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3 The Growth of a Profession 43

The Advancement of Women 43

A Brief History of Public Relations 44

Ancient Beginnings 44 • Public Relations in Colonial America 44 • The Age of the Press Agent 45

• Public Relations Grows as America Grows 46 • The Rise of Politics and Activism 47 • Modern Public Relations Comes of Age 48

PR Casebook Lee Advises Rockefellers and Coal Industry 50

Public Relations Expands in Postwar America 52 • Evolving Practice and Philosophy 52

Trends in Today’s Practice of Public Relations 55

Feminization of the Field 55 • The Importance of Diversity 57

Social Media in Action Diversity Shows Up in Social Media Use 58

Other Major Trends in Public Relations 59

A Growing Professional Practice 61

The Public Relations Society of America 61 • The International Association of Business Communicators 61

• The International Public Relations Association 61

Professionalism, Licensing, and Accreditation 62

Professionalism 62 • Licensing 62 • Accreditation 63

Summary 64

Questions for Review and Discussion 65

Tactics | Women Make Great Strides in PR by Rebecca Knight, The Financial Times 66

4 Today’s Practice: Departments and Firms 69

Texting Program Reaches Out to Mothers 69

Public Relations Departments 70

Organizational Factors Determine the Role of Public Relations 70 • How Public Relations Departments Are Organized 72 • Line and Staff Functions 72 • Levels of Influence 73 • Sources of Friction 75

The Trend Toward Outsourcing 77

Public Relations Firms 78

Social Media in Action Firms Tweet to Self-Promote 80

Global Reach 81 • The Rise of Communication

Conglomerates 81 • Structure of a Counseling Firm 83

• Pros and Cons of Using a Public Relations Firm 83

PR Casebook Ogilvy and LG Team Up to Raise Technology Awareness Through a Texting

Championship 84

Fees and Charges 85

Summary 87

Questions for Review and Discussion 87

5 Research and Campaign Planning 89

Tapping Into Research Helps Ensure Success 89

The Four Essential Steps of Effective Public Relations 90

Research: The First Step 90

Achieving Credibility with Management 91 • Defining Audiences and Segmenting Publics 92 • Formulating Strategy 92 • Testing Messages 92

Social Media in Action Measuring Social Media 93

Preventing Crises 94 • Monitoring the Competition 94 • Generating Publicity 94 • Measuring Success 94

Research Methods 94

Research Techniques 94 • Scientific Sampling Methods 99

• Reaching Respondents 100

Planning: The Second Step 103

Approaches to Planning 103 • The Eight Elements of a Program Plan 103

PR Casebook Zumba and Komen Party in Pink to Support Breast Cancer Research 108

Summary 111

Questions for Review and Discussion 111

Tactics | Master Class Are Traditional Ways of Doing Research Still Valuable in the Age of Social Media? PRWeek 112

6 Communication and Measurement 115

An Interesting Campaign for a “Most Interesting” Beer 115

Communication: The Third Step 116

The Goals of Communication 116 • Making Sure the Audience Receives the Message 118 • Making Sure the Audience Pay Attention to the Message 119 • Making Sure the Message Is Understood 120 • Making the Message Credible 121 • Making the Message Memorable 122 • Making Sure the Audience Acts on the Message 124

Social Media in Action Facebook Friends = Brain Power? 126

Measurement: The Fourth Step 127

Objectives: A Prerequisite for Measurement 127 • Measurement and Evaluation Status 128

Measurement of Message Exposure 128

Media Impressions 130 • Internet Hits 130 • Advertising Equivalency 130 • Systematic Tracking 131 • Information Requests 132 • Cost per Person 132 • Audience Attendance 132

Measurement of Audience Awareness, Attitudes, and Action 132

Audience Awareness 132 • Audience Attitude 133

• Audience Action 133

PR Casebook “Don’t Be That Guy” Campaign Fights Binge Drinking 134

Summary 135

Questions for Review and Discussion 135

7 Public Opinion and Persuasion 137

Going Green: Everybody’s Doing It 137

What Is Public Opinion? 138

Public Opinion Is a Moving Target 138 • Public Opinion Is Powerful 140

Opinion Leaders as Catalysts 140

The Role of Mass Media 143

Agenda Setting 144 • Framing 144

The Role of Conflict 146

PR Casebook Handguns in America 147

Persuasion in Public Opinion 148

The Uses of Persuasion 149 • Persuasion and Negotiation 149

Social Media in Action Persuading Citizens to Join the U.S. Army 150

Factors in Persuasive Communication 151

Audience Analysis 151 • Appeals to Self-Interest 153

• Audience Participation 154 • Suggestions for Action 154

• Source Credibility 154 • Clarity of Message 155

• Channels 155 • Timing and Context 155 • Reinforcement 156

The Limits of Persuasion 157

Lack of Message Penetration 157 • Competing or Conflicting Messages 157 • Self-Selection 158 • Self-Perception 158

