysis” havebeenadded inresponsetoinstructorswhorequestedtheadditionofsome unanalyzed scenarios forclassroomuse.Buildingonthehigherlevelnatureofthediscussionquestions andessay/presentationquestions,thesescenariosareintendedtoprovidestudents andinstructorswithadditionalresourcesforanalyzingimportantcontroversiesintroducedinthevariouschapters.Assuch,thesescenarioscanfunctionasin-classresources forgroupprojects.

Someessay/presentationquestionsandend-of-chapterscenariosaskstudentsto compareandcontrastargumentsandtopicsthatspanmultiplechapters;forexample, studentsareaskedtorelateargumentsusedtodefendintellectualpropertyrights, consideredinChapter8,toargumentsforprotectingprivacyrights,examinedin Chapter5.Otherquestionsandscenariosaskstudentstoapplyfoundationalconcepts andframeworks,suchasethicaltheoryandcriticalthinkingtechniquesintroducedin Chapters2and3,totheanalysisofspeciﬁ ccyberethicsissuesexaminedinsubsequent chapters.Insomecases,theseend-of-chapterquestionsandscenariosmaygenerate livelydebateintheclassroom;inothercases,theycanserveasapointofdeparturefor variousclassassignmentsandgroupprojects.Althoughno ﬁnal “solutions” totheissues anddilemmasraisedinthesequestionsandscenariosareprovidedinthetext, some “strategies” foranalyzingthemareincludedinthesectionofthebook’sWeb site (www.wiley.com/college/tavani) entitled “Strategies for Discussi on Questions.”

ORGANIZATIONANDSTRUCTUREOFTHEBOOK

EthicsandTechnology isorganizedinto12chapters.Chapter1, “Introductionto Cyberethics:Concepts,Perspectives,andMethodologicalFrameworks,” deﬁneskey conceptsandtermsthatwillappearthroughoutthebook.Forexample,de ﬁnitionsof termssuchas cyberethics and cybertechnology areintroducedinthischapter.Wethen examinewhetheranyethicalissuesinvolvingcybertechnologyareuniqueethicalissues. Wealsoconsiderhowwecanapproachcyberethicsissuesfromthreedifferentperspectives:professionalethics,philosophicalethics,andsociological/descriptiveethics,eachof whichrepresentstheapproachgenerallytakenbyacomputerscientist,aphilosopher, andasocial/behavioralscientist.Chapter1concludeswithaproposalforacomprehensiveandinterdisciplinarymethodologicalschemeforanalyzingcyberethicsissuesfrom theseperspectives.

InChapter2, “EthicalConceptsandEthicalTheories:EstablishingandJustifyinga MoralSystem,” weexaminesomeofthebasicconceptsthatmakeupamoralsystem.We drawadistinctionbetween “ethics” and “morality” byde finingethicsas “thestudy ofmorality.”“Morality,” oramoralsystem,isdefinedasaninformal,publicsystem comprisingrulesofconductandprinciplesforevaluatingthoserules.Wethenexamine consequence-based,duty-based,character-based,andcontract-basedethicaltheories. Chapter2concludeswithamodelthatintegrateselementsofcompetingethicaltheories intoonecomprehensiveandunifiedtheory.

Chapter3, “CriticalReasoningSkillsforEvaluatingDisputesinCyberethics,” includesabriefoverviewofbasicconceptsandstrategiesthatareessentialfordebating moralissuesinastructuredandrationalmanner.Webeginbydescribingthestructureof alogicalargumentandshowhowargumentscanbeconstructedandanalyzed.Next, weexamineatechniquefordistinguishingbetweenargumentsthatarevalidandinvalid, soundandunsound,andinductiveandfallacious.Weillustrateexamplesofeachtype withtopicsaffectingcybertechnologyandcyberethics.Finally,weidentifysomestrategiesforspottingandlabeling “informal” logicalfallaciesthatfrequentlyoccurin everydaydiscourse.

