INCT APA by Editora Cubo

A n n u a l A c t i v i t y R e p o r t 2 0 11 Expedient Editors

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Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin – IB/UFRJ Adriana Galindo Dalto – IB/UFRJ Helena Passeri Lavrado – IB/UFRJ Editora Cubo Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin – IB/UFRJ Adriana Galindo Dalto – IB/UFRJ Daniela Rezende Peçanha Fernandes – IB/UFRJ Rafael Bendayan de Moura – UFPE Tais Maria de Souza Campos – IB/UFRJ Geyze Magalhães de Faria – IB/UFRJ Carla da Silva Maria Balthar – IB/UFRJ Adriana Galindo Dalto (Backgrounds: Presentation, Introduction, Thematic Area 2) Andre Monnerat Lanna (Backgrounds: Cover, Summary, Thematic Area 4, Facts and Figures, E-mails) Jaqueline Brummelhaus (Backgrounds: Science Highlights, Publications) Luiz Fernando Würdig Roesch (Backgrounds: Thematic Area 1, Thematic Area 3, Education and Outreach Activities) Roberta da Cruz Piuco (Background: Expedient)

The editors express their gratitude to the INCT-APA colleagues that contribute to this edition. This document was prepared as an account of work done by INCT-APA users and staff. Whilst the document is believed to contain correct information, neither INCT-APA nor any of its employees make any warranty, expresses, implies or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed within. As well, the use of this material does not infringe any privately owned copyrights. Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais (INCT-APA) INCT-APA Headquarters

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Instituto de Biologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS) Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373 - Sala A1-94 - Bloco A Ilha do Fundão, Cidade Universitária - CEP: 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro - RJ, Brazil +55 21 2562-6322 / +55 21 2562-6302 yocie@biologia.ufrj.br/ inctapa@gmail.com www.biologia.ufrj.br/inct-antartico

Management Committee General Coordinator Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin – IB/UFRJ Vice-coordinator Rosalinda Carmela Montone – IO/USP Education and Outreach Activities – Team Leader Déia Maria Ferreira – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 1 (Antarctic Atmosphere) Neusa Maria Paes Leme – INPE (Team Leader) Emília Corrêa – Mackenzie/INPE (Vice-team Leader)

International Scientific Assessor Lúcia de Siqueira Campos – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 2 (Antarctic Terrestrial Environment) Antonio Batista Pereira – UNIPAMPA (Team Leader) Maria Virgínia Petry – UNISINOS (Vice-team Leader)

Project Manager Assessor Adriana Galindo Dalto – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 3 (Antarctic Marine Environment) Helena Passeri Lavrado – IB/UFRJ (Team Leader) Edson Rodrigues – UNITAU (Vice-team Leader)

Executive Office Carla Maria da Silva Balthar – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 4 (Environmental Management) Cristina Engel de Alvarez – UFES (Team Leader) Alexandre de Avila Leripio – UNIVALI (Vice-team Leader)

Finance Technical Support Maria Helena Amaral da Silva – IBCCF/UFRJ Marta de Oliveira Farias – IBCCF/UFRJ

Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais (INCT-APA) Instituto de Biologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS) Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373 - Sala A1-94 • Bloco A Ilha do Fundão, Cidade Universitária - CEP: 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro- RJ, Brazil +55 21 2562-6322 / +55 21 2562-6302 yocie@biologia.ufrj.br/ inctapa@gmail.com www.biologia.ufrj.br/inct-antartico

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National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research

Cataloguing Card I59a Annual Activity Report 2011 / Annual Activity Report of National Institute for Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research / Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais (INCT – APA). – 2011. – São Carlos: Editora Cubo, 2012. 210 p. ISSN 2177-918X 1. Environmental research. 2. Antarctica. I. Title.

CDD 363.7

SUMMARY 4 Presentation 10 Introduction 15 Science Highlights 194 Education and Outreach Activities 200 Facts and Figures 202 Publications 206 E-mails

PRESENTATION National Institute of Science and Technology – Antarctic Environmental Research Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia – Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais (INCT-APA) The importance of Antarctic Research Antarctica is the most preserved region of the planet and one of the most vulnerable to global environmental changes. Alterations in the Antarctic environment, natural or caused by human activities, have the potential to provoke biological,

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environmental and socio-economic impacts, which can affect the terrestrial system as a whole. For this reason, the scientific research in Polar Regions is of great environmental and economic importance, since it contributes to the comprehension of climatic and environmental changes observed in these regions, offering support to policy makers. The protection of the Antarctic environment is one of highest priorities of all the nations that operate on the continent. For this reason the region should continue to be the most preserved of the planet, harmonizing the presence of man and the attendance of mankind’s needs related to the mitigation of environmental impact of an ecosystem which is highly fragile. In 1991, the concerns over the consequences of human activity in the Antarctic environment became a reality through the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. This protocol established directives and procedures, which should be adopted in the undertaking of activities in Antarctica. The monitoring of the environmental impact of Brazilian activities in Antarctica is a commitment assumed by the Brazilian Government through the ratification of the Madrid Protocol (1994). The position of Brazil as consultative member of the Antarctica Treaty demands an active scientific role at the Brazilian Antarctic Program, which is undertaken by means of: • Consolidation of Brazilian research groups in Antarctic science; • The undertaking of Applied and Basic research on Antarctica for understanding the structure and the function of Antarctic ecosystems. Hence, this knowledge

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contributes to management and preservation of this ecosystem; Formation of human resources for higher education and for scientific and technological development; Incentive for an interdisciplinary approach to scientific questions involving Antarctic systems, at the most diverse levels; Generation of knowledge through Antarctic ecosystems and transfer of this knowledge to Society; Consolidate the results obtained by the INCT-APA scientific research and, communicate it to policy makers to contribute to define policies guided towards conservation and management of Antarctic region.

Some of the Benefits to Society: • Improvement of the climate analysis and forecasts for the whole Brazilian Territory (improvement of the national climatic models and the weather forecasting system); • Application of knowledge of physical processes in the upper atmosphere and in the ionosphere, interactions with solar radiation (prevention of telecommunication incidents); • Investigation concerning radiation variations as a result of global atmosphere changes and their impacts (monitoring of the ozone layer, UV-B radiation, consequences to human population, e.g. cancer and glaucoma); • The development of investigative studies concerning the possible impacts of global changes in Antarctica (global warming, natural disasters, ice-melt, and preventative and corrective initiatives of impacts of these kinds of occurrences); • Production of knowledge and critical mass to support decisions and policy recommendations concerning biological diversity (sustainable use of live resources); • Integration of geophysical, geological and biological investigations related to the Austral Ocean (support for

interdisciplinary research and full knowledge of the Antarctic region); • Implementation of a social programme for educational and outreach activities (creation of public awareness on Antarctic Research and the importance of this continent for the planet).

What is the INCT – Antarctic Environmental Research? The National Institute of Science and Technology - Antarctic Environmental Research (abbreviated as INCT in Brazilian Portuguese used in this document as INCT-APA hitherto) was created by the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Ministério de Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação -MCTI) in search of excellence in scientific activities at an international level in strategic areas defined by the Action Plan 2007-2010 of the Science Programme, Technology and Innovation for Antarctica, by means of programmes and instruments made operational by CNPq and by FAPERJ (Research support Foundations at different levels). The referred initiative has the view to implement a

network of atmospheric, terrestrial and marine monitoring in the Antarctic region.

Who are we? INCT-APA consists of more than 70 researchers who, in an integrated manner, evaluate the local and global environmental impacts in the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine areas of Maritime Antarctica systems and, in addition, are involved in the related educational and scientific outreach of their activities. The research developed by INCT-APA will contribute to influence initiatives concerning biological diversity and environmental protection of Antarctica, principally in the scope of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, and the Ministry of the Environment. Furthermore, it assists in educational processes with the purpose of divulging Antarctic research to the public in general. See more at: http://www.biologia.ufrj.br/inct-antartico/ Contact: inctapa@gmail.com | yocie@biologia.ufrj.br

Presentation |

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Mission To valorise the region of Antarctica as an opportunity for development of transdisciplinary scientific investigations, promoting environmental management and conservation of Antarctic region.

Aims • To develop scientific investigations and long-time survey in marine, terrestrial and atmospheric environments in the Antarctic region; • To structure and operate a local environmental management system in King George Island and adjacent areas; and

• To promote education and outreach activities for diffusion of the Brazilian Antarctic researchs.

INCT- Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT- Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais) INCT-APA is based at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro -UFRJ), under the coordination of Professor Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin, Botany Department – Institute of Biology/UFRJ. The research team includes PhD researchers, technical assistants, undergraduate and graduate students, belonging to 17 universities and other research institutes from eight Brazilian states: Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul.

INCT-APA MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE GENERAL COORDINATION Prof. Dr. Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin (IB/UFRJ) Y Y V General Coordenator of INCT T – APA P

Prof. Dr. Rosalinda Carmela Montone (IO/USP) Vice-coordenator of INCT – APA

THEMATIC AREA TEAM LEADERS Prof. Dr. Neusa Paes Leme (INPE) Thematic Area 1 - Team Leader

Prof. Dr. Helena Passeri Lavrado (IB/UFRJ) Thematic Area 3 - Team Leader

Prof. Dr. Antonio Batista Pereira (UNIPAMPA) Thematic Area 2 - Team Leader

Prof. Dr. Cristina Engel de Alvarez (UFES) Thematic Area 4 - Team Leader

ASSESSORS Prof. Dr. Lúcia de Siqueira Campos (IB/UFRJ) International Relations for Antarctic Research

Prof. Msc. Déia Maria Ferreira (IB/UFRJ) Outreach and Education

Dr. Adriana Galindo Dalto (IB/UFRJ) Project Manager

THEMATIC AREA 1

THEMATIC AREA 2

THEMATIC AREA 3

THEMATIC AREA 4

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO RIO GRANDE DO NORTE

Presentation |

Thematic Research Areas The Research of INCT-APA is organized into four thematic areas described below: Adriana G. Dalto

Adriana G. Dalto

Thematic Area 1

Thematic Area 2

Antarctic Atmosphere and Environmental Impacts in South America

Impact of Global Changes on the Antarctic Terrestrial Environment

Operated through the knowledge and monitoring of

Operated through the study and monitoring of the

Antarctic atmosphere and its environmental impacts

impact of global, natural and anthropogenic origins in

on South America

the Antarctic terrestrial environment.

Objectives of the Area:

1. To monitor and evaluate:

1. To investigate the effect of glacier retraction and its

• The regions of movement of Antarctic Cold Fronts as

implications on biogeochemical cycles;

far as South America, especially Brazil;

2. To measure the alterations in vegetation cover and in

• The greenhouse effect perceived in Antarctica;

diversity of plant communities;

• The chemical changes of the atmosphere and their

3. To evaluate the fluctuation and distribution of seabird

influence on the climate, involving: the interaction

populations.

Sun - Earth, the temperature of the mesosphere and the hole in the ozone layer; 2. To offer supporting information to numerical models of climate and weather forecasting. Andre M. Lanna

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Andre M. Lanna

Roberta Piuco

Adriana G. Dalto

Andre M. Lanna

Thematic Area 3

Thematic Area 4

Impact of Human Activities on the Antarctic Marine Environment

Environmental Management Acts in the development of measures with the purpose of optimizing the functioning of buildings of the Brazilian Antarctic Station and its shelters.

Operate in the study and monitoring of the impact of global, natural and anthropogenic origins in the

Objectives of the Area:

Antarctic marine environment.

1. To evaluate and monitor the impact of the presence of research buildings and their shelters on the landscape

Objectives of the Area:

of the Antarctic region;

1. To study the marine ecosystem processes, and their

2. To study the use of technologies and structures that

effects of natural and anthropogenic impacts on the

can minimize the impact caused by human presence in

environments, using long time series surveys;

the Antarctic region, as well as optimize the conditions

2. Subsidizing the processes and environmental

of comfort and security for the users.

management tools, such as the Management Plan of Admiralty Bay; 3. Identify the presence of exotic marine species and define possible endemic species.

Roberta Piuco

Adriana Dalto

Andre M. Lanna

Presentation |

INTRODUCTION Advances In Brazilian Research In Admiralty Bay Dr. Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin (IB/UFRJ) – General Coordinator of the National Institute of Science and Technology – Antarctic Environmental Research INCT-APA yocie@biologia.ufrj.br; yocievalentin@gmail.com

The National Institute of Science and Technology – Antarctic Environmental Research – undertakes its research studies having as driving guideline the Antarctic Environmental Biocomplexity, based on long term studies of processes in the atmospheric, marine and terrestrial environments and its relationships with human activities, especially in Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetlands Islands, Maritime Antarctica, 62°S) and adjacent areas. In this context, the research studies undertaken by Brazil over the last 30 years, including those activities developed by INCT- APA in Brazilian Antarctic Operations XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX and XXX, showed that significant environmental changes are being observed in the Antarctic region and some of them are evidenced in the several studies shown in the present report. Climate records of the last 30 years have shown great climatic variation in the region where Admiralty Bay is located. Temperature measurements have shown evidence of a tendency of heating up (average annual increase of +0.23 °C). However, from 2007 on, the monitoring of the air temperature showed a decline, marked by very severe winters. In 2010 the coldest summer of the region in the last decades was recorded. The measurements of the Ozone layer also show a big annual variability over the region of the Keller Peninsula (King George Island, Antarctica) and the continuous measurements of UV-A and UV-B radiation in Admiralty Bay have indicated an increase of radiation during the occurrence of ozone hole phenomenon. Still related to atmosphere, studies concerning the behaviour of the ionosphere between 2004 and 2010 confirmed that the layer is controlled by solar radiation, whose effect is well defined during the months of the austral summer, while in the period April and October is strongly affected by meteorological processes.

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In the terrestrial environment, the studies regarding the diversity of vegetation and birds communities, have shown that these are directly exposed to the effects of reduction of the ozone layer and the consequent increase of UV radiation, as well as a series of processes originating from anthropic activities which can occur in the Antarctic region. The mapping out of terrestrial community has shown that these are good indicators of the environmental geomorphological and hydrological conditions in the Antarctic Peninsula. Up to the present time, 60 species of Bryopsida (mosses), distributed in 15 Families, apart from the latter, 126 species of lichens were identified, and three species of small size of vascular plants (with seeds): Deschampsia antarctica and Colobanthus quitensis (both native species), and Poa annua (exotic invader). Regarding the seabird communities, the Brazilian studies undertaken in King George Island and on Elephant Island, had the purpose of understanding the relationship of population variations and the distribution of seabird species as a result of climatic variations, including the possible impacts directly related to human presence in the region. Through the methods of counting and population mapping of the main breeding species on King George Island (Admiralty Bay and Turret Point), the responses of these species in the light of the temperature variations, pressure, winds, climate change indices (Southern Oscillation and Antarctic Oscillation) and intensity of fishing were evaluated. From these studies the reduction of some species of birds was verified. In Stinker Point, the penguin Pygoscelis papua had its population reduced by almost 20% between 1987 and 2012, and the population of Pygoscelis antarctica declined approximately 60% in the last 20 years, both at Stinker Point as well as in Admiralty Bay. The declines are being attributed to the reduction of the availability of food, especially Krill (Euphausia superba), due to the variations of the extent

and thickness of the ice layers in winter, of the intense fishing that occurs in the region of the South Shetland Islands, and the recovery of the population of cetaceans and pinnipedes. Other seabirds, for example, Sterna vittata (Antarctic tern) and Macronectes giganteus (Giant petrel), also had their populations reduced in Admiralty Bay, but possibly they have increased on other islands of the South Shetlands Islands,like Stinker Point, in Elephant Island and on Penguin Island. In the marine environment, several studies are being developed by Brazilian researchers in the region of the Antarctica Peninsula, especially in Admiralty Bay and adjacent oceanic areas. In these are included the studies carried out during scientific studies: NETWORK 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Global Environmental Changes and NETWORK 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Environmental Management in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica (2002-2006); Projects linked to the International Polar Year (2007-2009); PRO-OASIS, INCT-APA, INCT â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cryosphere and other 19 projects which make up the process 23/2009 of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). Regarding Admiralty Bay, these studies verified that there exists an intense mixture in the water column of the bay, caused by tides and by the winds. This reduces the stability of the water column, inducing large variations of phytoplankton primary productivity in the coastal zone. The monitoring of the phytoplanktonic community at preestablished points of Admiralty Bay, at the beginning and at the end of summer, has verified that nano and picoplankton algae predominate the phytoplankton of this bay, originating from the Bransfield Strait and that together contribute with approximately 70 % of the total chlorophyll observed. The benthic marine ecosystem of Admiralty Bay has been studied by Brazilian researchers for some 30 years, and this has resulted in research results that recorded 1.300 species of benthic organisms at depths of between 0 and 500 metres, in consolidated and non-consolidated substrates. These studies have shown that Admiralty Bay contains 20% of the 4.100 species of benthic organisms described for the Antarctic region. This has led the Scientific Committee Antarctic Research (SCAR), to consider Admiralty Bay as one of the locations of greater scientific and ecological interest in Antarctica.

Other studies of physiological, biochemical and molecular nature have contributed to the understanding of metabolic and morphofunctional adaptations imposed by the selective pressure of low temperatures and of food seasonality factors. In addition to the latter, there are studies on traces of metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in marine organisms, in the sediment and in the water, which corroborate with information concerning the environmental monitoring of Admiralty Bay. The studies developed about the biomarkers with natural and anthropic impacts have contributed to the diagnostic of the environmental alterations and to the identification of metabolic and histopathological responses of Antarctic organisms of the Admiralty Bay ASMA (Antarctic Specially Managed Area). These are integrated together with the biotic and abiotic data generated by several lines of ongoing research in the area, with the objective of subsidising the environmental monitoring of this ASMA. In parallel to the activities of physical, chemical and biological research, the INCT-APA also has activities in technological areas. For example, the technological studies related to the air quality in confined areas, which can be especially affected by construction materials with some level of toxicity and by the activity which takes places in its interior; the performance of building in relation to thermal, acoustic and luminosity comfort, which directly interferes in the consumption of local energy. In order for the research activities of Antarctic to effectively occur, energy is necessary for the transport and settling down of the researchers, for the functioning of the Brazilian Station research laboratories in general and for the movement of machinery, vessels, etc. As a consequence, the transport and storage of fossil fuels in the proximity of the scientific Stations in Antarctica is necessary. Every year, hundreds of thousands of litres of fuel, especially diesel oil, go through these transport and storage and usage stages when all the stipulated safety measures are taken to avoid the occurrence of accidents. However, it is impossible to eliminate 100% of the risk of leakages and incidents are frequent with varying magnitude. On the ground, especially in the area of proximity to fuel storage tanks, contamination of the soil by diesel oil occurs. In the past there was no knowledge or sufficient technology for immediate intervention and avoidance of the spreading

Introduction |

of soil contamination. At present, successful techniques of bioremediation have appeared, and these based on the ability of microorganisms to use the oil as a source of carbon and energy, transforming complex and toxic substances into CO2 and water, in the presence of sufficient concentration. This is one of research lines presently developed by INCT-APA, with the purpose of developing bioremediation methods that can be used in the contaminated soils of Brazilian Antarctic Station â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Comandante Ferraz (EACF, Portuguese acronym) for the reduction of hydrocarbon concentrations originating from diesel oil and, more importantly, to establish a technology that can be available for all the Antarctica, being applicable immediately following an incident, thus avoiding contamination. Within the technological activities of INCT-APA, attention is called to the development of the Environmental Management System (EMS) for the Brazilian Antarctic Station â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Comandante Ferraz (SGA/EACF, Portuguese acronym, henceforth EMS). The EMS has the purpose

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of strengthening and formalising the compliance of the principles related to the protection of the Antarctic environment, established in the Madrid Protocol, in such a way as to limit the negative impacts of atmospheric, terrestrial and marine environments. This system functions by identifying the environmental aspects and defining the significant environmental impacts as a consequence of these activities, apart from establishing procedures, creating plans for the compliance of objectives from the definition of feasible indicators. INCT-APA intends to contribute to the scientific knowledge concerning the biological and environmental aspects of the Antarctic atmospheric, terrestrial and marine environments, especially in Admiralty Bay and its adjacent areas, generating a network of transdisciplinary information. However, new studies should be incorporated with the purpose of broadening the ecological approach and analysis of the possible effects of climate change, as well as the natural and human impacts.

SCIENCE HIGHLIGHTS 16 Thematic Area 1

ANTARCTIC ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN SOUTH AMERICA

46 Thematic Area 2

ANTARCTIC ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN SOUTH AMERICA

Thematic Area 3

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE ANTARCTIC MARINE ENVIRONMENT

170 Thematic Area 4

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

THEMATIC AREA 1

ANTARCTIC ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN SOUTH AMERICA

Correia, E., Raulin, J. P., Kaufmann, P., and Gavilan, H. R. Atmospheric Changes Observed in Antarctica Related to the Sun-Eath Interactions.

Bageston, J. V., Batista, P. P., Gobbi, D., Paes Leme, N. M. and Wrasse, C. M. Mesospheric Gravity Waves Observed at Ferraz Station (62OS) During 2010-2011.

Peres, L. V., Crespo, N. M., Silva, O. K., Hupfer, N., Anabor, V., Pinheiro, D. K., Shuch, N. J. and Paes Leme, N. M. Synopic Weather System Associate With Influence of the Antarctic Ozone Hole Over South of Brazil at October, 13Th 2010.

Pinheiro, D. K., Peres, L. V.; Crespo, N. M; Schuch, N. J. and Paes Leme N. M. Influence of Antarctic Ozone Hole Over South of Brazil in 2010 and 2011.

Oliveira, A. P., Soares, J., Codato, G., Targino, A. C. L. and Ruman, C. J. Energy at the Surface in the King George Island - Preliminary Results of ETA Project.

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Team Leader

Dr. Neusa Maria Paes Leme – CRN/INPE Vice-Team Leader

Dr. Emília Correia – INPE/CRAAM

Introduction The monitoring of the Antarctic atmosphere and ocean and their influence on South America is being built on a consolidated basis as continuous studies have been undertaken by Brazilian researchers in the Antarctic region for decades. The idea is to give continuity to these studies, which require long-term series, for a better understanding of global changes, and to use the data in numerical models of climate and weather forecasting so more trustworthy forecasts can be done. The mentioned projects, because they were not being considered as monitoring activities over the years, have always been under the threat of interruption. More than two decades of continuous studies on the ozone hole and on the influence of Antarctic cold fronts on our climate, besides other highly relevant studies, must, therefore, have their continuity guaranteed. It is essential that such activities are associated with a long term monitoring program. Antarctica plays an essential role in the thermal equilibrium of the planet. In relation to South America this is especially relevant. The climate of the Southern hemisphere is essentially controlled by air masses originated from the frozen continent. It is well known that the energy, which comes from the Sun, is not constant and can cause variation on the earth’s climate, on global meteorology, and on the environment. Recent studies have shown that solar radiation can alter the physical-chemical properties of the atmosphere and can influence the wind regime and the amount of UV radiation, which reaches the earth’s surface, as well as the cloud coverage and precipitation. The understanding of the interaction between the chemistry of the atmosphere and climate change is a new and instigating research area. The connection between atmosphere and solar radiation, especially UV, which triggers the chemical reactions and these, in their turn, depend on the temperature, atmospheric circulation

and climate, are now been studied in an integrated and systematic manner. New questions are arising with the observed changes on the atmospheric temperature profile, especially with the increase on the troposphere (near surface, as a result of green house gases) and the decrease of the low stratosphere (between 15 and 20 Km, because of the destruction of ozone hole) and of the mesosphere (between 90 and 100 km, cause attributed to the increase of green house gases). The main questions are: What are the chemical changes that are occurring in the different layers of the atmosphere with increase of UV radiation and changes in temperature? What are the consequences for the dynamic, circulation and equilibrium between the atmospheric layers?

Objectives Monitor and Evaluate Changes in chemistry and atmospheric dynamics and its influence on climate, involving: the interaction Sun – Earth, the temperature in the mesosphere, planetary waves, the Hole in the Ozone, trace gas associated with the chemistry of the ozone layer, greenhouse effect emissions, greenhouse gases caused by human activity in the area of the Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz (EACF, Portuguese acronym, from now on) and the impacts of UV radiation in the ecosystem.

Activities Developed The activities of Thematic Area 1 are divided into five themes: 1. Sun-Earth Relationship 2. Dynamics of Upper Atmosphere (Mesosphere) 3. Climatology of Ozone and UV Radiation 4. Meteorology 5. Greenhouse gases and aerosols

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

One of the most important properties of the atmosphere is its ability to withstand wave motion. Gravity waves are well known to play an important role in the atmosphere, e.g. its influence on the thermal state and the atmospheric circulation. The observation of gravity waves has been conducted on a large scale in regions of low and mid latitudes. However, at high latitudes, such as in Antarctica, these observations are sparse and little is known of the characteristics of these waves. Studies are being conducted on them at EACF (62째 S and 58째 W), through campaigns with observations of airglow imagers at different latitudes (Bageston et al., 2009). The study of planetary waves and gravity waves allow us to identify and better understand the dynamics of the neutral upper atmosphere (mesosphere) and its interaction with the other layers of the atmosphere. The observation of this dynamic from Antarctica to Ecuador will identify the various transport processes and dynamic connection and how this affects the atmosphere. The variability observed in the ozone layer and in the ground intensity of the UV-A and UV-B radiation, in the last years, was accompanied by changes in the ionized layer of our atmosphere, the ionosphere. A detailed study of ionosphere behavior has been undertaken at EACF in the last decade. The long term ionosphere behavior shows clearly it is controlled by the solar radiation, presenting a slow variation in close association with the intensity of the solar radiation associated with the decreasing activity of the 23rd solar cycle and the increasing of the 24th (Correia, 2011; Correia et al., 2011). Furthermore, during the local wintertime (April to October in the southern hemisphere and October to March in the northern hemisphere), the ionosphere behavior was strongly affected by meteorological processes from below in all years. The dynamic processes of the lower-laying atmospheric levels are associated with the generation of waves, particularly the gravity waves (period of minutes/hours) and planetary waves (period of days), among others. This study showed that during the wintertime the planetary waves can strongly affect the lower ionosphere (Correia, 2011; Correia et al., 2011), evidencing the coupling between the different atmospheric layers. In addition to the effect of the planetary waves in the lower ionosphere, these studies also suggested an interannual variation, which also has been observed in physical atmospheric parameters, and it is attributed to the interaction between the atmospheric waves and winds, as well as to the inter-hemispheric coupling.

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Measurements of ozone concentration obtained by Brazilian researchers since 1990 to date have shown a large annual variability over the region of Keller Peninsula (King George Island, Antarctica), ranging from 70% in 2006 to 55% in 2010. The latter is compared with the normal concentration, before 1980, when for the first time it was observed that this layer was decreasing over the South Pole Recovery time. The changed the layer was still showing reductions in December due to high temperatures, although the atmosphere was already presenting a scenario to normalize the destruction. The ozone hole occurs only in very cold atmosphere (characteristic of the South Pole) and every year when summer arrives in Antarctica the hole recovers in December, but not to the same level of 1980 that is the benchmark of what we consider Normal. One consequence of this decreased concentration of ozone layer is increased UV radiation. This increase in radiation is confirmed by extreme events over Antarctica and South America, including southern Brazil where in 2010 it was possible to observe a 25% reduction in the concentration of ozone. The southern region of Brazil is subject to reductions of ozone during the months of October and November, which may be called side effects of the Antarctic ozone hole. This shows that there is still a large amount of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) in the Antarctic atmosphere, and its annual variability is a consequence of temperature in the stratosphere (the region between 15-50 km altitudes) in the Antarctic winter. The monitoring of the ozone layer has also indicated that the decrease of the same causes change in temperature of the stratosphere and affects the chemical makeup of some greenhouse gases such as CO2 and ozone surface forming a line to Rio Grande do Sul Southern Brazil excessively increasing the incidence of UV-B radiation and contributes to the increased number of cases of glaucoma, skin cancer and deterioration of the DNA in this region of the country as well as damage to chlorophyll molecules of algae and plants. In large urban areas the increase of the UV radiation changes the atmospheric photochemical composition, potentiating the effect of pollutant gases at ground level. The monitoring of ultraviolet radiation and ozone in the Antarctic Peninsula, Punta Arenas (Chile), Rio Gallegos, Argentina and in southern Brazil has the purpose of demonstrating the influence of the ozone hole in South America. Continuous measurements of UV-A and UV-B recorded in these regions have shown increased radiation

during the occurrence of the ozone hole. In 2009 the land area around EACF registered an increase in UV radiation of over 150% compared to the normal concentration, without the presence of the ozone hole (Paes Leme et al., 2010). An extremely persistent ozone hole overpass was observed from ground-based instruments at Rio Gallegos, Argentina, in November 2009. This was the first time that an extreme event of this duration was observed from the ground at a subpolar station with a LIDAR instrument. Record-low ozone (O3) column densities (with a minimum of 212 DU) persisted over three weeks at the Rio Gallegos NDACC station in November 2009. The statistical analysis of 30 years of satellite data from the Multi Sensor Reanalysis (MSR) database for Rio Gallegos revealed that such a long-lasting, low-ozone episode is a rare occurrence. This statistical analysis reveals that 3% of events only correspond to 4 or more consecutive days with total ozone column below two standard deviations of the daily climatological mean (Wolfram et al., 2012). The effect of UV, as well as potentially harmful to marine life, may also increase the toxic effects of some contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons, commonly present in the vicinity of research stations. A recent study

has demonstrated that mortality of marine crustacean Antarctic Amphipod Gondogeneia, subjected to the effects of anthracene, significantly increased in the presence of UV (Gomes et al., 2009), reinforcing the importance of understanding the biological responses of species to the synergistic action the various natural and anthropogenic environmental factors. Over the past 65 years, average annual temperatures of the air in Admiralty Bay show an average warming of +0.23 °C. However, one must consider that this region’s climatological measurement was standardized only in the last 30 years and the data from this period does not indicate a warming climate. Over the past 14 years, average annual temperatures recorded in the air at EACF showed a downward trend (≈ –0.6 °C / decade, Setzer et al., 2009). According to the researcher teams weather recordings, the winters of 2007 and 2009 were very severe, freezing the two lakes that feed EACF and the amount of ice covering Admiralty Bay peaked with frozen sea to the vicinity of the Polish Station, near the entrance to the Bay. January and February 2010 registered the coldest summer months recorded in EACF in the last 37 years (mean air temperature +1.0 °C in January and +0.2 °C in February).

References Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Gobbi, D.; Tahakashi, H. & Souza, P. (2009). Observation of mesospheric gravity waves at Comandante Ferraz Antarctica Station (62°S). Annales Geophysicae, 27: 2593-2598. Correia, E. (2011). Study of Antarctic-South America connectivity from ionospheric radiosoundings. Oecologia Australis, 15: 11-17. Correia, E.; Kaufmann, P.; Raulin, J.P.; Bertoni, F.C. & Gavilán, H.R. (2011). Analysis of daytime ionosphere behavior between 2004 and 2008 in Antarctica. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 73: 2272-2278. Gomes, V.; Passos, M.J.A.C.R.; Leme, N.M.P.; Santos, T.C.A.; Campos, D.Y.; Hasue, F.M. & Phan, V.N. (2009). Photo-induced toxicity of anthracene in the Antarctic shallow water amphipod, Gondogeneia antarctica. Polar Biology, 32: 1009-1021. Paes Leme, N.M.; Pinheiro, D.K. & Alvalá, P.C. (2010). BrazilReport. WMO Bolletin. Available from: <http://www.wmo.int>. Setzer, A.; Villela, F.N.J. & Deniche, A.G.P. (2009). Antarctic Metereology. Annual Activity Report of National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research. p. 20-21. Wolfram, E. A.;Salvador, J.; Orte, F.; D 'Elia, R.;Godin-beekmann, S.; Kuttippurath, J.; Pazmino, A.; Goutail, F.; Casiccia, C.; Zamorano, F.;Paes Leme, N. & Quel, E. J. (2012). The unusual persistence of an ozone hole over a southern mid-latitude station during the Antarctic spring 2009: a multi-instrument study. Annales Geophysicae, 30: 1435-1449.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

1 ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES OBSERVED IN ANTARCTICA RELATED TO THE SUN-EARTH INTERACTIONS Emília Correia1,2,*, Jean Pierre Raulin2, Pierre Kaufmann2, Hernan R. Gavilan1 1 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil Escola de Engenharia,Centro de Rádio Astronomia e Astrofísica Mackenzie, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Rua da Consolação, 930, Ed. Modesto Carvalhosa, 7º andar, CEP 01302-907, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

*e-mail: ecorreia@craam.mackenzie.br

Abstract: Here we present the ionosphere behavior obtained from measurements done with the ionosonde operating at Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station (EACF) in 2011. We also discuss its long-term behavior obtained from 2004 to 2011 using very low frequency radio signals and GPS measurements. During quiet periods the ionosphere is controlled by the solar Lyman alpha radiation, presenting variations closely associated with the 11-year sunspot number. But it is strongly affected by the excess of X-ray emission produced during the solar flares. The long-term studies of ionosphere behavior have also shown it presents strong variations during local wintertime, which were found to be closely related to the waves of neutral atmospheric origin. The studies of ionosphere behavior have been improving our understanding of its response to natural phenomena, and about its coupling with the other atmospheric layers. The energy exchange among atmospheric layers might be an important factor in the climate conditions/changes, which affect the terrestrial and marine environment, especially in the polar region. Keywords: atmosphere, sun-earth interaction, atmospheric radio sounding

Introduction The ionosphere is formed/maintained by the solar Lyman-alpha (121.5 nm) ionizing radiation during quiet conditions (Nicolet & Aikin, 1960). This solar radiation presents variability in close association with the 11-year solar cycle, which affects the ionization processes of the low ionosphere (Lastovicka, 2006). This effect has been obtained from long-term measurements of very low radio frequency (VLF) signals propagating over long distances inside the Earth-ionosphere waveguide during the 22nd and 23rd solar cycles (Thomson & Clilverd, 2000; Correia et al., 2011, respectively). Since the maximum of the 24th solar cycle will be during 2013-2014, the influence of the solar radiation in our atmosphere will increase in the next two years due to changes in its chemistry and physics produced by ionization process enhancements. The ionosphere is also strongly affected by upward propagating gravity and planetary waves originated in the neutral atmosphere particularly during the local wintertime (Lastovicka, 2006). The effects of planetary waves were

| Annual Activity Report 2011

detected in the VLF measurements done from 2004-2011 at Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station (EACF) (Correia et al., 2011, 2013). The atmospheric waves have an important role in the energy and momentum transport from the lower to upper atmosphere layers, affecting the thermal structure and general circulation in the middle and upper atmosphere (Takahashi et al., 1999; Bageston et al., 2011). The year-to-year variation in ozone holes are also affected by differences in atmospheric temperature and circulation (e.g. Newman et al., 2008). Here we present the solar activity in 2011 and its influence in the ionosphere obtained from ionosonde measurements done at EACF. Recent scientific results related to ionospheric behavior from 2007 to 2011 obtained with VLF measurements done at EACF and at Itapetinga Radio Observatory (ROI, Atibaia/Brazil), and from 2004 to 2011 obtained with GPS system operating at EACF are also presented and discussed.

Materials and Methods

frequencies between 1 and 20 MHz, and four receivers to detect the reflected signals. The echoes of the reflected signal

The ionosphere behavior is obtained using different radio

by the F and E regions of the ionosphere provide a profile of

sounding techniques:

reflection frequency versus virtual height (ionogram), which

VLF measurements are done in the 1-50kHz frequency

gives information of the electron density (directly related

range with 20ms time resolution using Atmospheric Weather

to the reflection frequency) profile as a function of actual

Electromagnetic systems for Observation, Modeling and

height (Piggott & Rawer, 1972). The CADI is programmed

Education receivers - AWESOME (Scherrer et al., 2008)

to obtain ionograms each 5min and drift measurements

operating at EACF (62.11° S and 58.41° W, since 2007) and

each 2.5 min. The scaling of ionograms is obtained using

at ROI (23.21° S and 46.51° W, since 2006). VLF technique is

the software developed at Universidade do Vale do Paraíba

used to study the lower part of the ionosphere, the D-region

(UNIVAP) called the UNIVAP Digital Ionosonde Data

that is between 60 and 85 km of height.

Analysis (UDIDA) (Fagundes et al., 2005).

The Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) of ionosphere is obtained using dual-frequency GPS receivers. The phase shifts produced by the dispersive nature of the

Results

plasma are directly proportional to VTEC, which is the

Solar activity in 2011

integral line of the electron concentration along the path

We are in the ascending phase of the 24th solar cycle, which started at the beginning of 2010 and which will reach its maximum during 2013-2014 as shown by the solar cycle sunspot progression presented in the Figure 1a (http:// www.swpc.noaa.gov/SolarCycle/, access: 22 May 2102). To evaluate the solar influence in the ionosphere on 2011 we compared the foF2 parameter, which gives information about the electron density at ~200 km of height, with the daily sunspot number (Rz, http://sidc.oma.be/sunspotdata/, access: 21 May 2012) (Figure 1b). The foF2 here is

between the satellite and receiver. The ionosphere has been monitored at EACF since 2004 using a Javad GPS receiver with a best time resolution of 1s. VTEC is estimated using the first step of the Implementation of La Plata Ionospheric Model (LPIM) applicative developed in the National La Plata University (Argentine) (Brunini et al., 2008). The ionosphere at EACF has also been monitored since 2009 using a Canadian Digital Ionosonde (CADI, MacDougall, 1997) that consists of one transmitter at a

Figure 1. Sunspot Number Progression with the observations for 23rd and progression for 24th solar cycle (a). Daily foF2 estimated from ionograms obtained at ~16:00UT (local noon time) using CADI at EACF (bottom) compared with the daily sunspot number on 2011 (upper) (b).

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

the F2 layer critical frequency parameter estimated from ionograms at ~16:00 UT (local noon time) obtained from CADI measurements done at EACF. The foF2 parameter shows that the ionosphere electron density changed in close association with the solar activity variation, presenting two peaks (April and November) that are present in the Rz data and a similar increase tendency during the year.

The effect of the increasing solar activity in the low ionosphere was also evaluated from the phase variations of VLF signals, particularly from correlation between the phase variations and the intensity of the X-ray flares. The intensity of the X-ray flares able to produce significant VLF phase variations increased from ≥ 3.0 × 10–7 W/m2 during the solar minimum (2007-2009), to ~3.8 × 10–7 W/m2 and to 4.2 × 10–7 W/m2, respectively in 2010 and 2011.

Figure 2. Comparison of the daily daytime VLF amplitude observed at paths NPM-EACF (b), NAA-EACF (c), NPM-ROI (d) and NAA-ROI (e) with the 27-day smoothed solar Lyman-alpha radiation (a) from 2007 to 2011. The vertical boxes identify the wintertime period in the southern (b and c panels) and northern hemisphere (d and e panels), when the influence of the planetary waves originated in the neutral atmosphere (adapted from Correia et al., 2013) is clear.

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Ionosphere long-term behavior – VLF measurements

Ionosphere long-term behavior – GPS measurements

The study of the solar forcing in the ionosphere using

The ionosphere behavior was evaluated from the study of monthly VTEC variations observed at EACF from 2004 to 2011 (Figure 3a). The analysis shows that VTEC presents a seasonal variation produced by the solar illumination, which slowly changes in close association with 11-year solar cycle as shown by the variation of the Ultraviolet radiation (30.4 nm, http://lasp.colorado.edu/lisird/lya/). This good correlation between VTEC and solar UV variation at local summer (January) and winter (July) seasons are clearly seen in Figure 3b.

the daytime VLF amplitude was done for the 2007-2011 period considering the VLF signals transmitted from NPM (Hawaii) and NAA (North Dakota) and received at EACF and ROI (Correia et al., 2013). The results, as expected, show the solar Lyman-alpha radiation (http://lasp.colorado. edu/lisird/lya/) control on the lower ionosphere, which was characterized by the VLF amplitude decline from 2007 to 2009, when the 23rd solar cycle reached its lowest activity level, followed by an increasing tendency with the starting of activity of the 24th solar cycle (Figure 2). This result is in agreement with Correia et al. (2011), who obtained a good correlation during the decay phase of the 23rd solar cycle (2004-2008). The daytime VLF amplitude also showed high day-to-day variations, which present a clear seasonal behavior occurring predominantly during local wintertime in all years. The VLF amplitude variations indicated a significant component in a 16-day period, typical of planetary waves of stratosphere/tropospheric origin.