Summary 159

Questions for Review and Discussion 159

Tactics | Three lessons all tech companies should learn from Apple’s latest audit by Chris O’Brien, Mercury News 160

8 Managing Competition and Conflict 163

Good Intentions Go Further with Smart PR 163

A New Way of Thinking: Conflict and Competition 164

The Role of Public Relations in Managing Conflict 166 It Depends: Factors That Affect Conflict Management 169

The Threat Appraisal Model 169 • Contingency Theory 169

PR Casebook Free Silva 170

The Conflict Management Life Cycle 171

Proactive Phase 171 • Strategic Phase 172 • Reactive Phase 172 • Recovery Phase 172

Managing the Life Cycle of a Conflict 173

Issues Management 173 • Strategic Positioning and Risk Communication 173 • Crisis Communication 174 • Reputation Management 176

Social Media in Action

Social Media and the BP Oil Spill Crisis 177

Déjà Vu—All Over Again 178

Summary 179

Questions for Review and Discussion 179

9 Ethics and the Law 181

Helping a Tyrant Burnish his Image 181

What Is Ethics? 182

Professional Guidelines 184

Codes of Conduct 184 • Ethics in Individual Practice 185

Dealing with the News Media 186

Public Relations and the Law 188

Defamation 188

PR Casebook Facebook Campaign Raises an Ethical Ruckus 189

Avoiding Libel Suits 190

Employee Communications 190

Product Publicity and Advertising 190 • Employee Free Speech 191

Social Media in Action Challenges Arise in Social Media

Regulation 192

Fair Use Versus Infringement 193

The Rights of Photographers and Artists 194 • The Rights of Freelance Writers 195

Trademark Law 195

The Protection of Trademarks 195 • Trademark Infringement 195

• Misappropriation of Personality 196

Regulations by Government Agencies 197

The Federal Trade Commission 197 • The Securities and Exchange Commission 198 • Other Regulatory Agencies 198

Liability for Sponsored Events 199

Working with Lawyers 200

Summary 201

Questions for Review and Discussion 201

Tactics | The PR Hacks Behind Facebook’s Google Smear by Dan Lyons, www.thedailybeast .com 202

10 Reaching Diverse Audiences 205

Engaging Ethnic Audiences 205

The Nature of the Public Relations Audience 206

Dynamic and Segmented Audiences 206 • Strategic Public Relations Targets Key Audiences 209

Age Group Audiences 209

Youth 209 • Baby Boomers 210 • Seniors 211

PR Casebook Reaching Emerging Youth and Male Audiences 212

Gender/Lifestyle Audiences 213

Women 213 • The LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) Community 213 • Religious Groups 214

Social Media in Action A Comfortable Discussion or Too

Much Information? 215

Ethnically Diverse Audiences 216

Diversity Media 217 • Hispanics 217 • African Americans 219

Global Audiences 220

Matching the Audience with the Media 220

Print 220 • Radio and Video 221 • Television 221

• Online and Social Media 221

Summary 223

Questions for Review and Discussion 223

11 THE MASS MEDIA 225

A Varied Campaign Helps Slurpee Unite

America 225

News Releases 226

Is It Time for a News Release? 226 • The Content of a News Release 228 • Publicity Photos 229

Media Advisories, Fact Sheets, Media Kits, and Pitch

Letters 230

PR Casebook Saving the Arctic with Iconic Brand Mascots 231

Interviews with Journalists and News Conferences 232

Interviews 232 • News Conferences 232 • Planning and Conducting a News Conference 233

The Media Party and the Media Tour 234

The Reach of Radio and Television 235

Radio 235 • Television 237

Social Media in Action YouTube Video Challenges

Stereotype: Community Crafts Its Own PSA 239

Personal Appearances 240 • Product Placements 241

Summary 243

Questions for Review and Discussion 243

12 The Internet and Social Media 245

Tweeting the Revolution 245

The Internet 246

Leveraging the Power of the Internet 247 Interactivity 248 • Cost-Effectiveness 249

Webcasts, Podcasts, and Wikis 249

Social Media 251

Blogs 252 • Facebook 254

PR Casebook American Airlines Soars and Penn State Crashes 256

Twitter 257 • YouTube 258

The Rising Tide of Mobile-Enabled Content 260

Texting 260 • Apps Everywhere 260

Social Media in Action On Campus and in the Kitchen 261

QR Codes: Just a Scan Away 262

Summary 263

Questions for Review and Discussion 263

Tactics | Of Lowe’s, All-American Muslim, and Facebook

Home Page Improvement by Catherine P. Taylor, Social Media

Insider (news@mediapost.com) 264

13 Events and Promotions 267

Mr. Bubble Turns 50 with a Splash 267

A World Filled with Meetings and Events 268

Group Meetings 269

Meeting Location 270 • Meeting Invitations 270 • Getting the Meeting Started 270 • Speakers 270 • Meals 271