Chapter4, “ProfessionalEthics,CodesofConduct,andMoralResponsibility, ” examinesissuesrelatedtoprofessionalresponsibilityforcomputer/ITprofessionals. Weconsiderwhetherthereareanyspecialmoralresponsibilitiesthatcomputer/IT professionalshave as professionals.Wethenexaminesomeprofessionalcodesof conductedthathavebeenadoptedbycomputerorganizations.Wealsoask:Towhat extentaresoftwareengineersresponsibleforthereliabilityofthecomputersystemsthey designanddevelop,especiallyapplicationsthatinclude “life-critical” and “safetycritical” software?Arecomputer/ITprofessionalseverpermitted,orperhapseven required,to “blowthewhistle” whentheyhavereasonableevidencetosuggestthata computersystemisunreliable?Finally,weexaminesomeschemesforanalyzingrisks associatedwiththedevelopmentofsafety-criticalsoftware.

WediscussprivacyissuesinvolvingcybertechnologyinChapter5.First,weexamine theconceptofprivacyaswellassomeargumentsforwhyprivacyisconsideredan importanthumanvalue.Wethenlookathowpersonalprivacyisthreatenedbythekinds ofsurveillancetechniquesanddata-collectionschemesmadepossiblebycybertechnology.Speciﬁcdata-gatheringanddata-exchangingtechniquesareexaminedindetail. WenextconsidersomechallengesthatdataminingandWebminingposeforprotecting

personalprivacyinpublicspace.InChapter5,wealsoconsiderwhethertechnologyitself, intheformofprivacy-enhancingtechnologies(orPETs),canprovideanadequate solutiontosomeprivacyissuesgeneratedbycybertechnology.

Chapter6, “SecurityinCyberspace,” examinessecuritythreatsinthecontextof computersandcybertechnology.Initially,wedifferentiatethreedistinctsensesof “security”:datasecurity,systemsecurity,andnetworksecurity.Wethenexaminethe conceptsof “hacker” and “hackerethic,” andweaskwhethercomputerbreak-inscan everbemorallyjustiﬁed.Next,wedifferentiateactsof “hacktivism,” cyberterrorism,and informationwarfare.Chapter6concludeswithabriefexaminationofriskanalysisinthe contextofcybersecurity.

Webeginouranalysisofcybercrime,inChapter7,byconsideringwhetherwe canconstructaprofileofa “typical” cybercriminal.Wethenproposeadefinition ofcybercrimethatenablesustodistinguishbetween “cyberspecific” and “cyber-related” crimestoseewhethersuchadistinctionwouldaidintheformulationofmorecoherent cybercrimelaws.Wealsoconsiderthenotionoflegaljurisdictionincyberspace, especiallywithrespecttotheprosecutionofcybercrimesthatinvolveinterstateand internationalvenues.Inaddition,weexaminetechnologicaleffortstocombatcybercrime,suchascontroversialusesofbiometrictechnologies.

Chapters8and9examinelegalissuesinvolvingintellectualpropertyandfreespeech, respectively,astheyrelatetocyberspace.OneobjectiveofChapter8, “Intellectual PropertyDisputesinCyberspace,” istoshowwhyanunderstandingoftheconceptof intellectualpropertyisimportantinaneraofdigitalinformation.Weconsiderthree theoriesofpropertyrightsandmakeimportantdistinctionsamonglegalconceptssuchas copyrightlaw,patentprotection,andtrademarks.Additionally,weconsiderspeciﬁc scenariosinvolvingintellectualpropertydisputes,includingtheoriginalNapstercontroversyaswellassomerecentpeer-to-peer(P2P)networksthathavebeenusedfor ﬁle sharing.WealsoexaminetheFreeSoftwareandtheOpenSourceSoftwareinitiatives. Finally,weconsideracompromisesolutionthatsupportsandencouragesthesharingof digitalinformationinanerawhenstrongcopyrightlegislationseemstodiscourage thatpractice.