Discussion and Conclusion The Sun is the main energy source on Earth, being responsible for its environmental conditions and for life. On the other hand, the atmosphere is also an important element that filters part of the solar radiation that is harmful to terrestrial and marine life, especially in X-rays and ultraviolet spectral range. Solar radiation is not constant and presents variations in different time scales, mainly associated

Figure 3. Daily maximum VTEC measured at EACF (lower curve) compared with 27-day smoothed solar UV radiation (upper curve) from 2004 to 2011 (a). Correlations between the daily maximum VTEC and the UV flux in January (summer) and in July (winter) (b). Figures adapted from Correia et al. (2012).

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

with the Gleissberg cycle (~90 years), Hale cycle (~22 years) and Schwabe cycle (~11 years), as well as with 27-days time scale associated with the solar rotation. The more pronounced solar variations occur in an 11-year cycle, which is the main driver of the Earth´s atmospheric conditions, as evidenced from long-term ionospheric studies and reinforced by the VLF amplitude increase observed during 2011 in close association with the enhancement of the 24th solar cycle activity. Variations in shorter time scales (minutes to hours) occur in close association with the solar flares, whose excess of X-ray emission strongly affects the lower ionosphere. As the Sun becomes more active, the solar radiation increases and alters the atmosphere’s chemistry and physics influencing the environmental conditions, and thus the terrestrial and marine life. The studies have also shown that the upper atmosphere is also affected by atmospheric waves of troposphere/ stratosphere origin. These waves in their upward propagation strongly affect the ionosphere, especially during the local wintertime, evidencing a coupling between all atmospheric layers. Thus, the simultaneous monitoring of the atmospheric layers is important for understanding how

the solar energy input is transported to lower atmosphere layers, and to define the role of solar radiation in the climate changes. In the next two years this monitoring will be very important because the 24 th solar cycle will reach its maximum activity, and the solar energy input in our atmosphere will be at its highest level.

Acknowledgements This work was partially sponsored by the Brazilian Antarctic Program/Ministry of the Environment (PROANTAR/ MMA, Portuguese acronym), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq processes no.: 52.0186/06-0 and 556872/2009-6), the Interministerial Commission for Resources of the Sea (SECIRM, Portuguese acronym), the National Institute for Space Research (INPE, Portuguese acronym) and INCT-APA (Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Antártico de Pesquisas Ambientais, CNPq process n° 574018/2008-5 and FAPERJ process n° E-16/170.023/2008). EC and the authors would like to thank the technicians Armando Hadano and José Roberto Chagas from INPE, for their support in Antarctica.

References Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Hibbins, R.E.; Batista, P.P.; Gobbi, D.; Tahakashi, H.; Fritts, D.C.; Andrioli, V.F.; Fechine, J. & Denardini, C.M. (2011). Case study of a mesospheric wall event over Ferraz Station, Antarctica (62° S). Annales Geophysicae, 29(s/n): 209-19. Brunini, C.; Meza, A.; Gende, M. & Azpilicueta, F. (2008). South American regional ionospheric maps computed by GESA: A pilot service in the framework of SIRGAS. Advances in Space Research, 42 (4): 737-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. asr.2007.08.041 Correia, E.; Kaufmann, P.; Raulin, J-P.; Bertoni, F.C. & Gavilán, H.R. (2011). Analysis of daytime ionosphere behavior between 2004 and 2008 in Antarctica. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 73: 2272-8. Correia, E.; Paz, A.J. & Gende, M.A. (2012). Characterization of GPS-TEC in Antarctica from 2004 to 2011. Annals of Geophysics. Submitted. Correia, E.; Raulin, J-P.; Kaufmann, P.; Bertoni, F. & Quevedo, M.T. (2013). Inter-hemispheric analysis of daytime low ionosphere behavior from 2007 to 2011. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 92: 51-8. Fagundes, P.R.; Pillat, V.G.; Bolzan, M. J.A.; Sahai, Y.; Becker- Guedes, F.; Abalde, J.R.; Aranha S.L. & Bittencourt , J.A. (2005). Observations of F-layer electron density profiles modulated by pw type oscillations in the equatorial ionospheric anomaly region. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110 (A12302): 1-8.

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Lastovicka, J. (2006). Forcing of the ionosphere by waves from below. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 68: 479-97. MacDougall, J.W. (1997). Canadian Advanced Digital Ionosonde Users Manual. University of Western Ontario, Scientific Instrumentation. Ltd. 90p. Newman, P.A.; Herman, R.; Bevilacqua, R.; Stolarski, R. & Keating, T. (2008). Ozone and UV Observations. In: Ravishankara, A.R., Kurylo, M.J. & Ennis, C.A. (Eds.). Trends in Emissions of Ozone-Depleting Substances, Ozone Layer Recovery, and Implications for Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure. Report by the US Climate Change Science Program and Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Department of Commerce, NOAAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Layer Recovery, and Implications for Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC. p. 79-110. Nicolet, M. & Aikin, A.C. (1960). The Formation of the D-Region of the Ionosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 65 (5): 1469-83. Piggott, W.R. & Rawer, K. (1972). U.R.S.I. Handbook of Ionogram Interpretation and Reduction,World Data Center A for SolarTerrestrial Physics. NOAA, Boulder, CO. 90p. Scherrer, D.; Cohen, M.; Hoeksema, T.; Inan, U.; Mitchell, R. & Scherrer, P. (2008). Advances in Space Research, 42: 1777-85. Takahashi, H.; Batista, P.P.; Buriti, R.A.; Gobbi, D.; Tsuda, N.T. & Fukao, S. (1999). Response of the airglow OH emission, temperature and mesopause wind to the atmospheric wave propagation over Singaraki, Japan. Earth Planets and Space, 51(7-8): 863-75. Thomson, N.R. & Clilverd, M.A. (2000). Solar cycle changes in daytime VLF subionospheric attenuation. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 62: 601-8.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

2 MESOSPHERIC GRAVITY WAVES OBSERVED AT FERRAZ STATION (62° S) DURING 2010-2011 José Valentin Bageston1,*, Paulo Prado Batista1, Delano Gobbi1, Neusa M. Paes Leme2, Cristiano Max Wrasse3 1 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Centro Regional do Nordeste, Natal, RN, Brazil 3 Vale Soluções em Energia, Av. dos Astronautas, 1758, CEP 12227-010, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil 2

*e-mail: bageston@gmail.com

Abstract: The upper atmosphere above the Sub-Antarctic Islands and Drake Passage is abundant in gravity waves from the troposphere up to the mesosphere. Satellite data and ground based instruments have demonstrated this high gravity wave activity in these regions. Since 2010 an all sky airglow imager has observed gravity waves through the OH NIR airglow emission (~87 km height) over Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (62° S) on King George Island. A new-generation meteor radar was installed on that site in 2010 and has been operated simultaneously with an OH airglow imager. The data set of airglow images from 2010 and 2011 is under analyses, and the results from 2010 showed similar characteristics for the waves reported in a campaign carried out in 2007. This work will present the observational results for the gravity waves observed in 2010 and 2011 above King George Island. These results are composed by the observational statistics for 2010 and 2011, and the observed wave parameters and the preferable propagation directions for the events observed during 2010. Keywords: airglow, atmospheric gravity waves, wave characteristics

Introduction The dynamics of the polar mesosphere and lower

that turned eastward around the equinox. Nielsen et al.

thermosphere (MLT) are dominated by waves with periods

(2006) used an all-sky imager at Halley Station to show the

ranging from a few minutes to months (Hibbins et al., 2007).

first bore event observed at high latitudes. Bageston et al.

Gravity waves are now recognized to play an important role in the general circulation of the middle atmosphere. Forcing by gravity waves causes reversals of the zonal mean jets and drives a mean meridional transport circulation that leads to a latitudinal temperature gradient opposite to that which would be expected in the absence of wave forcing (Fritts & Alexander, 2003). Espy et al. (2004) reported seasonal variations in the gravity wave momentum flux over Halley Station, Antarctica (75.6° S and 26.6° W). They used data from a sodium airglow imager and an Imaging Doppler

(2009) presented the first airglow observations at Ferraz Station (62.1° S and 58.4° W) based on a full winter data set. They showed the wave parameters distribution and preferable propagation directions for the waves identified during the austral winter of 2007. Climatology of gravity waves above Halley Station was reported by Nielsen et al. (2009), using airglow data of two consecutive austral winters (2000 and 2001) and including local hourly winds and intrinsic wave parameters. This paper present results for two

Interferometer (IDI) radar for wind measurements. The

consecutive austral winters above Ferraz Station (62.1° S,

authors showed a significant day-to-day variability in the

58.4° W), including example of wave events, statistics of the

momentum flux, with a strong westward momentum flux

observations and the observed wave characteristics.

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Materials and Methods The data used in this work includes all-sky airglow images, from which it is possible to identify small and mediumscale waves in the upper mesosphere. The observed airglow emission is the hydroxyl in the near infrared spectrum (OH NIR, 715–930 nm), with emission peak around 87 km high. Small-scale gravity waves can be identified in Figure 1 in original all-sky images obtained in May 2010 and August 2011. The images are aligned N-S (top-bottom) and E-W (left-right) and boxes were drawn in order to identify an arbitrary region of wave activity since we can see wave activity over a large area in the images. The methodology used to analyze airglow images and obtain the wave parameters was revised by Wrasse et al. (2007). They describe the main steps of the imaging pre-processing and spectral analysis used to obtain the wave parameters. The first stage is to align the top of the images with the geographic north, followed by the stars filtering from images in order to eliminate the spectral contamination at the high frequencies (Maekawa, 2000). The third step consists in mapping the image into the geographic coordinates, i.e, the images are corrected (unwarped) for the lens function calibration. The last stage of the imaging preprocessing is the application of a second order Butterworth filter (Bageston et al., 2011). Previous to the wave analysis (spectral analysis), it is necessary to select one gravity wave event easily identified in a set of airglow images. Then, it is necessary to animate the images in order to recognize and select the interested region of the image where the event is

appearing clearly. The last step in the wave analysis is the application of the bidimensional Fast Fourier Transform (FFT-2D) in the selected region which contains the wave event (Wrasse et al., 2007; Bageston, 2010).

Results The results already obtained are the observation statistics for 2010 and 2011, and observed wave parameters for the waves identified in 2010. The statistical results revealed that among 81 observed nights in 2010 we could identify wave events in 31 nights with a total of 74 wave events, while in 2011 we had observations during 123 nights and in 52 of them it was possible to identify 149 wave events. The difference in the observational statistics between the two years is mainly due to the time required for the installation of the meteor radar and the time spend for the installation of the airglow camera in 2010. Furthermore, the all-sky airglow camera started operating automatically only in May of 2010, while in 2011 the beginning of systematic observations was in March. We should emphasize that we had several technical problems in the automatic mode of data acquisition, causing a lower number of useful nights than would be expected considering the length of the austral winter and its long nights. The observed characteristics for the waves identified in 2010 above Ferraz Station are presented in Figure 2. The horizontal wavelength, observed period and phase speed are in panels (a), (b) and (c), respectively. The intrinsic wave parameters will be estimated later, together with the results

Figure 1. Examples of airglow images where it’s possible to identify gravity wave activities.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

of 2011 (now under analysis). The horizontal wavelengths were distributed from 10 to 60 km, with a maximum occurrence between 20 and 40 km. The observed periods were distributed from 5 up to 60 minutes, with a maximum occurrence between 5 and 15 minutes. The observed phase speed has a distribution that extends from 0 to higher than 70 m/s, and the majority of the waves had velocities between 10 and 40 m/s. The results presented in Figure 2 are very similar to the observations reported previously for Antarctic latitudes (Bageston et al., 2009; Nielsen et al., 2009), with slight differences in the phase speed distribution and basically the same characteristics regarding the horizontal wavelength and observed period. Figure 3 shows the preferable propagation directions for the waves identified in 2010, and it is possible to identify

Figure 3. Propagation directions for the waves observed at Ferraz Station in 2010. It is possible to identify an anisotropy to the northwest.

anisotropy, with most of the waves propagating to the a

northwest. Also, a significant number of wave events are seen propagating to the south and southwest. The results on the propagation direction of gravity waves are mainly related with the location of the gravity wave sources and also to the winds filtering processes below the airglow emission layer.

Discussion and Conclusion b

The present work showed the statistics and characteristics of the gravity waves observed at Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (62.1° S and 58.4° W) during the austral winters of 2010 and 2011. We presented the wave characteristics and propagation directions for the waves identified in 2010. These results are similar to previous observations in Ferraz Station and in other sites around the Antarctic continent.

The characteristics of the waves identified during 2011 are currently being analyzed, and the intrinsic wave parameters will be obtained for the full data set by using local mesospheric winds as obtained by a meteor radar. Future investigations will focus on gravity wave sources in the lower atmosphere through the reverse ray tracing model, which makes use of the observed wave parameters, mesospheric winds obtained by meteor radar and models,

Figure 2. Histogram plots for 74 gravity wave events characterized above Ferraz Station in 2010. The panels show the distribution of (A) horizontal wavelength, (B) observed period and (C) observed phase speed.

| Annual Activity Report 2011

temperatures derived from satellite and reanalysis data, and meteorological satellite images.

Acknowledgements The present research is supported by FAPESP under the grant n° 2010/06608-2. Also, this work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process:

n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministr y Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Bageston, J.V. (2010). Caracterização de ondas de gravidade mesosféricas na Estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz. Tese em Geofísica Espacial, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais. Available from: < http://www.inpe.br/biblioteca/>. Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Batista, P.P.; Hibbins R.E.; Fritts, D.C.; Gobbi, D. & Andrioli, V.F. (2011). Observation of a mesospheric front in a thermal-doppler duct over King George Island, Antarctica. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11(s/n): 12137-12147. Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Gobbi, D.; Tahakashi, H. & Souza, P. (2009). Observation of mesospheric gravity waves at Comandante Ferraz Antarctica Station (62°S). Annales Geophysicae, 27(s/n): 2593-2598. Espy, P.J.; Jones, G.O.L.; Swenson, G.R.; Tang, J. & Taylor, M.J. (2004). Seasonal variations of gravity wave momentum flux in the Antarctic mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Geophysical Research Letters, 109(D23109): 1-9 Fritts, D.C. & Alexander, M.J.( 2003). Gravity wave dynamics and effects in the middle atmosphere. Reviews of Geophysics, 41(1): 3-1-3-64. Hibbins, R.E.; Espy, P.J.; Jarvis, M.J.; Riggin, D.M. & Fritts, D.C. (2007). A climatology of tides and gravity wave variance in the MLT above Rothera, Antarctica obtained by MF radar. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 69: 578-588. Maekawa, R. (2000). Observations of gravity waves in the mesopause region by multicolor airglow imaging. Master Thesis, Kyoto University. Nielsen, K.; Taylor, M.J.; Stockwell, R.G. & Jarvis, M.J. (2006). An unusual mesospheric bore event observed at high latitudes over Antarctica. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(L07803): 1-4. Nielsen, K.; Taylor, M.; Hibbins, R. & Jarvis, M. (2009). Climatology of short-period mesospheric gravity waves over Halley, Antarctica (76°S, 27°W). Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 71(s/n): 991-1000. Wrasse, C.M.; Takahashi, H.; Medeiros, A.F.; Lima, L.M.; Taylor, M.J.; Gobbi, D. & Fechine, J. (2007). Determinaçãoo dos parâmetros de ondas de gravidade através da análise espectral de imagens de aeroluminescência. RBGf - Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, 25(3): 257-266.

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3 SYNOPTIC WEATHER SYSTEM ASSOCIATED WITH INFLUENCE OF THE ANTARCTIC OZONE HOLE OVER THE SOUTH OF BRAZIL ON OCTOBER, 13TH, 2010 Lucas Vaz Peres1,*, Natália Machado Crespo3, Otávio Krauspenhar da Silva3, Naiara Hupfer3, Vagner Anabor1, Damaris Kirsch Pinheiro3, Nelson Jorge Shuch2, Neusa Maria Paes Leme4 Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – UFSM, Av. Roraima, 1000, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil 2 Centro Regional Sul de Pesquisas Espaciais – CRS/CCR/INPE-MCTI 3 Laboratório de Ciências Espaciais de Santa Maria – LACESM, Centro de Tecnologia – CT, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – UFSM, Av. Roraima, 1000, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil 4 Centro Regional do Nordeste – CRN/CCR/INPE-MCTI, Natal, RN, Brazil

*e-mail: lucasvazperes@gmail.com

Abstract: During spring, poor ozone air masses can come out of the Antarctic Ozone Hole and reach mid and low latitude areas like the South of Brazil forming a known phenomenon called “Secondary Effects of the Antarctic Ozone Hole”. One of these phenomena was observed on October, 13th, 2010, by OMI Spectrometer over Southern Space Observatory (29.42° S and 53.87° W), in São Martinho da Serra, Brazil. Stratospheric potential vorticity maps on isentropic surfaces and air mass backward trajectory using HYSPLIT model by NOAA confirmed the polar origin of the poor ozone air mass. A description of the synoptic weather system during the event was made by wind field daily average at 250 hPa level and Omega at 500 hPa, thickness between 1000 and 500 hPa levels and GOES 10 enhance satellite image. It was observed that the event of low ozone occurred at the same time as a high pressure pos frontal system was passing over the south of Brazil and the subtropical jet stream left the weather stable and without clouds. These actions favored the intrusion of the stratospheric air in the troposphere and helped the stratospheric air mass transport from the polar region to the South of Brazil. Keywords: ozone, Antarctic ozone hole, potential vorticity, synoptic analysis

Introduction

Methodology

The Antarctic continent shows a very low content of ozone layer during the spring of every year, the Antarctic Ozone Hole (Farman et al., 1985; Solomon, 1999). However, its effects were not limited to the Polar Region, since poor ozone air mass could come out of the polar vortex and reach mid and low latitude (Prather & Jaffe, 1990), temporarily reducing the ozone layer. This phenomenon was first observed over South of Brazil by Kirchhoff et al. (1996). The relationship between ozone concentration and the passage of a synoptic weather system is not well known and it is being considered a new line of research for ozone (Ohring et al., 2010), which motivated this work.

Events of influence of the Antarctic ozone hole over the south of Brazil were detected by analysis of ozone total column, obtained by an OMI Spectrometer installed in a satellite, over the Southern Space Observatory – OES/ CRS/CCR/INPE-MCTI (29.42° S and 53.87° W), in São Martinho da Serra, Brazil. Days with ozone total column daily average inferior to the monthly climatological mean less 1.5 its standard deviation (µ – 1,5σ) were analyzed. For these days, the variation of the absolute potential vorticity on isentropic surfaces maps at 620 K level of potential temperature were calculated with daily parameters from NCEP/NCARreanalysis using GRADS. Air mass backward

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climatological mean which was 292,7 Âą 10.2 DU. The

trajectory was obtained using HYSPLIT model by NOAA for confirmation of the polar origin of the stratospheric air. The synoptic weather system associate with wind occurrence was verified by analysis of the wind field daily average at 250 hPa level and Omega at 500 hPa, sea level pressure and thickness between 1000 and 500 hPa levels also using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data with GRADS, besides GOES 10 enhanced satellite images.

air mass with poor ozone reached the South of Brazil on October, 12th, as can be observed at Figure 1, when there occurred an increase at the Absolute Potential Vorticity at 620 K level of potential temperature from 11th (a) to 12thÂ (b) and higher on the 13th (c), this last day registering the lowest ozone total column in the period, confirming the polar air mass origin by backward trajectory (d) and ozone image from OMI satellite (e), showing the influence of the

Results

Antarctic ozone hole over the South of Brazil. Because of the poor ozone air mass arrival over the South

In this work, the example of the event that occurred on October, 13th, 2010 was used, when the ozone total column was 276.1 DU, a reduction of 5.6% over the October

of Brazil on October, 12th, 2010, the synoptic weather system was analyzed for this day, when action of the subtropical jet

Figure 1. Potential Vorticity and Wind at 620K level for 12th (a) and 13th (b) of October, 2010. Air mass backward trajectory (c) and OMI image (d) for 13th and 12th, respectively.

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Figure 2. Wind field daily average at 250 hPa level and Omega at 500 hPa (a), pressure at sea level and thickness between 1000 and 500 hPa (b), and enhance GOES 10 image satellite at 12:00 (c) for October, 12th, 2010.

stream polar entry could be observed at 250 hPa level and positive values of the Omega vertical velocity at 500 hPa level, which was observed at Figure 2a. Furthermore, the action of an intense high pressure pos frontal system at sea level (Figure 2b) over the region was observed, getting the South of Brazil with stable weather with no cloudiness as can be observed through the satellite image (Figure 2c).

stream over the region caused intrusion of the stratospheric air into the troposphere (Stohl et al., 2003). This pattern had an important role at vertical distribution and total content of ozone layer (Bukin et al., 2011), enhancing the transport of air mass from polar region towards South America and the South of Brazil and probably helped poor ozone air mass transport.

Discussion and Conclusion

Acknowledgements

The decrease in ozone total column of 5.6% less than the October climatological average which occurred on October, 13th, 2010 was due to an influence of the Antarctic ozone hole over the South of Brazil checked through the increase in Absolute Potential Vorticity indicates the polar origin of the stratospheric air mass with poor ozone (Semane et al., 2006) and confirmed by air mass backward trajectory (Gupta et al., 2007) and ozone image from OMI satellite in a manner analogous to events found by (Pinheiro et al., 2011). The synoptic weather system acting during the event was a high pressure pos frontal system at sea level, indicated subsident movement of the air over the South of Brazil, which associated with the passage of the subtropical jet

This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). Acknowledgements also to PIBIC/UFSM-CNPq/MCTI and CAPES for fellowships, NASA/TOMS and NCEP/NCAR for the data, and NOAA for HYSPLIT model.

References Bukin, O.A.; Suan, N.; Pavlov, A.N.; Stolyarchuk, S.Y. & Shmirko, K.A. (2011). Effect that Jet Streams Have on the Vertical Ozone Distribution and Characteristics of Tropopause Inversion Layer. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics. 47(5): 610-618. Farman, J.C.; Gardiner, B.G. & Shanklin, J.D. (1985). Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction. Nature, 315: 207-210.

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Gupta, S.; Lal, S.; Venkataramani, S.; Rajesh, T.A. & Acharya, Y.B. (2007). Variability in the vertical distribution of ozone over a subtropical site in India during a winter month. Journal Atmospheric Terrestrial Physics, 69: 1502-1512. Kirchhoff, V.W.J.H.; Schuch, N.J.; Pinheiro, D.K. & Harris, J.M. (1996). Evidence for an ozone hole perturbation at 30ยบ south. Atmospheric Environment, 33(9): 1481-1488. Pinheiro, D.K.; Leme, N.P.; Peres, L.V. & Kall,E. (2011). Influence of the antarctic ozone hole over South of Brazil in 2008 and 2009. National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research, 1: 33-37. Prather, M. & Jaffe, H. (1990). Global impact of the Antarctic ozone hole: chemical propagation. Journal Geophysical Research, 95: 3413-3492. Ohring, G.; Bojkov, R.D.; Bolle, H.J.; Hudson, R.D. & Volkert, H. (2010). Radiation and Ozone: Catalysts for Advancing International Atmospheric Science Programs for over half a century. Space Research Today, 177. Semane, N.; Bencherif, H.; Morel, B.; Hauchecorne, A. & Diab, R.D. (2006). An unusual stratospheric ozone decrease in Southern Hemisphere subtropics linked to isentropic air-mass transport as observed over Irene (25.5ยบ S, 28.1ยบ E) in midMay 2002. Atmospheric Chemistry Physics, 6: 1927-1936. Solomon, S. (1999). Stratospheric ozone depletion: a review of concepts and history. Reviews of Geophysics, 37(3): 275-316. Stohl, A.; Wernli, H.; Bourqui, M.; Forster, C.; James, P.; Liniger, M.A.; Seibert, P. & Sprenger, M. (2003). A new perspective of stratosphere-troposphere exchange. Bulletin American Meteorological Society, 84: 1565-1573.

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4 INFLUENCE OF THE ANTARCTIC OZONE HOLE OVER SOUTH OF BRAZIL IN 2010 AND 2011 Damaris Kirsch Pinheiro1,*, Lucas Vaz Peres1, Natália Machado Crespo1, Nelson Jorge Schuch2, Neusa Maria Paes Leme3 Laboratório de Ciências Espaciais de Santa Maria, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – UFSM, Av. Roraima, 1000, Camobi, CEP 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil 2 Centro Regional Sul de Pesquisas Espaciais, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Campus Universitário, CP 5021, CEP 97105-970, Santa Maria, Brazil 3 Centro Regional do Nordeste, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Rua Carlos Serrano, 2073, Lagoa Nova, CEP 59076-740, Natal, RN, Brazil

*e-mail: damaris@ufsm.br

Abstract: The Antarctic Ozone Hole is a cyclical phenomenon, which occurs over the Antarctic region from August to December each year. The polar vortex turns it into a restricted characteristic dynamics for this region. However, from time to time, some air masses with low ozone concentration could escape and reach regions of lower latitudes. The aim of this study is analyzed the influence of the Antarctic Ozone Hole over the South of Brazil in the years 2010 and 2011. To verify these events, ozone total column from OMI Spectrometer overpass data for the coordinates of Southern Space Observatory (29.42° S and 53.87° W), in São Martinho da Serra, South of Brazil was used. In addition to OMI data, potential vorticity maps using GrADS (Grid Analysis and Display System) generated with the NCEP reanalysis data and air mass backward trajectories, using the HYSPLIT model of NOAA, were analyzed. Ozone total column for the days with low ozone were compared with monthly climatological average from 1981 to 2011. Considering only the days with ozone lower than climatological means minus 1.5 standard deviation, increased absolute potential vorticity and backward trajectories indicating the origin of polar air masses, 4 events in 2010 and 3 events in 2011, with an average decreased about 6.3 ± 2.1% when compared with climatological means, were observed in the period analyzed. Keywords: mid-latitude, potential vorticity, backward trajectories, Antarctic ozone hole

Introduction

Potential Vorticity (PV) has an important hole at air

surfaces can be used to transport ozone in stratosphere

mass dynamic movement, having a behavior like a

(Jing et al., 2005). An increase at the APV indicated a polar

material surface where potential temperature is preserved

origin of the poor ozone air mass (Narayana Rao et al., 2003;

(Hoskins et al., 1985), being used in studies correlating PV

Semane et al., 2006). The polar origin of an air mass can be

and trace gases like ozone and water vapour over isentropic

show also with backward trajectories (Gupta et al., 2007).

surfaces in low stratosphere (Danielsen, 1968). The domain

Although the stability of the polar vortex, air masses could

of the Antarctic polar vortex and its filaments was define as

come out of its filaments and reach mid and low latitudes,

being the region with high PV gradient, where air masses

causing a temporary decrease in ozone concentration.

with lower PV than the boundary of the outside region

Prather & Jaffe (1990) calculated that Antarctic air masses

were included inside the vortex, conserving differences

could be isolated for 7 to 20 days after their separation of

chemical characteristics, and the center of the vortex with

the vortex, time sufficient to propagate toward mid and low

the minimum PV region or maximum Absolute PV (APV)

latitudes. This phenomenon was first observed over South

(Marchand et al., 2005). The PV variation over isentropic

of Brazil by Kirchhoff et al. (1996).

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Materials and Methods

Results

Events of Antarctic ozone hole influence over South of Brazil

Monthly Climatological averages of ozone total column measured by Brewer Spectrophotometer, TOMS and OMI for Southern Space Observatory from 1981 to 2011 were 291.9 ± 12.5 DU for August, 298.3 ± 9.8 DU for September and 292.8 ± 10.1 DU for October. The days of 2010 and 2011 with ozone total column lower than these climatological averages minus 1.5 times the standard deviation was analyzed according to the methodology described above. The examples of October, 22th 2010 and October, 21th 2011 are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively, where an increase of absolute potential vorticity at the level of 620 K (a), the backward trajectories of air masses poor of ozone (b) and OMI data (c) are represented showing the influence of Antarctic Ozone Hole over South of Brazil. Considering only the days with decreased ozone measured at Southern Space Observatory, increased absolute potential vorticity shown at GRADS maps and HYSPLIT backward trajectories indicating the origin of polar air masses, it was observed 4 events in 2010 and 3 events in 2011 presented at Table 1, with an average decreased about 6.3 ± 2.1% when compared with climatological means.

in 2010 and 2011 were detected using overpass data of ozone total column from Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) inside ERS-2 satellite for Southern Space Observatory SSO/CRS/INPE - MCTI (29.4° S and 53.8° W; 488.7 m), in South of Brazil. OMI ozone total column was compared with monthly climatological averages from 1981 to 2011 obtained by Brewer Spectrophotometer, installed at SSO, Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS), inboard Nimbus-7, Meteor-3 and Earth Probe, National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) satellites, and OMI from 2006. For the days with ozone total column lower than climatological average minus 1.5 standard deviation, isentropic analysis using Potential Vorticity maps were made with National Centers for Environmental Prediction/Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis data (http://www.cdc. noaa.gov/cdc/reanalysis/reanalysis.shtml). These PV maps were generated with GrADS (Grid Analysis and Display System). The analysis verifies if there was an increase at Absolute Potential Vorticity, indicated the polar origin of the ozone poor air mass. The confirmation of the polar origin can be obtained by air masses backward trajectories using HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated

Discussion

Trajectory) model, developed by National Oceanic and

Similar events of low ozone air masses intrusions from Antarctic ozone hole toward mid latitude like those analyzed here were also observed over South America (Kirchhoff et al., 1996; Perez et al., 2000), Southern Africa (Semane et al., 2006)

Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) and Australia‘s Bureau of Meteorology (http://www.arl.noaa.gov/ready/open/traj. html).

Table 1. Events of the Antarctic ozone hole influence over Southern Space Observatory showing the date, ozone total column, its corresponding monthly climatological average and the respectively reduction of ozone.

Event Date

O3 Total Column (DU)

O3 Monthly Climatological Average (DU)

O3 Total Column Reduction (%)

08/08/2010

271,2

291,9 ± 12,5

7,1

09/08/2010

280,8

298,3 ± 9,8

5,9

10/13/2010

276,2

292,8 ± 10,1

5,7

10/22/2010

261,8

292,8 ± 10,1

10,6

09/05/2011

283,7

298,3 ± 9,8

4,9

09/29/2011

283,3

298,3 ± 9,8

5,0

10/21/2011

278,7

292,8 ± 10,1

Average

276,5 ± 7,8

4,8 6,3 ± 2,1

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

and New Zealand (Brinksma et al., 1998). Comparing the

Conclusion

events analyzed with the events observed for Pinheiro et al.

Days with decrease of ozone total column at Southern Space

(2011) over South of Brazil in 2008 and 2009, the events

Observatory for 2010 and 2011 were analyzed. A total of

for 2010 and 2011 had a less intense decrease of 6.3 ± 2.1%

seven events of influence of the Antarctic Ozone Hole over

compared to 9,7 ± 3,3 % from 2008 and 2009.

South of Brazil were detected in these period, with 4 events

Figure 1. Event of the Antarctic Ozone Hole influence over SSO occurred at October, 22th, 2010. a) Maps showing of the increase of the absolute potential vorticity at the level of 620 K from 21th to 22th, b) backward trajectory generated with the HYSPLIT model showing the polar origin of the air mass over SSO and c) image generated using data from OMI for October, 20th showing a filament of poor ozone air mass reaching South America.

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Figure 2. Event of the Antarctic Ozone Hole influence over Southern Space Observatory occurred at October, 21th, 2011. a) Maps showing of the increase of the absolute potential vorticity at the level of 620 K from 20th to 21th of October, 2011, b) backward trajectory generated with the HYSPLIT model showing the polar origin of the air mass over Southern Space Observatory and c) image generated using data from OMI for October, 19th showing a filament of poor ozone air mass reaching South America.

in 2010 and 3 events in 2011, with average ozone decreased about 6.3 ± 2.1% when compared with climatological means.

APA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas

Acknowledgements

Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de

This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-

also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries

Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors

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of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). Acknowledgements also to

PIBIC/UFSM-CNPq/MCTI and CAPES for fellowships, NASA/TOMS and NCEP/NCAR for the data, and NOAA for HYSPLIT model.

References Brinksma, E.J.; Meijer, Y.J.; Connor, B.J.; Manney, G.L.; Bergwerff, J.B.; Bodeker, G.E.; Boyd, I.S.; Liley, J.B.; Hogervorst, W.; Hovenier, J.W.; Livesey, N.J. & Swart, D.P.J. (1998). Analysis of record-low ozone values during the 1997 winter over Lauder, New Zealand. Geophysical Research Letters. 25(15):2785-2788. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98GL52218 Danielsen, E.F. (1968). Stratospheric-tropospheric exchange based on radioactivity, ozone and potential vorticity. Journal of Atmospheric Science, 25: 502-18. Gupta, S.; Lal, S.; Venkataramani, S.; Rajesh, T.A. & Acharya, Y.B. (2007). Variability in the vertical distribution of ozone over a subtropical site in India during a winter month, Journal Atmospheric Terrestrial Physics, 69: 1502-1512. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.jastp.2007.05.011 Hoskins, B.J.; Mcintyre, M.E. & Robertson, A.W. (1985). On the use and significance of isentropic potential vorticity maps, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 111: 877-946. Jing, P.; Cunnold, D.M.; Yang, E.S. & Wang, H.J. (2005). Influence of isentropic transport on seasonal ozone variations in the lower stratosphere and subtropical upper troposphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110(D10110). http://dx.doi. org/10.1029/2004JD005416 Kirchhoff, V.W.J.H.; Schuch, N.J.; Pinheiro, D.K. & Harris, J.M. (1996). Evidence for an ozone hole perturbation at 30º south. Atmospheric Environment, 33(9):1481-8. Marchand, M.; Bekki, S.; Pazmino, A.; Lefèvre, F.; Godin-Beekmann, S. & Hauchecorne, A. (2005). Model simulations of the impact of the 2002 Antarctic ozone hole on midlatitudes. Journal Atmospheric Science, 62: 871-884. Narayana Rao, T.; Kirkwood, S.; Arvelius, J.; von der Gathen, P. & Kivi, R. (2003). Climatology of UTLS ozone and the ratio of ozone and potential vorticity over northern Europe. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(D22): 4703. http://dx.doi. org/10.1029/2003JD003860 Perez, A.; Crino, E.; de Carcer, I.A. & Jaque, F. (2000). Low-ozone events and three-dimensional transport at midlatitudes of South America during springs of 1996 and 1997. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 105(D4): 4553-4561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999JD901040 Pinheiro, D.K.; Leme, N.P.; Peres, L.V. and Kall, E. (2011). Influence of the Antarctic ozone hole over South of Brazil in 2008 and 2009. National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research. 33-37. Prather, M. & Jaffe, H. (1990). Global impact of the Antarctic ozone hole: chemical propagation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 95: 3413-92. Semane, N.; Bencherif, H.; Morel, B.; Hauchecorne, A. & Diab, R.D. (2006). An unusual stratospheric ozone decrease in Southern Hemisphere subtropics linked to isentropic air-mass transport as observed over Irene (25.5º S, 28.1º E) in midMay 2002. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 6: 1927-36.

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5 ENERGY BALANCE AT THE SURFACE IN KING GEORGE ISLAND - PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF ETA PROJECT Amauri P. de Oliveira1,*, Jacyra Soares1, Georgia Codato1, Admir Créso de Lima Targino2, Caio Jorge Ruman1 Grupo de Micrometeorologia, Departamento de Ciências Atmoféricas, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Rua do Matão, 1226, CEP 05508-090, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 2 Engenharia Ambiental, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – UTFPR, Av. dos Pioneiros, 3131, CEP 86036-370, Londrina, PR, Brazil

*email: apdolive@usp.br

Abstract: In this work the diurnal evolution of the energy balance at the surface is estimated for the King George Island, based on in situ observations of net radiation, soil heat flux and vertical profiles of wind speed, air temperature and specific humidity measured at the South Tower in the Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz. The turbulent fluxes were estimated by adjusting vertical profiles expressions based on the Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory. The diurnal evolution of the energy balance components at the surface indicates, during this period, that the large input of energy causes large imbalance in the surface energy balance. The imbalanced term, estimated also for other periods, seems to be related mainly to the heterogeneity of the land use and topography. Keywords: energy balance, sensible heat, latent heat and soil heat flux

Introduction Quantifying interaction between surface and atmosphere through observation is one of the most challenging tasks ever. It evolves estimating exchange of energy, mass and momentum, simultaneously, in different places, facing heterogeneities inherent to the surface of the Earth at different meteorological scales. Among all ecosystems the one represented by Antarctica is most challenging given the extreme weather conditions prevailing during most of the time. These difficulties worsen in the case of the Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz because it is located on the shoreline region of the King George Island that is characterized by highly complex topography. Besides, the land cover is continuously changing by the temporal and spatial distribution of precipitation. The main goal of the ETA (“Estudo da Turbulência na Antártica”- Antarctica Turbulence Study) project is to estimate the energy fluxes of sensible and latent heat at the surface at the Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz using slow and fast response sensors (Oliveira et al., 2012). In this work the diurnal evolution of the energy

balance components are estimated using in situ observations of net radiation and soil heat flux. Hourly values of turbulent fluxes were estimated using low response sensors to provide vertical profiles of wind speed, air temperature and specific humidity (Figure 1). Universal non dimensional vertical gradients, provided by the Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory, were adjusted, by linear fitting technique, to the observed vertical profiles, yielding turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent heat.

Materials and Methods Energy balance at the surface can be expressed as: Rn = G – H – LE + I Where Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil energy flux, H and LE are the turbulent energy fluxes of sensible and latent heat and I is the imbalanced term. The imbalanced term takes into account the energy fluxes that are not associated to local sources, systematic errors caused by observations

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Figure 1. South tower of the Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) photograph of the sensor set up in the tower.

and methodology limitations (Foken, 2008), and phase

temperature and specific humidity can be expressed in

change of ice at the surface and frozen soil.

terms of non dimensional universal relations (Wyngaard,

In this work all energy fluxes are positive when oriented upwards and vice versa. Here, the year day 52 (21 February 2012) is used as example of the energy balance, because the weather conditions are not significantly disturbed on this day.

Results The soil temperature and the soil heat flux were obtained using, respectively, a soil temperature sensor and a soil heat flux plate set up at 5 cm below the surface (Figure 2).

layer and can be used to estimate the characteristic scales of velocity (u*), temperature (θ*) and specific humidity (q*). The net radiation was estimated using a net radiometer (Figure 4) installed at south tower of the EACF. According to Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory, the mean vertical profiles of horizontal wind speed, potential temperature and specific humidity can be expressed in terms of non dimensional universal relations (Wyngaard,

The sensible and latent heat fluxes were estimated

2010). These functions depend on the stability of the surface

using vertical profiles of wind velocity (Figure 3a, b), air

layer and can be used to estimate the characteristic scales

temperature (Figure 3c) and specific humidity Figure 3d).

of velocity (u*), temperature (θ*) and specific humidity (q*).

Details of the sensors used here can be found in Oliveira et al. (2012) and Codato et al. (2012). According to Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory, the mean vertical profiles of horizontal wind speed, potential

2010). These functions depend on the stability of the surface

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The turbulent fluxes of sensible (H) and latent heat (LE) (Figure 5a, b) are evaluated by the following expressions: H = – ρ cP u*θ* LE = – ρ L u*q*

Figure 2. Soil heat flux. (a) Measurement local, (b) soil temperature sensor, (c) soil temperature (°C) at –5 cm, (d) soil heat flux plate and (e) soil heat flux (W m–2) at –5 cm.