Banquets 272

PR Casebook Cars and Comedy Benefit Boys and Girls Clubs 273

Receptions and Cocktail Parties 274

Open Houses and Plant Tours 275

Conventions 276

Convention Planning 277 • Convention Programs 278

Trade Shows 279

Exhibit Booths 280

Social Media in Action Are You A Mayor? 281

Press Rooms and Media Relations 282

Promotional Events 282

Corporate Sponsorships: Another Kind of Event 283 • Celebrity Appearances 283 • Promotional Event Logistics 284

Summary 285

Questions for Review and Discussion 285

14 Global Public Relations 287

Bono: “PR Man” for the World’s Poor 287

What Is Global Public Relations? 288

Public Relations Development in Other Nations 289

International Corporate Public Relations 291

Language and Cultural Differences 293

Social Media in Action Making the Most of Social Networks Around the World 294

Foreign Corporations in the United States 295

Representing U.S. Corporations in Other Nations 296

15

PR Casebook Happiness Ambassadors Lead

Convergent Media Campaign for Coke 297

Public Diplomacy 298

U.S. Public Diplomacy Efforts 298 • Foreign Public Diplomacy Efforts 299

The Rise of NGOs 301

Opportunities in International Work 302

Summary 303

Questions for Review and Discussion 303

Tactics | PR Firms Turn London into the Capital of Reputation Laundering by Robert Booth, The Guardian Weekly (UK) 304

Corporate Public Relations 307

Netflix Announcements Draw Consumer Ire 307

Managing Corporate Reputations 308

Media Relations 310

Customer Relations 312

Consumer Activism 313 • Consumer Boycotts 314

Social Media in Action LinkedIn as a Public Relations Tactic? 315

Employee Relations 316

Investor Relations 318

Marketing Communications 318

Product Publicity 319 • Cause-Related Marketing 320

PR Casebook Macy’s Strives to Activate Millennials 321

Corporate Sponsorship 321 • Viral Marketing 323

Environmental Relations 324

Corporate Philanthropy 325

Summary 327

Questions for Review and Discussion 327

16 Entertainment, Sports, and Tourism 329

Internal and External Expectations Shape Tourism PR in Egypt 329

Public Relations in Entertainment, Sports, and Tourism 330

Promoting a Personality 331

Social Media in Action Celebrities Thrive and Crash in 140 Characters 334

Promoting an Entertainment Event 335

The “Drip-Drip-Drip” Technique 335 • Movies and Television 335

17

Sports Publicity 337

PR Casebook Racing Sausages Win Fans’ Hearts 340

Travel Promotion 341

Appeals to Target Audiences 342 • Tourism in Times of Crisis 343

Summary 345

Questions for Review and Discussion 345

Tactics | Mexico Leans on PR to Lure Back Tourists by Alexandra Bruell, Advertising Age 346

Government and Politics 349

NuVal and Nutrition Keys vs. the Food and Drug Administration 349

Government Public Relations 350

Public Information and Public Affairs 351

The Federal Government 352

The White House 352 • Congress 353 • Federal Agencies 353

State Governments 356

Local Governments 357

Government Relations by Corporations 358

PR Casebook A Short History of Government Efforts to Promote Nutrition 359

Lobbying 360

Pitfalls of Lobbying 362 • Grassroots Lobbying 362

Election Campaigns 363

Social Media in Action Seeing the Light: Social Media in Politics 365

Summary 367

Questions for Review and Discussion 367

Nonprofit, Health, and Education 369

Faith-Based Advocacy Comes of Age 369

The Role of Public Relations in Nonprofit, Health, and Education Organizations 370

Competition, Conflict, and Cooperation 371

Fund-raising 372

Motivations for Giving 373 • Fund-Raising Methods 374

Social Media in Action Continuous Interaction Among Donors Through Social Media 376

Membership Organizations 377

Professional Associations 377 • Trade Associations 377

Labor Unions 378 • Chambers of Commerce 378

Advocacy Groups 379

PR Casebook Digital Grassroots Public Relations

Campaigns 380

Activist Groups 381 • Social Issue Organizations 381

Social Service Organizations 381

Philanthropic Foundations 381 • Cultural Organizations 381 • Religious Organizations 383

Health Organizations 383

Hospitals 383 • Health Agencies 383 • Health Campaigns: Strategies and Tactics 384

Educational Organizations 385

Colleges and Universities 385 • Elementary and Secondary Schools 386 • School Districts 386