Chapter9, “RegulatingCommerceandSpeechinCyberspace,” looksatadditional legalissues,especiallyastheyinvolveregulatoryconcernsincyberspace.Wedraw distinctionsbetweentwodifferentsensesof “regulation” asitappliestocyberspace,and wealsoconsiderwhethertheInternetshouldbeunderstoodasamediumorasa “place.” Wealsoexaminecontroversiessurroundinge-mailspam,whichsomebelievecanbe viewedasaformof “speech” incyberspace.Wethenaskwhetherallformsofonlinespeech shouldbegrantedlegalprotection;forexample,shouldchildpornography,hatespeech, andspeechthatcancausephysicalharmtoothersbetoleratedinonlineforums?

Chapter10examinesawiderangeofequity-and-accessissuesfromtheperspective ofcybertechnology’simpactforsociodemographicgroups(affectingclass,race,and gender).Thechapterbeginswithananalysisofglobalaspectsofthe “digitaldivide.” We thenexaminespeci ﬁcequity-and-accessissuesaffectingdisabledpersons,racialminorities,andwomen.Next,weexploretherelationshipbetweencybertechnologyand democracy,andweconsiderwhethertheInternetfacilitatesdemocracyorthreatens it.Wethenexaminesomesocialandethicalissuesaffectingemploymentinthe contemporaryworkplace,andweaskwhethertheuseofcybertechnologyhastransformed workandhasaffectedtheoverallqualityofworklife.

InChapter11,weexamineissuespertainingtoonlinecommunities,virtual-reality (VR)environments,andarti ﬁcialintelligence(AI)developmentsintermsoftwobroad themes: community and personalidentity incyberspace.Webeginbyanalyzingthe impactthatcybertechnologyhasforourtraditionalunderstandingoftheconceptof community.Inparticular,weaskwhetheronlinecommunities,suchasFacebookand Twitter,raiseanyspecialethicalorsocialissues.Next,weexaminesomeimplicationsthat behaviorsmadepossiblebyvirtualenvironmentsandvirtual-realityapplicationshavefor ourconventionalunderstandingofpersonalidentity.The ﬁnalsectionofChapter11 examinestheimpactthatdevelopmentsinAIhaveforoursenseofselfandforwhatit meanstobehuman.

Chapter12,the fi nalchapterof EthicsandTechnology,examinessomeethical challengesthatariseinconnectionwithemergingandconvergingtechnologies.Wenote thatcybertechnologyis converging withnoncybertechnologies,includingbiotechnology andnanotechnology,generatingnew fieldssuchasbioinformaticsandnanocomputing that,inturn,introduceethicalconcerns.Chapter12alsoincludesabriefexaminationof someissuesintheemerging(sub)fieldofmachineethics.Amongthequestionsconsideredarewhetherweshoulddevelopautonomousmachinesthatarecapableofmaking moraldecisionsandwhetherwecouldtrustthosemachinestoalwaysactinourbest interests.

AGlossarythatdeﬁ nestermscommonlyusedinthecontextofcomputerethicsand cyberethicsisalsoincluded.However,theglossaryisbynomeansintendedasan exhaustivelistofsuchterms.Additionalmaterialforthistextisavailableonthebook’s Web site: www.wiley.com/college.tavani.

c THEWEBSITEFOR ETHICSANDTECHNOLOGY

Sevenappendicesfor EthicsandTechnology areavailableonlyinonlineformat. AppendicesAthroughEincludethefulltextof ﬁveprofessionalcodesofethics:the ACMCodeofEthicsandProfessionalConduct,theAustralianComputerSocietyCode ofEthics,theBritishComputerSocietyCodeofConduct,theIEEECodeofEthics,and theIEEE-CS/ACMSoftwareEngineeringCodeofEthicsandProfessionalPractice, respectively.Speciﬁcsectionsofthesecodesareincludedinhardcopyformataswell,in relevantsectionsofChapter4.Twoappendices,FandG,arealsoavailableonline. AppendixFcontainsthesectionofthe IEEE-CS/ACMComputingCurricula2001Final Report thatdescribesthesocial,professional,andethicalunitsofinstructionmandatedin theircomputersciencecurriculum.AppendixGprovidessomeadditionalcritical reasoningtechniquesthatexpandonthestrategiesintroducedinChapter3.