Where ρ is de air density, cP is the specific heat at constant pressure and L is the latent heat of vaporization.

Another source of error is caused by phase difference between soil heat flux and surface temperature. Energy balance at the surface responds to the temperature and soil

Discussion The major reason for the energy imbalance (Figure 5c, d) is that over heterogeneous landscape the turbulent exchange processes of larger scales cannot be captured by eddy covariance. Long wave and organized turbulence are not properly described because most of the eddy covariance algorithms do not consider the covariance when the signal is non stationary, so that H+LE is underestimated. Besides,

heat flux evolution in time at the surface, the later parameter is measured using heat plates at some depth so that there is a significant phase and amplitude difference between surface temperature and soil heat flux. Besides, soil heat plates always underestimate the soil heat flux amplitude due to the deflection of heat flux lines of the soil by introducing the plate with different thermal conductivity (Gao et al., 2010)

due to wind direction high variability the foot print has to

Conclusion

be taken into consideration properly in order to reduce the

The diurnal evolution of the energy balance components

error in H and LE measurements.

at the surface indicates that in this particular period

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

Figure 3. Diurnal variation, at 3 different levels, of (a) air temperature (Â°C), (b) specific humidity (g kgâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;1), (c) wind velocity (m sâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;1) and (d) wind direction (degree). Photograph of the instruments (e) south tower upper level sensors, (f) middle level and (g) lower level.

(year day 52) there was a large input of energy, heating

advection of heat associated mainly to the heterogeneity of

considerably the surface and the surface layer (Figure 5).

the land use and topography of the region of the Brazilian

There is a substantial imbalance that may be related to the

Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz. The next step is to

methodology used to estimate the turbulent fluxes (indirect

compare the indirect method with the eddy correlation

method), lack of representativeness of the soil heat flux and

method. This will be possible when the sonic anemometer

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Figure 4. Net radiometer (a) at South tower and (b) diurnal evolution (W mâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;2).

Figure 5. Diurnal evolution of (a) sensible and latent heat heat flux, (b) available energy flux, (c) energy balance components and (d) available energy versus turbulent fluxes (year days 51 to 55 of 2012).

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

and infrared gas analyzer were setup in the South Tower as originally proposed in the ETA project.

Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA, Portuguese acronym), the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Portuguese acronym),

Acknowledgements

process nº574018/2008-5 and the Carlos Chagas Filho

The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the Brazilian National Institute of Science and Technology -

process No, FAPERJ-16/170.023/2008.

Research Foundation, (FAPERJ, Portuguese acronym),

References Codato, G.; Soares, J.; Oliveira, A.P.; Targino, A.C.L. & Ruman, C.J. (2012). Observational campaigns of the ETA Project. Anais da 4ª Oficina de Trabalho do INCT-APA. 25 a 29 de junho de 2012. Rio de Janeiro, RJ. Foken, T. (2008). The energy balance closure problem: An overview. Ecol. Appl., 18(6): 1351-1367. Gao, Z.; Horton, R. & Liu, H.P. (2010). Impact of wave phase difference between soil surface heat flux and soil surface temperature on soil surface energy balance closure. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, D16112. http://dx.doi. org/10.1029/2009JD013 278 Oliveira, A.P.; Codato, G. & Ruman, C.J. (2012). Relatório da 2ª campanha de medidas do projeto ETA. IAG/USP, 37p. Available from: <http://www.iag.usp.br/meteo/labmicro/publicacoes/TechnicalReports/index.html> Wyngaard, J.C., (2010). Turbulence in the Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press.Cambridge, 393 p.

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Science Highlights - Thematic Area 1 |

THEMATIC AREA 2

IMPACT OF GLOBAL CHANGES ON THE ANTARCTIC TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

Schünemann, A. L., Victoria, F. C., Albuquerque, M. P., Roesch, L. F. W. and Pereira, A. B. Mapping and Geopositioning Methods in Ice Free Areas – Antarctica.

D’Oliveira, C. B., Putzke, J., Victoria, F. C., Pereira, C. K. and Pereira, A. B. Phytossociology Approach of Plants Communities in Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antarctica in the 2011/2012 Austral Summer.

Vieira, F. C. B., Pereira, A. B., Schünemann, A. L., Albuquerque, F. V., Albuquerque, M. P., Putzke, J. and Oliveira, C. S. Soil Chemical Attributes as Affected by Vegetal Cover and Seabirds in Punta Hennequin, Antarctica.

Victoria, F. C., Albuquerque, M. P., D’Oliveira, C. B. and Pereira, A. B. Conservation Status of Moss Species in the Northern Maritime Antartic Based in the Index of Ecological Significance.

Albuquerque, M. P., Victoria, F. C., Rebellato, E., Pereira, C. K., D’Oliveira, C. B., Putzke J. and Pereira, A. B. Lichen Moss Association Frequently Found in the Maritime Antarctic.

Putzke, J., Putzke, M. T. L., Pereira, A. B. and Albuquerque, M. P., Agaricales (Basidiomycota) Fungi in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica.

Krüger, L., Sander, M. and Petry, M.V. Responses of an Antarctic Southern Giant Petrel Population to Climate Change.

Petersen, E. S., Krüger, L. and Petry, M, V. Responses of an Antarctic Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus Reproductive Population to Climate.

Piuco, R. C., Brummelhaus, J., Petry, M. V. and Sander, M. Population Fluctuation of Pygoscelis papua and Pygoscelis antarctica, Elephant Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica.

Petry, M. V. and Krüger, L. Foraging Distribution of an Antarctic Southern Giant Petrel Population.

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Team Leader

Dr. Antônio Batista Pereira Vice-Team Leader

Dr. Maria Virgínia Petry

Introduction The module theme “Global Change Impact on the Antarctic

continue collecting data in the same areas associated with

Environment,” which investigates the impact of global

working on vegetation.

change on terrestrial environment, develops a set of research

The main goal of studying the distribution and dynamics

areas thaw of Antarctica, to obtain data which help to

of seabird populations is understand the complex relations

explain the effects of environmental change on biological

between populations and oceanic factors. Seabirds are useful

communities. Besides trying to understand the dynamics of populations and their relationships. The study of vegetation develops surveys to describe and map the plant communities in ice-free areas, aiming to understand their evolution, the relationships with the soil microbial community and birds colony and the emission of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. With the data obtained are expected to contribute to the monitoring of ice-free ecosystems, assessing the possible environmental impacts by human occupation or natural phenomena. Based on this objective, was chosen two indicators, “plant biodiversity” and “plant cover”. The use of “plant biodiversity” as an indicator of environmental impacts, based on the fact that most plants that grow in ice-free areas of Antarctica can be classified into ornithocropróphylous or ornithocopróphobous. Soon, all changes that occur in bird populations will be reflected in the biodiversity of plant communities. The “plant cover” is important because the global changes are altering the ice cover in Antarctica, contributing to changing environments and expansion of ice-free areas. With the data obtained will be possible to identify, locate and describe each plant every community. Through georeferencing of each community will be possible to prepare maps of vegetation, which can

as tools for understand and monitor the effects of global change whereas they provide a link between marine and terrestrial environments. It is, many population measures we obtain in land are reflection of conditions that the birds are experiencing off sea. Sea climate and productivity can affect the foraging efficiency of seabirds and affect their breeding decisions. Seabirds are on the top of food webs, then, they reflect the status of all the levels above. As they rely on sea productivity – Zooplankton, Krill, fishes and squids – any abrupt changes on lower levels of the food webs can affect demography parameters such as number of breeding pairs, survival, breeding success, breeding desertion rates, and so on. All factors are connected: the productivity on Antarctic waters clearly depends on the balance of sea-ice-sheets dynamic which is correlated to sea-surface warming, sea level pressure and wind regime shifts. All those changes can directly or indirectly influence seabirds. As a linkage between sea and land, seabirds drive the structure of terrestrial communities, be they microbial, plants, lichens or invertebrates, by “fertilizing” soils and inputting energy from the ocean on the land. Measure all those connections is necessary so the whole picture of terrestrial communities responses to global changes can be achieved. Furthermore, seabirds can forage far from breeding

be compared with those developed in the period 1995-

grounds, many reaching subantarctic waters at north or

2012, thus allowing the assessment of the evolution of each

going south into the Antarctic Circumpolar Currents,

community, and contribute to building methodologies for

as demonstrated by the study “Oceanic habitat use of an

monitoring plant communities of ice-free areas. The study

Antarctic Southern Giant Petrel population during breeding

of soil microbial communities and the gases flow that

period”. Through geolocation techniques we were able to

contribute to global warming started in 2010/2011 will

access the ocean areas used by the species. Giant Petrels

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

were widespread, reaching latitudes between 55° S and 77° S and longitudes between 35° W and 80° W. By knowing the foraging areas of the species during summer is possible estimate how the population dynamics are responsive to ocean changes at such areas, which is one of the aims of the Thematic Area 2 about seabirds. The efforts to measure such relations start by measuring the seabird population dynamics. Many species are decreasing at West Antarctica, and the paper “Population fluctuation of Pygoscelis papua and Pygoscelis antarctica, Elephant Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica” is a good example of that. Both Penguin populations showed consistent decreases over the last 40 years at one icefree area on Elephant Island, possible as a response to

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climate and food availability shifts. By using current and past information about seabird populations, the studies “Responses of an Antarctic Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus reproductive population to climate change” and “Responses of an Antarctic Southern Giant Petrel population to climate change” verified that the populations of both species are responding to variations of temperature and climate change indexes such as Antarctic Oscillation Index (AOI) and Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), though by different means. Gulls presented a quadratic response to the SOI, what seems to reflect that cooler or warm conditions can take the breeding population down, while Giant Petrel Linear responses to temperature, SOI and AOI indicates a trend of population growth under warm conditions.

1 MAPPING AND GEOPOSITIONING METHODS IN ICE-FREE AREAS – ANTARCTICA Adriano Luís Schünemann1,*, Filipe de Carvalho Victoria1, Margeli Pereira de Albuquerque1, Luiz Fernando Würdig Roesch1, Antônio Batista Pereira1 1

Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Campus São Gabriel, Av. Antônio Trilha, 1847, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil *e-mail: als@unipampa.edu.br

Abstract: Mapping is an activity which can register the occurrence of phenomenons related to land cover. There are several methods of map registry. In Antarctic areas, the mapping gives importance to registry of the land cover of plants in ice-free areas. The maps are tools to understand the dynamics of plants in those areas. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is an important tool to reach this objective, such as the plotting of georeference points in any place in the world including Antarctic locations. This study aims to contribute to the research of mapping in ice-free areas making a comparison with map builds for Hennequin Point and Keller Peninsula at King George Island, Antarctica. The study was carried out using GNSS L1/L2 and L1 receivers to record points in ice-free areas with plant coverage and post processing using specific software. The post processed data were exported to CAD software. With the points plotted, they were connected using polylines to draw the vegetation patches. The maps obtained were overlapped to identify the growth or retraction between the patches. The resulting maps are presented. The results show differences between the patches sampled during different polar years. Probably, these divergences are due to the different methodologies used to obtain the points in these areas. To better understand these variations, we need to produce more maps of the same place, obtained with the same methodologies or compare them using Satellite Images with high spatial resolution. Keywords: vegetation patches, GNSS, coordinates transpose

Introduction Mapping is an application of the cartographic process over data collection or information to obtain a graphic presentation for several phenomenons in the landscape (IBGE, 1999). For this activity tools such Remote Sensing, Photogrammetrie, Photo Interpretation, GNSS and Geographical Information System (GIS) (Rocha, 2007), were used. A range of systems such GPS (Global Positioning System) and GLONASS (Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikowaya Sistema) (Leick, 2004) contributed to improve mapping in areas with difficult access. The systems permit obtaining the coordinates of the user in real time in any place in the World. The paper by Rudolph (1963) was one of the first studies that contained a schematic map of plant community (PC) distribution in the region of Halley Station, Victoria Land, Antarctica. Ochyra & Furmańczyk (1982) used the application of Remote Sensing by multispectral

photography for determining the distribution of PC near the Arctowski Station, King George Island. The resulting map was not georeferenced. Pereira & Putzke (1994) used techniques of mapping to describe the floristic composition of Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antarctica. The study was based on identification and mapping of the PC. The survey of the coastal ice-free area was undertaken by helicopter and identified the floristic composition (Pereira & Putzke, 1994). The referred mapping was carried out through empiric observation and registered in a base map of that place. The GPS facilitated the making of points in these areas, since there is no need for the surveyor to measure distances, directions and altitudes to obtain the coordinates for the points of study. This is the principle of Topographic survey (McCormac, 2007) which demands several repetitions to complete. Pereira et al. (2007) carried out a study using

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

GPS to reference the points in an aerial photographic survey to draw up a map with the distribution of the PC at King George Island, Antarctica.

Materials and Methods Our study was conducted comparing two maps of two locations at Antarctic (Keller Peninsula – 62° 03’ 00”, 62° 06’ 00” S and 58° 27’ 00”, 58° 21’ 00” W; Hennequin Point – 62° 05’ 00”, 62° 09’ 00” S and 58° 25’ 00”, 58° 16’ 00” W) both located at King George Island. At Keller Peninsula (KP), the study was conducted during the austral summer of 2002/2003 (Pereira et al., 2007) where some points were georeferenced using GPS for the aerial photographic survey. Based on the photographic survey the map with the distribution of the PC was drawn up. The second map, obtained through a survey making the contour of the PC, during the austral summer of 2009/2010 (Victoria et al,

Figure 1. Overlapped maps of Keller Peninsula.

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private communication), using a GPS L1 receiver able to obtain centimeter precisions while the data had to be post processed with the Astech Solutions® software. The two maps where overlapped and presented in Figure 1. At Hennequin Point (HP) the study was conducted during the austral summer of 2004/2005 (Victoria et al, unpublished) using the same GPS receiver used to obtain the last map KP. For the austral summer of 2010/2011 a GPS L1/L2 receiver to make the contour of the PC was used. The two maps were superposed and presented in the Figure 2.

Results The results of the overlapped maps of Keller Peninsula were presented at the Figure 1. The contour of the vegetation patches, obtained at austral summer of 2002/2003 year were presented without hatch colors. The vegetation patches, obtained in austral summer of 2009/2010 year were

presented with different hatch colors. Each color represents a plant community as indicated in the subtitles of the Figures. The superposition of maps obtained can be undertaken

same quadrant, they are almost 6 PC of 2011 which are not superposed with the PC 2005.

through two different methods. By the differences between

Discussion

patch positions, patch areas and patch shapes revealed.

The overlap of PC can indicate that both represent the same communities. The absence of patches in a map and a presence in another can indicate that the vegetation 2003 was retracted from 2003 to 2010. This paradigm can be explained with the difference of obtaining the two maps. The construction of the contour of patches over a photographic image can generalize a big area like a plant community which can have other patches from another PC in it. To obtain the 2010 vegetation, it was necessary to make a survey walking around all the patches. Each patch had several points, which connected to form the shape. To do this walk is very important that the surveyor has the care to measure points at their limits between the vegetations and other themes. The limits are not sharply contoured and it is possible for there to be some limit confusion. There is a tendency to translate the paradigm to encircle the patches. To solve this problem, it is necessary that the surveyor has training to identify superficially which species is presented at each location of the study. The identification of the transition between presence or absence of plants.

On average the patch areas were bigger in the summer of 2002/2003 than in the summer of 2009/2010, when the patch shapes show up totally different. But we can see that on average the patches of vegetation in 2010 appear in the same place as the patches of vegetation in 2003. The map obtained by overlaying of Hennequin Point was presented in the FigureÂ 2. The contour of the PC patches, obtained in austral summer 2004/2005 year was presented with red lines. The PC patches, obtained in austral summer 2010/2011 year are presented in a green hatch color. FigureÂ 2, presents a superposition of maps made with the same methodology, but using different GPS receivers. The two maps were designed with points obtained using the Stop and Go method which is able to obtain centimeter precision. We can see differences between the two maps. In the quadrant located at the longitude 428.000, 429.000E and latitudes 3.113.500, 3112.500N, there are 3 patches of PC 2005 which are not superposed with the PC 2011. In the

Figure 2. Overlapped maps of Hennequin Point.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Figure 2 can suggest that the 6 patches have grown over the last 6 years or the patches were covered with snow in 2004/2005 austral summer, implying that they were not found by the surveyor. We have some patches superposed with the same shape. Due to the fact that they are not in the same position can be explained by a cartographic problem. The latter problem occurs frequently in other areas of the map.

and the limits between the schemes cannot be precisely

Conclusions

that receive scientific and financial supports of the National

Regarding the survey methods we need to study more and collect more data for further comparisons. We can use Satellite Images with high spatial resolution to compare places in temporal evaluation. Probably the methods using photography and satellite images georeferenced can generalize the patches. Surveys made from Stop and Go methods need more experience on the part of the surveyor

delineated. Differences of on average 2 or 3 meters can be considered insignificant. The GPS L1 or L1/L2 receivers show the highest precision to build the patches.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística - IBGE. (1999). Noções básicas de cartografia. Rio de Janeiro: Departamento de cartografia. 44 p. Leick, A. (2004). GPS: Satellite Surveying. 3.ed. Hobokey, New Jersey: Wiley. McCormac, J. (2007). Topografia. 5. ed. Rio de Janeiro: LTC. Ochyra, R. & Furma´nczyk, K. (1982). Plant communities of the Admiralty Bay region (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctic) I. Jasnorzewski Gardens. Polish Polar Research. 3(1-2): 25-15. Pereira, A.B. & Putzke, J. (1994). Floristic Composition of Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antartctica. Korean Journal of Polar Research, 5(2): 37-10. Pereira, A.B.; Spielmann, A.A.; Martins, M.F.N. & Francelino, M.R. (2007). Plant communities from ice-free áreas of Keller Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica. Oecologia Brasiliensis, 11(1):14-9. Rocha, C.H.B. (2007). Geoprocessamento: Tecnologia Transdisciplinar. 3. ed. Juiz de Fora-MG: UFJF. Rudolph, E.D. (1963). Vegetation of Halley Station area, Victoria Land, Antarctica – Ecology, 44: 585-586.

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2 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY APPROACH OF PLANTS COMMUNITIES IN STINKER POINT, ELEPHANT ISLAND, ANTARCTICA IN THE 2011/2012 AUSTRAL SUMMER Cristiane Barbosa D’Oliveira1,*, Jair Putzke2, Filipe de Carvalho Victoria1, Margeli Pereira Albuquerque1, Clarissa Kappel Pereira1, Antonio Batista Pereira1 Federal University of the Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Av. Antônio Trilha, 1847, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil 2 University of Santa Cruz do Sul – UNISC, Av. Independência, 2298, CEP 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil 1

*e-mail: crixdoliveira@gmail.com

Abstract : Elephant Island is located at 61° 07’ S and 55° 03’ W in the north of the South Shetland Islands. Stinker Point is the largest ice-free coastal area along Elephant Island, showing the highest level of richness of the island’s fauna and flora. The Antarctic biome is affected by its geographical isolation and special climatic conditions. The objective of this work is to define the most important species at Stinker Point, Elephant Island being the base index of ecological importance. The phytosociological study was conducted using the method of the quadrats. The sampling was done in the austral summer to 2012 in ice-free areas of Stinker Point. To obtain the importance of the species at the points of sampling the index of ecological significance (IES) was applied. Twenty-two different sites in the ice-free areas were sampled in this study and 70 species until now (including algae, liverworts, mosses, lichens, mushrooms and angiosperms) were identified. Thirty-four species have an IES higher than 50, being Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske the most important species. Key word: ecological significance, mosses, lichens, flowering plants

Introduction The Antarctic continent is one of the harshest habitats in the

(Kunth.) Bart. (Caryophylaceae), 38 species of mosses, seven

world, especially for Antarctic flowering plants, lichens and

species of liverworths, 68 species of lichens and four species

bryophytes, which form the dominant elements in rocks and

of macroscopic fungi.

vegetation on the rocky ground (Kappen & Schroeter, 1997).

Lewis-Smith (2001) in a phytossociological survey found

The Antarctic vegetation is affected by the geographical

many species of mosses in association with the dominant

isolation, climatic conditions and its development is

species in the formation, reflecting the dependence of these

restricted to ice-free areas.

species of mosses on the dominant species, which should

Elephant Island is located at 61° 07’ S and 55° 03’ W in the north of the South Shetland Islands. It is a mountainous

they become endangered, the dependent species in turn would be endangered due to interdependency.

island covered with ice in its central area and in the austral

The bird colonies are decisive in the distribution of

summer parts of the coast are ice-free. Stinker Point is the

plant species, as well as the climatic conditions and the soil.

largest coastal ice-free area of Elephant Island rich in fauna

(Pereira & Putzke, 1994).

and flora (Pereira & Putzke, 1994). These authors inform that

The objective of this work was to define the most

Stinker Point has two species of higher plants, Deschampsia

important species in Stinker Point, Elephant Island using

antartica Desv. (Poaceae) and Colobanthus quitensis

the index of ecological significance.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Materials and Methods

2011/2012 austral summer in the ice-free areas of Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antarctica.

Phytossociological study was conducted using the method of quadrats of Braun-Blanquet (1964), adapted to Antarctic

The species were identified during the phytossociological

conditions (Kanda, 1986). The sampling was done in the

survey. The plants not identified in situ were collected and

Table 1. The species with IEI ≥ 50 and the point/formation sample in the Stinker Point, Elephant Island.

Species

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Andreaea depressinervis Cardot

Andreaea gainii Cardot

Brachythecium austrosalebrosum (Müll. Hal.) Paris

Bryum argenteum Hedw.

X X

Caloplaca cinericola (Hue) Darb.

Caloplaca regalis (Vain.) Zahlbr.

Chorisodontium aciphyllum (Hook. f. & Wilson) Broth.

X X

Cystocoleus niger (Huds.) Har. Cladonia metacorallifera Asahina

Cladonia rangiferina (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg. Mushroom Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl.

X X

Deschampsia antarctica E. Desv

Hennediella heimii (Hedw.) R.H. Zander

X X X

Leptogium puberulum Hue

Mastodia tessellata (Hook. f. & Harv.) Hook. f. & Harv.

X X

Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb

Polytrichastrum alpinum (Hedw.) G.L. Sm

Prasiola crispa (Lightfoot) Kützing

X X

Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske

X X

Sphaerophorus globosus (Huds.) Vain.

Syntrichia magellanica (Mont.) R.H. Zander

X X

X X X

Usnea antarctica Du Rietz

Usnea aurantiacoatra (Jacq.) Bory

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X X

Psoroma hypnorum (Vahl) Gray

Ochrolechia frigida (Sw.) Lynge

Warnstorfia sarmentosa (Wahlenb.) Hedenäs

Cornicularia aculeata (Schreb.) Ach

Psoroma cinnamomeum Malme

X X

identified in the laboratory analyzing the characters in the optical microscopy with help of the keys for species proposed by Putzke & Pereira (1990, 2001) and Ochyra et al. (2008) for bryophytes, Bednarek-Ochyra et al. (2000) for liverwort, Redon (1985) and Øvstedal & Lewis-Smith (2001) for lichens. To show the importance of the species in the points of sampling the index of ecological significance (IES) of Lara & Mazimpaka (1998) was applied, which combines the coverage and frequency (Victoria et al., 2009). This index has a value from 0-600, a value above 400 is very rare, because it would denote a consistent area almost absolute taxon in formation, but the value up to 50 showed a significant ecological importance (Victoria & Pereira, 2007).

Results Twenty-two different formations in the ice-free areas were sampled in this study. 70 species were identified (including algae, liverworts, mosses, lichens, mushroom and flowering plants). The species of macroscopic fungi, such as mushrooms cited in this study, have not been identified to species level. In Table 1 the list of species with higher IES (>50) and the sampled point where they were found at Stinker Point is presented.

Discussion Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske showed IES ≥ 50 in 13 to 18 points where that species were found. In 8 of these 13 points S. uncinata was the most important species that

without a higher frequency of plant and lichen species, an increase of significant value. Chorisodontium aciphyllum (Hook. f. & Wilson) Broth. occurred in 11 of 22 sample points. In 8 points this species showed a IES above 50, with two of these points showing the highest IES values (297 in point 9 up to 497 in point 21). In spite of C. aciphyllum being less frequent in the ice-free areas of Stinker Point, when this species occurs it is important for the characterization of plant formation. For the lichens analyzed, two species showed an ecological importance. The IES were higher than 50 in five of the 22 sampling sites, when for Usnea antarctica Du Rietz the highest value at point 12 (IES = 253) was observed. Deschampsia antarctica Desv. showed an IES value higher than 50 in three of the five points sampled. For Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl. an IES value higher than 50 was observed in three of six points sampled, although the higher values observed for the grass species that were not found as a dominant species in the samples. However, C. quitensis was observed as a dominant species in two sites when it occurred with an IES value up to 480 in a single point (point 6).

Conclusion Stinker Point has a widespread variety of plant species, being S. uncinata and H. heimmi the most distributed species among the sampled points. The higher IES of both species in the region can be attributed to a better adaptation of these species to local environmental conditions. Further studies are being developed to better understand the phytossociology of the plant communities in this region.

had the highest IES value in the formation. In a single sample (point 20) this species reached a 573 value, in an index that ranged up to 600 as the maximum value. These results demonstrate S. uncinata as a dominant species in most of the formations in which it is occurs. Hennediella heimii (Hedw.) R.H Zander was the second most important specie found in the plant formation of Stinker Point, occurring in 16 of 22 sampled points. In seven points this species reached an IES ≥ 50 and in three of these points it showed itself to be the specie with the highest IES, reaching IES = 364 in a single point (point 19). Probably, the highest occurrence of this species in recent rocky terrains

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA), Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM) and a CAPES scholarship.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

References Bednarek-Ochyra, H.; Vanã, J.; Lewis-Smith, R.I. & Ochyra, R. (2000). The liverwort of Antarctica. Cracow: Polish Academy of Science, Institute of Botany. 237 p. Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensociologie. 3. Aufl. Wien, Springer. 865 p. Kanda, H. (1986) Moss communities in some ice-free areas along the Sôya Cost, East Antarctica. Memories of Natural, Institute of Polar Research, Special Issue, 44: 1229-240. Kappen, L. & Schroeter, B. (1997). Activity of lichens under the influence of snow and ice. Proceedings of the NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology. 10: 163-168. Lara, F. & Mazimpaka, V. (1998). Sucession of epiphytic bryophytes in Quercus pyrenaica forest from Spanish Central Range (Iberian Peninsula). Nova Hedwigia, 67: 125-138. Lewis-Smith, R.I. (2001). Plant colonization response to climate changes in the Antarctica. Folia Facultatis Scientiarium Naturalium Universitatis Masarykianae Brunensis, Geográfica, 25: 19-33. Ochyra, R; Lewis-Smith, R.I. & Bednarek-Ochyra, H. (2008). The Illustrated moss flora of Antarctica. Cambridge University Press. 685 p. Øvstedal, D.O. & Lewis-Smith, R.I. (2001). Lichens of Antarctica and South Georgia – A guide to their identification and ecology. Studies in Polar Research. Cambridge University Press. 411 p. Pereira, A.B. & Putzke, J. (1994). Floristic composition of Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antarctica. Korean Journal of Polar research, 5(2): 37-47. Putzke, J. & Pereira, A.B. (1990). Mosses of King George Island. Pesq. Antárt. Bras. 2(1):17-71. Putzke, J. & Pereira, A.B. (2001). The Antarctic Mosses With Special Reference to the South Shetlands Islands. Editora da Ulbra. 196 p. Redon, J. (1985). Lichena Antarticos. Santiago: Instituto Antartico Chileno (INACH). Victoria, F.C. & Pereira, A.B. (2007). Índice de valor ecológico (IES) como ferramenta para estudos fitossociológicos e conservação das espécies de musgos na Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica Marítima. Oecologia Brasiliensis, 11(1): 50-55. Victoria, F.C.; Pereira, A.B. & Pinheiro Da Costa, D. (2009). Composition and distribution of moss formations in the ice-free areas adjoining the Arctowski region, Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Iheringia, Série Botânica, 64(1): 81-91.

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3 SOIL CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES AS AFFECTED BY VEGETAL COVER AND SEABIRDS IN PUNTA HENNEQUIN, ANTARCTICA Frederico Costa Beber Vieira1,*, Antônio Batista Pereira1, Adriano Luis Schünemann1, Filipe Victoria Albuquerque1, Margéli Pereira de Albuquerque1, Jair Putzke2, Cássio Strassburger de Oliveira3 1

Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Campus São Gabriel, Av. Antônio Trilha, 1847, Centro, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil 2 Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul – UNISC, Av. Independência, 2293, CP 188, CEP 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil 3 Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, CP 15100, CEP 91540-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil *e-mail: fredericovieira@unipampa.edu.br

Abstract: This study had the purpose of evaluating the effect of soil cover by vegetation on soil chemical attributes in a skua (Catharacta maccormicki) field at Punta Hennequin, Shetland Island, Antarctica. Four locals along a transect were sampled, involving soils with 5 and 100% of vegetal cover (L1 and L2, respectively) with Deschampsia+Colobanthus; bare alluvium soil (L3); and poor-drained moss (Sanionia uncinata) carpet with 100% soil cover (L4). Soil samples obtained from three layers and three replicates were submitted to chemical and physical analysis. Although both L1 and L2 are in the same nesting field, the more abundant vegetation at L2 promoted significantly larger (P < 0.05) total organic C (TOC) stocks in the soil than at L1 (43.08 and 9.03 Mg C ha–1, respectively, at the 0-40 cm layer). Total N stocks increased from 2.60 to 6.54 Mg ha–1 for L1 and L2, respectively. Although the presence of seabirds represents an important transfer of organic material from marine to the terrestrial environment, the differences evidence the importance of vegetation in order to raise the soil organic matter levels. Soil pH was consistently lower in L2 than L1 - about 1.0 unit for the soil layers herein evaluated, which is probably linked to the soil organic matter accumulation. Contrary to the distribution of TOC and TN contents, exchangeable P and K had no gradient along the soil profile, evidencing that most of the P and K is native from the parent material and their input by seabirds to the soil is negligible. Keywords: organic carbon, total nitrogen, seabird field

Introduction Soil chemical and physical attributes affect and are affected

attributes in a skua field at Punta Hennequin, Shetland

by the type and abundance of vegetal plants growing in

Island, Antarctica.

the locality in a dynamic interaction. In ice-free regions of maritime Antarctica, such interaction is usually influenced by the presence of seabird colonies and by the heterogeneity

Materials and Methods The study was performed in February 2011 in Punta

of soil parent material (Navas et al., 2008; Simas et al., 2008),

Hennequin, Shetland Island, Antarctica (58° 23’ 21” W and

resulting in complex systems that are not fully understood

62° 7’ 41” S). Four locations along a transect were sampled:

(Ugolini & Bockheim, 2008; Vieira et al., 2012). For this

L1 and L2 consisted of a skua (Catharacta maccormicki)

reason, the purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect

field with 5 and 100% of vegetal cover, respectively, distant

of soil cover by vegetation on the changes of soil chemical

from each other about 50 m, in the same moraine (same

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

level and parent material); vegetation was mainly composed

Although both L1 and L2 are in a nesting/breeding

by higher plant species, mostly of Deschampsia antarctica

field of skuas, the more abundant vegetation at the L2

Desv. (Poaceae) and Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl.

promoted soil TOC stocks about five times larger than

(Caryophyllaceae); L3 was a poor-drained bare alluvium

L1 (9.03 and 43.08 Mg C ha–1, respectively, at the 0-40 cm

soil; and L4 was a poorly-drained moss (Sanionia uncinata)

layer), achieving the largest contents in all soil layers herein

carpet with 100% soil cover, around a lake shore. Soil

evaluated (Figure 1a). Moss vegetation (L3) also promoted

samples were obtained from three layers (0-10, 10-20 and

larger soil TOC contents, but this effect was restricted to the

20-40 cm depth) at three replicates per locality, air-dried,

surface soil layer and was not significantly different from

ground and sieved (2 mm). Soil bulk density samples were

the others. Relatively similar behavior was observed for total

taken by the core method. Soil contents of sand, clay, silt,

nitrogen contents in the soil profile. Total N stocks increased

exchangeable P and K, total N and soil pH were determined

from 2.60 to 6.54 Mg N ha–1 for L1 and L2, respectively

according to Tedesco et al. (1995). Total organic C (TOC)

(Figure 1b).

contents were determined by dry combustion using a total

The bare alluvium soil and the moss soil had larger

organic C analyzer (Shimadzu TOC-VCSH, Shimadzu

exchangeable K and smaller P contents than L1 and L2

Corp., Kyoto, Japan). Chemical attributes were submitted

(Figure 2). Contrarily to the distribution of TOC and TN

to one-way ANOVA, with Tukey test (p < 0.05) to separate

contents, exchangeable P and K had no gradient along the

means in each soil layer. Physical attributes are reported

soil profile. No significant effect of vegetation cover between

with standard deviations (n = 3).

L1 and L2 was observed for exchangeable P and K contents, but the soil pH was consistently lower in L2 than L1 - about

Results

1.0 unit for the soil layers herein evaluated, which is probably

Clay contents were relatively similar among the soils of the four areas (Table 1). However, silt content was consistently

linked to the soil organic matter accumulation.

greater for the soil in the moraine (L1 and L2) than for the

Discussion

other soils, which is likely due to the fact that the soil of

Although the presence of the seabirds represents an

the moraine is more autochthonous and stable than the

important transfer of organic material from marine to the

others. Lower soil bulk density was observed for L2 than for

terrestrial environment, the differences in TOC and NT

the other soils up to 20 cm soil layer, which is presumably

contents between L1 and L2 evidence the importance of

credited to the plant roots effect on soil structure.

the high soil cover by higher plant species in order to raise

Table 1. Soil bulk density, clay and silt contents, and pH for the four locals of air sampling in a transect in Punta Hennequin, Shetland Island, Antarctica.

Soil attribute

Soil layer (cm)

Soil bulk density (g cm–3)

Clay content (g kg–1)

Silt content (g kg–1)

Locality L1

0-10

1.34 ± 0.11

1.27 ± 0.14

1.43 ± 0.06

1.49 ± 0.02

10-20

1.51 ±0.09

1.29 ± 0.02

1.42 ± 0.02

1.49 ± 0.05

20-40

1.55 ±0.02

1.47 ± 0.14

1.47 ± 1.47

1.54 ± 0.05

0-10

17.2 ± 4.5

14.2 ± 1.3

8.6 ± 3.6

11.8 ± 0.9

10-20

13.0 ± 2.8

11.9 ± 3.7

9.6 ± 4.0

4.9 ± 2.3

20-40

4.2 ± 1.8

13.4 ± 7.3

7.6 ± 3.0

3.5 ± 0.9

0-10

162.2 ± 53.4

225.9 ± 103

149.3 ± 30.1

55.9 ± 16.1

10-20

198.6 ± 31.2

173.7 ± 38.7

72.9 ± 8.9

3.1 ± 2.7

20-40

266.1 ± 18.1

231.3 ± 38.2

199.2 ± 54.2

0.0 ± 0.0

L1: 5% soil cover with Deschampsia + Colobanthus; L2: 100% soil cover with Deschampsia+Colobanthus; L3: alluvium soil; L4: 100% soil cover with Usnea. Values are means (n = 3) ± standard deviations.

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Figure 1. Soil contents of total organic carbon (a) and total nitrogen (b) in four areas in a transect in Punta Hennequin, Antarctica. L1: 5% soil cover with Deschampsia + Colobanthus; L2: 100% soil cover with Deschampsia + Colobanthus; L3: alluvium soil; L4: 100% soil cover with Usnea. Horizontal bars mean the minimum significant difference (MSD) by Tukey test at P < 0.05 (n = 3).

Exchangeable P (mg dmâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;3) 0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Depth (cm)

Exchangeable K (mg dmâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;3) 0

100

200

300

b 400

0.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

10 Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)

pH-H2O

L1 L2 L3 L4 MSD Tukey (P<0.05)

Figure 2. Soil contents of exchangeable P (a) and K (b) and soil pH (c) in four areas in a transect in Punta Hennequin, Antarctica. L1: 5% soil cover with Deschampsia + Colobanthus; L2: 100% soil cover with Deschampsia + Colobanthus; L3: alluvium soil; L4: 100% soil cover with Usnea. Horizontal bars mean the minimum significant difference (MSD) by Tukey test at P < 0.05 (n = 3).

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

the soil organic matter levels. The seabirds are crucial to enrich the soil with N, which in turn favors the increase of vegetal cover and, in consequence, more birds are attracted, completing a feedback looping. However, if we consider that TOC stock in L1 is basically derived from the presence of seabirds (as vegetation cover was low) and that the difference between L1 and L2 is primarily due to the occurrence of plants in the same field, we can infer that carbon accumulation in the soil was about 4.8 times larger in the “skuas+higher plants” condition than that of just skuas. In addition, we speculate that superior plant species have a larger potential to increase soil TOC and NT content not only due to their big biomass production rate (not evaluated), but also due to their important input of C and N in subsurface soil layers by their root system. This is supported by the greatest gradient of TOC contents in the soil profile under moss than under superior vegetal species, which is probably linked to the absence of root systems in the moss. However, such differences of TOC stocks between different vegetal species can be hidden if only a surface soil layer is taken into account (Cannone et al., 2008). Despite the relatively low annual rates of C and N input at the vegetated skua fields, TOC and TN stocks in such soils can be as high as those found in non-polar regions (Vieira et al., 2009). Stocks of TOC of 40 Mg ha–1 are difficult to sustain in agricultural soils of tropical and subtropical climate because of their larger decomposition rates (Vieira et al., 2009). Therefore, in a scenario of expansion in the vegetated area in maritime Antarctic soils, the potential of C sink through soil organic matter accumulation is relatively high. The prevalent absence of gradients for exchangeable P and K in the soil profile and the large differences among the

soils strongly evidences that most of the P and K is mostly driven by their content in the parent material, while their input by seabirds to the soil is negligible. The only exception is the exchangeable P content in soil with moss, which is slightly smaller in the soil surface layer. In all soils, the exchangeable P and K contents are very high (CQFS, 2004) and are similar to those reported by Simas et al. (2008) for ornithogenic and weakly ornithogenic soils of the region.

Conclusion In the localities of the present study, the presence of soil cover by higher plant species contributes markedly to increase the contents of total organic carbon and total nitrogen, being more effective than the cover by moss and much more effective than the presence of seabirds without vegetal cover. The contents of exchangeable P and K in such soils are more attributed to their content in the soil parent material than to the presence of seabirds and vegetation.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: 574018/2008-5 and 481305/2010-6) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ E-16/170.023/2008) and FAPERGS (process 1013351). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Cannone, N.; Wagner, D.; Hubberten, H.W. & Guglielmin, M. (2008). Biotic and abiotic factors influencing soil properties across a latitudinal gradient in Victoria Land, Antarctica. Geoderma 144: 50-65. Comissão de Química e Fertilidade do Solo – CQFS. (2004). Manual de adubação e calagem para os estados do RS e de SC. 10. ed. Porto Alegre: SBCS. 400p. Navas, A.; López-Martínez, J.; Casas, J.; Machín, J.; Durán, J.J.; Serrano, E.; Cuchi, J.-A. & Mink, S. (2008). Soil characteristics on varying lithological substrates in the South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctica. Geoderma 144: 123-139.