Summary 387

Questions for Review and Discussion 387

Tactics | Mattel Says Yes to Greenpeace, No to Rainforest Destruction by Raz Godelnik, www.triplepundit.com 388

Credits 390 Index 391

Acknowledgments

We’d like to thank the many reviewers who offered us their invaluable suggestions on how to improve this new edition of the THINK Public Relations

Bill Brewer, Miami University

Ovril Cambridge, Ohio University

Terry Hapney, Marshall University

Kirk Hazlett, Curry College

Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University

Robert O’Gara, Point Park University

Mary-Jo Popovici, Monroe Community College

Many people have contributed to the production of this book. The authors wish to express our deep appreciation and admiration to development editor Erin Mulligan, in particular, who provided excellent editing and worked very closely with us on the manuscript and format. We also salute the continuing support of our editor, Ziki Dekel. Other individuals at Pearson who deserve our thanks include Kristy Zamagni and Katy Gabel, project managers at PreMediaGlobal, Carolyn Arabascio at PreMediaGlobal, who arranged all the photo permissions, and Megan Hermida, editorial assistant. We also wish to thank our respective spouses—Marianne, Marilyn, Sharon, and Tony—for their love and patience during the many nights and weekends we spent at our keyboards updating this new edition.

DENNIS L. WILCOX

GLEN T. CAMERON

BRYAN H. REBER

JAE-HWA SHIN

About the AUTHORS

DENNIS L. WILCOX, Ph.D., is professor emeritus of public relations and past director of the School of Journalism and Mass Communications at San Jose State University, California. He is a Fellow and accredited (APR) member of the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), former chair of the PRSA Educator’s Academy, and past chair of the public relations division of Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC). Dr. Wilcox has written six books and is the lead author of Public Relations Strategies and Tactics and Public Relations Writing and Media Techniques . His honors include PRSA’s “Outstanding Educator,” the Xifra-Award from the University of Girona (Spain), an honorary doctorate from the University of Bucharest, and awards from the Public Relations associations of Serbia and India. He is active in the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) and a member of the Arthur W. Page Society, a group of senior communication executives. Dr. Wilcox regularly consults and gives lectures to students and professionals in Asia, Europe, and South America. dennis.wilcox@sjsu.edu

GLEN T. CAMERON, Ph.D., is Gregory Chair in Journalism Research and founder of the Health Communication Research Center at the University of Missouri. Dr. Cameron has authored more than 300 articles, chapters, award-winning conference papers, and books on public relations topics. A popular lecturer internationally, Dr. Cameron has received AEJMC’s Baskett Mosse and PRSA’s Pathfinder awards for career achievement. The University of Missouri has honored him with the 21st Century Corps of Discovery Lectureship, which is given once each year by a globally recognized campus scholar. Dr. Cameron’s ongoing public relations experience includes his management of more than $42 million in external funding of health public relations projects from sources such as the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute, Missouri Foundation for Health, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the U.S Department of Defense, and Monsanto. camerong@missouri.edu

BRYAN H. REBER, Ph.D., is associate professor of public relations at the University of Georgia, Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication. Dr. Reber teaches courses that offer an introduction to public relations, management, writing, and campaigns. On the graduate level, he teaches classes in topics including management, persuasion, campaign research, and public opinion. His research focuses on public relations theory, practice, pedagogy, and health communication and has been published in the Journal of Public Relations Research, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Journal of Health Communication, Public Relations Review, and Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. Dr. Reber regularly presents his research at national and international academic conferences. He is the co-author of two books: Gaining Influence in Public Relations and Public Relations Today: Managing Competition and Conflict. Dr. Reber worked for 15 years in public relations at Bethel College, Kansas. He has conducted research for the Sierra Club, Ketchum, and the Georgia Hospital Association, among others. reber@uga.edu

JAE-HWA SHIN, Ph.D., Mph, is associate professor in the School of Mass Communication and Journalism at the University of Southern Mississippi. Dr. Shin is recognized as a prolific researcher in the field of public relations, and has co-authored Public Relations Today: Managing Conflict and Competition. Her articles often appear in journals such as the Public Relations Review, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Science Communication Journal , and Journal of Communication in Healthcare. Dr. Shin is an active presenter at national and international conferences. Her research areas are public relations theories, strategic conflict management, agenda-building process, and health communication. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in public relations, conflict/issue/crisis/risk management, campaigns, theories, and research methods, and is the faculty co-advisor for the USM chapter of the Public Relations Student Society of America and head of the public relations sequence for the School of Mass Communication and Journalism. Prior to teaching at the University of Southern Mississippi, she worked as the public relations director for the Korea Economic Research Institute of the Federation of Korean Industries. jae-hwa.shin@usm.edu