TheWebsitefor EthicsandTechnology alsocontainsadditionalresourcesfor instructorsandstudents.PresentationslidesinPowerPointformatforChapters1–12,as wellasgraphics(fortablesand ﬁguresineachchapter),areavailableinthe “Instructor” and “Student” sectionsofthesite.Asnotedearlier,asectionon “Strategies,” which includessometechniquesforansweringthediscussionquestionsandunanalyzedscenariosincludedattheendofeachofthebook’s12chapters,isalsoincludedonthissite.

Thebook’sWebsiteisintendedasanadditionalresourceforbothinstructorsand students.Italsoenablesmeto “updatethebook,” inbetweeneditions,withnewissues andscenariosincyberethics,astheyarise.Forexample,asectionentitled “Recent Preface b xxiii

Controversies” isincludedonthebook’sWebsite.Iinviteyourfeedbackastohowthis sitecanbecontinuallyimproved.

c ANOTETOSTUDENTS

Ifyouaretakinganethicscourseforthe ﬁrsttime,youmightfeeluncomfortablewiththe prospectofembarkingonastudyofmoralissuesandcontroversialtopicsthatmight initiallycauseyoudiscomfortbecauseethicsissometimesperceivedtobepreachy,andits subjectmatterissometimesviewedasessentiallypersonalandprivateinnature.Because thesearecommonconcerns,Iaddressthemearlyinthetextbook.Idrawadistinction betweenanethicist,whostudiesmoralityora “moralsystem,” andamoralistwhomay assumetohavethecorrectanswerstoallofthequestions;notethataprimaryobjectiveof thisbookistoexamineandanalyzeethicalissues,nottopresumethatanyofusalready has the correctanswertoanyofthequestionsIconsider.

Toaccomplishthisobjective,Iintroducethreetypesofconceptualframeworksearly inthetextbook.InChapter1,Iprovideamethodologicalschemethatenablesyouto identifycontroversialproblemsandissuesinvolvingcybertechnology as ethicalissues. TheconceptualschemeincludedinChapter2,basedonethicaltheory,providessome generalprinciplesthatguideyouranalysisofspeci ﬁccasesaswellasyourdeliberations aboutwhichkindsofsolutionstoproblemsshouldbeproposed.Athird,and ﬁ nal, conceptualframeworkisintroducedinChapter3intheformofcriticalreasoning techniques,whichprovidesrulesandstandardsthatyoucanuseforevaluatingthe strengthsofcompetingargumentsandfordefendingaparticularpositionthatyoureach onacertainissue.

Thistextbookwasdesignedandwrittenforyou,thestudent!Whetherornotit succeedsinhelpingyoutomeettheobjectivesofacourseincyberethicsisveryimportant tome,soIwelcomeyourfeedbackonthistextbook;andIwouldsincerelyappreciate hearingyourideasonhowthistextbookcouldbeimproved.Pleasefeelfreetowriteto mewithyoursuggestions,comments,andsoforth.Myemailaddressishtavani@rivier .edu.Ilookforwardtohearingfromyou!

c NOTETOINSTRUCTORS:AROADMAPFORUSINGTHISBOOK

Thechaptersthatmakeup EthicsandTechnology aresequencedsothatreadersare exposedtofoundationalissuesandconceptualframeworksbeforetheyexaminespeciﬁc problemsincyberethics.Insomecases,itmaynotbepossibleforinstructorstocoverall ofthematerialinChapters1–3.Itisstronglyrecommended,however,thatbefore studentsareassignedmaterialinChapter4,theyatleastreadSections1.1,1.4–1.5,2.4–2.8,and3.1.Instructorsusingthistextbookcandeterminewhichchaptersbestaccommodatetheirspeciﬁ ccourseobjectives.Computerscienceinstructors,forexample,will likelywanttoassignChapter4,onprofessionalethicsandresponsibility,earlyinthe term.Socialscienceinstructors,ontheotherhand,willlikelyexamineissuesdiscussedin Chapters10and11earlyintheircourse.Philosophyinstructorsmaywishtostructure theircoursesbeginningwithathoroughexaminationofthematerialonethicalconcepts

andethicaltheoryinChapter2andtechniquesforevaluatinglogicalargumentsin Chapter3.IssuesdiscussedinChapter12maybeofparticularinteresttoCSinstructors teachingadvancedundergraduatestudents.