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Simas, F.N.B.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Albuquerque Filho, M.R.; Francelino, M.R.; Fernandes Filho, E.I. & da Costa, L.M. (2008). Genesis, properties and classification of Cryosols from Admiralty Bay, maritime Antarctica. Geoderma 144: 116-122. Tedesco, M.J.; Gianello, C.; Bissani, C.A.; Bohnen, H. & Volkweiss, S.J. (1995). AnĂĄlises de solo, plantas e outros materiais. Departamento de Solos, UFRGS, Porto Alegre. Ugolini, F.C. & Bockheim, J.G. (2008). Antarctic soils and soil formation in a changing environment: A review. Geoderma 144: 1-8. Vieira, F.C.B.; Pereira, A.B.; Bayer, C.; SchĂźnemann, A.L.; Victoria, F.C.; Albuquerque, M.P. & Oliveira, C.S. (2012). In situ methane and nitrous oxide fluxes in soil from a transect in Hennequin Point, King George Island, Antarctic. Chemosphere (Oxford), 90: 497-504. Vieira, F.C.B.; Bayer, C.; Zanatta, J.A.; Mielniczuk, J. & Six, J. (2009). Building Up Organic Matter in a Subtropical Paleudult under Legume Cover-Crop-Based Rotations. Soil Science Society of America Journal 73: 1699-1706.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

4 CONSERVATION STATUS OF MOSS SPECIES IN NORTHERN MARITIME ANTARCTIC BASED ON THE INDEX OF ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Filipe de Carvalho Victoria1,*, Margéli Pereira de Albuquerque1, Cristiane Barbosa D’Oliveira1, Antonio Batista Pereira1 Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Av. Antonio Trilha, 1847, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil

*e-mail: filipevictoria@gmail.com

Abstract: The aim of this work was to verify moss conservation status on ice-free areas of northern Maritime Antarctic, including data of Elephant Island, King George Island and Deception Island. The study started with the classification and description of the plant communities based primarily on phytosociological and biodiversity data. All records were obtained from 1991-1992 to 2003-2004 austral summers. The coverage degree and frequency of each species found was used to calculate the index of ecological significance. 22 most frequent species based on all island records were found. The most important species in both studied areas were Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske, Polytrichastrum alpinum (Hedw.) G. L. Smith, Bartramia patens Brid., respectively, occurring in all the studied islands. These results demonstrate the fragility of plant communities in Maritime Antarctic, based on the low frequency and coverage of most species known to this area. Keyword: Bryophyta, ice-free areas, plant communities

Introduction Since 1940 there has been evidence through monitoring and observation of the global warming effect on the plant species of Maritime Antarctic, mainly related to the oscillations in the percentages of plant coverage (Lewis-Smith, 2001). An important tool to study these fluctuations in bryophytes populations was idealized by Lara & Mazimpaka (1998). These authors developed the Index of Ecological Significance

associated species, and if the dominant species is threatened, their dependents also will be (Lewis-Smith, 2001). In order to complement the knowledge of plant communities in the ice-free areas of Admiralty Bay, are presented the conservation status of mosses based in several phytosociological studies developed in the Maritime Antarctic.

(IES), which compares the frequency and abundance of data to determine the importance of the species in a studied area. The index can be applied for moss conservation and phytosociological studies and for the classification of threatened species (Hallingbäck & Hodgetts, 2000), proposed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Furthermore to reflect the importance of the particular species in plant formation, which also shows the degree of association within species in the sample, such is the degree of importance of maintaining this formation. If many species are associated with the dominant species of a formation, thus invariably they reflect the dependence of the

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Materials and Methods The data obtained in the phytosociological approaches since 1991/1992 up to 2003/2004 austral summers, were compiled to verify the most frequent species found in the plant communities from northern Maritime Antarctic. Data was analyzed from some four islands from the South Shetland Islands, as follows: Elephant Island (1991/1992 summer); King George Island (2003/2004, 2004/2005 summers) and Deception Island (1993/1994). High coverage moss species or dominant lichen species were sampled using the usual collection methods. The identification of the species was

based on specialized literature, such as Ochyra et al. (2008), Pereira & Putzke (1994) and Putzke & Pereira (2001). The index of ecological significance (IES) was calculated based on the Lara & Marzimpaka (1998), subsequently Victoria & Pereira (2007).

Table 2. The species have more and less IES in the phytossociological analyzes made in King George Island in the austral summers 2003/2004 and 2004/2005. F(%) = species frequency in 560 sampled quadrats; C= mean cover degree of each species on the samples; IES = species index of ecological importance in the total sampling.

F (%)

Species Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske

Results Of the 102 moss species confirmed by Ochyra et al. (2008) for Antarctica, 22 of the most important moss species to northern Maritime Antarctic were found. From our data it was possible to verify the occurrence of Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loske as the most frequent species in the three island communities is analyzed in (Tables 1 to 3). However with the IES of each species it was possible verify the other dominant species varieties of both islands (Figure 1). Polytrichastrum alpinum (Hedw.) G.L. Smith was observed as the second most important species in the ice-free areas of King George and Deception Islands. The IES also indicates the degree of colonization of a determined species in the sample (Lara & Mazimpaka, 1998) which can also suggest the effect of variations of species occurrences related to the available substrata. Thus, if a species depends on a rich matter substrata and those are unavailable in that region that species will decline due to the relevant substrata being missing (Victoria et al., 2006). Probably, for the regions where the terrains are composed of a lower fraction of organic matter only a few species included in the most important species list were found. This is the case of Deception Island, where, due the predominant volcanic substrata, only four species with significant index values (Table 3) were found, most plant communities being Table 1. The species have more and less IES in the phytosociological analyzes made in Elephant Island in the year 1992. F(%) = species frequency in 240 sampled quadrats; C = mean cover degree of each species on the samples. IES = species index of ecological importance in the total sampling.

Species

IES

Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske

68.45

1.76

189.24

Bartramia patens Brid.

1.60

0.02

1.63

Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid.

1.07

0.01

1.08

Brachythecium austrosalebrosum (Müll. Hal.) Paris

1.07

0.02

1.09

Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb

0.53

0.01

0.54

Pohlia cruda (Hedw.) Lindb.

1.60

0.02

1.63

IES

57,87

2,7 215,20

Polytrichastrum alpinum(Hedw.) G.L. Sm 31,86

3,8 153,54

Ptychostomum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) P. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.

27,9

0,9

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw.

11,36 2,02

34,3

Andreaea gainii Cardot

14,96

0,6

24,54

Syntrichia princeps (De Not.) Mitt.

7,69

1,98 22,96

Pohlia cruda (Hedw.) Lindb.

2,28

0,15

2,03

Bartramia patens Brid.

1,71

0,6

2,03

Bryum pallescens Schleich. ex Schwägr.

1,47

0,38

2,03

Schistidium antarctici (Cardot) L.I. Savicz & Smirnova

1,33

0,36

1,87

Chorisodontium aciphyllum (Hook. f. & Wilson) Broth.

0,38

3,68

1,78

Dicranoweisia brevipes (Müll. Hal.) Cardot

0,38

3,68

1,78

Bryum orbiculatifolium Cardot & Broth.

0,95

0,74

1,66

Brachythecium austrosalebrosum (Müll. Hal.) Paris

0,38

3,36

1,66

Pohlia drummondii (Müll. Hal.) A.L. Andrews

0,20

3,32

0,84

Schistidium falcatum (Hook. f. & Wilson) B. Bremer

0,21

3,33

0,85

Andreaea depressinerves Cardot

0,19

3,31

0,83

Bryum archangelicum Bruch & Schimp.

0,19

3,31

0,83

Ditrichum hyalinum (Mitt.) Kuntze

0,19

3,31

0,83

53,3

Table 3. The species found in Deception Island in the phytosociological analyzes made in the year 1994. F(%) = species frequency in 284 sampled quadrats; C = mean cover degree of each species on the samples; IES = species index of ecological importance in the total sampling.

Species

IES

Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske

71.83

1.84

203.90

Polytrichastrum alpinum (Hedw.) G.L. Sm

35.92

1.18

78.15

Bartramia patens Brid.

8.10

0.11

9.01

Hennediella heimii (Hedw.) R.H. Zander

5.99

0.09

6.49

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Figure 1. The most frequent moss found in northern Maritime Antarctic and their frequencies in each island sampled.

restricted to the beaches (Putzke & Pereira, 2001) with a

the species were found in small patches and populations,

higher content of carbon and other nitrogen compounds.

and it showed lower resistance and resilience, wherever

On the other hand at Elephant Island this relationship

the interrelationships within the organisms was low

was not observed, for example, Stinker Point has higher

(Schaefer et al., 2004). Any impacts on these species can be

nitrophilic soils related with the bird colonies (Pereira &

irreversible (Victoria & Pereira, 2007).

Putzke, 1994) and the most important species of the list are

For example, we can cite the most frequent Bryaceae

also few. An explanation for the latter can be closely related

occurrences found. Ptychostumum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.)

to the effect of winds (Putzke & Pereira, 2001) such as in

J.R. Spence & H.P. Ramsay and Bryum orbiculatifolium

Admiralty Bay area, which is less exposed and thus shows

Card. et Broth. Depend on ice-melt found in the water

a greater number of important species.

lines of austral summer (Allison & Lewis-Smith, 1973; Kanda, 1986). P. pseudotrichetrum has higher abundance

Discussion

in our samples from King George Island and can be

Comparing the records obtained from the three islands,

considered a lower degree of threatened species compared

was observed such these corroborated with other initiatives.

to B. orbiculatifolium. The size of P. pseudotrichetrum

Most of the species are easily found in the area, but in

population provides best response in the case of fast

lower coverage (IES > 50) with a lower number of species

environmental changes, perhaps an adaptative success

in higher abundance and coverage (Victoria et al., 2009,

related of a higher coverage degree (Lewis-Smith, 2001).

2011). Ochyra (1998) reports Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.)

Victoria et al. (2011) records for small sites of Admiralty

Loeske and Polytrichastrum alpinum (Hedw.) G.L.Smith

Bay area, both in the King George Island (Ulmann Point and

as the most abundant moss species in Maritime Antarctic,

Comandante Ferraz beach) similar results to those found for

being in lower risk of threat compared with other moss

the whole South Shetlands archipelago, whereby S. uncinata

species in this area. These results can suggest the sensibility

also occurs in higher frequency and coverage. However

of these plant communities to environmental changes, since

with less frequency for P. alpinum P. pseudotrichetrum, for

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Ferraz beach, and Syntrichia magellanica (De Not.) Mitt, for Ulmann Point the species are the second most important for each area, perhaps because of the lower complexity of these two plant communities sampled, these communities being composed mainly of emergent species, such as these two species mentioned (Victoria et al., 2009). Victoria & Pereira (2007) reported the same condition for Arctowski region and Hennequin Point, both regions located in Admiralty Bay area. The other frequent moss species mentioned were found to be important species for the plant communities at Hennequin Point and in Arctowski region (Victoria & Pereira, 2007), except for Hennediela heimii (Hedw.) Zand, which was found in higher frequency in Ferraz beach in the present study compared with other areas. All moss species, as well the land biota found in Admiralty Bay, were directly and indirectly affected by human presence. The maintenance of scientists and military inside and outside of research stations, shelters and camps, involves high consumption of fossil combustibles and creates high residue production, causing unclear impacts on Antarctica wildlife (Olech, 1996).

Conclusion This essay demonstrates the fragility of moss formation in the ice-free areas of northern Maritime Antarctic, such species of Bryum, Pohlia and Andreaea appear as the mostly threatened species. A descriptive data bank can collaborate for the continued monitoring of plant communities, contributing to the conservation of plant species in Admiralty Bay area. The phytosociological studies can contribute to the management of scientific activities involved with the Brazilian Antarctic Program.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM), and the CNPq for the post-doctoral fellowship (CNPq process: n° 152270/2011-6 ) to the second author.

References Allison, J.S. & Lewis-Smith, R.I. (1973). The vegetation of Elephant Island, South Shetland Islands. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 33-34:185-212. Hallingbäck, T. & Hodgetts, N. (2000). Mosses, liverworts & hornworts: a status survey and conservation action plan for bryophytes. IUCN, Gland. 106 p. Kanda, H. (1986). Moss communities in some ice-free areas along the Söya Coast, East Antarctica. Memoirs of Natural. Institute of Polar Research, Special Issue, 44: 229-240. Lara, F. & Mazimpaka, V. (1998). Sucession of epiphytic bryophytes in a Quercus pyrenaica forest from Spanish Central Range (Iberian Peninsula). Nova Hedwigia, 67: 125-138. Lewis-Smith, R.I. & Gimingham, C.H. (1976). Classification of cryptogamic communities in the maritime Antarctic. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 33-34: 89-122. Lewis-Smith, RI. (2001). Plant Colonization Response to climate change in the Antarctic. Folia. Facultatis Scientiarium Naturalium Universitatis Masarykianae Brunensis, Geográica, 25: 19-33. Ochyra, R. (1998). The moss flora of King George Island Antarctica. Cracow: Polish Academy of Sciences. 278 p. Ochyra, R.; Lewis-Smith, R.I. & Bednarek-Ochyra, H. (2008). The Illustrated Moss Flora of Antarctica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 685 p.

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Olech, M. (1996). Human impact on terrestrial ecosystems in West Antarctica. Proccedings of NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology, 9: 299-306. Pereira, A.B. & Putzke, J. (1994). Floristic composition of Stinker Point, Elephant Island, Antarctica. Korean Journal of Polar Research, 5(2): 37-47. Putzke, J. & Pereira, A.B. (2001). The Antarctic Mosses – With Special Reference to the South Shetland Island. Canoas – RS. Editora da ULBRA. 196 p. Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Dias, L.E.; Albuquerque, M.A.; Francelino, M.R.; Costa, L.M. & Ribeiro, J.R.E.S. (2004). Monitoramento ambiental e avaliação dos impactos nos ecossistemas terrestres da Antártica Marítima: Princípios e aplicação. In: Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Simas, F.N.B. & Albuquerque Filho, M.R. (Eds.). Ecossistemas costeiros e monitoramento ambiental da Antártica Marítima. Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George. Viçosa: NEPUT. p. 107-117. Victoria, F.C. & Pereira, A.B. (2007). Índice de valor ecológico (IES) como ferramenta para estudos fitossociológicos e conservação das espécies de musgos na Baia do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica Marítima. Oecologia Brasiliensis, 11(1): 50-55. Victoria, F.C.; Albuquerque, M.P. & Pereira, A.B. (2006). Lichen-moss association in plant comunnities of the Southwest Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Neotropical Biology Conservation, 1(2): 84-89. Victoria, F.C.; Pereira, A.B. & Costa, D.P. (2009). Composition and distribution of mos formations in the ice-free areas adjoining the Arctowski region, Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Iheringia Série Botânica, 64(1): 81-91. Victoria, F.C.; Albuquerque, M.P. & Pereira, A.B. (2011). Conservation status of plant communities in Ulmann Point and Comandante Ferraz Station area, Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica, based in the index of ecological significance. Annual Activity Report 2010. INCT-APA/ CNPq. p. 62-72.

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5 LICHEN MOSS ASSOCIATION FREQUENTLY FOUND IN MARITIME ANTARCTIC Margéli Pereira de Albuquerque1,*, Filipe de Carvalho Victoria1, Enzo Rebellato1, Clarissa Keppel Pereira1, Cristiane Barbosa D’Oliveira1, Jair Putzke2, Antonio Batista Pereira1 2

1 Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Av. Antônio Trilha, 1847, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul – UNISC, Av. Independência, 2298, CEP 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil

*e-mail: margeli_albuquerque@hotmail.com

Abstract: The aim of this work was to report on the lichen-moss association in the ice-free areas of Elephant Island, King George Island, Nelson Island and Deception Island. The study started with the classification and description of the plant communities based primarily on phytosociological and biodiversity data. All data were obtained from 2003-2004 to 2011-2012 austral summers. 12 most frequent lichen-moss association species based on all island records were found. The most frequent association in both studied areas involved foliose-crustose lichen with a moss carpet species, such as Psoroma cinnamomeum Malme with Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loesk. The occurrences for each island as well as the common association found in all sampled islands are demonstrated. Keywords: lichen ecology, bryophytes, South Shetlands archipelago, Maritime Antarctic

Introduction The composition, abundance and distribution of the plant communities in Antarctica is directly related with the changes in the climatic conditions and the effects of climate warming, resulting in alterations including changes in populations (Frenot et al., 2005; Convey, 2006). Lichens is the group that has the highest species diversity, meeting the conditions best adapted in Antarctica, having an important contribution in floristic composition in these areas, and their existence is dependent on ice-free regions, climate and a stable substrate (Redon, 1985; Kappen & Schroeter, 1997). Lewis-Smith (2001) in a phytosociological study found that many species of mosses are associated with dominant species in the formation, reflecting the dependence of these species of mosses because if the dominant species become endangered, the dependent one will become endangered too. Studies on the coexistence of terrestrial algae species and lichenized fungi were also published, such their relationship within the growth habit and ecological adaptation in the Antarctic environment. Associations are reported between mosses and lichens species, and plant formations growing in associations at King George Islands, Nelson Island and

Elephant Island (Allison & Lewis-Smith, 1973; Pereira & Putzke, 1994; Victoria et al., 2006). A mapping of these plant formations is being conducted to infer the environmental changes as well the human impact over the years of the plant composition in the Antarctic ice-free areas. In order to complement the knowledge of plant communities in the ice-free areas of Maritime Antarctic, associations between lichens and mosses observed during the phytosociological survey made since 2003-2004 up to 2011-2012 austral summers are presented here, as well as the strongest associations found in each surveyed island together with their coverage and frequencies.

Materials and Methods Using the phytosociological data obtained since 2003/2004 up to 2011/2012 austral summers all records from lichens found associated to moss species were analyzed. The data was obtained from a survey using Braun-Blanquet phytosociological methods (Braun-Blanquet, 1964), adapted to Antarctic conditions (Kanda, 1986). Whenever possible, samples of lichens with highly developed ascomas (presence

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of apothecia or perithecia) were made. Saxicolous species were pulled out with the help of a geologist hammer, and muscicolous and/or terricolous species, with the help of a knife, to make sure the samples would come out with some substrate. Identification of the species was based on the work of Redon (1985), Ochyra (1998), Pereira & Putzke (1994) and Putzke & Pereira (1990). The records were ordered in a frequency range, by the most to the less frequent species found in association.

Results Based on the phytosociological data it was possible to verify the occurrence of 12 of the most frequent lichenmoss associations in ice-free areas in Maritime Antarctic (Figure 1). Only three associations were observed in all the sampled islands, being represented by thalose-foliose lichens. The lichen Psoroma cinamomeum Malme was found as being the most frequent lichen found associated with mosses, mainly with species where the cushion is the most frequent life form. Leptogium spp. were also found frequently associated with moss species, but the opposite to that was observed for the previous association, these lichens were found commonly associated with moss carpets such Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske. When comparing the records of all the islands a lower occurrence of fruticose lichens associated with mosses

is observed, probably due to this lichen life form being found often in rocky sites where both lichen and moss species are well adapted to colonize rock outcrops directly (Victoria et al., 2006). Cushion mosses occur mainly in rocky terrains in higher places (more than 100mts), often without the need for an early-colonized substrata, growing directly on outcrops (Ochyra, 1998). This moss life form can spread to uncovered lower terrains and then are immediately available for the muscicolous lichen colonization, such as Ochrolechia frigida (Sw.) Lynge. This lichen species was found in several sites in association with Andreaea spp. (Figure 2a) in the sampled islands, except for Deception Island, frequently found in beach plateaus. This association is one of the most frequent in Nelson Island along with Usnea antarctica-Cladonia spp. - Polytrichum juniperinum and Huea coralligera - Sphaeorophorus globosus - Usnea aurantiacoatra - Syntrichia saxicola association (Figure 2b and 2c, respectively). The same association was the most frequently found in Elephant Island (Pereira & Putzke, 1994; Putzke & Pereira, 2012). Two associations were found only in a single island, one composed by a fruticose lichen (Usnea spp.Polytrichastrum alpinum) and the other by a dimorphic lichen (Cladonia metacorallifera – Sanionia uncinata, Figure 2d) both in lower frequencies in the King George Island. The association between Psoroma cinnamomeum

Figure 1. The most lichen-moss associations found in the northern Maritime Antarctic and their frequencies in each island sampled.

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Figure 2. Examples of lichen-moss associations found in the northern Maritime Antarctic. a) Ochrolechia frigida-Andreaea association. b) Usnea antarctica-Cladonia spp.-Polytrichum juniperinum association. c) Huea coralligera-Sphaeorophorus globosus-Usnea aurantiacoatraSyntrichia saxicola association. d) Cladonia metacorallifera-Sanionia uncinata association. e) Psoroma cinnamomeum-Andreaea gainii association. f) Cladonia metacorallifera-Sphaeorophorus globosus-Polytrichastrum alpinum association.

and Andreaea gainii Cardot (Figure 2e) and Leptogium puberulum with Ptychostomum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) J.R. Spence & H.P. Ramsay were the most frequent association observed in the Admiralty Bay area (King George Island). Dimorphic lichen was also found associated with other fruticose lichens, often in higher plateau (Øvstedal & Lewis-Smith, 2001; Victoria et al., 2009), the latter being found in Elephant, Nelson and King George Islands in the Cladonia metacorallifera-Sphaeorophorus globosus-Polyrtrichastrum alpinum association (Figure 2f).

Discussion The plants and lichen species found in Antarctica were developing, mainly, on rocks or moist soils, the rocks being fragmented since the soil had a higher ornithogenic influence. Thus the lichen and moss association were often found in terrain types where both organisms are adapted, corroborating the reports made from several studies on plant communities in Antarctica (Gimingham & LewisSmith, 1970; Putzke & Pereira, 1990; Victoria et al., 2006, 2009). Several studies reported lichen and mosses growing

at relatively successful growth rates in Polar Regions when compared with other environments (Scott, 1990). These findings can be related with the human impacts in the area, to decreasing diversity along the two summer seasons (Victoria & Pereira, 2007). For Sancho et al. (2007) these changes can be a climate change indicator, because that lichen species found in the studied region are susceptible to extreme temperature variation, increasing or decreasing their growth (Sancho et al., 2007), but the fast development and death of the foliose muscicolous lichen cannot be discarded, as certain types of foliose lichens are among the fastest-growing species which have the ability to grow up to one centimeter per year, and this growth rate is unusual in most lichen species (Bednarik, 2004).

Conclusion The lichen moss association observed in all plant communities distributed in the South Shetlands Islands can be used as a indicator of plant sucession on the ice-free areas. Further monitoring studies are needed to clarify these diversity changes in plant associations in the Maritime Antarctic.

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Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). Also the CNPq for the postdoctoral fellowship (CNPq process: 152270/2011-6) to the first author.

References Allison, S.E. & Lewis-Smith, R.I. (1973). The vegetation of Elephant Island, South Shetland Island. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 33-34:185-212 Bednarik, R.G. (2004). Lichenometry. Available from: <http://mc2.vicnet.net.au/> (accessed: 4 Nov. 2004) Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensociologie. 3. Aufl. Wien, Springer. 865 p. Convey, P. (2006). Antarctic climate change and its inXuences on terrestrial ecosystems. In: Bergstrom, D.M.; Convey, P.; Huiskes, A.H.L. (Eds). Trends in Antarctic terrestrial and limnetic ecosystems: Antarctica as a global indicator. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 253-272. Frenot, Y.; Chown, S.L.; Whinam, J.; Selkirk, P.; Convey, P.; Skotnicki, M. & Bergstrom, D. (2005). Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biological Reviews,80:45-72. Gimingham, C.H. & Lewis-Smith, R.I. (1970). Bryophyte and lichen communities in the maritime Antarctic. In: Holdgate, R. Antarctic Ecology. London: Acad Press. p. 752-785. Kappen, L. & Schroeter, B. (1997). Activity of lichens under the influence of snow and ice. Proceedings of the NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology, 10: 163-168. Lewis-Smith, R.I. (2001). Plant colonization response to climate changes in the Antarctica. Folia. Facultatis Scientiarium Naturalium Universitatis Masarykianae Brunensis, Geográfica, 25: 19-33. Ochyra, R. (1998). The moss flora of King George Island Antarctica. Cracow: Polish Academy of Sciences. 279 p. Øvstedal, D.O. & Lewis-Smith, R.I. (2001). Lichens of Antarctica and South Georgia – A guide to their identification and ecology. Studies in Polar Research, Cambridge University Press. 411 p. Pereira, A.B. & Putzke, J. (1994). Floristic composition of Stinker Point. Elephant Island, Antarctica. Korian Journal of Polar Research, 5(2): 37-47. Putzke, J. & Pereira, A.B. (1990). Mosses of King George Island, Antarctica. Pesquisa Antártica Brasileira, 2(1): 17-71. Putzke, J. & Pereira, A.B. (2012). Fungos Muscícolas Na Ilha Elefante – Antártica. Caderno de Pesquisa, Série Biologia, 24(1): 1-4. Redon, J. (1985). Liquens Antarticos. Santiago de Chile: Instituto Antártico Chileno (INACH). 123 p. Sancho, L.G.; Green, T.G.A. & Pintado, A. (2007). Slowest to fastest: Extreme range in lichen growth rates supports their use as an indicator of climate change in Antarctica. Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants, 202(8): 667-673. Scott, J.J. (1990). Changes in vegetation on Heard Island 1947-1987. In: Kerry, K.R. & Hempel, G. (Eds.). Antarctic ecosystems. Ecological change and conservation. Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 61-76. Victoria, F.C.; Albuquerque, M.P. & Pereira, A.B. (2006). Lichen-Moss associations in plant communities of the Southwest Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Neotropical Biology and Conservation. 1(2): 84-89. Victoria, F.C. & Pereira, A.B. (2007). Índice de valor ecológico (IES) como ferramentas para estudos fitossociológicos e conservação das espécies de musgos da Baia do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica Marítima. Oecologia Brasiliensis, 11: 50-55. Victoria, F.C.; Costa, D.P. & Pereira, A.B. (2009). Life-forms of moss species in defrosting areas of king George island, South Shethland islands, Antarctica. Bioscience Journal, 25(3): 151-160.

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6 AGARICALES (BASIDIOMYCOTA) FUNGI IN THE SOUTH SHETLAND ISLANDS, ANTARCTICA Jair Putzke1,*, Marisa Terezinha Lopes Putzke1, Antonio Batista Pereira2 & Margéli Pereira de Albuquerque2 1

Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul – UNISC, Av. Independência, 2298, CEP 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil 2 Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Av. Antônio Trilha, 1847, CEP 97300-000, São Gabriel, RS, Brazil *e-mail: jair@unisc.br

Abstract: Fungi are the most important nutrient cycling organisms in any ecosystem, which is also the case in Antarctica. Among the species, the Agaricales (Basidiomycota), popularly known as mushroom has a reported presence in this continent, but with no monographic account done up to now. In field trips to Antarctica and especially to the South Shetland Archipelago, we collected specimens during a period of 25 years of study of this order and reviewed specimens from other collections to present a systematic account of the order. The collecting and studying of samples was done according to the usual methods in Agaricales modern taxonomy and the material was deposited in the HCB herbarium. The study of collections permits the recognition of 9 species of Agaricales from the area. Leptoglossum lobatum, L. omnivorum and Simocybe antarctica were collected for the first time in Elephant Island, Antarctica. Species are illustrated and a dichotomous key is proposed for the easy identification. Keywords: Antarctica, fungi, taxonomy

Introduction The South Shetland Archipelago is a group of 11 greater islands located at the Northern area of the Antarctic Peninsula, at ca. 800 km South of South America in an area

This work deals with the species of Agaricales collected over 25 years of research activities in the South Shetland Islands and aims to monograph the order in the area.

called the Maritime Antarctic. The Maritime Antarctic vegetation is basically composed of cryptogams (Bryophyta, Marchantiophyta, Lichens and Algae) and two species of flowering plants (Longton, 1985). Fungi are also very well represented, but only recently the group has been monographed (Onofre et al., 2007), but with no mention of the macroscopic mushrooms of the Agaricales order. The first revision on Antarctic fungi that included Agaricales was that of Pegler et al. (1980) who reported only two species in the South Shetland but with references to 13 species in Sub-Antarctic areas. Gumińska et al. (1994) refers to the occurrence of 4 species (Galerina pseudomycenopsis, Arrhenia salina,

Materials and Methods The work was done on the South Shetland Archipelago, mainly in Elephant, Penguin, King George, Nelson and Deception Islands, Antarctica. The moss carpets were studied for the occurrence of ring forming fungi. The carpets chosen were entirely photographed, the photos mounted to create a map, drawing all the ring fungi found in its exact point of occurrence. The map was used to understand the fungi distribution. Collections of mosses were taken to laboratory for identification and or maintenance in culture (humid chamber) for evaluation.

Omphlaina antarctica and Omphalina pyxidata) collected

Results

in the South Shetland but only sampled in Livingstone and

Nine species of Agaricales were found in the South Shetland Islands (plus one introduced), keyed out and listed below

King George Island.

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(Figure 1). There were found two species with smooth hymenophore and one with vein like gills, probably indicating an adaptation to cold environments. There were found more white spored agarics (6) than brown spored ones (4). Galerina perrara Sing. appears to be specific to Chorisodontium acyphyllum, being all the other nonsubstrate specific. Sanionia uncinata is the substrate most used among the moss species.

Key to South Shetland Agaricales: 1.1 Stipe absent or lateral; hymenophore completely smooth or with vein like gills or with intervenose lamellae...........2 1.2 Stipe central or somewhat eccentric; hymenophore

• Arrhenia salina (Høiland) Bon & Courtecuisse, Documents Mycol.18(no. 69): 37. 1987. Fam.: Trichololmataceae. 42110 (HCB). − The specimens were found growing on Sanionia uncinata and Hennediella heimii. Found in King George (Gumińska et al., 1994) and Elephant Islands. • Lichenomphalia umbellifera (L. ex Fr.) Redhead, Lutzoni, Moncalvo & Vilgalys, Mycotaxon 83: 38 (2002). Fam.: Hygrophoraceae. − It was found in Sanionia uncinata carpets. It was

characteristically lamellate ..................................................4

reported in South Georgia by Øvstedal & Lewis Smith

2.1 Spores brown under the microscope ..............Simocybe

(2011). Registered as 30700 (HCB).

antarctica

• Omphalina antarctica Sing.

2.2 Spores hyaline ..................................................................3

− Originally published by Singer (1957, 1969), the

3.1 Pileus with up to 1,5 cm in diameter, with completely

black basidiome color and the smaller pileus

smooth hymenophore ................ Leptoglossum omnivorum 3.2 Pileus with 2-10 mm in diameter; hymenophore with gill-like veins ..................................... Leptoglossum lobatum 4.1 Spore print brown and spores brownish under the microscope .............................................................................5 4.2 Spore print with and spores hyaline under the microscope .............................................................................6 5.1 Pileus up to 8 mm in diameter, campanulate to convex; pleurocystidia absent .................................Galerina perrara 5.2 Pileus up to 25 mm in diameter, campanulate to almost

diameter are characteristic. It grows frequently on Sanionia uncinata. The species was cited by Putzke & Pereira (1996) to King George and Elephant Islands. Registered as 30701(HCB). • Omphalina pyxidata (Bull. Ex Fr.) Quél. Enchir. fung. (Paris): 43. 1886. − On various moss species. It was reported on King George (Gumińska et al., 1994) and on Elephant Islands. Registered as 30702 (HCB).

applanate; pleurocystidia present ............Galerina moelleri

• Galerina moelleri Bas., Persoonia 1 (3): 310. 1960. Fam.:

6.1 Pileus translucid striate; hymenophore almost lamellate,

Strophariaceae. = Pholiota pumila(Fr.) Karst. ss. Molier.

with gill-like longitudinal elevations which are forked and

− Gumińska et al. (1994) consider this species

anastomosed..................................................Arrhenia salina 6.2 Pileus translucid striate or not; hymenophore with well-developed lamellae........................................................7 7.1 Pileus fuliginous to black; lamellae concolorous but with darker border; spores ovoid ....Omphalina antarctica 7.2 Pileus yellowish-brown to pallid ochraceous; spores ovoid or not ............................................................................8 8.1 Pileus yellowish—brown, not sulcate when dry; lamellae concolorous .......................................... Omphalina pyxidata

synonymy of Galerina pseudomycenopsis Piłat apud Piłat et Nannfeldt. Registered as15209 (HCB). • Galerina perrara Sing., Contr. Inst. Ant. Arg. 71: 15. 1962. Fam.: Strophariaceae. − Found only on Chorisodontium acyphyllum and referred by Putzke & Pereira (1996). Registered as15702 and 30703 (HCB). • Leploglossum omnivorum Agerer - Trans. Br. mycol.

8.2 Pileus pallid ochraceous, translucid striate, strongly

Soc.82(1): 184. 1984.Fam.:Tricholomataceae.

sulcate when dry; lamellae white to pallid yellowish ..........

− This species has up to 1,5 mm in diameter and a

Lichenomphalia umbellifera

List of Agaricales Found in the South Shetland Islands:

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white cup shaped to applanate and sessile pileus, with

a d

c b

g e h

k i

l j

m o

p r

Figure 1. Agaricales found in the South Shetland Islands: a-b) Omphalina antarctica (a - basidiomes; b - spores); c-d) Arrhenia salina (c - basidiomes; d - spores); e-f) Omphalina pyxidata (e - basidiomes; f - spores); g-h) Galerina perrara (g - basidiomes; h - spores); i-j) Lichenomphalia umbellifera (i - basidiomes; j - spores); k-l) Gerronema moelleri (k - basidiomes; l - spores); m-n) Leptoglossum omnivorum(m - basidiomes; n - spores); o-p) Leptoglossum lobatum (o - basidiomes; p - spores); q-r) Simocybe antarctica (q - basidiomes; r - spores). Scale: 10 mm (a; c; e; g; i; k); 1 mm (m; o; q); 10 mm for all spores.

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completely smooth hymenophore (Agerer, 1984). Registered as 42111 (HCB) • Leptoglossum lobatum (Pers. ex Fr.) Ricken var. antarcticum Horak, Contribucion del Instituto Antártico Argentino, no. 104: 6. 1966.Fam.:Tricholomataceae − The species has larger pileus than the above cited, 2-10 mm in diameter, with hymenophore showing gillslike veins. It was found in Deception and Half Moon Islands by Horak (1966). We noticed it in Elephant Island for the first time. Registered as 42112 (HCB) • Simocybe antarctica Pegler, in Pegler, Spooner & Smith, Kew Bull. 35 (3): 552. 1980. − The species was originally found as mycelium and cultivated in laboratory up to basidiome formation (Pegler et al., 1980). We have collected it fresh in Antarctica for the first time. Registered as 42113 (HCB). • Pholiota spumosa Fr. var. crassitunicata Singer. Mycofl. Australis p. 272. 1969. Fam. Strophariaceae. − Found only on Deception Island by Singer (1969) but not collected by us. The specimen was found on wood on an abandoned a whaler’s boat near fumaroles, so it was probably introduced.

Discussion and Conclusion

Ten species of mushrooms are found in the South Shetland Islands - Antarctica, only one not collected (Pholiota spumosa), since it was originally found on introduced wood. Simocybe antarctica was grown in laboratory when reported to Antarctica and is here registered fruiting for the first time in the area. All the remaining species were found also in other areas on the Archipelago indicating a more widespread distribution in the area. More studies are needed as to identify new occurrences to the area and substrate preferences of the registered species, including description of its relationship with the substrate.

Acknowledgements

This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Agerer, R. (1984). Leploglossum omnivorum sp. nov. from Antarctica. Transaction of the British Mycological Society, 82(1): 184-6. Gumińska, B.; Heinrich, Z. & Olech, M. (1994). Macromycetes of the South Shetland Islands (Antarctica). Polish Polar Research 15 (3-4):103-9. Horak, E. (1966). On two new species of mushrooms collected in the Antarctic. Contribucion del Instituto Antárctico Argentino, 104: 1-13. Longton, E. (1985). Terrestrial Habitats-Vegetation. In: Bonner, W.N. & Walton, D.W.H. (Eds.). Key Environments-Antarctica. Oxford: Pergamon. p. 73-05. Onofre, S.; Zucconi, L. & Tosi, S. (2007). Continental Antarctic Fungi. Eching bei München : IHW-Verlang. 247 p. Øvstedal, D.O. & Lewis Smith, R.I. (2011). Four additional lichens from the Antarctic and South Georgia, including a new Leciophysma species. Folia Cryptogamica Estonica, 48: 65-8. Pegler, D.N.; Spooner, B.M. & Smith, R. I. L. (1980). Higher fungi of Antarctica, theSubantarctic zone and Falkland Islands. Kew Bulletin, 35: 499-562. Putzke, J. ; Pereira, A. B. (1996). Macroscopic fungi of the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Revista Série Científica del INACH, Santiago - Chile, 46: 31-39. Singer, R. (1957). A fungus collected in the Antarctic. Beihefte zur Sydowia, 1: 16-23. Singer, R. (1969). Mycoflora Australis. Beihefte zur Nova Hedw. 29: 1-405.

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7 RESPONSES OF AN ANTARCTIC SOUTHERN GIANT PETREL POPULATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE Lucas Krüger1,*, Martin Sander1, Maria Virginia Petry1 1

Laboratório de Ornitologia e Animais Marinhos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos – UNISINOS, Av. Unisinos, 950, Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, CEP 93022-00, Rio Grande do Sul, RS, Brazil *e-mail: biokruger@gmail.com

Abstract: The comprehension of species responses to climate change is one of our present ecological challenges. This paper aims to evaluate the demographic responses of a Southern Giant Petrel population according to climate factors. We used a Multi-State Mark-Recapture method to estimate survival from breeder and non-breeder, and transition rates. Breeder survival response to Southern Oscillation Index, Antarctic Oscillation Index and temperature. Non breeder survival response to Southern Oscillation Index and temperature and Desertion rate with response to Temperature only in summer. Southern Giant Petrels are associated with warmer sea conditions. No recent decrease caused by climate factors can be expected under the scenario of warming in Antarctic Peninsula, and actual population size makes this assumption reasonable. Keywords: Antarctic oscillation, demography, El Niño Southern oscillation

Introduction

Materials and Methods

The annual variations of the El Niño Southern Oscillation

The study was conducted at Elephant Island, South

are influential over the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Shetlands, precisely at Stinker Point (61° 07’ 31’’S and

(ACC). Anomalies on the ACC are directly correlated with

55° 19’ 26’’ W). Adult Southern Giant Petrels (Macronectes

atypical variations in the seasonal cycles of sea ice caps,

giganteus) were banded and recovered from 1986/1987

disrupting trends on ocean and atmospheric temperature

until 1993/1994 with aluminum bands supplied by the

in Antarctica by affecting the Antarctic Oscillations (Gong

National Center for Conservation of Wild Birds (CEMAVE,

& Wang, 1999; Kwok & Comiso, 2002).

Portuguese acronym). For evaluation of survival rates of

Seabirds that breed at higher latitudes are affected by

breeder and non-breeder stages we used a Multi-State Mark-

these climate variations through a disruption in demography

Recapture Model using the data collected between 1986

rates (Warren et al., 2009), population size (Ainley et al.,

and 1992. Breeding seasons: 1986-87, 1987-88, 1988-1989,

2005) and increased area of dispersion to the north of

1989-90; 1990-91, 1991-92. The stages breeder and non

Juvenile after fledging (Sander et al., 2010). The present

breeder were used for the analysis. We evaluated whether the

paper evaluates the demographic response of an Antarctic

responses of survival, recapture and transition probabilities

Southern Giant Petrel (SGP) population to the Southern

were constants or time dependents through a multi-model

Oscillation Index (SOI), Antarctic Oscillation Index (AOI)

inference with AICc classification of best models using the

and temperature in the 80s. The demography responses of

Mark® software. We used the rates from the 64 resulting

Antarctic seabirds to climate are unknown for most species.

models in a forward analysis. Demography responses

Therefore the present paper contributes to the knowledge

to climate were tested through Analysis of Covariance

about the influence of climate under the Antarctic biota.

ANCOVA by PASW 18.0, with α = 95%.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Results

desertion rate (DR) showed an increasing trend. Return rate

The average SOI presented a greater variation along the years

(RR) was constant along the years (Figure 3). BS answered

than the AOI, while SOI tended to be lower in summer in the

to SOI in winter and summer, AOI in summer and to

last three years of the study (Figure 1). Average temperature

temperature in winter. The greater slope was positive: AOI

tended to remain positive in summer (but got close to 0 °C

in summer. NBS answered only to SOI and temperature in

in the last two years) and negative in winter, with a peak in

winter, with a greater slope in winter SOI, but both values

the 1989 winter, when it reached –1 °C (Figure 2).

very closed. DR was only related to temperature in summer

Breeder survival (BS) and non breeder survival (NBS) tended to show decline throughout all the years, while

(negative slope) and RR was not related to any climate variable (Table 1, Figure 3).