A Busy Day

1 What is Public Relations?

Cierra is an account executive in a San Francisco public relations firm. When her workday begins at 6 A M., her East Coast colleagues, with their three-hour head start, have already been filling her e-mail inbox. As she drinks her coffee, she checks e-mails as well as RSS feeds (Really Simple Syndication—an online content aggregating system). Then she scans feeds from blogs covering industries she represents for her clients and checks her clients’ websites. By 9 A M., Cierra is on her way to her downtown office via light rail; wasting no time, she monitors the news and her e-mails on her smartphone during her commute. Her New York colleagues have sent her a schedule for a client’s West Coast media tour. She makes some minor adjustments to the tour, since she knows the Bay Area journalists better than her Manhattan counterparts do. Next she turns her attention to a news release about a client’s new mobile phone app. She finishes the edits, gives it a once-over, and e-mails it to the client for approval. An electronic news service will deliver the release to newspapers across the country as soon as the release is approved.

In her office, Cierra gets a visit from the firm’s student intern. In going through news clippings to monitor client-related industries, the intern has identified some news about pending government environmental regulations that have the potential to negatively impact a client’s reputation. One legislator used the client as an example of why the regulations are needed. Cierra sends several high-priority e-mails and sets up a meeting with the client.

Cierra’s next activity is a brainstorming session with staff to generate creative ideas about a campaign to raise funds for the local art museum. She finds this client to be one of her most challenging. Nonprofits compete for volunteers and members as well as financial donations, especially in a lean economy. When she returns to her office, there are a number of telephone messages. A reporter called for background information on a story; a graphic designer has finished a brochure; a catering manager wants to finalize arrangements for a reception; and a client has asked her to attend a video news release taping.

Cierra lunches late with a client who seeks her counsel on how to announce employee layoffs, a situation fraught with ethical issues. After lunch, Cierra treks to a client pitch appointment, using her computer tablet en route to check databases and gather information about the prospective client’s industry. She also checks online news updates to determine if anything is occurring that involves or affects her other clients. At 6 P.M., as she winds down from the day’s hectic activities, she reviews stories from a clipping service about one of her accounts, an association of California vintners. She is pleased to find that her feature story, which included recipes, wine pairings, and color photos, appeared in several daily newspapers.

1 Based on the description of Cierra’s day, how would you define public relations if a friend asked you what you were studying in this class?

2 What role do the Internet and social media play in Cierra’s day?

3 How does Cierra interact with journalists and use news coverage to inform her work throughout the day?

Yourself

> What Is Public Relations? p. 3

> What Are the Components of Public Relations? p. 10

> How Does Public Relations Differ from Journalism? p. 12

> How Does Public Relations Differ from Advertising? p. 14

> How Does Public Relations Differ from Marketing? p. 15

> How Can an Integrated Approach to Public Relations Benefit an Organization? p. 17

The Challenge OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

As the chapter-opening scenario illustrates, the challenge of public relations (PR) is multifaceted. A public relations professional must

have skills in written and interpersonal communication, research, negotiation, creativity, logistics, facilitation, and problem solving.

“

Individuals who seek a challenging career at the center of what’s happening in modern organizations will find public relations to their liking. Owing to the variety of tasks— ranging from brochure layout to focus groups and polling data analysis—and the chance

to work for clients and companies across the gamut of profit, nonprofit, and government sectors,

more and more people like Cierra are choosing the field of public relations every year.

CNN.com lists “public relations specialist” as one of the top 50 professions for job opportunity and salary potential. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) predicts “much faster than average” growth for the public relations profession. Between now and 2018, the BLS predicts a very healthy 24 percent job growth in the field.

think

Which skills make PR professionals successful?

Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities, where...communications facilities are readily available and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, and Washington, D.C., according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

”

Another random document with no related content on Scribd:

3. CH. 1.

THE MARMORIS, or MARBLE BUTTERFLY. On the 8th of July, 1748. I took with my Net several Females of this sort of Fly, which is very common amongst the Hay-Grass. I put them in a Box, taking Care to hurt them as little as possible, with full Hopes that some of them would lay their Eggs; and according to my Wishes the next Morning I had 160 Eggs, which, when first laid, were of a fine yellow Colour, but in less than a Minute’s Time they became perfectly white, and are not glutinous like many other Sorts. On the 27th and 28th of the same Month the young Caterpillarsappeared, and were put on common Grass to feed: They continued extremely small for some Months, and, notwithstanding great Care was taken of them, only three Flies were produced, the rest all dying in the Caterpillar State.

The different Changes observed in these three were as follows.

Caterpillars changed their Skins. Went to Chrysalis. The Flieswere bred.