Manytextbooksinappliedethicsincludearequisitechapteronethicalconcepts/ theoryatthebeginningofthebook.Unfortunately,theyoftentreattheminacursory manner;furthermore,theseethicalconceptsandtheoriesareseldomdevelopedand reinforcedintheremainingchapters.Thus,readersoftenexperiencea “disconnect” betweenthematerialincludedinthebook’sopeningchapterandthecontentofthe speciﬁccasesandissuesdiscussedinsubsequentchapters.Byincorporatingelementsof ethicaltheoryintomydiscussionandanalysisofthespeciﬁ ccyberethicsissuesIexamine, Ihavetriedtoavoidthe “disconnect” betweentheoryandpracticethatiscommonplace inmanyappliedethicstextbooks.

c ANOTETOCOMPUTERSCIENCEINSTRUCTORS

EthicsandTechnology canbeusedasthemaintextinacoursededicatedtoethicaland socialissuesincomputing,oritcanbeusedasasupplementarytextbookforcomputer sciencecoursesinwhichoneormoreethicsmodulesareincluded.AsIsuggestedinthe precedingsection,instructorsmay finditdifficulttocoverallofthematerialincludedin thisbookinthecourseofasinglesemester.AndasIalsopreviouslysuggested,computer scienceinstructorswilllikelywanttoensurethattheyallocatesuf ficientcoursetimeto theprofessionalethicalissuesdiscussedinChapter4.Alsoofspecialinteresttocomputer scienceinstructorsandtheirstudentswillbethesectionsoncomputersecurityandrisk analysisinChapter6;opensourcecodeandintellectualpropertyissuesinChapter8;and regulatoryissuesaffectingsoftwarecodeinChapter9.Becausecomputerscience instructorsmayneedtolimittheamountofclasstimetheydevotetocoveringfoundationalconceptsincludedintheearlierchapters,Irecommendcoveringatleastthecritical sectionsofChapters1–3describedpreviously.Thisshouldprovidecomputerscience studentswithsomeofthetoolstheywillneedasprofessionalstodeliberateonethical issuesandtojustifythepositionstheyreach.

Indesigningthistextbook,Itookintoaccounttheguidelinesonethicalinstruction includedinthe ComputingCurricula2001FinalReport,issuedinDecember2001bythe IEEE-CS/ACMJointTaskForceonComputingCurricula,whichrecommendsthe inclusionof16corehoursofinstructiononsocial,ethical,andprofessionaltopicsin thecurriculumforundergraduatecomputersciencestudents.[SeetheonlineAppendixF at www.wiley.com/college.tavani for detailed information about the social/professional (SP)unitsintheComputingCurricula2001.]EachtopicprefacedwithanSPdesignation de ﬁnesone “knowledgearea” oraCS “bodyofknowledge.” Theyaredistributedamong thefollowing10units:

SP1:Historyofcomputing(e.g.,historyofcomputerhardware,software,and networking)

SP2:Socialcontextofcomputing(e.g.,socialimplicationsofnetworkedcomputing, gender-relatedissues,andinternationalissues)

SP3:Methodsandtoolsofanalysis(e.g.,identifyingassumptionsandvalues,making andevaluatingethicalarguments)

SP4:Professionalandethicalresponsibilities(e.g.,thenatureofprofessionalism,codes ofethics,ethicaldissent,andwhistle-blowing)

SP5:Risksandliabilitiesofcomputer-basedsystems(e.g.,historicalexamplesof softwarerisks)

SP6:Intellectualproperty(e.g.,foundationsofintellectualproperty,copyrights, patents,andsoftwarepiracy)

SP7:Privacyandcivilliberties(e.g.,ethicalandlegalbasisforprivacyprotection, technologicalstrategiesforprivacyprotection)

SP8:Computercrime(e.g.,historyandexamplesofcomputercrime,hacking,viruses, andcrimepreventionstrategies)