Figure 1. Year average Antarctic Oscillation Index AOI (left) and Southern Oscillation Index SOI (right) in Summer (red line) and Winter (blue line). Errors bars are standard error.

Figure 2. Year average temperature in Summer (red line) and Winter (blue line). Errors bars are standard error.

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Figure 3. Average variation of breeder survival (BS), non-breeder survival (NBS), desertion rate (DR) and return rate (RR) in the breeding seasons. Error bars are standard error.

Discussion

Rolland et al., 2010). As a consequence of the actual trend

Adults are less responsive to environmental variability

for Antarctic Peninsula region of warming, one can expect

nonetheless minimal variations on the survival causes

this population may not suffer declines caused by climate

pronounced decreases on the population growth rate

change. Such enhances can be considered probable, since

(Barbraud et al., 2010). The standard trend in Stinker Point seems to be: higher temperatures in both summer and winter enhance survival and reduce desertion from breeding. Higher SOI and AOI mean higher temperatures in Antarctica (Gong & Wang, 1999; Kwok & Comiso, 2002). For breeders, the summer component must be the most important, since during breeding the energy expenditure to

the actual population numbers are greater than those from the studied years.

Conclusion SGPs from Stinker Point are associated with warmer sea conditions. Their survival is probably enhanced by the

raise a chick overlaps with energy spent on survival. Other

current scenario of warming in the Antarctic Peninsula,

sub-Antarctic and temperate-water seabird’s adult survival

as consequence no impending decrease caused by climate

are affected by temperature and SOI (Croxall et al., 2002;

factors can be expected.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Table 1. ANCOVA results of demography responses for climate variables by a Southern Giant Petrel population in Elephant Island.

Dependent

Climate

Season

Slope

SOI

Winter

7.10

–11.73

4.40

0.016

Summer

10.70

12.36

3.78

0.005

Winter

2.85

–17.83

10.56

0.110

Summer

5.75

29.19

12.18

0.028

Winter

7.72

10.55

3.15

0.004

Summer

9.36

–6.45

8.18

0.441

Winter

11.84

14.76

4.29

0.003

Summer

0.87

–3.42

3.68

0.365

Winter

2.29

17.16

11.33

0.148

Summer

0.11

4.29

13.07

0.746

Winter

11.25

10.55

3.15

0.004

Summer

0.62

–6.45

8.18

0.441

Winter

0.31

–2.67

4.82

0.587

Summer

2.46

–6.48

4.13

0.136

Winter

0.18

–4.47

10.60

0.679

Summer

3.10

–21.53

12.22

0.096

Winter

0.18

–1.41

3.34

0.678

Summer

4.42

–18.28

8.69

0.051

Winter

0.51

3.98

5.59

0.486

Summer

0.07

–1.28

4.80

0.792

Winter

2.21

–16.71

11.23

0.155

Summer

0.04

–2.70

12.95

0.837

Winter

0.14

1.38

3.70

0.713

Summer

3.06

–16.79

9.61

0.099

AOI

T (°C)

NBS

SOI

AOI

T (°C)

SOI

AOI

T (°C)

SOI

AOI

T (°C)

SOI: southern oscillation index; AOI: Antarctic oscillation index; BS: breeder survival; NBS: non-breeder survival; DR: desertion rate; RR: return rate; F: fisher’s statistics; SE: standard error; P: significance probability.

Acknowledgements

Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de

This work integrates the National Institute of Science and

Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors

Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-

also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries

APA) that receives scientific and financial support from

of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of

the National Council for Research and Development

Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission

(CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas

for Sea Resources (CIRM).

| Annual Activity Report 2011

References Ainley, D.G.; Clarke, E.D.; Arrigo, K.; Fraser, W.R.; Kato, A.; Barton, K.J. & Wilson, P.R. (2005). Decadal-scale changes in the climate and the biota of the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean, 1950s to the 1990s. Antarctic Science, 17: 171-182. Barbraud, C.; Rivalan, P.; Inchausti, P.; Nevoux, M.; Rolland, V. & Weimerskirch, H. (2010). Contrasted demographic responses facing future climate change in Southern Ocean Seabirds. Journal of Animal Ecology, 80(1): 89-100. Croxall, J.P.; Trathan, P.N. & Murphy, E.J. (2002). Environmental change and Antarctic seabird populations. Science, 297: 1510-1514. Gong, D. & Wang, S. (1999). Definition of Antarctic Oscilation Index. Geophysical Research Letters, 26: 459-462. Kwok, R. & Comiso, J.C. (2002). Soutern Ocean Climate and Sea Ice Anomalies Associated with the Southern Oscillation. Journal of Climate, 15: 487-501. Rolland, V.; Weimerskirch, H. & Barbraud, C. (2010). Relative influence of fisheries and climate on the demography of four albatross species. Global Change Biology, 16: 1910-1922. Sander, M.; Garcia, S.A.; Carneiro, A.P.B.; Cristofoli, S.I.; & Polito, M.J. (2010). Band recoveries and juvenile dispersal of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus marked as chicks in Antarctica by the Brazilian Antarctic Program (1984-1993). Marine Ornithology, 38: 119-124. Warren, J.D.; Santora J.A. & Demer, D.A. (2009). Submesoscale distribution of Antarctic krill and its avian and pinniped predators before and after a near gale. Marine Biology, 156: 479-491.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

8 RESPONSES OF AN ANTARCTIC KELP GULL Larus dominicanus REPRODUCTIVE POPULATION TO CLIMATE Elisa de Souza Petersen1,*, Lucas Krüger1, Maria Virginia Petry1 1

Laboratório de Ornitologia e Animais Marinhos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos – UNISINOS, Av. Unisinos, 950, Cristo Rei, CEP 93022-000, São Leopoldo, RS, Braszil *e-mail: elisapetersen@yahoo.com.br

Abstract: The influences of El-Niño over seabird populations have been demonstrated for a great number of species, including Antarctic species. We evaluated the effects of Southern Oscillation Index (an atmospheric component of El-Niño) over a breeding population of Kelp Gulls in Admiralty Bay, King George Island. We counted breeding pairs in all ice-free areas in the 2009/10 and 2010/11 summers, and used past values of the same areas from literature. We found the lower numbers of kelp gull pairs occur at the extreme values of Southern Oscillation Index, the lower and the higher. This is strong evidence of the El-Niño influences on population processes within Admiralty Bay kelp gulls, probably by affecting the decision on breeding or skipping breeding in a given year. Such a situation can affect the population in the long term by reducing their instantaneous breeding success. Keywords: climatic changes, El-Niño Southern Oscillation, King George Island

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Climate is the main force driving high-latitude bird

All the ice-free areas of Admiralty Bay, King George Island

populations (Mallory et al., 2009; Croxall et al., 2002).

(Antarctica) were sampled, excluding the areas near the

Climate variations can eventually induce breeding adults

American Station Copacabana, but including the southern

to abandon their nests or chicks (comprising the main

areas of SSSI8 (Figure 1). Censuses were conducted during

cause of decrease in reproductive success) (Mallory et al.,

the 2009/2010 austral summer between November 2009

2009), and affect populations in the long term by reducing

and March 2010. All breeding pairs were counted, taking

adult survival (Rolland et al., 2010) and recruitment rates

in account the active nests, or those that had eggs laid in

(Ainley et al., 2005). Egg laying, and size of breeding

them. The nests were also mapped with GPS receptors. The

population can also shift year by year as a response to climate

ice-free areas were classified in accordance with Sander et al.

constraints (Croxall et al., 2002; Barbraud & Weimerskirch,

(2006). The abundance of breeding pairs in past years was

2006). The Variations of the El-Niño Southern Oscillations

used (Jablonski, 1986; Sander et al., 2006) to detect time

are influential over the Antarctic Climatic Oscillations

variation as a response to weather. We get the Southern

and temperature (Changzheng & Feng, 2010). Studies

Oscillation Index (SOI – the atmospheric component of El-

demonstrated that the temperatures are not the only

Niño) data bank from NOAA (www.noaa.gov). To analyze

important predictor of seabird responses to climate, but also

the response of Kelp Gull pairs to SOI we applied an Analysis

climatic indexes (Rolland et al., 2010). Thus, our objective

of Covariance using a negative binomial distribution model

is to evaluate whether a breeding population of Kelp Gull

as the number of pairs has a similar distribution using the

respond to El-Niño Southern Oscillation Index (SOI).

SPSS 18.0 (α = 95%).

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Figure 1. Sampled areas in Admiralty Bay, each letter corresponds to a usually ice-free area during the spring and summer. Image adapted from Sander et al. (2006). A SSSI 8; B Point Thomas; C Breccia Crag; D Cytadela; E Belweder; F Point Hill; G Dufayel Island; H Cardoso Cove; I Emerald Point; J Lis Point; K Urabnek Crag; L Denais Stack; M Klekowski Crag; N Cre´pin Point; O Keller Peninsula; P Stenhouse Bluff; Q Cordillera Ullman; R Promotorio Negro Notable; S Ternyck Needle; T Szafer Ridge; U Waikocz; V Hennequin Point; W Rembiszewski Nunataks; X Vaureal Peak; Y Chabrier Rock; Z Harnasia hill.

Results The number of breeding pairs in all Admiralty Bay was 20 and 24 in 2009/10 and 2010/11 summers, respectively. Five areas presented Kelp Gull reproduction in 2009/10 (A,B,G,O and V) and nine areas in 2010/11, from which five were the same from the last summer plus H,Q and R (Figure 1). By a simple visual comparison with past data (Jablonski, 1986; Sander et al., 2006) we clearly see an abrupt reduction of number of pairs of Kelp Gulls in Admiralty bay between 2004/05 and 2009/2010, which is followed by an increase in the subsequent year, the referred reduction seems to be related to the variation of SOI (Figure 2). In fact, the number of pairs can be explained by the variation of SOI (Wald-χ2 = 3.7; B = –0.31; P = 0.05). The

lower average number of pairs occurred at the extreme values of SOI (Figure 2) in the extreme negative and in the extreme positive, in both years we sampled (2009/10 and 2010/11) (Figure 3). The Higher SOI the warmer the temperature (Figure 4), so, extremes of SOI tends to cause reduction in the reproductive population of Kelp Gulls.

Discussion One of the consequences of global climate changes is the increase in frequency of cold or warm anomalies. The fauna, particularly the top predators, is simultaneously affected in its breeding and survival by the increased sea ice-cap (Croxall et al., 2002) and variations on the availability and accessibility of food during the breeding period and winter

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

Figure 2. Average number of Kelp Gull pairs (bars) and average Southern Oscillation Index (line) at each summer in Admiralty Bay. Error bars are standard errors.

Figure 4. Variation of Temperature as a response to Southern Oscillation Index (SOI).

greater number of ice-free areas, but there were few breeders as a function of high SOI. The variations of El-Niño have an influence on Antarctic waters and can affect the animal population and ecological processes within populations. In the short term such effect reduces the numbers of breeding pairs and as a consequence the breeding success of the population. In the long term, recruitment rates can be affected, and it may imply in lower growth rates. Figure 3. Variation of average number of Kelp Gull pairs in response to the average Southern Oscillation Index. Trend line is a quadratic function represented by the equation Y = 1.6*X – 1.75*X2 +6.34; R2 = 0.62.

(Lescroël et al., 2009; Beaulieu et al., 2010). One explanation for such changes is the increasing influence of ENSO in Antarctica (Croxall et al., 2002). The 2009/10 summer was the coldest in the last decades (INPE, 2010). We verified in surveys that there were few ice-free areas, reducing the availability or suitability of breeding habitat, but the subsequent summer (2010/11) was warmer providing a

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Ainley, D.G.; Clarke, E.D.; Arrigo, K.; Fraser, W.R.; Kato, A.; Barton, K.J. & Wilson, P.R. (2005). Decadal-scale changes in the climate and biota of the pacific sector of the southern ocean, 1950s to 1990s. Antarctic Science, 17: 171-182. Barbraud, C. & Weimerskirch, H. (2006). Antarctic birds bredd later in response to climate change. PNAS, 103: 6248-6251. Beaulieu, M.; Dervaux, A.; Thierry, A.; Lazin, D.; Maho, Y.L.; Ropert-Coudert, Y.; Spée, M.; Raclot, T. & Ancel, A. (2010). When sea-ice clock is ahead of Adelié Peguins’ clock. Functional Ecology, 24: 93-102. Changzheng, L. & Feng, X. (2010). The relationship between the canonical ENSO and the phase transitions of the Antarctic oscillation at the quasi-quadrennial timescale. Acta Oceanologica, 29: 26-34. Croxall, J.P.; Trathan, P.N. & Murphy, E.J. (2002). Environmental change and Antarctic seabird populations science. Science, 297: 1510-1514. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais - INPE. (2010). Available from: <http://www.antarctica.cptec.inpe.br>. (accessed: 27 abr. 2010). Jablonski, B. (1986). Distribution, abundance and biomass of a summer community of birds in the region of the Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) in 1978/1979. Polish Polar Research, 7: 217-260. Lescroël, A.; Dugger, K.M.; Ballard, G. & Ainley, D.G. (2009). Effects of individual quality, reproductive success and environmental variability on survival of a long-lived seabird. Journal Animal Ecology, 78: 798-806. Mallory, M.L.; Gaston, A.J.; Forbes, M.R. & Gilchrisr, H.G. (2009). Influence of weather on reproductive success of northern fulmars in the Canadian high Arctic. Polar Biology, 32: 529-538. Rolland, V.; Weimerskirch, H. & Barbraud, C. (2010). Relative influence of fisheries and climate on the demography of four albatross species. Global Change Biology, 16: 1910-1922. Sander, M.; Carneiro, A.P.B.; Mascarello, N.E.; Santos, C.R.; Costa, E.S. & Balbão, T.C. (2006). Distribution and status of the kelp gull, Larus dominicanus Lichtenstein (1823), at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland, Antactica. Polar Biology, 29: 902-904.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

9 POPULATION FLUCTUATION OF Pygoscelis papua AND Pygoscelis antarctica, ELEPHANT ISLAND, SOUTH SHETLANDS, ANTARCTICA Roberta da Cruz Piuco1,*, Jaqueline Brummelhaus1, Maria Virginia Petry1, Martin Sander1 1

Laboratório de Ornitologia e Animais Marinhos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos – UNISINOS, Av. Unisinos, 950, CEP 93022-000, Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil *e-mail: ropiuco@gmail.com

Abstract: Reproductive population size of both the Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) and Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) has changed over the last decades in many sites in the South Shetlands Islands. We evaluated the population sizes of these species on Stinker Point, Elephant Island, South Shetlands, Antarctic, during the breeding season 2009, 2010 and 2011, and we compared with preterit studies. Over the last 40 years, the number of breeding pairs here have shown fluctuations, with changes of up to 32%. It is possible that these fluctuations are related to the variation in prey availability and/or climate change. However, additional census and demographic surveys in Elephant Island are clearly needed to determine whether the decline represents a long-term trend or random circumstantial fluctuations. Keywords: Gentoo penguin, Chinstrap penguin, breeding pairs, abundance

Introduction Penguins comprise 90% of the total Antarctic avian biomass (Croxall et al., 2002). Only King penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), Rockhopper penguin (E. chrysocome), Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), Gentoo penguin (P. papua) and Chinstrap penguin (P. antarctica) breed on ice-free areas of the Antarctic Peninsula coast and sub-Antarctic Islands (Woehler, 1993). Of the five penguin species occurring on Elephant Island the Gentoo and Chinstrap penguin are the most abundant. The Gentoo penguin is circumpolar in breeding and the largest colonies are found in the Falklands, South Georgia and Kerguelen Islands. Smaller populations can be found in Macquarie Island, Heard Island, McDonald Islands, South Shetland Islands and Antarctic Peninsula (Peterson, 1979). The Gentoo penguin is the least abundant of the Antarctic breeding penguin species, with 314.000-520.000 breeding pairs, and has suffered a major decline over the last two decades (BirdLife, 2009). Chinstrap penguin populations, ≈7.4 million breeding pairs, are found breeding mainly in sub-Antarctic Islands

| Annual Activity Report 2011

and along the Antarctic Peninsula (Woehler, 1993). The number of breeding pairs has shown fluctuations in the last 50 years, due to climate changes, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) availability, variation in total area of ice-free sites suitable for breeding and increase in tourism and fishing activities (Conroy et al., 1975; Jablònski, 1984; Woehler & Croxall, 1997; Croxall et al., 2002; Hinke et al., 2007; Trivelpiece et al., 2011). On Elephant Island, South Shetlands, Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins co-exist and breed in large colonies near each other (Petry, 1994). We compare the breeding population size over the last 40 years of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins on Stinker Point, Elephant Island, and we calculated the population growth rates during this period.

Materials and Methods Three observers conducted a direct counting of nests of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins, to estimate the numbers of breeding pairs on Stinker Point (61° 07’ 31” S; 55° 19’ 26” W),

Elephant Island, South Shetlands Archipelago. The total population was determined for each site by averaging all total counts that differed less than 10% according to the standard CCAMLR (The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) Ecosystem Monitoring Program Methods (CCAMLR, 2004). Average annual growth rate was calculated using the Yáñez Index, i (Yañez et al., 1984), following: i = [(BPpr/BPps)1/n – 1] × 100, BPpr stands for the number of breeding pairs at present, BPps stands for the number of breeding pairs in former surveys and n stands for the years that passed by. The average population growth rate was calculated and compared with data collected in 2009, 2010 and 2011, data from past studies such 1970 (Furse & Bruce, 1972) and 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991 (Petry, 1994).

Results In the last 40 years the numbers of breeding pairs of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins have shown fluctuations, with changes of up to 32%. We recorded 915 breeding pairs of Gentoo penguin in 2009, 905 pairs in 2010, and 1652 in 2011 an increase of 82.5% (Table 1). The average annual growth for Gentoo penguin was positive between 1970-1987 and 1987-1988, unlike between the years of 1988-1991 and 19912010, when breeding pairs declined in number (Table 1). For the Chinstrap penguin, we recorded 3974 breeding pairs in 2009, 5250 pairs in 2010, and 5279 in 2011 with increase 32.1% and 0.55% (Table 2). Between 1970-1985, the population size remained stable (increase 0.28% per year), unlike between 1986-2010 when fluctuations showed considerable increase and decline (Table 2).

Discussion Comparing our data with studies from Furse & Bruce (1972) and Petry (1994), we can see changes in population size of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins, at Stinker Point, Elephant Island. Such changes are indicative of environment quality in which a population depends on variable food resources and it is also important to understand and to predict the effects of environmental change (Croxall et al., 2002). For long-living birds such as penguins, a 2 to 3% annual change in population size can be quite significant, and the only way to evaluate this parameter is through monitoring studies (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 1990).

Several factors may regulate bird reproductive success, one of them is the availability of nesting sites (Ainley & Boekelheide, 1990). Despite the increase in ice-free areas in the South Shetland Islands, and consequently the exposure of new places suitable for breeding sites over the years (Jablonski, 1984), local climate events such as excessive accumulation of snow and snowstorms limit the nesting sites of penguins, as observed in our study in December 2009, when many breeding pairs of both species lost their eggs and abandoned their nests. Food availability, predation and climate change also influence the population fluctuation of the penguins, and specific behaviors of each species may help compensate for or moderate effects of changing environmental conditions (Miller et al., 2010; Trivelpiece et al., 2011). Our results show that population fluctuation for the Elephant Island Gentoo penguins varies less than for its Chinstrap penguins. Even though the two species co-exist, they exhibit very different behaviors in respect to reproduction timing, feeding ecology and

Table 1. Average annual growth rate (ι) of Gentoo penguin population at Stinker Point, Elephant Island 1970-2011.

Period

Breeding pairs

ι(%)

1970-1987

1000-1879

3.8

1987-1988

1879-2192

16.7

1988-1991

2192-1929

– 4.2

1991-2009

1929-915

– 4.1

2009-2010

915-905

– 1.1

2010-2011

905-1652

82.5

Table 2. Average annual growth rate (ι) of Chinstrap penguin population at Stinker Point, Elephant Island 1970-2011.

ι (%)

Period

Breeding pairs

1970-1985

12455-13000

0.28

1985-1986

13000-12200

– 6.15

1986-1987

12200-11969

– 1.89

1987-1988

11969-13383

11.81

1988-1990

13383-12218

– 4.45

1990-2009

12218-3974

–6

2009-2010

3974-5250

32.1

2010-2011

5250-5279

0.55

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

winter habitat selection (Trivelpiece et al., 1987). There is evidence that Gentoo penguins remain in the vicinity of breeding areas during the winter (Bost & Jouventin, 1990), unlike local Chinstrap penguins which move nearer to the Antarctic convergence (Williams, 1995; Wilson, 1998; Trivelpiece et al., 2007). Under adverse conditions during winter, such as low prey availability and excessively ice conditions, only old, experienced Chinstrap penguins return to breeding colonies at the beginning of the breeding season (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 1990). Thus, the survival of juveniles, their recruitment and return rates to colonies may be affected by adverse winter conditions, as suggested by Carlini et al. (2009). Our results corroborate the evidence of penguin population decline reported in Antarctica. Trivelpiece et al. (2011) suggested conservation status review for Chinstrap penguin given the magnitude of their global population decline and limitations of distribution range. In contrast, Gentoo penguins are circumpolar in distribution and are more generalist feeders, giving them a distinct survival advantage (Bost & Jouventin, 1990).

needed for both penguin species to determine with confidence whether the observed population decline is a long-term trend or represents transient local environmental fluctuations and whether changes in conservation efforts will be required to maintain future global and regional populations of these species.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA), InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM), and the Brazilian Federal Agency for the Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES). We appreciate the

Conclusion

improvements in English usage made by Phil Whitford

Yet, we conclude that, at Stinker Point, Elephant Island, continued monitoring and demographics studies are

of editorial assistance.

through the Association of Field Ornithologists’ program

References Ainley, D. & Boekelheide, R.J. (1990). Seabirds of the Farallon Islands: ecology, structure and dynamics of an upwellingsystem community. Stanford, Stanford University Press. BirdLife International. (2009). Species factsheet: Pygoscelis papua. Available from: <http://www.birdlife.org> (accessed: 22 jul. 2011). Bost, C.A. & Jouventin, P. (1990). Evolutionary ecology of Gentoo Penguins (Pygoscelis papua). In: Davis, L.S. & Darby, J.T. Penguin biology. London: Academic Press. Carlini, A.R.; Coria, N.R.; Santos, M.M.; Libertelli, M.M. & Donini, G. (2009). Breeding success and population trends in Adélie penguins in areas with low and high levels of human disturbance. Polar Biology, 30: 917-924. Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources - CCAMLR. (2004). Tasmania, Australia. Available from: <www.ccamlr.org> (accessed: 22 jul. 2011). Conroy, J.W.H.; White, M.G.; Furse, J.R. & Bruce, G. (1975). Observations on the breeding biology of the chinstrap penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica, at Elephant Island, South Shetland Islands. Br. Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 40: 23-32. Croxall, J.P.; Trathan, P.N. & Murphy, E.J. (2002). Environmental change and Antarctic seabird populations. Science, 297: 1510-1514.

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Furse, J.R. & Bruce, G. (1972). Joint service expedition to Elephant Island 1970-1971. London: Ornithology Report. Hinke, J.T.; Salwicka, K.; Trivelpiece, S.G.; Watters, G.M. & Trievelpiece, W.Z. (2007). Divergent response of Pygoscelis pengins reveal a common environmental driver. Oecologia, 153: 845-855. Jablònski, B. (1984). Distribution and numbers of penguins in the region of King George Island (South Shetland Islands) in the breeding season 1980/1981. Polish Polar Research, 5: 17-30. Miller, A.K.; Kappes, M.A.; Trivelpiece, S.G. & Trivelpiece, W.Z. (2010). Foraging-niche separation of breeding gentoo and chinstrap penguins, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Condor, 112(4): 683-695. Peterson, R. (1979). Penguins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Petry, M.V. (1994). Distribuição espacial e aspectos populacionais da avifauna de Sitnker Point – Ilha Elefante – Shetland do Sul – Antártica. MSc. thesis, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, Brasil. Trivelpiece, W.Z.; Trivelpiece, S.G. & Volkman, N.J. (1987). Ecological segregation of adelie, gentoo, and chinstrap penguins at King George Island, Antarctica. Ecology, 68(2): 351-361. Trivelpiece, W.Z. & Trivelpiece, S.G. (1990). Courtship period of adélie, gentoo, and chinstrap penguins. In: Davis, L.S. & Darby, J.T. Penguin Biology. San Diego, California: Academic Press. Trivelpiece, W.Z.; Buckelew, S.; Reiss, C. & Trivelpiece, S.G. (2007). The winter distribution of chinstrap penguins from two breeding sites in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica. Polar Biology, 30: 1231-1237. Trivelpiece, W.Z.; Hincke, J.T.; Miller, A.K.; Reiss, C.S. & Trivelpiece, S.G. (2011). Variability in krill biomass links harvesting and climate warming to penguin population changes in Antarctica. PNAS, 108(18): 7625-7628. Williams, T.D. (1995). The Penguins: Spheniscidae. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wilson, R.P.; Culik, B.M.; Kosiorek, P. & Adelung, D. (1998). The over-winter movements of a chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica). Polar Record, 34(189): 107-112. Woehler, E.J. (1993). The distribution and abundance of Antarctic and Subantarctic penguins. Cambridge: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Woehler, E.J. & Croxall, J.P. (1997). The status and trends of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic seabirds. Marine Ornithology, 25:43-66. Yañez, J.; Nuñez, H.; Valencia, J. & Schlatter, R. (1984). Aumento de las poblaciones de pingüinos pigoscélidos en la isla Ardley, Shetland del Sur. Serie Científica INACH, 31: 97-101.

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10 FORAGING DISTRIBUTION OF AN ANTARCTIC SOUTHERN GIANT PETREL POPULATION Maria Virginia Petry1,*, Lucas Krüger1 1

Laboratório de Ornitologia e Animais Marinhos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos – UNISINOS, Av. Unisinos, 950, Cristo Rei, CEP 93022-000, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil *e-mail: vpetry@unisinos.br

Abstract: We present preliminary results on the foraging distribution of Southern Giant Petrels tagged with geolocators in Stinker Point, Elephant Island. Our results showed that Giant Petrels range over a large area from the Antarctic Peninsula until Southern South America, and there is notable segregation between male and female. Females tend to use the area they are distributed equally, while males remain more often close to colonies, but the latitudes and longitudes they used in general were the same.That is quite different from literature, which indicate that Giant Petrel genders use distinct foraging areas, at least South American populations. Further results from the study are underway and we expect to add environmental variables to evaluate differences between genders and try to explain their movements. Keywords: breeding period, foraging ecology, gender differences, geolocation

Introduction Seabirds rely almost exclusively on the sea. They are bonded to land only for reproduction, and even then, the resources necessary to raise a brood are from off shore. Factors influencing on land such as severe weather, gusty winds, hazardous blizzards can reduce adult survival and breeding success (Mallory et al., 2009), but the main factors driving seabird population dynamics are the oceanic factors (Sandvik et al., 2008; Rolland et al., 2010). Biotic and abiotic factors are used by seabirds for guidance when searching for food, such as productivity, sea and wind currents, temperature, and so on (Adams & Flora, 2010; Copello et al., 2011). Nonetheless, long time changes in such factors can affect adult survival and breeding success (Rolland et al., 2010). Hence, this paper presents preliminary results on a study conducted with geolocators on an Antarctic population of Southern Giant Petrels, aiming to obtain data on sea distribution and sea use while foraging.

Materials and Methods Study was conducted on Stinker Point (61° 07’ 31’’ S and 55° 19’ 26’’ W), Elephant Island, recently presented as

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Antarctic IBA 072 (Harris et al., 2011). Stinker Point is the northernmost island of the South Shetlands, and provides a breeding ground for several seabird and seamammal species. The Southern Giant Petrel SGP is one of the most numerous seabirds in the area. The SGPs breed on elevated and relatively plain terrains among 30 and 60 m above sealevel. We deployed on 11/11/2011 (period of egg laying), 12 Lotek LAT 2009 Avian FlatpackGeolocators in males and females SGPs from different nests. We attached the tags made of aluminum bands with small plastic seals. The tags were recovered from birds in periods between seven and fourteen days after deployment, the data was downloaded and then redeployed in other SGPs. The tags generated daily average geographic positions based on light intensity and hour of sunrise and sunset. Positions were filtered by generating a threshold circle with 2 standard deviation position with ArcGis. All points that fell out of the threshold line were excluded. We calculated Kernel density to estimate the most frequently used areas by those individuals. We compared Latitude and Longitude between genders and in different months (November,

Figure 1. Kernel density for Females (above) and Males (below) Southern Giant Petrels. Frequency is expressed in terms of proportion.

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 2 |

December and January) with a Repeated Measures ANOVA to detect differences in areas used by genders.

Results We were able to monitor 18 SGPs (7 males and 11 females) during all the breeding period. The filtering resulted in a total of 178 points entering the analysis. From a first visual inspection of the Kernel Density distribution, both males and females used similar areas, comprising the Antarctic Peninsula until Southern South-America (Tierra del Fuego, near 55° S), a small portion of the South Pacific until longitudes near South Orkneys and South Georgia 35° W. (Figure 1). Even females generated more points than males, they generated smaller densities than males, probably indicating they forage in a more dispersed way. Latitude is not different between genders (F1,166 = 0.1; P = 0.76), but is different in months (F2,166 = 0.3; P = 0.04) (Figure 2). No variation of gender latitude usage was detected along the months (F2,166 = 0.5; P = 0.63). Longitude is not different between genders (F1,166 = 0.05; P = 0.83), nor among months (F2,166 = 2.3; P = 0.1) and no variation of gender longitude usage was detected along the months (F2,166 = 0.06; P = 0.94).

Figure 2. Average latitude used by Southern Giant Petrels in November, December and January in 2011/12 summer. Error bars are standard error.

in Argentina, so, differences in foraging behavior can be attributed to the southern position of Stinker Point population, as a consequence their behavior is different from northern populations. Quintana & Dell'Arciprete (2002) and Copello et al. (2011) tagged birds in the late incubation period and verified birds remained closer to

Discussion Our results clearly indicate males forage in more frequency near the colony than females, and as a consequence tend to enhance Kernel density in the areas they are using. On the other hand, females’ frequencies are lower along their entire distribution. These are the first results on foraging movements of Antarctic SGPs. Some results are in accordance with studies on South American Giant Petrel populations (González-Solís et al., 2000; Copello et al., 2011). Our study is in accordance with literature which indicates that female frequency is homogeneous along their distribution while males tend to concentrate close to their colonies. But in matters of distribution, our results are in disagreement with those found for South American populations since there are no latitudinal or longitudinal differences between genders. There is a marked difference between male and female distribution between genders in both Giant Petrel species (González-Solís et al., 2000; Copello et al., 2011). Copello et al. (2011) verified a slight difference between southern and northern colonies

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their colony, while ours showed differences in areas used along the breeding period.

Conclusion Males and females range over the same portion of the ocean with a high overlap, which is quite different from literature information. Such differences may be due to a natural geographical variation of the species and because of the period the data was collected. The perspective of including in the analysis variables such as sea temperature and productivity will help us extend our explanations on male-female differences.

Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries

of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Adams, J. & Flora, S. (2010). Correlating seabird movements with ocean winds: linking satellite telemetry with ocean scatterometry. Marine Biology, 157: 915-929. Copello, S.; Dogliotti, A. I.; Gagliardini, D.A. & Quintana, F. (2011). Oceanographic and biological landscapes used by the Southern Giant Petrel during the breeding season at the Patagonian Shelf. Marine Biology, 158: 1247-1257. González-Solís, J.; Croxall, J.P. & Wood, A.G. (2000). Foraging partitioning between Giant Petrels Macronectes spp. and its relation with breeding population changes at Bird Island, South Georgia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 204: 279-288. Harris, C.M.; Carr, R.; Lorenz, K.& Jones, S.(2011). Important Bird Areas in Antarctica: Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands, South Orkney Islands – Final Report. Cambridge: Environmental Research & Assessment Ltd. Mallory, M.L.; Gaston, A.J.; Forbes, M.R. & Gilchrist, H.G. (2009). Influence of weather on reproductive success of northern fulmars in the Canadian High Arctic. Polar Biology, 32:529-538. Quintana, F. & Dell’Arciprete, O.P. (2002). Foraging grounds of Southern Giant Petrels (Macronectes giganteus) on the Patagonian Shelf. Polar Biology, 25: 159-161. Rolland, V.; Weimerskirch, H. & Barbraud, C. (2010). Relative influence of fisheries and climate on the demography of four albatross species. Global Change Biology,16: 1910-1922. Sandvik, H.; Coulson, T. & Saether, B.E. (2008). A latitudinal gradient in climate effects on seabird demography: results from interspecific analysis. Global Change Biology, 14: 703-713.

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THEMATIC AREA 3

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE ANTARCTIC MARINE ENVIRONMENT 96

Cascaes, M. J., Albergaria-Barbosa, A. C. R., Freitas, F. S., Colabuono, F. I., Da Silva, J., Patire, V. F., Senatore, D. B., Dias, P. S., Cipro, C. V. Z.; Taniguchi, S., Bícego, M. C., Montone, R. C. and Weber, R. R. Temperature, Salinity, Ph, Dissolved Oxygen and Nutrient Variations at Five Stations on the Surface Waters of Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica, During the Summers From 2009 to 2012

101 Barrera-Alba, J. J., Vanzan, M., Tenório, M. M. B. and Tenenbaum, D. R. Plankton Structure of Shallow Coastal Zone at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) During Early Summer/2010: Pico, Ultra and Microplankton And Chlorophyll Biomass.

106 Kern, Y. Elbers, K. L., Cruz-Kaled, A. C., Weber, R. R. and Absher, T. M. Summer Variation of Zooplankton Community on Coastal Environment of Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica.

112 Nakayama, C. R., Ushimaru, P. I., Araujo, A.C. V., Rodrigues, A. R., Lima, D. V. And Pellizari, V. H.

Assessment of Faecal Pollution Indicators in the Brazilian Antarctic Station Wastewater Treatment Plant and in Environmental Samples at Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

119 Wisnieski, E., Bícego, M. C., Montone, R. C. and Martins, C. C. Temporal Variations and Sources of N-Alkanols and Sterols in Sediments Core from Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

125 Martins, C. C., Aguar, S. N., Bícego, M. C., Ceschim, L. M. M., Montone, R. C. Fecal sterols and

linear alkylbenzenes in surface sediments collected at 2009/10 austral summer in Admiralty Bay, Antarctica.

130 Ribeiro, A. P., Tramonte, K. M., Batista, M. F., Majer, A. P., Silva, C. R. A., Demane, G., Ferreira, P. A. L.,

Montone, R. C. and Figueira, R. C. L. Fractionation of Trace Metals and Arsenic In Coastal Sediments From Admiralty Bay, Antarctica.

135 Majer, A. P., Petti, M. A. V., Corbisier, T. N., Ribeiro, A. P., Theophilo, C. Y. S. and Figueira, R. C. L.

Bioaccumulation of Potentially Toxic Trace Elements in Benthic Organisms From Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica.

139 Donatti, L., Rios, F. S., Machado, C., Pedreiro, M. R. D., Krebsbach, P., Piechnik, C. A., Zaleski, T.,

Forgati, M., Cettina, L. B., Silva, F. B. V., Sabchuk, N., Carvalho, C. S., Rodrigues, E., Rodrigues Jr, E. and Feijó de Oliveira, M. F. Histopathological Alterations on Antarctic Fishes Notothenia coriiceps and Notothenia rossii as Biomarkers of Aquatic Contamination.

144 Rodrigues Junior, E., Feijó-Oliveira, M., Gannabathula, S. V., Suda, C. N. K., Donatti, L., Machado, C.,

Lavrado, H. P. and Rodrigues, E. A baseline studies on plasmatic constituents in the Notothenia rossii and Notothenia coriiceps in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica.

148 Oliveira-Feijó, M., Rodrigues Junior, E., Gannabathula, S. V., Suda, C. N. K., Donatti, L., Lavrado, H. P.

and Rodrigues, E. Effect of Diesel Oil on Gill Enzymes of Energy Metabolism, Antioxidant Defense and Arginase of the Gastropod Nacella concinna (Strebel 1908) From King George Island, Antarctica.

153 Campos, T. M. S., Costa, I. A., Faria, G. M., Yoneshigue-Valentin, Y. and Dalto, A. G. Phytal Macrofauna Composition of the Himantothallus grandifolius (Heterokonphyta, Desmarestiaceae) from Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetlands Islands, Antarctica).

158 Junqueira, A. O. R., Bastos, A. C. F, Rocha, B. R. Tracking Non-Native Species in the Antarctic Marine Benthic Environment.

163 Dalto, A. G., Faria, G. M., Campos, T. M. S., Valentinm Y. Y. Dominance of Tardigrada In Associated Fauna of Terrestrial Macroalgae Prasiola crispa (Chlorophyta: Prasiolaceae) from a Penguin Rookery Near Arctowski Station (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica).