The {1stApril,11 May6 May26 June— 14 July— 11 } 1748

{2dApril, 28May 21 June6 June— 30 July— 23 }

{3dMay, 1 May 21 June9 July— 4 July— 27 }

The Caterpillarsthat produced these Flieschanged to Chrysalison the Ground, without fastening themselves to any Thing, and were

fed all the Time with common Grass, and it is presumed changed their Skins twice before the 11th of April.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 2. S. b. 1.

Figure 1. The Bent Grass. 2. Brown Millet-Grass. 3. Yellow Ladies Bedstraw. 4. The Great Fox-tail Grass.

1. Gramensegetum,paniculaspeciosa.Park. 2. Gramenmiliaceum majuspaniculaspadicea.Petiv. 3. Galliumluteum, C. B. 4. Gramen Alopecuroidesmajus.Ger.

. 1.

II.

THE MEADOW BROWN-BUTTERFLY. The Caterpillar was found by Mr. Dandridgeon the common Grass, with which he fed it ’till the 24th of May, when it fastened itself up by the Tail, and changed into a short thick green Chrysalis streaked with black, and on the 11th of Junecame out the Butterfly, which is one of the most common sorts the Fields afford, and yet the Caterpillar is rarely found.

See Albin, P. 53.

L. 3. CH

CL. 2. S. b. 2.

The Water Elder. OpulusRuellii. Instit.R. Herb.

THE GREAT ARGUS-BUTTERFLY breeds twice a Year: The first Time is in May, the second in July. Merian says, the Caterpillar

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 2. s. b. 2.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 2. S. b. 3.

feeds on Grass, and that it changes to a small green Chrysalis, from which proceeds this elegant Fly, adorned with brown and black Spots, having two white Horns spotted with black, and Eyes of a beautiful Colour. This Butterflyis very common; its Flight is not swift: It delights to settle on dry Banks and Walls, and in Path-Ways, and is not difficult to take. Its Caterpillaris seldom found.

See Merian, Vol. 2. Chap. 4.

GranadillaPentaphyllosFlorecæruleomagno. Boerh.

L. 3. CH. 1.

THE WOOD ARGUS-BUTTERFLY.

This also breeds twice a Year: The first Brood appears at the Beginning of May, the second at the Beginning of July. It flies slowly, and is to be taken in Woods, green Lanes, &c. Reaumur informs us, that the Caterpillar feeds on Grass; that it changed to a Chrysalis on the 19th of June, and that ten Days after the Flywas bred.

See Reaumur, Plate 27. Pag. 431.

The

Spanish Broom.

GenistaIuncea, J. B. S E C T .

C A T E R P I L L A R S having little H A I R , producing B U T T E R F L I E S , whose Head and Body are much larger (for their Size) than any other

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 2. S. b. 4.

B U T T E R F L I E S :OfwhichthereareseveralbelongingtothisSection, whoseCaterpillars havenotasyetbeendiscovered.

L. 3. CH. 1.

THE

GRIZZLED BUTTERFLY. Mr. Rosel tells us, that the Caterpillar of this Fly was found on the Mallow, with the Leaves of which he fed it till the End of June, when it spun a Web amongst the Leaves, and changed to a Chrysalis, the Butterflyof which was bred the May following. This Fly is to be taken in Woods and Meads, at the Beginning of May: and although small, it flies swiftly, so that you must be very quick to take it.

See Rosel, Cl. 2. Tab. 10. Merian, Vol. 1 Chap. 48.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 2. S. c. 1.

The common Mallow. Malvavulgaris.Park.

C

L A S S III.

with Spikes.

WhoseChrysalis hangsbytheTailperpendicularlydownwards.

THE ADMIRABLE BUTTERFLY.

The great StingingNettleis the Food of this Caterpillar, which is to be found by observing where the Nettle-Leaves appear to be folded or spun together, for within such Leaves the Caterpillar feeds. It turns in August to a Chrysalis, hanging perpendicularly downwards by the Tail, fourteen Days after the Chrysalis is formed the Fly appears. The Caterpillars shelter themselves after this Manner, that they may be the better secured from the too great Heat of the Sun, from Rain, Birds, and a small Ichneumon Fly, which often hinders their coming to Perfection, by laying its Eggs therein, which Eggs are of such a glutenous Nature, that they stick fast as soon as laid. Some of the Chrysalidesappear as if gilded with burnished Gold, but such usually produce not a Butterfly, but a Brood of small, though very beautiful Ichneumons. The Flymay be taken in Gardens and other Places, it feeds on Fruit that lies under Trees, &c. and is no uncommon Fly. It lives quite through the Winter.

See Goedart, Vol. 1. Tab. 26. Pag. 96. Fig. Opt. List. Fig. 4. Gr. V. 2. Pag. 81. Tab. 81. Fig. Opt. Moff. 100. Num. 6. An.Hoef. Tab. 12. Fig. 15. Raii, Hist. Insect. P. 126. Albin, Pl. 3. Reaumur, Pl. 10. Pag. 284, Vol. 1.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 3. S. a.1.