SP9:Economicissuesincomputing(e.g.,monopoliesandtheireconomicimplications; effectofskilledlaborsupply)

SP10:Philosophicalframeworks(e.g.,ethicaltheory,utilitarianism,relativism)

All10SPunitsarecoveredinthistextbook.TopicsdescribedinSP1areexaminedin Chapters1and10,andtopicsincludedinSP2arediscussedinChapters1and11.The methodsandanalyticaltoolsmentionedinSP3aredescribedatlengthinChapters2and 3,whereasprofessionalissuesinvolvingcodesofconductandprofessionalresponsibility describedinSP4areincludedinChapters4and12.AlsodiscussedinChapter4,aswellas inChapter6,areissuesinvolvingrisksandliabilities(SP5).Intellectualpropertyissues (SP6)arediscussedindetailinChapter8andincertainsectionsofChapter9,whereas privacyandcivillibertyconcerns(SP7)arediscussedmainlyinChapters5and12. Chapters6and7examinetopicsdescribedinSP8.Economicissues(SP9)areconsidered inChapters9and10.Andphilosophicalframeworksofethics,includingethicaltheory (SP10),arediscussedinChapters1and2.

Table1illustratesthecorrespondingconnectionbetweenSPunitsandthechapters ofthisbook.

TABLE1SP(“Knowledge”)UnitsandCorrespondingBookChapters

SPunit12345678910

Chapter(s)1,101,112,34,124,68,95,126,79,101,2

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Inrevising EthicsandTechnology forafourthedition,Ihaveonceagaindrawnfrom severalofmypreviouslypublishedworks.Chapters1–4,onfoundationalandprofessionalissuesincyberethics,incorporatematerialfromfourarticles: “TheStateof ComputerEthicsasaPhilosophicalFieldofInquiry,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 3,no.2(2001); “ApplyinganInterdisciplinaryApproachtoTeachingComputerEthics,” IEEETechnologyandSocietyMagazine 21,no.3(2002); “TheUniquenessDebatein ComputerEthics,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 4,no.1(2002);and “Search EnginesandEthics,” StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy (2012).

Chapter5,onprivacyincyberspace,alsodrawsfrommaterialinfourworks: “ComputerMatchingandPersonalPrivacy,” ProceedingsoftheSymposiumonComputersandtheQualityofLife (ACMPress,1996); “InformationalPrivacy,DataMining, andtheInternet,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 1,no.2(1999); “PrivacyEnhancingTechnologiesasaPanaceaforOnlinePrivacyConcerns:SomeEthicalConsiderations,” JournalofInformationEthics 9,no.2(2000);and “Applyingthe ‘Contextual Integrity’ ModelofPrivacytoPersonalBlogsintheBlogosphere” (coauthored withFrancesGrodzinsky), InternationalJournalofInternetResearchEthics 3(2010). Chapters6and7,onsecurityandcrimeincyberspace,drawfrommaterialin threesources: “PrivacyandSecurity” inDuncanLangford’sbook InternetEthics (Macmillan/St.Martins,2000); “DeﬁningtheBoundariesofComputerCrime:Piracy, Trespass,andVandalisminCyberspace” in ReadingsinCyberEthics 2nded.(Jonesand Bartlett,2004);and “Privacyin ‘theCloud’” (coauthoredwithFrancesGrodzinsky), ComputersandSociety 41,no.1(2011).

InChapters8and9,onintellectualpropertyandInternetregulation,Idrewfrom materialin “InformationWantstobeShared:AnAlternativeApproachforAnalyzing IntellectualPropertyDisputesintheInformationAge,” CatholicLibraryWorld 73,no.2 (2002);andtwopaperscoauthoredwithFrancesGrodzinsky: “P2PNetworksandthe Verizonv.RIAA Case,” Ethics andInformationTechnology 7, no.4(2005)and “Online FileSharing:ResolvingtheTensionsbetweenPrivacyandProperty” Computersand Society 38,no.4(2008).Chapters10and11,onthedigitaldivide,democracy,andonline communities,drawfrommaterialfromtwopapers: “EthicalReﬂectionsontheDigital Divide,” JournalofInformation,CommunicationandEthicsinSociety 1,no.2(2003)and “OnlineCommunities,DemocraticIdeals,andtheDigitalDivide” (coauthoredwith FrancesGrodzinsky)inSorajHongladaromandCharlesEss’sbook InformationTechnologyEthics:CulturalPerspectives (IGIGlobal,2007).