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Team Leader

Dr. Helena Passeri Lavrado Vice-Team Leader

Dr. Edson Rodrigues

Introduction With the intensification of human activities in Antarctica and the increased speed of environmental change in the area of the Antarctic Peninsula, it is of fundamental importance to give continuity to the long term ecological studies in the region, in order to understand and predict the effects of those anthropic and natural changes on the structure and functioning of Antarctic marine ecosystems. Environmental monitoring not only permits the evaluation of temporal trends in the ecosystem properties and functions, but also subsidises the management and conservation of these environments, fulfilling the environmental commitments assumed by Brazil with the member countries of the Antarctica Treaty. Furthermore, the main studied area of the marine environmental studies of INCT-APA, (Portuguese acronym for: The Brazilian Institute of Science and Technology – Antarctic Environmental Research) has been the Admiralty Bay, at King George Island, a recognisably diverse environment (Siciński et al., 2011). The bay functions as a feeding and breeding area for a great number of marine species, the whole area being considered as an ASMA (Antarctic Specially Managed Area). The results obtained at the moment, indicate a marine environment whose physical and chemical characteristics of the sea water (e.g. water temperature and pH), present a strong relationship with the air temperature, apart from indicating the existence of upwelling episodes close to the main research stations in the Bay, namely, EACF (Portuguese acronym for: The Brazilian Station – Comandante Ferraz) and Arctowski (The Polish Station) (Cascaes et al., in the volume), which could cause a greater spatial and temporal variation in the local primary production. In the water column, the marine phytoplankton has been shown to be a good indicator of environmental quality. Data from the last ten years suggest that the abundance and composition of the phytoplankton has altered over the years, with a gradual substitution of microplankton (diatomaceous) by

pico–and ultra-plankton (cells < 10 µm), especially at the end of summer, which can be reflecting an increase of the ice-free zones in the region (Barrera-Alba et al., in this volume). If these changes are confirmed over the next few years, the consequences could reflect even on the spatial distribution of Krill in the area, since the latter is unable to efficiently consume the pico- and ultra plankton. The dominance of the copepods in the zooplankton in the Bay has been evident, in spite of the significant contribution of the larvae of echinoderms for the local meroplankton (Kern et al., in this volume). The monitoring of the marine environment close to EACF has been undertaken for the correct evaluation of the impact of human activities in the marine biota of Martel inlet and counts with the monitoring of temporal domestic effluents from the Brazilian Station. In studies carried out in the summer of 2011, the results showed an increase in the efficiency of the sewage treatment system at EACF, with the efficient removal of coliforms and enterococci (between 80-100%), after UV treatment, although inefficient in the removal of nutrients, suggesting that the treatment system still needed to be optimized (Nakayama et al., in this volume). In spite of the recent fire at the Brazilian Station, the data generated by this monitoring is important, since it can be used as a guide to the installation of more proper facilities with a minimal of environmental impact at the new Brazilian Station which will be constructed in the next years. The faecal sterols and linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) are excellent geochemical markers of sewage since they are resistant to rapid environmental degradation, permitting mapping out of the range and effect of the sewage in the marine environment. Data of these markers in the sediment of Admiralty Bay indicate a greater concentration in the vicinity of EACF, but with a tendency to reduce in relation to the summer 2003/04, but with considerably lower values when compared to other regions of Antarctica. Between

Science Highlights - Thematic Area 3 |

these two types of sewage markers, the LABs show a potential to be a more specific sewage marker, since their detectable values were only found close to the EACF sewage (Martins et al., in this volume). The sterols can also be used in historic analysis of the contribution of the different forms of organic material (marine, terrestrial, anthropic) to the sediment, thus assisting in the evaluation of temporal variations of the biogeochemical processes (Wisnieski et al., in this volume). Among the marine habitats that can be affected by human activities or even by climate change, the intertidal zone is the first to suffer from those environmental alterations. The most conspicuous organism in this region is the gastropod Nacella concinna, which has been considered to be a sentinel species due to its capacity to accumulate metals (Ahn et al., 2002) or to be sensitive to the effect of pollutants (Ansaldo et al., 2005). Up till now, no significant anthropic effect was found in the populations that inhabit Admiralty Bay, despite a certain accumulation of heavy metals found in the species, as well as in a number of benthic invertebrates in the region (Majer et al., in this volume). However, studies with biochemical biomarkers reveal a sensibility of several enzymes in this organism, such as arginases, phosphofructokinase and catalase, to increasing concentrations of diesel oil (Feijó de Oliveira et al., in this volume), reinforcing the importance of control methods for the prevention of oil leaks into the marine environment of the region. Even in the sublittoral zone, in water depths of less than 20-30m, some effect of the effluent of the Station can be noticed (Montone et al., in press). Fish and benthic invertebrates undergo alterations over the time, when submitted to chronic (sewage) or acute impacts (oil leakages, for example). Among the fish, most of the nothotenioids are endemic to Antarctica, which increases the ecological importance in terms of preservation and conservation of the marine environment. Through the usage of biochemical and histological biomarkers, possible alterations in those fishes can be detected. The histological analysis of the fishes N. coriiceps and N. rossi showed some changes in the liver and gills which are still of low occurrence, not affecting the functionality of their organs and as consequence, not having any lethal significance (Donatti et al., in this volume). The

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same seems to occur with the analyses of the plasmatic composition of these fish, with variation of glucose, tryglicerides, cholesterol, total protein and albumins more related to local physical and chemical differences than to anthropic ones (Rodrigues Junior et al., in this volume). For the benthic macroinfauna, the main changes occur in the abundance and dominance of species in a range of 200m from EACF (Montone et al., in press). In spite of the presence of metals in the sediment, analyses considering the mobility of some of these metals, revealed that just Arsenic and Copper show values that could represent some risk to the biota (Ribeiro et al., in this volume), emphasising the importance of evaluating the bioavailability of these substances in order to evaluate the real effect on marine organisms. One of the greatest threats to Antarctic marine biodiversity, with a high degree of endemism, is the introduction of exotic species, whether through human action or through the increase of the temperature of the oceans, allowing the spread of Sub-Antarctic species to the Antarctic region. The potential of bioinvasion in the Antarctic environment is directly related to the increase of human activities in the region, especially those related to the increase in the traffic of vessels, one of the main vectors in the introduction of species in the marine environment. A recent survey (Rocha et al., in this volume) indicated an intensification of human activities, such as tourism, fishing for Krill and scientific activity on King George Island, in the last five years, which could represent a greater risk of introduction of exotic species. In this context, a study of the local biodiversity is important to get to know the degree of vulnerability of the Antarctic marine biota to invasions of exotic species in the future. Despite recent efforts related to the marine benthic species inventory in Admiralty Bay (Siciński et al., 2011), there is still a lot to do regarding the comprehensive knowledge of the marine biodiversity of the region. Recent data regarding the composition of the associated macrofauna to the kelp Himantothallus grandiflorius (Campos et al., in this volume), for example, revealed an abundant and diverse biota, composed mainly of amphipods and lophophorates, which still need taxonomic refinement and which could add new species or new records to this region. Apart from the latter, the interaction between the

terrestrial and marine environment takes place through the collaboration of researchers who study the biodiversity of the two environments in an integrated way. The phytal fauna, for example, is studied not only in terms of marine environment, but also in the terrestrial environment, as in the study of the associated meiofauna of Prasiola crispa,

(Dalto et al., in this volume), which is quite abundant in the proximities of the penguin colonies of Arctowski Polish Station. The results show a biota dominated by Tardigrades and Nematode, which in the same way as in the marine environment, can add an expressive number of species to the biological inventory of Admiralty Bay.

References Ahn, I.Y.; Kim, K.W. & Choi, H.J. (2002). A baseline study on metal concentrations in the Antarctic limpet Nacella concinna (Gastropoda, Patellidae) on King George Island: variation in sex and body parties. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 424-431. Ansaldo, M.; Najle, R. & Luquet, C.M. (2005). Oxidative stress generated by diesel seawater contamination in the digestive gland of the Antarctic limpet Nacella concinna. Marine Environmental Research, 59: 381-390. Montone, R.C.; Alvarez, C.E.; Bícego, M.C.; Braga, E.E.; Brito, T.A.S.; Campos, L.S.; Carelli, R.F.; Castro, B.M.; Corbisier, T.N.; Evangelista, H.; Francelino, M.; Gomes, V.; Ito, R.G.; Lavrado, H.P.; Leme, N.P.; Mahiques, M.M.; Martins, C.C.; Nakayama, C.R.; Ngan, P.V.; Pellizari, V.P.; Pereira, A.B.; Petti, M.A.V.; Sander, M.; Schaefer, C.G.E.R. & Weber, R.R. (In press). Environmental Assessment of Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. p 157-175 In: Verde C. & di Prisco, G. Adaptation and Evolution in Marine Environment, From Pole to Pole. Berlim: Springer-Verlag. vol. 2. Siciński, J.; Jażdżewski, K.; De Broyer, C.; Ligowski, R.; Presler, P.; Nonato, E.F.; Corbisier, T.N.; Petti M.A.V.; Brito, T.A.S.; Lavrado, H.P.; Błażewicz-Paszkowycz, M.; Pabis, K.; Jażdżewska, A. & Campos, L.S. (2011). Admiralty Bay Benthos Diversity: a longterm census. Census of Antarctic Marine Life special volume. Deep-Sea Research II, 58:30-48.

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1 TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, PH, DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND NUTRIENT VARIATIONS AT FIVE STATIONS ON THE SURFACE WATERS OF ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA, DURING THE SUMMERS FROM 2009 TO 2012 Mauro Juliano Cascaes1,*, Ana Cecilia Rizzatti de Albergaria Barbosa1, Felipe Sales de Freitas1, Fernanda Imperatrice Colabuono1, Josilene da Silva1, Vinícius Faria Patire1, Diego Barbosa Senatore1, Patrick Simões Dias1, Caio Vinícius Zecchin Cipro1, Satie Taniguchi1, Marcia Caruso Bícego1, Rosalinda Carmela Montone1, Rolf Roland Weber1 1

Oceanographic Institute, São Paulo University – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, sala 186, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil *e-mail: maurojuliano@usp.br

Abstract: Classic hydrographical parameters and dissolved nutrients were measured during the Antarctic summers from 2009 to 2012. Physical and biological processes control the nutrient levels in Admiralty Bay, as well as upwelling of deep water from Bransfield Strait. Additional data on summer land run-off and wind speeds and directions is needed to get a better model for the factors that control the primary production of the area. Keywords: nutrients, pH, dissolved oxygen, Antarctica

Introduction Admiralty Bay is a well-studied marine sub Antarctic environment due to the five research stations (Poland, Brazil, Peru, Equator and U.S.A) established there since the sixties. Hydrographical studies of the area have been made since 1980 by scientists of the Polish Research Station of Arctowski (Pruszak, 1980; Lipski, 1987; Rakusa-Suszcewski et al., 1993) and Brazilians from the Ferraz Station (Brandini & Rebello, 1994). Further data of nutrients, dissolved oxygen (DO) and phytoplankton distribution were summarized by Weber & Montone (2006). Although there is no scarcity of previous summer data, a coherent general pattern could not be observed due to strong yearly variations. This may reflect the irregular pattern of terrestrial ice melting and of the irregular land run-off contributions which are not quantified on a systematic basis. The present study reports the temperature, salinity, dissolved nutrients, dissolved oxygen and pH variations

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during the summers of 2009/2010/2011/2012 (from OPERANTAR XXVII to OPERANTAR XXIX) in five points of Admiralty Bay near EAFC (Portuguese acronym for Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Brazilian Research Station) and Arctowski Research Stations at three depths.

Materials and Methods The location of the Sampled Station areas is shown on Figure 1 and Table 1. The water was collected at 0, 15 and 30 m depth. Water sampling was done with a peristaltic pump (Anauger 900 - flow rate of 1200 L h–1 at 30 m depth and 2.300 L h–1 at the sea surface) and the temperature was measured with temperature sensor (Seamon Mini) attached to the pump. The samples and the analysis of dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate was done according Grasshoff et al. (1983).

Figure 1. Map of Sampling Stations and their positions (CF: Comandante Ferraz; BP: Botany Point; MP: Machu Picchu; TP: Thomas Point; AR: Arctowski) (Coastline extractor – http:// http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov). Table 1. Oceanographic parameters in Admiralty Bay.

OPERANTAR XXVIII

Temperature (°C)

Phase

Average

S. d.

Min.

Max.

Phase

Average

Standard deviation

Min.

Max.

1st

0.09

0.41

-0.36

0.91

1st

0.84

0.46

0.24

1.54

0.82

0.15

0.52

1.02

1.62

0.12

1.48

1.77

1st

34.16

0.09

34.02

34.26

1st

34.17

0.11

33.94

34.35

3rd

34.09

0.11

33.89

34.18

3rd

34.12

0.12

33.93

34.23

7.06

0.29

6.46

7.43

7.79

0.19

7.53

8.13

6.46

0.66

5.11

7.19

7.27

0.10

7.13

7.38

1st

7.94

0.06

7.89

8.05

1st

7.88

0.06

7.81

7.98

Salinity

Dissolved Oxygen (mL L–1) pHs

Silicate (µmol L–1) Nitrite (µmol L–1) Nitrate (µmol L–1)

8.04

0.02

8.01

8.06

1.66

0.22

1.22

3rd

1.76

0.16

1.49

1st

41.77

0.56

Phosphate (µmol L–1)

OPERANTAR XXIX

7.71

0.05

7.66

7.76

2.13

1.96

0.56

1.11

2.50

2.07

3rd

1.79

0.18

1.59

2.09

40.89

42.81

1st

61.06

12.31

39.09

74.52

40.80

0.59

39.99

41.67

0.06

0.03

0.00

3rd

0.14

0.06

0.04

16.52

1.65

16.49

0.40

37.84

4.34

30.15

41.96

0.11

0.50

0.16

0.40

0.76

0.23

3rd

0.77

0.05

0.70

0.86

13.86

19.80

20.43

2.50

14.74

22.66

16.00

17.25

11.34

2.02

9.05

14.29

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Results In Table 1 we show the oceanographic parameters in Admiralty Bay: temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, phosphate, silicate and nitrite. The table presents average, s.d., minimum and maximum of each phase. Temperature differences were significant between November and March. In contrast, pH values also presented significant differences along the sampling periods, which were expected, but did not affect the pH values. For example, in the 3rd Phase of OPERANTAR XXIX we had the lowest pHs although temperatures were at their highest. First phases of OPERANTARES XXVIII e XXIX (between November and December) and 3rd phase OPERANTAR XXVIII (between January and February) show higher values without significant differences. Our salinity and temperature is closer to the data of deeper water of Admiralty Bay (Lipski, 1987; Sarukhanyan & Tokarczyk, 1988; Weber & Montone, 2006). Nitrate and nitrite also showed significant variations between the different sampling periods. In the third phase of OPERANTAR XXVIII, phosphate concentrations were uniform during all phases of sampling.

Discussion The upper mixed layer of Admiralty Bay is between 15 up to 35 m (Brandini, 1993). Vertical mixing is very intense so no stratification can occur (Prusza, 1980; Nedzarek & RakusaSuszczewski, 2004).This study is limited to this upper layer, therefore a homogeneity of the hydrographical data along the water column is expected. Jażdżewski et al. (1986) showed that there was a uniform pattern of the hydrographical data between the different areas of Admiralty Bay. An increase in temperature between the beginning and the end of Antarctic summer is normal (Brandini & Rebello, 1994; Lange et al., 2006). Air temperature can oscillate from 0,5 up to 2,0° Celsius in the summer (INPE, 2011). March of OPERANTAR XXVIII, however was anomalous. Instead of increasing as normally expected like in OPERANTAR XXIX, OPERANTAR XXVII it sinked from 0,8 to 0,2 oC (INPE, 2011). As well as the temperature, pH values varied widely, but they have not always been correlated, as shown in Table 1. pH is also influenced by photosynthesis or organic matter degradation. To be sure about the biological variables

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affecting pH it will be necessary to compare our data with the other data of Module 3 projects INCT-APA. Salinity (PSU) did not show significant differences in all sampling periods. Lange et al. (2007), studying Admiralty Bay, reported an increase in temperature of the surface water but no salinity changes during the summer. We registered a small difference in salinity due to an iceberg positioned near Botany Point in the first phase of this OPERANTAR. Comparing our results with other authors who studied the area we can perceive differences. Salinity and temperature for instance are not the same as reported by other authors for the area. WSW and NWN winds carry the surface waters of the inlet in the direction of the Bransfield Strait. This process creates an inflow of deep water to Admiralty Bay (Pruszak, 1980; Robakiewicz & Rakuza-Swazcsewski, 1999). As this Bay is influenced by the water masses of Weddell Sea, colder and more saline (–0,75 C - 33,50 psu) and of the Bellinghausen Sea, warmer and less saline (2,25 C - 34,40 psu) (Weber & Montone, 2006) a small upwelling on Admiralty Bay may occur. Therefore our data has bottom water characteristics which is more evident when looking at the dissolved oxygen data whose values are close to the bottom water and lower than those of the surface waters (Samp, 1980; Rakusa-Suszczewski, 1995). The first phase of sampling on OPERANTAR XXIX presented the highest DO concentrations. The other samples showed lower dissolved oxygen levels. Oxygen levels are controlled by physical factors as well as affected by all biological processes of the water column of the study area. Silicate concentrations for the first phase of OPERANTAR XXIX were greater than the average value for all other phases (Table 1). On this particular phase we observed a Pteropoda bloom, which may be associated with a higher availability of silicate. Pteropoda are plankton grazers eating mainly diatoms and dinoflagellates as well as small crustaceans (Boersma, 1978). Silicate is the limiting nutrient for diatoms growth. Increase of the diatom number may be associated with higher dissolved oxygen as pointed out before. To be sure of this correlation we had to integrate our chemical data with phytoplankton data form Module 3 studies. Higher silicate concentrations for the beginning of summer (first phase) may have been associated with the non utilization

of silicate during the winter months due to the absence of light. Furthermore upwelling can occur in Admiralty Bay as shown by (Rakuza-Swazczewski, 1980) which enhances the silicate levels. Significant variations of the parameters nitrite and nitrate were observed. High productivity in the first phase of OPERANTAR XXIX may be responsible for the high nitrite concentrations and low nitrate concentrations. Many biological and physical variables affect the chemistry of the water column. To infer which processes predominate, it will be necessary to integrate our data with the other sub-projects of Module-3.

Conclusions Sea surface temperature relates directly to air temperature. pH is related to air temperature and water temperature. Changes of pH between different phases of sampling

was not associated with seawater temperature. There are occasional upwelling episodes near EACF and Arctowski Stations. Dissolved oxygen in seawater is related to primary productivity or strong wind fields.

References Boersma, A. 1978. Foraminifera. In: HAQ, B. U.; BOERSMA, A. (eds.) Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology. New York: Elsevier/North Holland, p. 19-77. (está sem indicação pq não tem o ano, mas é essa que se refere ao Boersna, favor substituir); Brandini, F.P. (1993). Phytoplankton growth in an antarctic coastal environment during stable water conditions - implications for the iron limitation theory. Marine Ecology. Progress Series, 93: 267-275. Brandini, F.P. & Rebello, J. (1994). Wind field effect on hydrograph and chlorophyll dynamics in the coastal pelagial of Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Antarctic Science, 6(4): 433-442. Grasshoff, K.; Ehrhardt, M. & Kremling, K. (1988). Methods of Seawater Analysis. Weihein: Verlag Chemie. 419 p. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais - INPE. (2011). Available from: <http://www.inpe.br/antartica>. (accessed: 15 ago. 2011). Jażdżewski K.; Jurasz W.; Kittel W.; Presler E.; Presler P. & Siciński J. (1986). Abundance and biomass estimates of the benthic fauna in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Biology, 6: 5-16. Lange, P.K.; Tenenbaum, D.R.; Braga, E.L. & Campos, L.S. (2007). Micro phytoplankton assemblages in shallow waters at Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica) during the summer 2002-2003. Polar Biology, 30: 1483-1492. Lipski, M. (1987). Variations of physical conditions, nutrients and chlorophyll a contents in Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, 1979). Polish Polar Research, 8(4): 307-332. Nedzarek, A. & Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (2004). Decomposition of macro algae and the release of nutrients in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Polar Bioscience, 17: 16-35. Pruszak, Z. (1980). Current circulation in the waters of Admiralty Bay (region of Arctowski Station on King George Island). Polish Polar Research, 1: 55-74. Rakuza-Swazczewski, S. (1980). Environmental conditions and functioning of Admiralty Bay (South Shetland Islands) as part of the Nearshore Antarctic Ecosystem. Polish Polar Research, 1: 11-27.

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Robakiewicz, M. & Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (1999). Application of 3D circulation model to Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Polish Polar Research, 20: 43-58. Rakusa-Suszczewsky, S.; Mietus, M. & Piasecki, J. 1993. Weather and Climate. In: Rakusa-Suszczewsky, S. (Ed.), The Maritime Antarctic Coastal Ecosystem of Admiralty Bay, Varsóvia: Polish Academy of Sciences, p. 19–25. Samp, R. (1980). Selected environmental factors in the waters of Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland Islands) December 1978 - February 1979. Polish Polar Research, 1: 53-66. Sarukhanyan, E.J. & Tokarzykr, R. (1988). Coarse-Scaleh hydrological conditions in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, West Antarctica, Summer 1982. Polish Polar Research, 9: 121-132. Weber, R.R. & Montone, R.C. (2006). Gerenciamento ambiental na Baía Do Almirantado (Relatório da Rede 2). 259 p.

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2 PLANKTON STRUCTURE OF SHALLOW COASTAL ZONE AT ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, WEST ANTARCTIC PENINSULA (WAP) DURING EARLY SUMMER/2010: PICO, ULTRA AND MICROPLANKTON AND CHLOROPHYLL BIOMASS José Juan Barrera-Alba1,*, Mariana Vanzan, Márcio Murilo Barboza Tenório1, Denise Rivera Tenenbaum1,** 1

Laboratório de Fitoplâncton Marinho, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Edif. CCS, Bloco A, Sala A61, Ilha do Fundão, Cidade Universitária, CEP 20530-310, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil *e-mail: juanalba@biologia.ufrj.br; **deniser@biologia.ufrj.br

Abstract: The phytoplankton composition and biomass are being monitored in Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula since 2002 to detect possible interannual changes on a long-term monitoring perspective. In this report, we present the results of the December 2010 survey regarding the phytoplankton size-structure and biomass. Microplankton densities were higher than those observed during the survey 2009/2010, and a dominance of diatoms, especially the centric Thalassiosira spp, over dinoflagellates was registered. Pico and ultraplankton densities (~106 cells L–1) were similar to those registered in previous studies, and results showed that phytoplankton were dominated in density by cells <10 µm. The shift in phytoplankton structure pointed out by the dominance of pico- and ultra-size cells in phytoplankton density and dominance of microphytoplankton in biomass must be confirmed by continuing the long-term monitoring program and the implementation of microvariation sampling effort to identify the factors that are actually influencing phytoplankton populations in this environment. Keywords: microbial community, size-fraction structure, Coastal zone, PROANTAR

Introduction The West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) waters undergo extreme seasonal fluctuations in terms of light regime, seaice concentration and productivity (Delille, 2004). The WAP has experienced a significant rise in air temperatures during the last 50 years (±0.56 °C per decade; Marshall et al., 2002). The monitoring of biodiversity in shallow waters (<30 m) at Admiralty Bay was implemented in 2002 by PROANTAR (Brazilian Antarctic Program) during the Operation XX aiming to study the effects of environmental impacts (natural and anthropogenic) on the microplanktonic community structure, through analysis of long-term temporal series. These activities were undertaken until 2010, through four surveys, including samplings in both early and late austral summer periods (Tenenbaum et al., 2011a). Recent studies showed that in Admiralty Bay, picoplankton and

ultraplankton are the dominant groups, with microplankton diatoms as the second group in abundance. Between the decades of 1990 and 2000, several studies showed a decline in diatom contribution (Kopczynska, 2008), in relation to those observed in the continental shelf region. Based on these facts since 2009 new approaches to phytoplankton monitoring have been established, including the analysis of size-fractioned pigments by spectrofluorometry, and the analysis of density and biovolume of pico- and ultraplankton by epifluorescence microscopy, and furthermore through a higher sampling frequency effort (Tenenbaum et al., 2011a). Additionally, the composition of microphytobenthos species will be carried out to study the effects of environmental changes on this community in the nearshore Antarctic ecosystem (Tenenbaum et al., 2011b). In the present study

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we show the results from early summer obtained during the OPERANTAR XXIX, December 2010.

Materials and Methods Study area Admiralty Bay (62° 03’-12’ S and 58° 18’-38’ W), located at King George Island, is a deep fjord-like embayment with 500 m maximum depth at its centre (Rakusa-Suszczewski et al., 1993). The waters from the bay mix with the deep oceanic waters from Bellingshausen and Weddell Seas at its southern opening, which connects to the Bransfield Strait (RakusaSuszczewski, 1980). The maximum depth varies between 60 m along the shores and 500 m in the centre of the bay. Deep currents generated by tides, frequent upwellings, vertical mixing of the entire water column and current velocities of 30-100 cm s−1 in the 0-100 m surface stratum are

characteristic of the bay (Rakusa-Suszczewski et al., 1993). In the context of water column production, Admiralty Bay at nearshore can be considered as Platt et al. (2003) defined as “high nutrient – low chlorophyll (HNLC): showing high inorganic dissolved nitrogen (16.6-46.9 µM) and phosphate (0.2-9.9 µM) concentrations, while chlorophyll levels are lower than 1.7 µg L–1 (Lange et al., 2007).

Sampling The analysis of pico-, ultra- and microplankton and chlorophyll was performed from splits of the 5 L water samples collected by Van Dorn bottle from surface, middle water column and near the bottom (≈30 m) at five sites in December 2010. The Admiralty Bay location and the position of the sampling sites are shown in Figure 1. Water temperature and salinity were analysed by the Laboratório de Química Orgânica Marinha (LabQOM),

Figure 1. Study area with the position of the sampling sites: Ferraz Station (CF), Botany Point (BP), Machu Picchu (MP), Point Thomas (PT), Arctowski (AR), modified from Moura (2009).

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Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo (The Marine Organic Chemistry Laboratory of the Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo).

Fixation and preparation of samples For pico- (<2 µm) and ultraplankton (2-10 µm), aliquots of 250 mL were stored in dark bottles and fixed with 0.22 µm-filtered glutaraldehyde (2% f.c.) at 4 °C until laboratory analysis. Aliquots of 5 and 30 mL were stained with DAPI (4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), 0.01 µg L–1 f.c. (Martinussen & Thingstad, 1991), during 10 minutes and filtered respectively by 0.22 µm (picoplankton) and 1.0 µm (ultraplankton) polycarbonate black membrane filters (Poretics®), and mounted on microscope slides. Slides were stored at –20 °C. Analyses were performed using an Olympus BX51® epifluorescence microscope with 1,000× magnification. The number of heterotrophs was calculated based on the total counted using DAPI (UV filter combination) minus the number of autotrophs analysed by autofluorescence (blue filter combination). For microplankton (>10 µm), 1 L were fixed with buffered formaldehyde (2% f.c.) and kept in the dark immediately after sampling. At the laboratory, samples were analysed using the settling technique (Utermöhl, 1958) in an Olympus IX70® inverted microscope with 400× magnification. For chlorophyll biomass, 2L were filtered onto Whatman® GF/F for total pigments analyses, while 0.8-2 L was used for the size structure study. In the latter case, water sampled at 3 depths was fractionated by serial filtration on 10 μm and 2 μm polycarbonate filters and GF/F. The filters were folded, placed into a 1.2 mL cryotube and immediately quickfrozen in liquid nitrogen (−196 °C) and stored at −80 °C. Concentrations of chlorophyll a (Chl.a) were assessed using a modified version of Neveux and Lantoine’s (1993) method. In order to normalize distributions and eliminate zero values, the biological data was transformed using log10 (x + 1). Pearson’s correlation factor was also calculated.

Results Salinity showed little variation (34.2 ± 0.1) between sampling sites and depths, while a higher variation was observed in water temperature (0.30 ± 0.15 °C). Except for BP, water temperature decreased with depth, with values of 0.14 at surface and 0.73 near the bottom. Total chlorophyll biomass

varied between 0.36 and 0.84 µg L–1 (0.54 ± 0.12 µg L–1), with higher values registered at BP, and the fraction > 10 µm represented more than 50% (Figure 2b). An average cellular density of 1.9 × 107 ± 0.4 × 107 cells L–1 was observed for total autotrophic plankton, with a maximum value of 2.2 × 107 cells L–1 observed at TP. The dominant fractions were pico (mean 79%) and ultraplankton (mean 20.9%) for all samples sites (Figure 2C). For microplankton, an average cellular density of 8.8 × 103 ± 3 × 103 cells L–1 was observed, with a maximum value of 16.4 × 103 cells L–1 observed at BP (Figure 2d). In general, no statistically significant correlations were observed between densities and salinity, temperature or Chl.a. Only microphytoplankton showed a positive correlation with total chlorophyll biomass (r = 0.77, p < 0.05). The contribution was shared by the diatoms (mean 72 %) and dinoflagellates (mean 27%) (Figure 2d). Among centric diatoms was predominant (92%), mainly the genera Thalassiosira. Thecate forms, especially Prorocentrum cf. antarcticum, were more abundant among dinoflagellates (56%). Spatially, autotrophic picoplankton densities generally decreased from the external region (AR-TP) to inner sampling stations (CF-BP). Ultraplankton contribution did not show great spatial differences. An inverse pattern was observed for microphytoplankton and diatom contribution, with higher densities observed in BP and bottom samples.

Discussion Microplankton cellular densities and chlorophyll biomass observed in this study were low when compared to those registered for Admiralty Bay during the decades of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, when densities of 105 cells L–1 were usually registered (i.e. Kopczynska, 2008). However mean densities were six times higher than those observed by Lange et al. (2007) in a study developed during the austral summer 2002/2003, and three times higher than the means registered during the austral summer 2009/2010 (Tenenbaum et al., 2011a). The dominance of diatoms over dinoflagellates in early summer 2010 is a characteristic of microplankton community for Admiralty Bay (Lange et al., 2007; Kopczynska, 2008). But, during the study developed at 2009/2010, a decreasing (<45%) of the contribution of diatom, especially during the late summer (Tenenbaum et al., 2011a), was observed. Water

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Figure 2. Variations at different sample sites at Admiralty Bay during the December 2010 survey (mean values): a) salinity and temperature; b) total and fractionate chlorophyll a concentrations; c) pico and ultraplankton densities; and d) microphytoplankton density and contribution of main groups to microphytoplankton

temperatures measured in the present study were higher than those registered for early summer in previous studies, when negative values were usually registered for December. In a different way to those related in previous studies, the centric diatoms Thalassiosira spp. dominated in early summer 2010/2011. Lange et al. (2011) described this genera as one of predominant microalgae during late summer 2002/2003, while in early summer usually pennate diatoms were dominant. Densities of pico and ultraplanktonic fraction of autotrophic community were similar (~106 cells L–1) to those observed in a previous study during the late summer 2009/2010 (Tenenbaum et al., 2011a), and were co-dominant of the phytoplankton community in Admiralty Bay. The densities of picoautotrophs were also in the same range of the values observed in other Antarctic regions (Delille et al., 2007). In the nearshore coastal waters along the Antarctic Peninsula, a recurrent shift in phytoplankton community structure, from diatoms to cryptophytes, has been documented due to high temperatures along the Peninsula increasing the extent of coastal melt-water zones promoting seasonal prevalence

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of cryptophytes (Moline et al., 2004). Even the dominance of pico and ultra-size cells in phytoplankton, which are not grazed efficiently by Antarctic krill, will likely cause a shift in the spatial distribution of krill and may allow also for the rapid asexual proliferation of carbon poor gelatinous zooplankton, salps in particular (Moline et al., 2004), our results show that microphytoplankton biomass (>10 µm), especially diatoms, represent a high percentage of total phytoplankton biomass.

Conclusion In the context of the regional warming trend of WAP, results of the present study showed a shift in Admiralty Bay plankton community in relation to the study developed during the austral summer 2009/2010, when contribution of diatoms decreased and low microplankton densities, dominance of dinoflagellates, mainly heterotrophs, and high contribution of autotrophs pico- and ultraplankton to total density and biomass in late summer, suggested that changes could be occurring in Admiralty Bay food web. On the other hand, the dominance of a large diatom community and the

increasing of microphytoplankton densities, indicate that it is necessary to continue the long-term monitoring program and the implementation of microvariation sampling effort to identify the factors that are actually influencing phytoplankton populations in this environment.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-

APA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA), Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM) and Marine Organic Chemical Laboratory of the Oceanographic Institute of Sao Paulo University (LabQOM-IOUSP).

References Delille, D. (2004). Abundance and function of bacteria in the Southern Ocean. Cellular and Molecular Biology, 50:543–551 Delille, D.; Gleizon, F. & Delille, B. (2007). Spatial and temporal variations of bacteria and phytoplankton in a subAntarctic coastal area (Kerguelen Archipelago). Journal of Marine Systems, 68(3-4):366-380 Kopczynska, E.E. (2008). Phytoplankton variability in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland Islands: six years of monitoring. Polish Polar Research, 29(2):117-139. Lange, P.K.; Tenenbaum, D.R.; Braga, E.S.B. & Campos, L.S. (2007). Microphytoplankton assemblages in shallow waters at Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica) during the summer 2002-2003. Polar Biology, 30:1483-1492. Marshall, G.J.; Lagun, V. & Lachlan-Cope, T.A. (2002). Changes in Antarctic Peninsula tropospheric temperatures from 1956 to 1999: a synthesis of observations and reanalysis data. International Journal of Climatology, 22:291-310. Martinussen, I. & Thingstad. T.F. (1991). A simple double-staining method for enumeration of autotrophic and heterotrophic nano- and picoplankton. Marine Microbial Food Webs, 5:5-11. Moline, M.A.; Claustre, H.; Frazer, T.K.; Schofield, O. & Vernet, M. (2004). Alteration of the food web along the Antarctic Peninsula in response to a regional warming trend. Global Change Biology, 10:1973-1980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.13652486.2004.00825.x Moura, R.B. (2009). Estudo taxonômico dos Holothuroidea (Echinodermata) das Ilhas Shetland do Sul e do Estreito de Bransfield, Antártica. Dissertação de Mestrado, Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Neveux, J. & Lantoine, F. (1993). Spectrofluorometric assay of chlorophylls and phaeopigments using the least squares approximation technique. Deep-Sea Research I, 40(9):1747-1765. Platt, T.; Broomhead, D.S.; Sathyendranath, S.; Edwards, A.M. & Murphy, E.J. (2003). Phytoplankton biomass and residual nitrate in the pelagic ecosystem. Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 459:1063-1073. Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (1980) Environmental conditions and the functioning of Admiralty Bay (South Shetland Islands) as part of the near shore Antarctic ecosystem. Polish Polar Research 1(1):11-27. Rakusa-Suszczewski, S.; Mietus, M. & Piasecki, J. (1993) Weather and climate. In: Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (Ed) The maritime coastal ecosystem of Admiralty Bay. Department of Antarctic Biology, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw. Tenenbaum, D.R.; Barrera-Alba, J.J.; Duarte, R.D. & Tenório, M.B. (2011a). Plankton Structure of shallow coastal zone at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP): pico, nano and microplankton and chlorophyll biomass. Annual Activity Report 2010. INCT-APA, 2:108-114. Tenenbaum, D.R., Lange, P. Barrera-Alba, J.J., Fernandes, L.F., Calixto, M. & Garcia, V.M.T. (2011b). Plankton Structure of shallow coastal zone at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP): composition of phytoplankton and influence of benthic diatoms. Annual Activity Report 2010. INCT-APA, 2 121-125. Utermöhl, H. (1958). Zur Vervollkommung der quantitativen methodik. Mitteilungen der Internationale Vereinigung für Teoretische und Angewandte Limnologie, 9:1-38.

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3 SUMMER VARIATION OF ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY ON COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA Yargos Kern1,*, Karin Lutke Elbers2, Andrea Cancela da Cruz-Kaled2, Rolf Roland Weber2, Theresinha Monteiro Absher1 Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, Av. Beira-Mar, s/n, CP 50002, CEP 83255-971, Pontal do Paraná, PR, Brazil 2 Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, Salas 139/133B, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 1

*e-mail: ykern@cem.ufpr.br

Abstract: This study aims to provide data on the abundance and distribution of zooplankton related to oceanographic parameters of the coastal environment of Admiralty Bay. In December 2009, during the XXVIII Brazilian Expedition, biological samples and physic-chemical data were obtained in four shallow areas, located in front of research stations and a reference area at Botany Point. A total of 15,882 organisms were sorted from 55 samples resulting in a total density of 3.03 organisms/100 m3. Nineteen taxa were identified. The most abundant holoplanktonic organism was copepods and meroplanktonic was echinoderms. The PCA analysis emphasized the importance of phosphate and dissolved oxygen for holoplankton, as nitrite and water temperature for the meroplankton during the four days of sampling. Keywords: holoplankton, meroplankton, monitoring, Admiralty Bay

Introduction Zooplankton is a component of the plankton constituted

In Admiralty Bay, with the beginning of the austral

by a diversified group of organisms that live in the water

summer (November-March), starts the supply of larvae

column of the oceans. They have an important role in

or juveniles from the water column or sediment adjacent

the recycling of nutrients and are divided in two groups: Holoplankton (stay in the plankton during all their life cycle) and Meroplankton (in the plankton during a part of their life cycle). Some zooplanktonic organisms are considered good hydrological indicators (Boltovskoy, 1981), enabling the identification of different sources of water inputs that comprise the dynamic of an area. Montu & Cordeiro (1986) accomplished the first Brazilian study on the Antarctic zooplankton in the summer of 1982/1983 during the First Brazilian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica. Freire et al.

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regions (Freire et al., 2006). The lower variability in temperature and salinity favor an environment with almost no barriers to larval dispersal however is limited by the type of reproduction. With the purpose to contribute to the monitoring program INCT- APA - Thematic Module 3, this study aims to provide data on the abundance and distribution of zooplankton related to oceanographic parameters of the coastal environment of Admiralty Bay.

(1993) and Santos (1995) studied the zooplankton of

Materials and Methods

Admiralty Bay, Subsequent scientific works by the Antarctic

The samples were collected from four shallow areas near

Brazilian program concentrated mainly in the meroplankton

research stations and one reference area at Botany Point, in

(Absher et. al., 2003; Freire et al., 2006).

the days 11, 15, 23 and 12/29/2009 (Figure 1).

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Plankton samples were collected in three replicates in all stations from five minutes oblique tows at 2 knots from the sea bottom (30 m) to the water surface. A conical net with a 150 µm mesh size and 60 cm diameter equipped with a flowmeter was used. Samples were preserved in 4% buffered formaldehyde. Zooplankton organisms were identified in high taxonomic levels and separated in meroplankton or holoplankton. The values have been corrected to a standard 100 m3. In order to evaluate the community structure of zooplankton in relation to oceanographic dynamics the following characteristic of the water were determined: water temperature (°C), salinity, transparency (m), dissolved oxygen (DO – mL L–1), pH, phosphate (PO4 – μmol L–1),

silicate (SiO4 – μmol L–1), nitrite (NO2 – μmol L–1) and nitrate (NO3 – μmol L–1).

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the statistical difference in the density and diversity of taxa among sampling days and stations. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on a correlation matrix was applied to the data of abundance, spatial distribution of zooplankton and environmental data. When appropriate a log (x + 1) transformation was employed.

Results Fifty five samples were collected during the period and a total of 15,882 zooplankton organisms were sorted. The total volume of sampled water was approximately 5,238 m3, resulting in a total density of 3.03 organisms.100m-3. Mean numbers of holoplankton are shown in Figure 2a. Copepods dominated in the majority of stations and dates. The average abundance was nearly constant among stations during the

Figure 1. Location of sampling stations in Admiralty Bay (crosses) and research stations (black squares).

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Figure 2. Mean numbers of holoplankton (a) and meroplankton (b) in each station on each day of sampling. Stations: 1 - Ferraz; 2 - Botany Point; 3 - Machu Pichu; 4 - Point Thomas; 5 - Arctowski.

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sampled period, except for station 4 on 12/15/2009 and station 5 on 12/29/2009, whose averages were higher. The mean numbers of meroplankton are shown in Figure 2B. Meroplankton density was high in Machu Picchu station (St. #3) in the days 11, 23 and 29 December 2009. On 12/15/2009 was observed the lowest average abundance in almost all stations during the sampling period. Echinodermata and Polychaete larvae were the first and second most abundant meroplankton, respectively. The differences observed in the ANOVA resulting from the comparison of the densities (organisms.100m-3) between stations and dates were significant (df = 19; F = 2535; p < 0.05) and caused mainly by the amount of organisms in station 4 in 12/15/2009 and 5 in 12/29/2009. The differences between the abundances of meroplankton in the stations and dates were significantly different (ANOVA df = 17; F = 2.57; p < 0.05). Mean water temperature during the sampling period ranged from –0.13 to –0.59 °C. Average salinity ranged

from 33.16 to 34.32, water transparency ranged from 1.80 to 10.50 m, pH from 7.85 to 8.07, dissolved oxygen ranged from 6.46 to 7.56 mL L–1, phosphate from 1.29 to 2.08 μmol L–1, silicate from 40.53 to 42.63 μmol L–1, nitrite from 0.02 to 0.17 μmol L–1 and nitrate from 12.94 to 19.69 μmol L–1. PCA of holoplankton, meroplankton and environmental parameters are shown in Figure 3. The first two components of PCA analyses explain 49.27% of the total variance. Holoplankton abundance is influenced by waters with higher DO and phosphate and less silicate, nitrite, nitrate under lower pH, wind gust and speed in less turbid waters. The second factor indicated that environmental conditions favored meroplankton abundance in waters with higher temperature, DO, pH, nitrite, less phosphate, silicate under low wind gust in more turbid waters. While holoplankton had a high correlation with Factor 1 meroplankton had correlation with Factor 2 and no correlation to each other.

Figure 3. A biplot of the PCA of holoplankton, meroplankton and environmental parameters data; HOLO - holoplankton; MERO - meroplankton; DO - dissolved oxygen; Sal - salinity; Temp - temperature; Phos - phosphate; Nitrat - nitrate; Nitri - nitrite; Silic - silicate; pH; Sec - Secchi disk; W/speed - wind speed; W/gust - wind gust; W/dir - wind direction.