The Great Stinging-Nettle.

Urticamajorvulgaris.J. B.

THE PEACOCK-BUTTERFLY. You must look for the Caterpillar that produces this Fly in the great Stinging-Nettle. They

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 1.

L. 3. CH. 1. II.

CL. 3. S. a.2.

are sociable and feed together, are very easy to find, and may be taken full fed towards the End of June, at which Time many of them change to the Chrysalis, and about fourteen Days after the Fly appears. It is very common, and may be taken on Thistles, Burdock, Clover, &c. The Chrysalis of this Fly, as well as the preceding, sometimes looks as if gilt with Gold: but such fine outsides usually produce Ichneumons. This Flylikewise lives all the Winter.

See Reaumur, Pl. 25. Pag. 446. Vol. 1. Goed. Vol. 1. P. 23. Fig. opt. 1. List. Fig. 1. Graf. Vol. 1. Tab. 26. Pag. 53. Raii, Hist. Insect. Pag. 122. N. 14. Moufet, P. 99. N. 4. Hoef. Tab. 12. Fig. opt. 9. Johns.Inst. 40. n. 4. Tab. 5. Albin, Pl. 4. Rosel, Cl. 1. T. 3.

THE PAINTED-LADY-BUTTERFLY. In this Plate two Butterflies are represented, the upper one of which is the Painted Lady. Its Caterpillarfeeds on the great Stinging-Nettle, Thistles, &c. changes to a Chrysalis within the Leaves folded together in the

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 2.

Smith’s Newington Peach.

L. 3. CH. 1. III.

CL. 3. S. a.3

Middle of June, is fourteen Days in that State, and then the Fly comes forth. It may be taken on the same Growths as the last, but is not so common.

Figure 4 represents, the SMALL TORTOISE-SHELL-BUTTERFLY, which is very common, and breeds twice a Year: The first Brood is towards the End of June, the second about the End of August. The Caterpillarfeeds on Nettles, is open and sociable, and may be taken full fed about the Middle of June, and the Middle of August, and is about fourteen Days in Chrysalis. This Butterflyout-lives the Winter.

See Listeron Goedart, Pag. 7. N. 5. Albin, Pl. 56. Fig. 4. Goed.Vol. 1. Pag. 90, Fig. opt, 21. List.Fig. 2. Graf. Vol. 1. P. 89. Mouff, 101. N. 11, figured against N. 12. Hoef. Tab. 2. Fig. opt. 16. Raii, Hist. Insect. Pag. 117. N. 1. Albin, Pl. 4. Rosel, Cl. 1. Tab. 4. Reaumur, Pl. 26. Pag. 446. Vol. 1.

The Great Stinging-Nettle.

THE GREAT TORTOISE-SHELL-BUTTERFLY. When the Caterpillars of this Fly are young, they feed together on the Leaves

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 3.

Urticamajorvulgaris.J. B.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 3. S. a.5.

of the Elm-Tree, &c.About the Middle of Junethey are full fed, and usually tie themselves up by the Tail under the Copings of Walls, or some such Shelter; in the Beginning of Julythe Flycomes out, and delights to settle in dry Path-ways, as also on the Bodies of Trees, &c. is swift in its Flight, and requires Nimbleness to take it. The Chrysalis is very apt to produce Ichneumons instead of its own Butterfly, those Creatures having laid their Eggs therein. This Fly lives all Winter.

See Reaumur, Pl. 23. Pag. 382. Vol. 1. List.on Goedart, Pag. 3. N. 3, Merian, Vol. 2. Tab. 2. Albin, Pl. 55. Rosel, Cl. 1. Tab. 2. L. III. ch. I. Cl. 3. s. a. 5.

The Common Elm-Tree.

UlmusminorfolioAngustoScabro. Ger. Emac, 1480.

THE COMMA-BUTTERFLY breeds twice a Year: The first Time towards the End of June, and the second about the Beginning of September. The Caterpillarfeeds on Hop-Leaves, Nettles, &c.puts on the Chrysalis Form in June and August, and is about fourteen Days in that State, when the Fly appears, which may be taken in Gardens, on Blackberry Blossoms, by the Sides of Hedges, and in such like Places. The Colours of the first Brood of this Butterfly are considerably lighter than as here represented.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 2. S. a.6.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 6.

The Double Wild Poppy, with a fiery-coloured Flower edged with white.

Papaver,erraticum,floreplenoigneomarginibuscandidis.H. L.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 2. S. a.7.