Chapter12,onemergingandconvergingtechnologies,incorporatesmaterialfrom mybook Ethics,Computing,andGenomics (JonesandBartlett,2006),andfromthree recentlypublishedpapers: “CanWeDevelopArti ﬁcialAgentsCapableofMakingGood

MoralDecisions?” MindsandMachines 21,no.3(2011); “TrustandMulti-Agent Systems” (coauthoredwithJeffBuechner), EthicsandInformationTechnology 13, no.1(2011);and “EthicalAspectsofAutonomousSystems” inMichaelDeckerand MathiasGutmann’sbook Robo-andInformation-Ethics (Berlin:VerlagLIT,2012).

Thefourtheditionof EthicsandTechnology hasbeneﬁ tedfromsuggestionsand commentsIreceivedfrommanyanonymousreviewers,aswellasfromthefollowing colleagues:JeffBuechner,LloydCarr,JerryDolan,FrancesGrodzinsky,Kenneth Himma,JamesMoor,MartinMenke,WaynePauley,MarkRosenbaum,ReginaTavani, andJohnWeckert.IamespeciallygratefultoFranGrodzinsky(SacredHeartUniversity),withwhomIhavecoauthoredseveralpapers,forpermittingmetoincorporate elementsofourjointresearchintorelevantsectionsofthisbook.AndIammostgrateful toLloydCarr(RivierUniversity)forhisinvaluablefeedbackonseveralchaptersand sectionsofthiseditionofthebook,whichhewaswillingtoreviewmultipletimes;his astutecommentsandsuggestionshavehelpedmetoreﬁnemanyofthepositionsIdefend inthisbook.

Theneweditionofthebookhasalsobeneﬁ tedfromsomehelpfulcommentsthatI receivedfrommanystudentswhohaveusedpreviouseditionsofthetext.Iamalso gratefultothenumerousreviewersandcolleagueswhocommentedontheprevious editionsofthisbook;manyoftheirhelpfulsuggestionshavebeencarriedovertothe presentedition.

IalsowishtothanktheeditorialandproductionstaffsatWileyandThomsonDigital, especiallyBethGolub,ElizabethMills,KatherineWillis,JoleneLing,andSanchariSil, fortheirsupportduringthevariousstagesoftherevisionprocessforthefourtheditionof EthicsandTechnology.

Finally,Imustonceagainthankthetwomostimportantpeopleinmylife:mywife Joanne,andourdaughterRegina.Withouttheircontinuedsupportandextraordinary patience,thefourtheditionofthisbookcouldnothavebeencompleted.

Thiseditionof EthicsandTechnology isdedicatedtothememoryofmygrandparents:LeonandMarian(Roberts)Hutton,andAntonioandClelia(Giamberardino) Tavani.

Nashua,NH

HermanT.Tavani

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FOREWORD

Thecomputer/informationrevolutionisshapingourworldinwaysithasbeendif ﬁcultto predictandtoappreciate.Whenmainframecomputersweredevelopedinthe1940sand 1950s,somethoughtonlyafewcomputerswouldeverbeneededinsociety.When personalcomputerswereintroducedinthe1980s,theywereconsideredfascinatingtoys forhobbyistsbutnotsomethingseriousbusinesseswouldeveruse.WhenWebtoolswere initiallycreatedinthe1990stoenhancetheInternet,theywereacuriosity.Usingthe Webtoobservethelevelofacoffeepotacrossanoceanwasintriguing,atleastforafew moments,butnotofmuchpracticaluse.Today,armedwiththewisdomofhindsight,the impactofsuchcomputingadvancementsseemsobvious,ifnotinevitable,toallofus. Whatgovernmentclaimsthatitdoesnotneedcomputers?Whatmajorbusinessdoesnot haveaWebaddress?Howmanypeople,eveninthepoorestofcountries,arenotaware oftheuseofcellphones?