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Discussion Larval forms are common to different groups of marine invertebrates which makes conclusive identification of the species almost impossible. Stanwell-Smith et al. (1997) is the only available source for the identification of Antarctic larvae. Due to the very slow development rate of larvae in Antarctic waters (Bosch et al., 1987; Peck 1993; Peck et al., 2007; Stanwell-Smith et al., 1999), differences among larvae from consecutive samples through time may be only successive stages in development of the same specie. Santos (1995) and Freire et al. (2006) observed that Polychaeta larvae occurred at the beginning and end of summer. These results are in accordance with what was observed in the present study, as Echinodermata and Polychaete larvae were detected in the beginning of summer as the first and second most abundant meroplankton respectively. According with Absher & Feijó (1995) mollusk larvae showed temporal variation, occurring in abundance in late summer and almost absent in early summer. In the present study mollusk larvae occurred in small numbers. These facts suggest that larvae of invertebrates can be found differentially throughout the summer. Cruz-Kaled (2011) found the density of veliger larvae of gastropods 124.53 individuals.100m-3 during the summer 2002/2003 and 5.35 individuals.100m-3 during the summer 2003/2004 at Mackellar Inlet (corresponding to station 3 of the present study). These data when compared with the present study show a large interannual difference in the occurrence of zooplankton organisms, a situation that can be reflected throughout Admiralty Bay, probably due to the variation of oceanographic parameters, reproductive patterns of the species and the interaction with larvae or adults of other planktonic organisms.

Near the sampling St #5 (Arctowski) penguin’s species Pygoscelis antarctica and Pygoscelis adeliae can be found nesting on rocky cliffs in the coastal region. These birds have a significant impact on the balance of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals in these nesting areas (Tatur, 2002). Ornithogenics soils, derived from the activity of these penguins sampled between Point Thomas (St #4) and Ecology Glacier showed a high content of phosphate, as observed by Schaefer et al. (2004). According to Bremer (2008), the combination of nesting habitats with shallow soils allows organic matter to accumulate and some of the material returns to the sea by surface drainage or by percolation. The dynamics of the water circulation and the wind regime of the bay associated to the presence of the research stations and the discharge of nutrients from the ornithogenic soils in the west coast of the region favors the increase of the primary production and in consequence of the zooplankton. Further studies will be needed to make possible the understanding of the contribution of each one of those factors.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Absher, T.M.; Feijó, A.R. (1995). Dispersão larval de moluscos bênticos da Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Anais do VI Congresso Latinoamericano de Ciencias del Mar – COLACMAR, 1995, Mar del Plata, Argentina. Absher, T.M.; Boehs, G.; Feijó, A.R. & Cruz, A.C. (2003). Pelagic larvae of benthic gastropods from shallow Antarctic waters of Admiralty Bay, King George Island. Polar Biology. 26: 359-364. Boltovskoy, D. (1981). Atlas del zooplancton del Atlántico Sudoccidental y métodos de trabajo con el zooplancton marino. Publicacion Especial INIDEP, Mar del Plata.

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Bosch, I.; Beauchamp, K.A.; Steele, M.E. & Pearse, J.S. (1987). Development, metamorphosis, and seasonal abundance of embrios and larvae of the antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri. Biological Bulletin, 173: 126-135. Bremer, U. F. (2008). Solos e geomorfologia da borda leste da Península Warszawa, Ilha Rei George, Antártica Marítima. Tese de Doutorado.Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Cruz-Kaled, A.C. (2011). Variação temporal e espacial de larvas de invertebrados marinhos da Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Tese de Doutorado. Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo. Freire, A.S.; Coelho M.J.C. & Bonecker. S.L.C. (1993). Short term spatial- temporal distribution pattern of zooplankton in Admiralty Bay (Antarctica). Polar Biology, 13:433-439. Freire, A.S.; Absher, T.M.; Cruz-Kaled, A.C.; Kern, Y. & Elbers, K.L. (2006). Seasonal variation of pelagic invertebrate larvae in the shallow Antarctic waters of Admiralty Bay (King George Island). Polar Biology, 29: 294-302. Montu, M. & Cordeiro, T.A. (1986). Estudo do zooplâncton coletado durante a primeira expediçãobrasileira à Antártica pelo NApOc “Barão de Tefé”. Nerítica, 1 (1): 85-92 Peck, L.S. (1993). Larval development in the Antarctic nemertean Parborlasia corrugatus (Heteronemertea: Lineidae). Marine Biology, 116:301-310. Peck, L.S.; Powell, D.K. & Tyler, P.A. (2007). Very slow development in two Antarctic bivalve molluscs, the infaunal clam Laternula elliptica and the scallop Adamussium colbecki. Marine Biology, 150:1191-1197. Santos, C.C. 1995. Relação entre Fatores Físicos e a Comunidade Zooplanctônica na Baía do Almirantado e Regiões Costeiras da Ilha Elefante (Antártica). Dissertação do Curso de Pós Graduação em Geografia da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Simas, F.N.B.; Albuquerque Filho, M.R.; Michel, R.F.M.; Viana, J.H.M. & Tatur, A. (2004). Fosfatização: processo de formação de solos na Baía do Almirantado e implicações ambientais. In: Schaefer, C. N., Francelino, M. R., Simas, F. N. B. & Albuquerque Filho, M. R (Ed.). Ecossistemas da Antártica Marítima: Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George. Viçosa: NEPUT. p. 47-58. Stanwell-Smith, D.; Hood, A.; Peck, L.S. (1997). A field guide to the pelagic invertebrates larvae of the maritime Antarctic. British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge UK. Stanwell-Smith, D.; Peck, L.S.; Clarke, A.; Murray, A.W.A. & Todd, C.D. (1999). The distribution, abundance and seasonality of pelagic marine invertebrate larvae in the maritime Antarctic. Phil. Trans. Royal Society London B, 354:471-484. Tatur, A. (2002). Ornithogenic ecosystems in the maritme Antarctica – formation, development and disintegration. In: Beyer, L. & Bölter, M. (Eds.). Geoecology of antarctic ice-free coastal landscapes. Heidelberg: Springer. p. 161-184. (Ecological Studies, 154).

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4 ASSESSMENT OF FAECAL POLLUTION INDICATORS IN THE BRAZILIAN ANTARCTIC STATION WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT AND IN ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES AT ADMIRALTY BAY, ANTARCTIC PENINSULA Cristina Rossi Nakayama2, Priscila Ikeda Ushimaru1, Ana Carolina Vieira Araujo1, André Rosch Rodrigues1, Daniela Vilela Lima1, Vivian Helena Pellizari1,* Laboratory of Microbial Ecology, Oceanographic Institute – IO, University of São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, CEP 05580-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 2 Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo – ICAQF/UNIFESP, Rua Professor Artur Riedel, 275, CEP 09972-270, Diadema, SP, Brazil 1

*e-mail: vivianp@usp.br

Abstract: Assessment of faecal pollution indicators (total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus sp., sulphite reducing clostridia and Clostridium perfringens) was carried out in water samples collected during the XXIX Brazilian Antarctic Expedition and sediment samples from the XXX Brazilian Antarctic Expedition. Wastewater at different stages in the sewage treatment plant were also analyzed for ammonia, total phosphorus, phosphates, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and faecal indicators, in order to characterize the wastewater and evaluate the system performance. Water and sediment analysis showed low populations of faecal coliforms and the presence of the indicators in all sites, with higher frequencies and concentrations at EACF and Ullman Point sediment, indicating that a possible human impact is of low magnitude and cannot be differentiated from interference caused by animal faeces. Assessment of the sewage treatment plant revealed that the wastewater produced at EACF has a typical faecal indicator composition and low contents of nutrients and COD, when compared to typical domestic sewage. Removal efficiency of COD was estimated in 20%, coliforms and enterococci removal varied from 84 to 98,7%, and no removal of nutrients was detected, indicating that the treatment process can be optimized. Keywords: faecal pollution, microbial indicators, sewage treatment, E. coli, Clostridium sp., Enterococcus sp.

Introduction Faecal pollution indicators are groups of microorganisms used to study the impact caused by sewage discharge. Faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli are the most common indicators used in these assessments, but they do not survive long periods under stress in the environment. For that reason, other indicator groups of bacteria can be used as an auxiliary analysis, such as sulphite reducing clostridia (especially Clostridium perfringens), a group of spore forming bacteria usually considered as a remote contamination indicator due to their longer persistence in the environment, and Enterococcus sp., which has been more frequently used as indicator in marine environments

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due to their higher resistance to salinity when compared to coliforms and E. coli (CETESB, 1978; Ferguson et al., 2005). Sewage treatment plants remove pollutants, nutrients and pathogenic microorganisms from wastewater through different stages: (1) preliminary, in which coarse solids are mechanically removed; (2) primary, which removes settable solids and part of the organic matter; (3) secondary, which consists biological removal of organic matter and eventually nutrients; (4) tertiary, aimed at removal of specific pollutants (toxic or non biodegradable), complementary removal of nutrients and disinfection. Sewage treatment plants configuration varies according to the characteristics of the

wastewater and required quality of the effluent based usually in legislation (von Sperling, 2005). In EACF secondary and tertiary stages are present, with the use of aerobic and anaerobic digesters and a UV light disinfection system. In the present work, faecal pollution indicators were enumerated in sediment and water samples collected during Brazilian Antarctic Expeditions XXIX and XXX (BAE XXIX and BAR XXX). Wastewater samples at different stages of the EACF sewage treatment plant and soil in the effluent discharge area were also characterized for nutrients, chemical oxygen demand and faecal indicators in order to obtain information on sewage properties and treatment efficiency.

1 m from the bottom, as determined by an ecobathymeter

Materials and Methods

period of 24 hours after sampling.

Sampling and sample processing

Faecal pollution indicators enumeration

Vexilar mod LPS-1) and analyzed for coliforms (BAE XXIX) and enterococci (BAE XXX); (2) Sediment, collected in four stations (Table 1) at the 30 m isobaths (BAE XXX) and analyzed for coliforms, enterococci and clostridia; (3) Wastewater, sampled before treatment (affluent), after secondary treatment and before disinfection (secondary treatment effluent) and after disinfection with UV (effluent), analyzed for nutrients, chemical oxygen demand (COD), coliforms, enterococci and clostridia; and (4) Soil at the intertidal region in wastewater discharge area, analyzed for coliforms, enterococci and clostridia. All samples were stored at 4 °C until analysis, which took place in a maximum

In BAE XXIX, coliforms and clostridia in water, wastewater

Samples were collected between December 2010 and March 2011 (Brazilian Antarctic Expedition XXIX) and December 2011 to February 2012 (Brazilian Antarctic Expedition XXX), and consisted of: (1) Water, collected in five stations (Table 1) along the water column (surface, middle and

and soil samples were enumerated by the Most Probable Number (MPN) technique (APHA, 2005) using Colilert® medium (IDEXX) for total coliforms and E.coli and DRCM (differential reinforced clostridial medium) for clostridia.

Table 1. Water and sediment sampling sites.

Water samples (Brazilian Antarctic Expedition XXIX) EACF (CF)

Botany Point (BP)

Machu Picchu (MP)

Point Thomas (PT)

Arctowski AR)

62º 05.217” S 58º23.017” W

62º 05.767” S 58º 19.967” W

62º 05.367” S 58º 28.183” W

62º 09.200” S 58º 29.100” W

62º 09.383” S 58º 27.933” W

Sediment samples (Brazilian Antarctic Expedition XXX) EACF

Botany Point

Ullman Point

Refuge 2

Site 1

CF1

BP1

PU1

RF1

62º 05.131” S 58º 23.369” W

62º 05.701” S 58º 19.849” W

62º 05.015” S 58º 23.987” W

62º 04.21” S 58º 25.335” W

62º 05.142” S 58º 23. 370” W

62º 05.713” S 58º 19.844” W

62º 05.015” S 58º 23.987” W

62º 04.373” S 58º 25.335” W

62º05.130” S 58º23.370” W

62º 05.734” S 58º 19.919” W

62º 05.015” S 58º 23.987” W

62º 04.373” S 58º 25.335” W

Site 2

CF2

BP2

PU2

RF2

62º 05.050” S 58º 23.195” W

62º 05.181” S 58º 20.182” W

62º 05.038” S 58º 23.055” W

62º 04.1” S 58º 25.19” W

62º 05.049” S 58º 23.195” W

62º 05.48” S 58º 20.10” W

62º 05.133” S 58º 23.317” W

62º 04.18” S 58º 25.19” W

62º 05.130” S 58º 23.356” W

62º 05.48” S 58º 20.10” W

62º 05.133” S 58º 23.317” W

62º 04.1” S 58º 25.19” W

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Presence of C. perfringens in DCRM cultures was confirmed by growth in Litmus Milk. In BAE XXX, the membrane filtration technique (CETESB, 1978) was chosen to enumerate coliforms, enterococci and clostridia in water, sediment, wastewater and soil samples. The change was made in order to enhance sensitivity and precision, as larger volumes of samples can be analyzed by this method. Media and incubation conditions used for enumeration of coliforms and E.coli, enterococci and clostridia were, respectively: modified membranethermotolerant Escherichia coli Agar (Modified mTEC), incubated at 35 °C for 2 hours, followed by incubation at 44.5 °C waterbath for 22-24 hours; membrane-Enterococcus Indoxyl-β-D-Glucoside Agar (mEI), incubated at 41 °C for 24 hours; and mCP agar, incubated at 45 oC for 24 hours.

coliforms, enterococci and clostridia in sediment at the 30 m isobaths were carried out in BAE XXX (Figure 2). Results of soil samples analysis in BAE XXIX showed E.coli and C. perfringens counts of 1.6 × 109 and 7.0 × 103 NMP/100 mL, respectively. In BAE XXX counts of E.coli, E. faecalis and C. perfringens were 1.0 × 106, 1.0 × 106, and 3.2 × 104 UFC/mL, respectively.

Wastewater samples During BAE XXIX, analysis of sewage before treatment was carried out once (January 2011) and showed total coliforms and E.coli counts of 1.7 × 107 and 7.9 × 106 NMP/100 mL and sulphite reducing clostridia and C. perfringens counts of 1.7 × 105 and 1.1 × 103 NMP/100 mL, respectively. Analyses of wastewater at outfall pipe were carried out four times and results can be seen in Figure 3. During BAE XXX, faecal

Nutrients and COD Analysis of ammonia, total phosphorus, phosphates and chemical oxygen demand in wastewater samples were carried out using reagent kits and photometer from Hanna Instruments, Inc. from aliquots of wastewater affluent and effluent before and after disinfection with UV, diluted to factors of 1:10 and 1:20 when necessary.

indicators and physical chemical analysis of wastewater were performed at different stages at the treatment system (Table 2 and Figure 3), and removal efficiencies calculated for microbial indicators and COD (Table 2).

Discussion As observed in previous work, low concentrations and

Results

widespread distribution of faecal indicators were detected

Water, sediment and soil samples

higher values were found in EACF and Ullman Point sites, a

Water samples were analyzed for coliforms in BAE XXIX and for enterococci in BAE XXX (Figure 1). Analysis of

pattern also observed in previous analysis (Nakayama et al.,

in Admiralty Bay (Figures 1 and 2). In sediment samples,

2010). In water samples, EACF site was the only one to

Table 2. Wastewater characterization at different treatment stages (data obtained from December 2011 to February 2012).

Effluent

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Parameter

Affluent

Ammonia (mg/L)

Removal efficiency (%)

Before UV disinfection

After UV disinfection

4.91

5.32

8.26

Total phosphorus (mg/L)

0.7

0.9

1.8

Phosphate (mg/L)

2.1

2.8

5.5

DQO (mg/L)

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Total coliforms (CFU/mL)

3.0 × 10 -1.0 × 10

5.3 × 10 -1.2 × 10

3.9 × 10 -3.5 × 10

84.00-92.64

97 7

91 7

20.18

E. coli (CFU/mL)

1.0 × 10 -2.7 × 10

5.3 × 10 -2.0 × 10

3.9 × 10 -2.8 × 10

85.00-92.64

Enterococcus sp. (CFU/mL)

2.5 × 106-2.9 × 107

4.0 × 103-1.7 × 106

1.7 × 104-2.3 × 106

92.61-98.72

Sulphite reducing clostridia (CFU/mL)

1.5 × 105-2.4 × 105

1.0 × 103-2.4 × 105

<2.2-1.0 × 105

33.33->99.78

Clostridium perfringens (CFU/mL)

3.7 × 10 -2.4 × 10

1.0 × 10 -2.3 × 10

<2.2-3.6 × 10

80.00->99.78

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Figure 1. Membrane filtration counts of Enterococcus sp. (a) and Most Probable Number counts of total coliforms (b) in water samples from Admiralty Bay. S: surface; M: middle; B: bottom. The arrow indicates the only occurrence of E.coli in the analysed water samples.

Figure 2. Membrane filtration counts of faecal pollution indicators in sediment samples from Admiralty Bay.

show total coliforms detection in three out of four analysis, but E.coli was detected only at Machu Picchu site. Similar results were found by Lisle et al. (2004) who also found low concentrations of faecal indicators in sites considered as control areas near McMurdo Station. Detection of microbial indicators in bottom water samples may be

related to regional hydrodynamics but can also suggest some resuspension of cells from the sediment. Although survival for long time of indicators as coliforms and enterococci are not expected under adverse environmental conditions, Pote et al. (2009) observed that these groups of bacteria were able to maintain viability for at least 60 days in microcosms

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Figure 3. Most probable number and membrane filtering counts of faecal pollution indicators in wastewater samples at outfall pipe. BAE: Brazilian Antarctic Expedition.

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containing sediment, water and sewage treatment plant

composition of domestic wastewater in general, with higher

effluent incubated at 10 °C. However the presence of

counts of coliforms and enterococci followed by clostridia

indicators in the water and sediment samples studied can be

(Leclerc et al., 1977). Counts at the effluent of the sewage

derived not only from human but also from animal faeces.

treatment plant were more variable (Table 2 and Figure 3),

For instance, Lisle et al. (2004) confirmed the presence

as expected, once they are related to the flow of sewage

of C. perfringens in Weddel Sea scats and Wright et al. (2009) detected an average of 3.3 × 105 CFU/g enterococci

produced in the station. The highest counts of coliforms (1,6 × 109 and 9,2 × 108 NMP/100 mL) were actually

in birds of a study recreational beach in Florida, USA. All

observed on 9 January 2011, when there were 150 people

this considered, the adaptation of molecular techniques for

in the station, about twice the regular population at EACF.

the detection of faecal contamination in Antarctic samples

Sewage secondary treatment is usually responsible for 60

seems to be an alternative to be considered for future studies.

to 99% coliforms removal (von Sperling, 2005). However,

Some examples include the use of PCR and qPCR techniques

removal efficiencies calculated for the EACF plant (Table 2)

with genes related to coliform and enterococci groups as

showed that although the secondary treatment led to

described by Bej et al. (1990) and Colford et al. (2012).

reduction of Enterococcus sp. populations (61,05 to 91,50%),

Even though the change in enumeration methods

no coliform removal occurred. Clostridia is a spore forming

between BAEs XXIX and XXX may affect data comparisons,

group of bacteria, which may explain the low removal values

results of the analysis of the affluent wastewater did not show

of about 30% observed in some analysis. The introduction

great differences during and between expeditions (Table 2).

of a tertiary treatment, represented by UV disinfection

The populations of faecal indicators reflect the composition

was determinant for removal of microorganisms from

of the sewage produced in EACF, which is coherent to

the effluent, especially the coliforms, but high amounts of

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microorganisms are still discharged and can be detected in the soil near the sewage treatment plant outfall in concentrations in the order of 104 to 106 CFU/100 g. For that reason, improvements in the system should be made to enhance removal of microorganisms from the effluent. Determination of nutrients and COD in effluent wastewater (Table 2) showed lower ammonia, total phosphorus and COD values than expected for regular domestic wastes (von Sperling, 2005). However, nutrient concentrations increased along wastewater treatment stages and COD removal efficiency was only 20.17%. Despite being preliminary data (determinations were carried out in only one sample), values obtained indicate that the process could be optimized to perform more efficiently. Enhancing treatment performance would also contribute to increase inactivation rates of microbial contaminants by the UV disinfection system, since the presence of suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, color and organic compounds protect microorganisms by absorbing / scattering the UV light (Bitton, 1994).

Conclusions Enumeration of faecal indicators in sediment and water samples revealed low populations with widespread distribution, as observed in previous work, indicating that influence of animal faeces cannot be discarded and for that reason impact of human activities in the studied area is not unequivocally detected. A first assessment of the EACF

sewage treatment plant revealed that sewage produced in the research station has faecal indicators’ densities compatible to domestic sewages but lower contents of nutrients and organic matter (as indicated by chemical oxygen demand) than typical domestic wastewater. According to preliminary data generated in the present work, the treatment plant removed about 20% COD, but no nutrient removal was observed. Removal efficiency of coliforms and enterococci varied from 84 to 98,7% after UV light disinfection, but discharged effluent still contained up to 106 indicators CFU/100 mL and 104 to 106 CFU/100 g were detected in soil samples near the discharge area. Although impact of wastewater discharge seems to remain restricted to the area of discharge, optimization of the process is desirable to attend to environmental protection goals for Antarctic ecosystems.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and the Inter-Ministerial Commission for Resources of the Sea (CIRM).

References Bej, A.K.; Steffan,R.J.; Dicesare, J.; Haff, L. & Atlas, R.M. (1990). Detection of coliform bacteria in water by Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gene Probes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56(2): 307-314. Bitton, G. (1994). Wastewater Microbiology, Nova Iorque:Wiley-Liss, Inc. 478 p. Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental – CETESB (1978). NT-08 Análises microbiológicas de águas. São Paulo. Colford, J.M.; Schiff, K.C.; Griffith, J.F.; Yau, V.; Arnold, B.F.; Wright, C.C.; Gruber, J.S.; Wade, T.J.; Burns, S.; Hayes, J.; McGee, C.; Gold, M.; Cao, Y.; Noble, R.T.; Haugland, R. & Weisberg, S.B. (2012). Using rapid indicators for Enterococcus to assess the risk of illness after exposure to urban runoff contaminated marine water. Water Research, 46: 2176-2186. Ferguson, D.M.; Moore, D.F.; Getrich, M.A. & Zhowandai, M.H. (2005). Enumeration and speciation of enterococci found in marine and intertidal sediments and coastal water in Southern California. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 99(3): 598-608.

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Leclerc, H.; Mossel, D. A.; Trinel. P. A. & Gavini, F. (1977). Microbiological monitoring: a new test for fecal contamination. In: Hohdley, A.W. & Dutka, B.J. Bacterial indicators / Health hazards associated with water. ASTM Special Technical Publication. vol. 635, 356 p. Lisle, J.T.; Smith, J.J.; Edwards, D.D. & McFeters, G.A. (2004). Occurrence of Microbial Indicators and Clostridium perfringens in Wastewater, Water Column Samples, Sediments, Drinking Water, and Weddell Seal Feces Collected at McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(12): 7269-7276. Nakayama, C.R.; Ushimaru, P.I.; Vilella, D. & Pellizari, V.H. (2010). Occurrence of microbial faecal pollution indicators in sediment and water samples at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. In: Annual activities report (2010) of National Institute of Science and Tecnology on Antarctic Environmental Research. São Carlos: Editora Cubo. p. 164-166. Pote, J.; Haller L.; Kottelat R.; Sastre, V.; Arpagaus, P. & Wildi, W. (2009). Persistence and growth of faecal culturable bacterial indicators in water column and sediments of Vidy Bay, Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 21: 62-69. von Sperling, M. (2005). Introdução à qualidade das águas e ao tratamento de esgotos. 3. ed. Belo Horizonte: Editora UFMG. 452 p. Wright, M.E.; Solo-Gabriele, H.M.; Elmir, S. & Fleming, L.E. (2009). Microbial load from animal feces at a recreational beach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58: 1649-1656.

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5 TEMPORAL VARIATIONS AND SOURCES OF N-ALKANOLS AND STEROLS IN SEDIMENTS CORE FROM ADMIRALTY BAY, ANTARCTIC PENINSULA Edna Wisnieski1,*, Márcia C. Bícego2, Rosalinda C. Montone2 & César C. Martins1,** 1 Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, CP 61, CEP 83255-976, Pontal do Paraná, PR, Brazil Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

e-mail: *ednawisnieski@gmail.com; **ccmart@ufpr.br

Abstract: Sterols, n-alkanols and phytol were analyzed in three sediment cores collected in different regions of Admiralty Bay (Barrel Point, Refúgio II and Ferraz). The concentrations of total sterols ranged from 0.91 to 13.99 µg.g–1, total n-alkanol from 0.20 to 2.14 µg.g–1 and phytol from 0.13 to 2.38 µg.g–1. Cholesterol was the most abundant sterol in the three cores, while the short-chain n-alkanols were the predominant n-alkanols. Phytol showed relatively low concentrations in all cores. These results indicate marine sources as responsible for the more dominant input of sedimentary organic matter with lower contributions from terrestrial sources. The vertical distribution of the organic markers analyzed was similar, with higher concentrations found at the top layers of all cores and the lower concentrations in the deepest layers, with some variations occurring along the profile. These changes may be the result of natural events and temperature oscillation over the last century which may have altered the dynamics of the supply of organic matter of the sediments of Admiralty Bay. Keywords: organic matter, sterols, n-alkanols, Antarctic Peninsula

Introduction Sterols and n-alkanols are organic markers present in the

of sedimentary organic matter deposited in sediments

polar fraction of lipid extracts in marine sediments, being

from Admiralty Bay, through the determination of organic

directly associated with primary production (Hudson et al.,

markers, such as sterols and n-alkanols.

2001). They are also essential to marine organisms, acting as key components of cell membranes and to the regulation of specific metabolic processes (Laureillard et al., 1997). These markers are used to distinguish terrestrial and marine sources of sedimentary organic matter through, generally, the number of carbon atoms present in the aliphatic chain, and identify organisms that act as sources of these compounds (Volkman, 1986; Faux et al., 2011). The distribution of these compounds in sediment

Materials and Methods Study area The study area was defined as Admiralty Bay (62° 02’ S and 58° 21’ W), the largest fjord in the South Shetland Islands, located on King George Island (Figure 1), with total area of 120 km2. It is formed by a >500 m deep main channel, that divides the bay in three main inlets (Martel, Mackelar

cores may be useful for the understanding of the temporal

and Ezcurra), and in each there is a research station. The

and local environmental changes based on natural and

presence of high diversity of marine organisms, plants

anthropogenic events in the recent past. The aim of this

and animals, such as, fungi, mosses, birds and mammals,

work was to identify variations in the input and the sources

represents the sources of different classes of biomarkers.

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Figure 1. Map of the study region with three sampling stations at Admiralty Bay (03). The arrows indicate the current circulation direction within the bay (Rakusa-Suszczewski, 1980).

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Sampling The sampling was carried out during the austral summer of 2006/2007 and 2009/2010, in three inlets around Admiralty Bay (Ferraz - FER, Barrel Point - BAR and Refúgio II – REF, Figure 1). The cores were obtained from a box core sampler, and sub-sampled into sections of 1 cm (except REF, where sections were 2 cm).

Analytical procedure The analytical method used to analyze the sterols and

30% to fraction 2 (PAHs +alkenones – not analyzed) and 5 mL of ethanol/DCM 1:9, following 20 mL of ethanol to fraction 3 (sterols and n-alkanols). The fraction 3 was evaporated to dryness and derivatized to form trimethylsilyl ethers using BSTFA (bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide) with 1% TMCS (trimethylchlorosilane) during 90 minutes at 65 °C. The mixture of TMS-sterols and n-alkanols derivatives was determined by the injection of 2 µL into a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID).

n-alkanols in sediments was adapted from UNEP (1992) with modification. Around 20 g of sediment were extracted using a Soxhlet system during 8h with 80 mL of n-hexane: dichloromethane (DCM) (1:1) (both J.T. Baker), and with 100 µL of a solution containing surrogates eicosene, hexadecene (50 ng.µL–1) and 5α-androstanol (20 ng.µL–1). This extract was reduced to c. 2 mL by rotoevaporation and submitted to a clean up in column chromatography using 3.2 g of silica (silica gel 60, 0.063-0.200 mm, Merck) and 1.8 g of alumina (aluminum oxide 90 active, 0.0630.200 mm, Merck) (5% deactivated). The samples were eluted with 10 mL of n-hexane to fraction 1 (aliphatic hydrocarbons – not analyzed), 15 mL of n-hexane/DCM

Results Seventeen sterols were identified, with total sterols concentration ranging from 0.91 to 2.17 µg.g–1 (BAR), from 1.63 to 8.59 µg.g–1 (REF) and from 2.64 to 13.99 µg.g–1 (FER). The distribution of total sterols concentration according to the depth for three cores can be visualized in Figure 2. Total sterols in BAR showed higher concentration between 7 and 11 cm, with lower concentrations in deeper layers. In REF, higher concentrations were found from 7 cm toward the surface while FER showed some variations over time, with lower concentrations observed between 7 and 16 cm (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Vertical profile of total sterols (in µg.g–1) in sediment cores from Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

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Fourteen n-alkanols were identified, with total n-alkanols concentration varies from 0.20 to 0.58 µg.g–1 (BAR), 0.33 to 2.14 µg.g–1 (REF) and 0.22 to 1.97 µg.g–1 (FER). The distribution of total n-alkanols concentration in different layers for three cores is shown in Figure 3. Total n-alkanols en BAR was similar to the total sterols, with highest concentrations between 7 and 11 cm. In REF, the highest values of concentrations occurred between 7 and 9 cm, while FER presented three concentrations peak at 16.5, 6.5 and 0.5 cm. Phytol, an isoprenoid alcohol derived from chlorophyll-a degradation (Volkman et al., 2008), was found in all cores analyzed. The distribution of phytol concentration in different layers for three cores is shown in Figure 4. Phytol concentration varied from 0.17 to 0.26 µg.g–1 (BAR), 0.13 to 2.39 µg.g–1 (REF) and 0.24 to 1.26 µg.g–1 (FER). Relative low concentrations and close to the detection limit were presented in the BAR, while REF and FER showed highest concentrations in top core sections, represented as the recent sediments. In the others sections, a regular distribution with no significant variations was observed.

Discussion The variation observed along vertical profiles, for both sterols as n-alkanols, may reflect variations in the input of organic matter in the environment, besides the section with higher concentration indicating higher contributions of sedimentary material, while sections with decreased values indicate a low input or organic matter reduction on sediments (Meyers, 1997). These variations may occur due to environmental changes, which have an influence on the organic matter processes related with the input, burial and preservation and/or degradation (Faux et al., 2011), or as the result of natural variability. The decreased concentrations with core depth were not constant and may also be a result of diagenesis (Burns & Brinkman, 2011). Cholesterol was the most abundant sterol. Several organisms that inhabit the region are potential sources of cholesterol, including seal, whales and phyto and zooplankton (Volkman, 2005). The detectable concentration of 17 different sterols analyzed is an evidence of the large sources diversity of organic matter contributing to the sediment composition in Admiralty Bay. The presence of

Figure 3. Vertical profile of total n-alkanols (in µg.g–1) in sediment cores from Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

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Figure 4. Vertical profile of total phytol (in µg.g–1) over the cores in Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

saturated sterols in sediments indicates the occurrence of diagenic process due to the fact that they are not commonly found with significant abundance in organisms (Hassett & Lee, 1977). The predominance of short-chain n-alkanols in all cores suggest the organic matter in this region is primarily associated with marine organisms, which include sources like, aquatic algae and bacteria (Xiong et al., 2010), zooplankton (Burns & Brinkman, 2011) and hydrolysis of the wax esters of zooplankton which may increase the saturated and unsaturated C14-C22 alcohols (Volkman, 2006). In Antarctic region, phytol contribution is related to vascular plants (D. Antarctica e C. quitensis), lichens, mosses and algae (Wang et al., 2007). However, the low concentrations observed in all cores in this study compared to marine sediments from temperate/tropical areas may be related with the absence of significant sources for this compound in the region. Another explanation is to low phytol concentration is related to the degradation compound in sediments, which includes aerobic and anaerobic

biodegradation, photo degradation and sulphurization in sediment-water interface.

Conclusions Based on the results, a multiplicity of sources of marine organic matter from sediments from Admiralty Bay could be verified, mainly associated with marine origin, with little contribution from terrestrial material. Despite of the transformation processes of organic matter, the compounds showed relative preservation, representing the variations and distribution of organic matter along the vertical profiles. This study is a first insight about polar organic markers in sediment cores of Admiralty Bay and the results, after more deeper interpretation and including other proxies (e. hydrocarbons, elemental and isotopic analyses) may contribute to a better understanding of the processes related to organic matter contribution and the changes as a result of natural events and temperature oscillation over the last century.

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Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Burns, K. & Brinkman, D. (2011). Organic biomarkers to describe the major carbon inputs and cycling of organic matter in the central Great Barrier Reef region. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 93: 132-141. Faux, J.F.; Belicka, L.L. & Harvey, H.R. (2011). Organic sources and carbon sequestration in Holocene shelf sediments from the western Arctic Ocean. Continental Shelf Research, 31: 1169-1179. Hasset, J.P. & Lee, G.F. (1977). Sterols in natural water and sediments. Water Research, 11: 983-989. Hudson, E.D.; Parrish, C.C. & Helleur, R.J. (2001). Biogeochemistry of sterols in plankton, settling particles and recent sediments in a cold ocean ecosystem (Trinity Bay, Newfoundland). Marine Chemistry, 76: 253-270. Laureillard, J.; Pinturier, L.; Fillaux J. & Saliot, A. (1997). Organic geochemistry of marine sediments of the Subantarctic Indian Ocean sector: Lipid classes – sources and fate. Deep-Sea Research II, 44: 1085-1108. Meyers, P.A. (1997). Organic geochemical proxies of paleoceanographic, paleolimnologic, and paleoclimatic processes. Organic Geochemistry, 27(5-6): 213-250. Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (1980). Environmental conditions and the functioning of Admiralty Bay (South Shetlands Islands) as part of near shore Antarctic ecosystem. Polish Polar Research, 1: 11-27. United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP. (1992). Determination of petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments. United Nations Environment Programme Reference Methods for marine pollution studies, 20: 1-75. Volkman, J.K. (1986). A review of sterol markers for marine and terrigenous organic matter. Organic Geochemistry, 9: 83-100. Volkman, J.K. (2005). Sterols and other triterpenoids: source specefety and evolution of biosynthetic pathways. Organic Geochemistry, 36: 139-159. Volkman, J.K. (2006). Lipid Markers for Marine Organic Matter. Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. part. 2, p. 27-70. Volkman, J,K.; Revill, A.T.; Holdsworth, D.G. & Fredericks, D. (2008). Organic matter sources in an enclosed coastal inlet assessed using lipid biomarkers and stable isotopes. Organic Geochemistry, 39: 689-710. Wang, J.; Wang, Y.; Wang, X. & Sun, L. (2007). Penguins and vegetations on Ardley Island, Antarctica: evolution in the past 2,400 years. Polar Biology, 30: 1475-1481. Xiong, Y.; Wu, F.; Fang, J.; Wang, L.; Li, Y. & Liao, H. (2010). Organic geochemical record of environmental changes in Lake Dianchi, China. Journal of Paleolimnology, 44: 217-231.

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6 FECAL STEROLS AND LINEAR ALKYLBENZENES IN SURFACE SEDIMENTS COLLECTED AT 2009/10 AUSTRAL SUMMER IN ADMIRALTY BAY, ANTARCTICA César de Castro Martins1,*, Sabrina Nart Aguiar1,2, Márcia Caruso Bícego3, Liziane Marcella Michelotti Ceschim1, Rosalinda Carmela Montone3 Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, CP 61, CEP 83255- 976, Pontal do Paraná, PR, Brazil 2 Departamento de Geoquímica, Universidade Federal Fluminense – UFF, Morro do Valonguinho, s/n, Niterói, CEP 24020-150, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil 3 Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 1

*e-mail: ccmart@ufpr.br

Abstract: Fecal sterols (coprostanol and epicoprostanol) and linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) are efficient geochemical markers of sewage input in marine environment because they present stability and resistance to degradation processes. The Antarctic region is considered one of the best preserved environments in the world, however the discharge of sewage directly into the marine environments around scientific stations has resulted in changes in this pristine site. In order to assess the distribution and concentration of sewage indicators from Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station, sediments were sampled during the 2009/10 austral summer at four points: (1) Refuge II (Mackelar Inlet), (2) Ferraz, (3) Ulmann and (4) Botany Point (Martel Inlet) at depths around of 20 until 30 m. The organic markers were determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization (GC-FID) and mass spectrometer detectors (GC-MS). Concentrations of fecal sterols and LABs ranged from <0.01 to 0.17 μg g −1 and <1.0 to 46.5 ng g−1 dry weight, respectively. In general, the higher concentrations were found only locally in the vicinity of Ferraz Station at Martel Inlet. The maximum concentration to fecal sterols was close to the value previously calculated as background level for Martel Inlet (0.19 μg g−1) and it was lower than the concentration found in the same points during the austral summer of 2003/04 (0.93 μg g−1) while for the LABs, the concentration remained practically constant (35 ng g–1). Despite low concentrations of sewage organic markers, monitoring programs are required to determine continuing trends and prevent the increase of anthropogenic impacts. Keywords: sediments, sterols, linear alkylbenzenes, Antarctica

Introduction Sewage organic markers, as fecal sterols and linear alkybenzenes (LABs) are chemical compounds with characteristics such as degradation resistance and specificity according to the origin. They have been successfully used as molecular tracers of domestic wastes contamination in different regions, including the Antarctic (Martins et al., 2005; Montone et al., 2010). Coprostanol (5β-cholestan-3β-ol) have been widely used as fecal contamination markers because they are present in human feces while epicoprostanol (5β-cholestan-3β-ol) indicates the level of treatment of the fecal matter as it is

formed during the extensive anaerobic sewage treatment of wastewaters. Also, LABs are present at levels from 1 to 3% in surfactants and detergents with linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LASs), and they are frequently discharged via sewage outfalls together with fecal matter (Martins et al., 2010). Gröndahl et al. (2008) surveyed 71 Antarctic stations and found that 37% of permanent stations and 69% of summer stations lacked any form of sewage treatment. On the other hand, some stations, such as Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station (EACF) have implemented sewage-

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treatment procedures that clean their effluent. However, the

Treaty signatory nations must conform to the Protocol on

(un)treated sewage containing domestic waste is discharged

Environmental Protection.

directly into the marine environment and these discharges should be monitored to describe the extent of sewage contaminantion from Antarctic stations. The aim of this report is to evaluate the sewage contribution from Ferraz station into Admiralty Bay and to compare the historical trend reported in previous studies. This evaluation is based on the results of sewage

Materials and Methods Study area The study area is the Martel Inlet, in Admiralty Bay, King George Island located in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Peninsula (62° 02’ S and 58° 21’ W) (Figure 1). Admiralty Bay has an area of 131 km², reaches depths

geochemical indicators from the upper layer of sediments

of up to 530 m and has a coastline with many bays

sampled during the austral summer of 2009/10 and

(Santos et al., 2007), being the largest bay of King George

previous results (1997-2004). In Antarctica, monitoring

Island, one of the South Shetlands Islands. There are three

the extent of sewage input dispersal is essential as Antarctic

large inlets in Admiralty Bay: Martel, Mackelar and Ezcurra

Figure 1. Sampling stations at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. (1): Refuge II (REF); (2): Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station (FER); (3): Ulmann Point (ULM), and; (4): Botany Point (BTN). Table extracted from Martins et al. (2012).

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and each of them holds a research station. The Mackelar and Martel Inlets constitute the North part of the Bay while the Ezcurra Inlet is in the West.

Sampling Sediment was obtained from a box core sampler (25 × 25 × 55 cm) during the austral summer of 2009/10 at four points: (1) Refuge II (REF) (Mackelar Inlet); (2) Ferraz (FER); (3) Ulmann (ULM), and; (4) Botany Point (BTP) (Martel Inlet) (Figure 1), at depths around of 20 until 30 m. The upper sediment layers (first 2 cm) were used for organic markers analyses.