THE GREAT FRITILLARY-BUTTERFLY. Mr. Rosel says, the Caterpillar feeds on Nettles, in the private Recesses of Woods, that it changes into the ChrysalisState at the End of May, and that the Flyis produced in June. This Butterflyis very swift in Flight, and is best taken in the Forenoon, when it will settle and feed on BlackberryBlossoms, Thistles, &c.They are most commonly found in Woods, and the Fields adjacent to Woods.

See Rosel, Cl. 1. Tab. 7.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 7.

The Bramble.

Rubusmajor,fructunigro. J. B.

L. 3. CH. 1.

THE

VIII.

PLANTAIN FRITILLARY-BUTTERFLY. The Caterpillarhereof feeds on Plantain, Clover, and Grass, changes to a Chrysalis, within a Web of its own spinning, upon the Surface of the Ground, at the Beginning of May, and the Flyappears fourteen Days after. The Caterpillars are sociable, and feed together. They appear of a very timorous Nature, for if you move the Food on which they are, they immediately quit their Hold and fall to the Ground, and there remain in a curl’d up Form till such Time they think the Danger over. The Butterfly is swift in Flight, but may be taken if diligently attended to, in Fields of Hay-Grass, at the Time above-mentioned.

CL. 2. S. a.8.

THE HEATH FRITILLARY-BUTTERFLY. I found the Caterpillars of this Fly feeding on common Heath in Tottenham-

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 8.

Figure 1. Rough Grass. 2. Plantain. 3. Clover.

1. Gramenasperum.J. B. 2. Plantagomajorvulg.C. B.

L. 3. CH. 1.

CL. 2. S. a.9.

Wood, about the Middle of May, 1745, and they are of the same fearful Nature as the last-mentioned. Six or seven of them were feeding near each other, I observed their Manner of eating, which was extremely quick, and when they moved it was at a great Rate. I fed them with common Heathfor three or four Days; at the End of which some of them changed into Chrysalis, in which State they remained about fourteen Days, and then the Flies came forth. This Butterfly is very common in most Woods, but its Caterpillar is very rarely found.

L. III. ch. I. Cl. 3. S. a. 9.

Common Heath in Flower.

EricaVulgaris.Park.

L. 3. CH. 1.

THE WILLOW-BUTTERFLY. About the Middle of August, 1748, two of this Species of Butterfly were taken near Camberwell, in Surry: But in all my Practice I have never seen any of them in the Fields; so that they were look’d upon as very great Rarities. They are very common in Germany, and Mr. Rosel tells us, the Caterpillar feeds on Willow, and may be found all the Summer. The Caterpillar and Chrysalis, in the Plate, are taken from a Draught by Mr. Rosel.

See Rosel, Cl. 1, Tab. 1.

The White Dog-Rose.

CL.

THE SMALL FRITILLARY-BUTTERFLY. About the 10th of April, 1741, I took upon the Ground upwards of one Hundred of

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 10.

Rosaarvensiscandida.C. B.

L. 3. CH. 1.

3. S. a. 11.

these Caterpillars, in Cain Wood. I gave them to eat a Variety of Growths (which I gathered on the Spot where I found the Caterpillars) but they were so restless and uneasy under Confinement, that they seemed in continual Motion, neither would they eat any of the Food I gave them. On the 18th of Aprilten of the Caterpillars fastened themselves up by the Tail, in order to their changing into the Chrysalis State, (the rest being dead or gone away) and on the 3d of May following the Flies were bred. This Butterfly is to be taken in Woods and Grass-Fields adjacent to Woods, in the Month of May.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 11.

L. 3. CH. 1.

The Variegated Ketmia.

KetmiaSyrorumFlorevariegato. J. R. H.

XII. THE GREAT FRITILLARY-BUTTERFLY, with SILVER SPOTS.

I take this Flyto be of the Class under Consideration. On the 15th of July, 1748, I had three Eggs laid by such a Flyas is represented in the Plate at Fig. 1, and on the 5th of August the young Caterpillars came forth; which, being examined with a Microscope, appeared to be of the Size represented. They were of a Flesh Colour, with Rows of Black Spots on each Joint like the Caterpillars of the Emperor Moth, and out of each Spot grew Hairs of a sandy Colour. The Eggs were beautifully fluted down the Sides, were flat at the Bottom, and had a glutenous Moisture upon them, which occasioned their sticking fast wherever the Fly chose to leave them. The Caterpillars on this present 10th of February, 1748-9, seem to be alive, but are very small, and, I believe, have eat nothing all the Winter, though they have had Grass given them, which I take to be their proper Food. The Fly frequents Woods and Meads, and loves to settle on BlackberryBlossoms, Thistles, &c. At the Beginning of Julythey may be taken with your Net; but as no Butterfly is more swift in Flight, you must attend till they settle, then be nimble and you may catch them.

L. III. ch. I.

Cl. 3. S. a. 12.

The Scorpion Sena. EmerusCæsalpin.