Thecomputer/informationrevolutionhaschangedourlivesandhasbroughtwithit signi ﬁcantethical,social,andprofessionalissues;considertheareaofprivacyasbutone example.Today,surveillancecamerasareabundant,andfacialrecognitionsystemsare effectiveevenunderlessthanidealobservingconditions.Informationaboutbuying habits,medicalconditions,andhumanmovementscanbeminedandcorrelatedrelentlesslyusingpowerfulcomputers.Individuals’ DNAinformationcaneasilybecollected, stored,andtransmittedthroughouttheworldinseconds.Thiscomputer/information revolutionhasbroughtaboutunexpectedcapabilitiesandpossibilities.Therevolutionis notonlytechnologicalbutalsoethical,social,andprofessional.Ourcomputerizedworld isperhapsnottheworldweexpected,and,eventotheextentthatweexpectedit,itisnot aworldforwhichwehavewell-analyzedpoliciesabouthowtobehave.Nowmorethan everweneedtotakecyberethicsseriously.

HermanTavanihaswrittenanexcellentintroductiontothe ﬁeldofcyberethics.His textdiffersfromothersinatleastthreeimportantrespects:First,thebookisextraordinarilycomprehensiveanduptodateinitssubjectmatter.Thetextcoversallofthe standardtopicssuchascodesofconduct,privacy,security,crime,intellectualproperty, andfreespeech,andalsodiscussessometimesoverlookedsubjectssuchasdemocracy, employment,access,andthedigitaldivide.Tavanimorethananyoneelsehastracked andpublishedthebibliographicaldevelopmentofcyberethicsovermanyyears,andhis expertisewiththisvastliteratureshinesthroughinthisvolume.Second,thebook approachesthesubjectmatterofcyberethicsfromdiversepointsofview.Tavani examinesissuesfromasocialscienceperspective,fromaphilosophicalperspective, andfromacomputingprofessionalperspective,andthenhesuggestswaystointegrate thesediverseapproaches.Ifthetaskofcyberethicsismultidisciplinary,asmanyof usbelieve,thensuchadiversebutintegratedmethodologyiscrucialtoaccomplishing

thetask.Hisbookisoneofthefewthatconstructssuchamethodology.Third,thebookis unusuallyhelpfultostudentsandteachersbecauseitcontainsanentirechapterdiscussing criticalthinkingskillsandis ﬁlledwithreviewanddiscussionquestions.

Thecyberageisgoingtoevolve.Thefuturedetailsandapplicationsare,asalways, difﬁculttopredict.Butitislikelythatcomputingpowerandbandwidthwillcontinueto growwhilecomputingdevicesthemselveswillshrinkinsizetothenanometerscale.More andmoreinformationdeviceswillbeinsertedintoourenvironment,ourcars,ourhouses, ourclothing,andus.Computerswillbecomesmarter.Theywillbemadeoutofnew materials,possiblybiological.Theywilloperateinnewways,possiblyusingquantum properties.Thedistinctionbetweenthevirtualworldandtherealworldwillblurmore andmore.Weneedagoodbookincyberethicstodealwiththepresentandprepareusfor thisuncertainfuture.Tavani’s EthicsandTechnology issuchabook.

JamesH.Moor

DartmouthCollege

Immediate download Ethics and technology: controversies, questions, strategies for ethical ebooks 20

TABLEOFCONTENTS

c CHAPTER6 SECURITYINCYBERSPACE174

c PREFACE

c NEWTOTHE FOURTHEDITION

c AUDIENCEANDSCOPE

ORGANIZATIONANDSTRUCTUREOFTHEBOOK

c THEWEBSITEFOR ETHICSANDTECHNOLOGY

c ANOTETOSTUDENTS

c NOTETOINSTRUCTORS:AROADMAPFORUSINGTHISBOOK

c ANOTETOCOMPUTERSCIENCEINSTRUCTORS

c

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

c

FOREWORD