Analytical procedure The analytical method used for the analysis of sterols in sediments is described in Kawakami & Montone (2002). Around 20 g of sediment from each site were extracted using a Soxhlet system for 8 h with 70 mL of ethanol. The ethanol extract was reduced to c. 2 mL by rotoevaporation and submitted to a clean up with column chromatography using 2 g of 5% deactivated alumina and elution with 15 mL of ethanol. The extracts were evaporated to dryness and derivatized to form trimethylsilyl ethers using BSTFA (bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide) with 1% TMCS (trimethylchlorosilane) for 90 minutes at 65 °C. The mixture of TMS-sterols derivatives was determined by the injection of 2 µL into a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The procedure for analyses of LABs is based on UNEP (1992). About 25 g of dry sediment samples were Soxhletextracted with hexanes/dichloromethane (1:1) for an 8-hour period. The solvent extract was concentrated in a rotary evaporator to a volume of approximately 2 mL. The extract was fractionated by adsorption liquid chromatography into aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons using a column of alumina and silica gel, and hexanes and 30% dichloromethane/hexanes for aliphatic and LABs (F1)

and aromatic (F2) fractions as eluent, respectively. The fractions were concentrated again in a rotary evaporator, transferred to a vial, and then the volume was adjusted to 1 mL exactly using a stream of N2 gas. Instrumental details for both analyses are described by Montone et al. (2010).

Results Concentrations of fecal sterols and total concentration of linear alkylbenzenes (total LABs) containing alkyl chains ranging from 10 to 14 carbon atoms in the superficial sediments at Admiralty Bay are shown in Table 1.

Discussion The values for fecal sterol (coprostanol + epicoprostanol) ranged from not detected (<0.01 μg g −1) (REF-B) to 0.17 μg g−1 (FER-A). It was observed that the sites located near the sewage outfall (FER-A) showed the highest concentrations, indicating sewage contribution to the sediments. However, these levels were lower comparing to the maxima found in the vicinity of other Antarctic stations, e.g., Davis Station, Australia (1.28 μg g−1) (Green & Nichols, 1995) and Rothera station, United Kingdom (0.85 μg g−1) (Hughes & Thompson, 2004). The contribution of the sewage input to the sediments of Admiralty Bay has been monitored since 1997/98 using fecal sterols as indicators of sewage contribution. Martins et al. (2002) have shown that the critical point was Ferraz Station sewage outfall, which had the highest concentration of these molecular markers. In a more recent study undertaken in the summer of 1999/00, Martins et al. (2005) compared fecal sterols and microbiological indicators. They observed that the sewage contamination was restricted to the vicinity of Ferraz Station and decreased with distance from the outfall. The fecal contribution from the sewage outfall could be detected further away only by molecular tracers rather than microbiological indicators. Previous data about

Table 1. Concentration (in µg g-1) of fecal sterols (coprostanol and epicoprostanol) and Total LABs (in ng g-1) in sediments collected at REF, FER, ULM and BTP at depths around of 20 until 30 m.

REF-A

REF-B

FER-A

FER-B

ULM-A

ULM-B

BTP-A

BTP-B

cop + e-cop (µg g-1)

0.06

< DL

0.17

0.09

0.06

0.12

0.14

Total LABs (ng g-1)

< DL

42.5

46.5

< DL

< DL: below detection limit (0.01 µg g-1 to fecal sterols and 1.0 ng g-1 to LABs).

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Figure 2. Fecal sterols in marine sediments in the vicinity of the EACF (10-20 m depth) in the austral summer from 1997/98 to 2009/10. The line at 0.19 µg g−1 suggests the background value for Martel Inlet.

concentrations of fecal sterols in sediments near the Ferraz outfall (10-20 m depth) were plotted together, as shown in Figure 2. The sewage contribution gradually increases until 2003/04 as a result of the human population doubling at Ferraz Station over time. However, after this period, the concentrations declined as result of some adaptation to the sewage outfall used to discharge the treated waste water. The sewage contribution to Admiralty Bay is still under control because of local hydrodynamic conditions, especially due to tidal effects, which have favored the dispersion of the sewage effluent in the shallow coastal zone at Martel Inlet and the levels found in this study are lower than suggested by Gonzalez-Oreja & Saiz-Salinas (1998) as indicator of sewage contamination (>0.50 μg g−1). The maximum concentration to fecal sterols (0.17 μg g−1) is close to the value previously calculated as background level to Martel Inlet (0.19) what confirms the statement above. Total LABs were found only at sites close to Ferraz Station (FER-A and FER-B) and it was around 42.5 and 46.5 ng g–1. Further, total LABs found at sites in the current study, in general, are very low compared to levels at Davis Station (510 ng g−1) (Green & Nichols, 1995). However, the levels are similar or slightly higher compared to a previous studies released at Admiralty Bay (12 ng g−1 – Martins et al., 2002; 35 ng.g-1 – Montone et al., 2010).

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In general, higher concentrations of LABs with 11 up to 13 carbon atoms were observed, being coincident with the main mixture of Cm-LABs (m = 10 – 14) used in Brazil, with the percentage of each isomer group as follows: 5-16% (C10-LABs), 28-45% (C11-LABs), 25-30% (C12-LABs), 1030% (C13-LABs) and <1.0 (C14-LABs). The values of the I/E ratio in FER-A and FER-B varied from 0.52 to 0.59 (C11-LABs), 0.81 to 0.89 (C12-LABs) and 0.70 to 0.75 (C13-LABs). The low I/E ratio is probably a result of wastewater discharge with primary treatment and reduced aerobic degradation.

Conclusions The concentrations of the sewage organic markers were relatively low or undetectable away from the vicinity of Ferraz Station, considered the main source of sewage input to Admiralty Bay, while high concentration of fecal sterols and LABs occurred close to sewage outfall from Ferraz Station. However, the concentrations of these markers were lower than previous studies developed in Admiralty Bay and other regions of Antarctica. Despite of low concentrations of sewage organic markers, monitoring programs are required to determine continuing trends and prevent the increase of anthropogenic impacts.

Acknowledgements

process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research

C.C. Martins, S.N. Aguiar and L. M. M. Ceschim thank those responsible for the PQ-2 Grant (CNPq 307110/2008-7), the scholarship (PIBIC/CNPq) and for DTI-3 scholarship (CNPq 382434/2009-9), respectively. This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq

Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). The data set of this work were also published in Marine Pollution Bulletin v.64 (2012), p.2867–2870.

References Gonzalez-Oreja, J.A. & Saiz-Salinas, J.I. (1998). Short-term spatio-temporal changes in urban pollution by means of faecal sterols analysis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 36: 868-75. Green, G. & Nichols, P.D. (1995). Hydrocarbons and sterols in marine sediments and soils at Davis Station, Antarctica: a survey for human-derived contaminants. Antarctic Science ,7: 137-44. Gröndahl, F.; Sidenmark, J. & Thomsen, A. (2008). Survey of waste water disposal practices at Antarctic research stations. Polar Research, 28: 298-306. Hughes, K.A. & Thompson, A. (2004). Distribution of sewage pollution around a maritime Antarctic research station indicated by faecal coliforms, Clostridium perfringens and faecal sterol markers. Environmental Pollution, 127: 315-21. Kawakami, S.K. & Montone, R.C. (2002). An efficient ethanol-based analytical protocol to quality fecal steroids in marine sediments. Journal of Brazilian Chemical Society, 13: 226-32. Martins, C.C.; Bícego, M.C. Mahiques, M.M. Figueira, R.C.L. Tessler, M.G. & Montone, R.C. (2010). Depositional history of sedimentary linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) in a large South American industrial coastal area (Santos Estuary, Southeastern Brazil). Environmental Pollution, 158: 3355-64. Martins, C.C.; Montone, R.C. Gamba, R.C. & Pellizari, V.H. (2005). Sterols and fecal indicator microorganisms in sediments from Admiralty Bay, Antarctica. Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 53: 1-12. Martins, C.C.; Venkatesan, M.I. & Montone, R.C. (2002). Sterols and linear alkylbenzenes in marine sediments from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland Islands. Antarctic Science, 14: 244-52. Martins, C.C.; Aguiar, S.N. Bícego, M.C. & Montone, R.C. (2012). Sewage organic markers in surface sediments around the Brazilian Antarctic station: Results from the 2009/10 austral summer and historical tendencies. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64: 2867-70. Montone, R.C.; Martins, C.C.; Bícego, M.C.; Taniguchi, S.; Silva, D.A.M.; Campos, L.S. & Weber, R.R. (2010). Distribution of sewage input in marine sediments around a maritime Antarctic research station indicated by molecular geochemical indicators. Science of the Total Environment, 408: 4665-71. Santos, I.R.; Fávaro, D.I.T.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R. & Silva-Filho, E.V. (2007). Sediment geochemistry in coastal maritime Antarctica (Admiralty Bay, King George Island): Evidence from rare earths and other elements. Marine Chemistry, 107: 464-74. United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP. (1992). Determinations of petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments. Reference methods for marine pollution studies.

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7 FRACTIONATION OF TRACE METALS AND ARSENIC IN COASTAL SEDIMENTS FROM ADMIRALTY BAY, ANTARCTICA Andreza Portella Ribeiro1,2,*, Keila Modesto Tramonte1, Miriam Fernanda Batista1, Alessandra Pereira Majer1, Charles Roberto De Almeida Silva 1, Guilherme Demane2, Paulo Alves De Lima Ferreira1, Rosalinda Carmelo Montone1, Rubens Cesar Lopes Figueira1 Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, CEP 05508-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 2 Diretoria da Saúde, Universidade Nove de Julho – UNINOVE, Rua Vergueiro, 235, CEP 01505-001, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

*e-mail: andrezpr@usp.br

Abstract: Sequential extraction, based on the method developed by the European Community Bureau of Reference, was performed to determine the mobile fractions of trace elements in sediments from Admiralty Bay, Antarctica. Except for As that is not certified, the quality of the data was found to be satisfactory for analysis as certified reference material, BCR-701, with recovery values for Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn, ranging from 90-115%. Zn and Ni were mainly found in the residual fraction, reflecting their natural contribution in the bay. As, Cu and Pb exhibited high potential mobility, above 60%, for most of the samples. Despite Pb contents being found mainly in the extractable fraction, its concentrations (ranging from 4.5 to 8.3 mg kg–1) were well below the Threshold Effect Levels. In general, As and Cu mobile contents were higher than the sediment quality values, according to the Canadian Environmental Guidelines, which indicates that adverse biological effects to aquatic organisms can occur. However, since disturbances in Admiralty Bay are seldom observed, it can be inferred that As and Cu are preferably bound to the organic matter. Otherwise, this study presents the data set regarding sediments collected before the accident that happened in Ferraz Station in February of 2012. That singular event may have caused a relevant increase of available contents of the trace elements in the local aquatic system. Thus, valuable information is being provided for the future environmental monitoring, control and mitigation of arsenic and metal contamination in sediments from Antarctica. Keywords: Antarctic sediments, arsenic, metals, sequential extraction method

Introduction

130

Anthropogenic trace-element contamination in aquatic

sediments is very important to environmental monitoring

systems can affect the diversity of benthic organisms

studies.

(Stark et al., 2003). The intake body of contaminant includes

Thereafter, sequential extraction techniques have been

three different paths, such as pore water intake or, only,

used as an alternative to evaluate the history of elemental

sediment intake (Simpson et al., 2005).

input, digenetic transformation within the sediments and

According to Sundaray et al. (2011), there is no

the reactivity of trace-element species of both natural and

correlation between the total concentration and the

anthropogenic sources (Passos et al., 2010; Sundaray et al.,

elemental toxicity. Otherwise, the chemical form and

2011).

mobility are the principal parameters to assess the elemental

Despite the importance of the Antarctic Continent

toxicity in the environment. Hence, the ability to identify

to local and global environmental changes, the scientific

the chemical forms of elements in marine and freshwater

studies regarding mobility of metals in sediments are

| Annual Activity Report 2011

still scarce (Cosma et al., 1994; Dalla Riva et al., 2004;

Fe and Mn oxides and hydroxides (reducible fraction);

Ianni et al., 2010). In fact, literature concerning Antarctic

STEP 3 (S3) – bound to organic and matter sulphides

marine sediments focus mostly on total metal content

(oxidizable fraction). The content of residual stage (STEP

(Negri et al., 2006; Santos et al., 2007), pseudo total content,

4 – S4) was obtained from the difference between the total

using a mixture of strong acids, such as aqua regia (1 HNO3 :

concentration of the elements, which was obtained by aqua

3 HCl v/v), or on extractable content by dilute acid, in most

regia digestion and the sum of stages 1, 2 and 3. Pueyo et al.

cases to HCl (Cosma et al., 1994; Dalla Riva et al., 2004)

(2001) describe the details of the BCR procedure.

The aim of this work is to contribute to the knowledge on Antarctic geochemistry regarding metals (Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) and arsenic availability to interact to benthic organism in the aquatic systems. Thus, a sequential extraction was performed according to the procedure recommended by the Standards, Measurements and Testing programme of the European Union, SM& T, so-called BCR, (Pueyo et al., 2001) in sediments from four sampling sites in Admiralty Bay, Antarctica.

Materials and Methods Sampling Eight short sediment cores, with depth of 10 cm, were collected in Admiralty Bay, along the Martel (sampling sites: Ferraz, Botany Point and Ullman Point) and Mackellar Inlets (sampling site: Refúgio) during the 28th Brazilian Antarctic Expedition in the 2009/2010 austral summer. To obtain undisturbed samples, the cores were sliced in 0-2, 2-6 and 6-10 cm, using a stainless steel spatula, and the sediment samples were freeze-dried, further, they were carefully homogenized in mortar and stored in polyethylene bags until chemical analysis at LaQIMar (Marine Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory), located at the Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo (Brazil).

Analytical procedures

Results Except for As that is not certified, accuracy of the method was checked by analysis of six replicates of certified sediment reference material (BCR-701, European Community Bureau of Reference). For each extraction step, the experimental concentration of each metal was compared with the reference value, and the recovery calculated as the ratio (%) between measured and certified values. The quality data was found to be satisfactory with recovery values for Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn ranging from 93-113%, 109-113%, 93-111% and 90-115%, respectively. Figures 1 and 2 show the mobile fractions (%) and the concentrations (mg kg–1) for the sum of the steps (∑ S1; S2; S3). The elements presented the same behavior, i.e. their mobile fractions were in same order of magnitude, in each sampling site. Therefore, only the results for Ferraz and Refúgio are shown (Figures 1 and 2). Ni and Zn extraction were constant (their mobile levels, for the most sediment samples, were lower than 70 and 40%, respectively). The mobile fraction of As was higher than 70% and Cu was above 60%. The highest Pb total content was 8.3 mg kg–1.

Discussion According to the Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines

Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer

(CCME, 1999), Zn total contents were well lower than the

(ICP OES) was the analytical technique used to measure

Threshold Effect Levels (TEL), indicating its lithogenic

the levels of arsenic and metals in the sediment samples.

origins and limited potential bioavailabilities.

The methodology for determining the fractionation of

The Canadian guidelines suggest two sediment

trace elements was the three step protocol proposed by the

quality assessments to define three ranges of chemical

Standards, Measurements and Testing programme (SM &

concentrations, those that are rarely, occasionally, and

T, formerly BCR) of the European Community Bureau of

frequently associated with adverse biological effects.

Reference . BCR procedure consists of the following stages,

TEL is the upper limit of the range of sediment chemical

respectively: STEP 1 (S1) – exchangeable and bound to

concentrations that is dominated by no-effect data entries

carbonate (acid-labile fraction); STEP 2 (S2) – bound to

and PEL (Probable Effect Level) is the range above which

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Figure 1. Trace element mobile fractions, (a) in (%) and (b) in mg kg–1, for Ferraz Station.

adverse biological effects are usually observed. Accordingly,

in sediments do not offer a negative risk to the aquatic

for As, Cu, Pb and Zn the respectively target values,

organism in Admiralty Bay. Indeed, As and Cu levels were

in mg kg were established: TEL – 5.9; 35.7; 35 e 123 and

between TEL and PEL targets, indicating that adverse

PEL – 17; 197; 91.3 e 315.

biological effects to aquatic organisms can be observed.

-1

132

Pb availability was mainly found in S2, suggesting the

Otherwise, As and Cu were mainly bound to the oxidizable

metal is bound to Fe-Mn oxides and can be released under

fraction that is not considered to be mobile and bioavailable,

anaerobic conditions. However, likewise Zn, Pb levels

but may be made mobilized by decomposition processes

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Figure 2. Trace element mobile fractions, in (a) in (%) and (b) in mg kg–1, for Refúgio.

in acid conditions (Baig et al., 2009). Disturbances are not frequent in the Antarctic environment, thus As and Cu are preferably bound to the organic matter.

Conclusions Since there have been no relevant disturbances in the Antarctic environment until February of 2012, As and Cu mobilities to the local aquatic system could be suggested as negligible. Unfortunatly, the tragic event in Ferraz Station

may have caused a significant antropoghenic input of chemical compounds into Admiralty Bay. Accordingly, the present study will provide substantial information to the future recovery works in the Antarctic landscape.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from

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the National Council for Research and Development

also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries

(CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas

of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of

Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de

Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission

Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors

for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Baig, J.A.; Kazi, T.G.; Arain, M.B.; Shah, A.Q.; Afridi, H.I.; Kandhro, G.A.; Jamali, M.K. & Khan, S. (2009). Arsenic fractionation in sediments of different origins using BCR sequential and single extraction methods. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 167: 745-751. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment – CCME. (1999). Protocol for derivation of Canadian sediment guidelines for protection of aquatic life. CCME-EPC-98E. Prepared by Environment Canada Guidelines Division, Technical Secretariat of CCME Task Group on water quality guidelines, Otawa, Canada. Available from: < http://ceqg-rcqe.ccme.ca/download/ en/226/>. Accessed in: November 02 2012. Cosma, B.; Soggia, F.; Abelmoschi, M.L. & Frache, R. (1994). Determination of Trace Metals in Antarctic Sediments from Terra Nova Bay - Ross Sea. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 55: 121-128. Dalla Riva, S.; Abelmoschi, M.L.; Magi, E. & Soggia, F. (2004). The utilization of the Antarctic environmental specimen bank (BCAA) in monitoring Cd and Hg in an Antarctic coastal area in Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea-Northern Victoria Land). Chemosphere, 56: 59-69. Negri, A.; Burns, K.; Boyle, S.; Brinkman, D. & Webster, N. (2006). Contamination in sediments, bivalves and sponges of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Environmental Pollution, 143: 456-467. Ianni, C.; Magi, E.; Soggia, F.; Rivaro, P. & Frache, R. (2010). Trace metal speciation in coastal and off-shore sediments from RossSea (Antarctica). Microchemical Journal. 96 (2): 203-212. Passos, E.A.; Alves, J.C.; Santos, I.S; Alves, J.P.H.; Garcia, C.A.B & Costa, A.C.S (2010). Assessment of trace metals contamination in estuarine sediments using a sequential extraction technique and principal component analysis. Microchemical Journal, 96: 50-57. Pueyo, M.; Rauret G.; Lück D.; Yei-Halla M.; Muntau H.; Quevauviller, Ph. & López-Sánchez, J.F. (2001). Certification of the extractable contents of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in a freshwater sediment following a collaboratively tested and optimised three-step sequential extraction procedure. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 3: 243-250. Santos, I.R.; Fávaro ,D.I.T.; Schaefer, C.E.R.G. & Silva-Filho, E.V. (2007). Sediment geochemistry in coastal maritime Antarctica (Admiralty Bay, King George Island): Evidence from rare earths and other elements. Marine Chemistry, 107: 464-474. Simpson, S.L.; Batley, G.E.; Chariton, A.A.; Stauber, J.L.; King, C.K.; Chapman, J.C.; Hyne, R.V.; Gale, S.A.; Roach, A.C. & Maher, W.A. (2005). Handbook for Sediment Quality Assessment. CSIRO, Bangor, NSW. Sundaray, S.K.; Nayak, B.B.; Lin, S. & Bhatta, D. (2011). Geochemical speciation and risk assessment of heavy metals in the river estuarine sediments - A case study: Mahanadi basin, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186: 1837-1846. Stark, J.S.; Snape, I. & Riddle, M.J. (2003). The effects of petroleum hydrocarbon and heavy metal contamination of marine sediments on recruitment of Antarctic soft-sediment assemblages: a field experimental investigation. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 283: 21-50.

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8 BIOACCUMULATION OF POTENTIALLY TOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS IN BENTHIC ORGANISMS FROM ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA Alessandra Pereira Majer1,*, Monica Angélica Varella Petti2, Thais Navajas Corbisier2, Andreza Portella Ribeiro1, Carolina Yume Sawamura Theophilo3, Rubens Cesar Lopes Figueira1 Laboratório de Química Inorgânica Marinha – LAQIMAR, Departamento de Oceanografia Física, Química e Geológica, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, 191, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP Brazil 2 Laboratório de Bentos Antártico, Departamento de Oceanografia Biológica, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 3 Programa de Pós-graduação em Oceanografia, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 1

*e-mail: lhemajer@gmail.com

Abstract: The bioaccumulation of trace elements is defined as the uptake of a chemical by an organism from the abiotic and/or biotic (food) environment, and is a widely observed and very important process considering the impact assessment of anthropogenic activities. In Antarctica the main local source of metal and metalloid is related to the activities of research stations. In order to verify the contribution of the Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctica Station (EACF- Portuguese acronym, in continuity) in the accumulation of these elements, and to supply baseline values to allow future monitoring, the concentration of Ag, As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn was measured in twelve benthic Antarctic species (Desmarestia sp, Himantothallus grandifolius, Laternula elliptica, Yoldia eightsi, Amphioplus acutus, Bovalia gigantea, Gondogeneia antarctica, Sterechinus neumayeri, Nacella concinna, Paraserolis polita, Parborlasia corrugatus and Glyptonotus antarcticus). A wide variation in metal content was observed depending on the species and the element. These concentrations were usually lower than those of other Antarctic areas, not indicating relevant anthropogenic impacts of EACF. However, considering the serious fire incident that occurred at the end of last summer (February/2012), and that relevant measures of heavy metals (such as Pb, Cd, and Zn) are released in this kind of event, this data, and the associated methodology, attains particular importance, due to their potential to enlighten the extension of this impact, as well as, the success of any recuperation strategy. Keywords: Antarctica, bioaccumulation, metal, metalloid

Introduction The bioaccumulation of trace elements is defined as the uptake of a chemical by an organism from the abiotic and/ or biotic (food) environment (Gray, 2002), and is a widely observed process (e.g. Santos et al., 2006; Farías et al., 2007; Gray et al., 2008; Grotti et al., 2008). For metals and metalloids the bioaccumulation may be the result of natural sources, since these elements are constituents of any ecosystem (Grotti et al., 2008). In Antarctica, like other remote regions of the Earth, the natural concentration of metals and metalloids in abiotic matrices (snow, ice, soil,

sediment and air) of most areas are generally within or lower than the observed values of other polar areas, being considered as background levels (Sanchez-Hernandez, 2000). However, near the research stations a lower but continuous kind of contamination is observed (Vodopivez & Curtosi, 1998), directly linked with activities such as garbage incineration, use of paints, fuel usage and sewage (Santos et al., 2004). The result is an increased concentration of both organic and inorganic contaminants, and their impacts are obviously linked with the increasing presence

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of humans (Bargagli et al., 1998). In order to monitor the effects of the activities in the surrounding biota, the potential bioaccumulation of a variety of metals and metalloids (Ag, As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) was verified for different Antarctic organisms sampled near EACF.

of Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP OES). For that, 0.35 g of each dried sample was digested with 4 mL of nitric acid, to which, six hours later, was added 1 mL of hydrogen peroxide. After 18 hours it was disposed in a heating block digester for 3 hours, and the final solution was filtered and diluted to

Methodology

the final volume of 30 mL. The expressed concentrations

Twelve benthic Antarctic species (macroalgae – Desmarestia sp, Himantothallus grandifolius, bivalves – Laternula elliptica and Yoldia eightsi, ophiuroid – Amphioplus acutus, amphipods – Bovalia gigantea and Gondogeneia antarctica, sea urchin – Sterechinus neumayeri, limpet – Nacella concinna, isopods - Paraserolis polita and Glyptonotus antarticus, nemertean - Parborlasia corrugatus) were sampled nearby EACF, located in Admiralty Bay, the largest bay of King George Island. Samples of benthic invertebrates and macroalgae were obtained manually in the intertidal zone, and between depths of 10-20 m onboard the R/B SKUA, using a van Veen grab, a dredge or by Scuba diving, from November/2005 to February/2006, during the austral summer of the 24th Brazilian Antarctic Expedition. Methods followed those of a previous study performed by Corbisier et al. (2004). Silver (Ag), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) concentrations on the organisms were obtained by the analytical technique

of elements in the samples represent the mean of three independent determinations. Certified Reference Materials (CRM - Mussel Tissue – NIST-SRM2976) were analyzed in parallel with the trace element determinations, and reagent blanks were run with all sample analyses.

Results The metal and metalloid concentrations for the several investigated species are summarized in Table 1. The species with the highest metal or metalloid concentration varied according to the analyzed element. The grazer S. neumayeri showed the highest concentration for Zn (353.91 µg g–1). High concentrations of Cu were observed for the carnivores G. antarticus and P. polita (126.18 and 115.71 µg g –1 respectively). The suspension feeder L. elliptica showed the highest values for Ag and As (1.04 and 45.88 µg g–1, respectively), while for Cd, Ni and Pb the highest values were observed for the carnivore P. corrugatus (5.02 µg g–1),

Table 1. Concentration (µg g–1 dry wt) of Ag, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in invertebrates sampled in Admiralty Bay, Antarctica. *sample without enough mass for quantification. Data presented as mean ± SD.

136

Species

Desmarestia sp

0.84 ± 0.03

20.96 ± 0.21

0.39 ± 0.01

4.56 ± 0.10

16.66 ± 0.03

4.45 ± 0.16

29.44 ± 0.09

H. grandifolius

0.32 ± 0.03

14.84 ± 0.58

0.25 ± 0.02

3.53 ± 0.04

0.85 ± 0.06

4.55 ± 0.39

21.73 ± 0.15

L. elliptica

1.04 ± 0.05

45.88 ± 1.06

1.07 ± 0.01

26.10 ± 0.52

2.10 ± 0.09

53.08 ± 0.58

Y. eightsi

0.51 ± 0.04

36.64 ± 1.47

0.22 ± 0.04

26.29 ± 0.42

0.35 ± 0.07

91.81 ± 1.10

S. neumayeri

0.82 ± 0.08

5.03 ± 0.25

0.98 ± 0.02

3.60 ± 0.03

0.62 ± 0.05

8.93 ± 0.91

353.91 ± 7.43

B. gigantea

0.87 ± 0.01

9.83 ± 1.01

2.29 ± 0.01

58.28 ± 0.76

1.77 ± 0.15

4.34 ± 0.52

52.53 ± 0.42

A. acutus

0.21 ± 0.01

5.98 ± 0.04

0.93 ± 0.04

5.19 ± 0.15

1.16 ± 0.03

9.31 ± 0.84

58.61 ± 0.41

N. concinna

0.74 ± 0.01

6.26 ± 0.60

1.76 ± 0.01

3.41 ± 0.02

0.37 ± 0.06

5.92 ± 0.38

53.72 ± 0.32

G. antarctica

0.44 ± 0.02

7.82 ± 0.55

0.53 ± 0.02

40.83 ± 0.20

0.86 ± 0.13

4.26 ± 0.30

52.96 ± 0.11

P. corrugatus

0.74 ± 0.01

18.59 ± 0.61

5.02 ± 0.03

18.51 ± 0.20

0.48 ± 0.09

2.60 ± 0.15

158.57 ± 0.32

G. antarticus

0.99 ± 0.04

9.88 ± 0.34

0.44 ± 0.02

126.18 ± 0.5

0.97 ± 0.19

4.26 ± 0.30

78.19 ± 1.09

P. polita

0.60 ± 0.07

8.39 ± 0.61

1.07 ± 0.04

119.12 ± 0.36

0.78 ± 0.08

8.66 ± 0.22

53.08 ± 0.27

| Annual Activity Report 2011

for the macroalgae Desmarestia sp (16.66 µg g–1), and for the ophiuroid A. acutus (9.31 µg g–1), respectively.

Discussion Different factors can affect metal bioaccumulation in organisms, such as its environmental bioavailability (Gray, 2002), but also the assimilation efficiency and efflux rate of the studied species (Wang & Ke, 2002). All these factors contribute to the variability of the results, however, comparing the concentration for each species with those in the literature, which for some species is scarce, lower or similar values were observed in our sampling point (Admiralty Bay) than for other Antarctic areas. For instance, the As concentration for H. grandifolius in Admiralty Bay was only 13% (112 µg g–1) of those observed by Farías et al. (2002) for samples from the Argentinian base at Potter Cove (King George Island), and 16% (91 µg g–1) for those obtained by Runcie & Riddle (2004) for Casey Station, East Antarctica. The same pattern was observed when comparing Cd concentration for S. neumayeri and P. corrugatus from Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea–Northern Victoria Land), with our estimates being only 14 and 23%, respectively, of those observed by Dalla Riva et al. (2004). Only for Zn, and in this case in a closer sampling point (in front of EACF), our concentrations were slightly smaller than those observed by Santos et al. (2006) for B. gigantea, G. antarctica and N. concinna. These results agree with those obtained through sediment analysis for EACF, in which, despite being observed an enrichment of As, there were no indications of relevant anthropogenic impacts (Ribeiro et al., 2011).

Conclusions These results contribute to the knowledge of the possible impacts of the Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctica Station considering the liberation of metal and metalloids due to their routine activities. The temporal comparisons between this data and those of other monitoring samplings (previous and posterior to 2005/2006) will allow identification of any increment in terms of bioaccumulation in the surrounding biota. Especially, considering the serious fire incident that occurred at EACF at the end of last summer (Feb/2012), and that relevant amounts of heavy metals (such as Pb, Cd, Fe, Mo, and Zn) are released during this kind of occurrence, this data, and the associate methodology, attains particular importance, due to their potential to enlighten the extension of the impacts, as well as, the success of any recuperation strategy.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Bargagli, R.; Monaci, F.; Sanchez-Hernandez, J.C. & Cateni, D. (1998). Biomagnification of mercury in an Antarctic marine coastal food web. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 169: 65-76. Corbisier, T.N.; Petti, M.A.V.; Skowronski, R.S.P. & Brito, T.A.S. (2004). Trophic relationships in the nearshore zone of Martel Inlet (King George Island, Antarctica): δ13C stable isotope analysis. Polar Biology, 27: 75-82. Dalla Riva, S.; Abelmoschi, M.L.; Magi, E. & Soggia, F. (2004). The utilization of the Antarctic environmental specimen bank (BCAA) in monitoring Cd and Hg in an Antarctic coastal area in Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea––Northern Victoria Land). Chemosphere, 56: 59-69. Farías, S.; Arisnabarreta, S.P.; Vodopivez, C. & Smichowski, P. (2002). Levels of essential and potentially toxic trace metals in Antarctic macro algae. Spectrochimica Acta Part B, 57: 2133-2140.

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Farías, S.; Smichowski, P.; Velez, D.; Montoro, R.; Curtosi, A. & Vodopívez, C. (2007). Total and inorganic arsenic in Antarctic macroalgae. Chemosphere, 69: 1017-1024. Gray, J.S. (2002). Biomagnification in marine systems: the perspective of an ecologist. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 45: 46-52. Gray, R.; Canfield, P. & Rogers, T. (2008). Trace element analysis in the serum and hair of Antarctic leopard seal, Hydrurga leptonyx, and Weddell seal, Leptonychotes weddellii. Science of the Total Environment, 399: 202-215. Grotti, M.; Soggia, F.; Lagomarsino, C.; Dalla Riva, S.; Goessler, W. & Francesconi, K.A. (2008). Natural variability and distribution of trace elements in marine organisms from Antarctic coastal environments. Antarctic Science, 20: 39-51. Ribeiro, A.P.; Figueira, R.C.L.; Martins, C.C.; Silva, C.R. A.; França. E.J.; Bícego, M.C.; Mahiques, M.M. & Montone, R.C. (2011). Arsenic and trace metal contents in sediment profiles from the Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 192-196. Runcie, J.W. & Riddle, M.J. (2004). Metal concentrations in macroalgae from East Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49: 1109-1126. Sanchez-Hernandez, J.C. (2000). Trace element contamination in Antarctic ecosystems. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 166: 83-127. Santos, I.R.; Schaefer, C.E.; Silva-Filho, E.V.; Albuquerque, M. & Albuquerque-Filho, M.R. (2004). Contaminantes antrópicos em ecossistemas antárticos: estado-de-arte. In: Schaefer, C.E.; Francelino, M.R.; Simas, F.B. & Albuquerque-Filho, M.R. (Eds.). Ecossistemas Costeiros e Monitoramento Ambiental da Antártica Marítima: Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George. Viçosa: NEPUT. p. 95-106. Santos, I.R.; Silva-Filho, E.V.; Schaefer, C.; Sella, S.M.; Silva, C.A.; Gomes, V.; Passos, M.J.A.C.R. & Ngan, P. V. (2006). Baseline mercury and zinc concentrations in terrestrial and coastal organisms of Admiralty Bay, Antarctica. Environmental Pollution, 140: 304-311. Vodopivez, C. & Curtosi, A. (1998). Trace metals in some invertebrates, fishes and birds from Potter Cove. Berichte zur Polarforschung, 299: 296-303. Wang, W. X. & Ke, C. (2002). Dominance of dietary intake of cadmium and zinc by two marine predatory gastropods. Aquatic Toxicology, 56: 153-165.

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9 HISTOPATHOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS ON ANTARCTIC FISH Notothenia coriiceps AND Notothenia rossii AS BIOMARKERS OF AQUATIC CONTAMINATION Lucélia Donatti1,*, Flávia Sant'Anna Rios1, Cintia Machado1, Maria Rosa Demengeon Pedreiro1, Priscila Krebsbach1, Claudio Adriano Piechnik1, Tânia Zaleski1, Mariana Forgati1, Luciana Badeluk Cettina1, Flavia Baduy Vaz da Silva1, Nadia Sabchuk1, Cleoni dos Santos Carvalho2, Edson Rodrigues3, Edson Rodrigues Junior1,3, Mariana Feijó de Oliveira1,3 1

Laboratório de Biologia Adaptativa, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, Rua Coronel Francisco Heraclito dos Santos, 210, Centro Politécnico, CEP 81531-970, Curitiba, PR, Brazil 2 Universidade Federal de São Carlos – UFSCar, Campus Sorocaba, Rod. João Leme dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil 3 Departamento de Biologia, Instituto Básico de Biociências, Universidade de Taubaté – UNITAU, Campus do Bom Conselho, Rua 04 de Março, 432, CEP 12020-270, Taubaté, SP, Brazil *e-mail: donatti@ufpr.br

Abstract: The Antarctic continent is considered one of the most well preserved areas of the planet; however, human occupation of this environment, for research purposes, generates impacts on the ecosystem, especially near scientific stations. Studies on structural alterations, mainly of the liver and gills of fish are an important source of information of environmental toxicity. This work intended to evaluate histopathologically, the livers and gills of the Antarctic fish species Notothenia coriiceps and Notothenia rossii captured in Admiralty Bay, where the Comandante Ferraz Brasilian Antarctica Station is located. Histological and ultrastructure techniques were employed. The only liver diseases found were necroses and hyperplasia, aneurysm and branchial detachment were the diseases found on the gills. The occurrence of alterations, both in the liver and gills, was low and punctual, although with higher incidence in the N. coriiceps than N. rossii. It can be concluded that the low alteration occurrence rate, does not affect the functionality of the analyzed organs, as it presents no lethality to the species. Keywords: Antarctic nototenidae, gills, liver, aquatic contamination

Introduction Studies reporting human activity in the Admiralty Bay date back to 1987, with the beginning of the analyzes of hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments and on the water surface (Bícego et al., 1996; Oliveira et al., 2007; Martins et al., 2010). The research about distribution and concentration patterns of waste indicators deriving from the station in soil samples (Montone et al., 2010), the biomonitoring of genotoxic potential through nuclear erythrocyte abnormalities (Ngan et al., 2007) and the evaluation of heavy metal concentration (Santos et al., 2006) are examples of well-studied cases.

Histopathological and ultrastructure analyses are excellent methodological tools in studies of environmental biomonitoring with the fish as a biological model. Damage detected in cells, tissues or organs exposed to polluting agents represent an integration of cumulative effects of these substances in a physical and biochemical manner (Myers & Fournie, 2002). This work has the objective to evaluate, from a histological and ultrastructure aspect, the health of Antarctic fish Notothenia rossii and Nototehnia coriiceps, collected in different points of the Admiralty Bay – King George Island – South Shetlands Archipelago, Antarctic Peninsula.

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Materials and Methods In Ad m i r a lt y B ay, t h e A nt arc t i c f i s h s p e c i e s Notothenia coriiceps (n = 36) and Notothenia rossii (n = 26) were collected with line and hook at depths ranging from 10 to 25 meters and sacrificed, according to the Committee of Animal Experimentation-UFPR n°496. Five sampling stations were established: Comandante Ferraz Antarctica Station (EACF) (62° 04' 59,3" S and 58° 23' 23" W); Punta Plaza (PP) (62° 05' 26,9”S and 58° 24' 11,9”); Arctowski, in front of the Ecology Glacier (ECO) (62° 10’ 03,5” S and 58° 26’ 59,8”); Botany Point (BO) (62° 06’ 15,7” S and 58° 21’ 14,0”) and Refúgio 2 (R2) (62° 04’ 14,5” e 58° 25’ 16,5” W). For the light microscopic analysis (MO), liver and gills were fixed in ALFAC, included in Paraplast Plus® and stained with haematoxylin and eosin (H.E) (Clark, 1981). For electronic microscopy the gills and liver were fixed in Karnovsky (1965). The analyses and documentation of the material were made using an electronic transmission microscope JEOL 1200EX II. The liver and branchial histopathologies were analysed and identified according to Mallat (1985), Roberts (1989), Brasileiro-Filho (1994). The lesions were quantified according to Bernet’s index (Bernet et al., 1999).

captured showed the lesion), while branchial detachment, aneurysm and hyperplasia were found in the gills of both species (Table 1; Figure 2). Analyzing the sampling stations and species collected, the occurrence of histopathologies was punctual and only affected a small number of animals. On the N. coriiceps a slightly higher occurrence rate was noted (Figure 1). The averages of the lesions indicated by Bernet’s Index in each sampling station and each species are shown in Figure 1, suggesting that the highest values for N. coriiceps indicate that the species is more sensitive.

Discussion Studies report that Antarctica has been affected for some time by sporadic pollution events, generated by the intensity and variety of human activities, which have increased over recent years (Oliveira et al., 2007; Tin, 2008). The branchial detachment or edema was one histopathology found in all collected animals, regardless of the species or sampling

Results Histologically, the liver and branchial tissue of the N. coriiceps and N. rossii follow the pattern described in literature. The liver is constituted of cells called hepatocytes and liver parenchyma (Figure 2) while the branchial strand is made of a primary lamella, which in turn is made of two rows of breathing or secondary lamellas (Table 1; Figure 2). Necrosis was the only liver alteration found and just in N. corriceps (20% BO, 25% EACF and 7.7% of the fish

Figure 1. Average of Bernet’s Index (alterations in the gills and liver) for each sampling collection and species. Notothenia coriiceps: Columns filled and Notothenia rossii: Empty columns. BO = Botany; EACF = Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctica Station; ECO = Ecology; PP = Punta Plaza and R2 = Refúgio 2.

Table 1. Percentage of Nothotenia coriiceps (NC) and Nothotenia rossii (NR) gill lesions in each of the sampling station measured. BO = Botany; EACF = Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctica Station; ECO = Ecology; PP = Punta Plaza and R2 = Refúgio 2.

Detachment

140

Aneurysm

Hyperplasia

Collection sampling

80,0

40,0

60,0

EACF

75,0

100,0

0,0

33,3

ECO

100,0

25,0

0,0

83,3

22,2

80,0

100,0

0,0

8,3

100,0

41,7

33,0

0,0

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b d

Figure 2. Light microscopic (a, b, e, h and i) and electron micrograph (c, d and g) of liver (g to i) and branchial (a to f) of N. coriiceps (c, d, e, f and i) and N. rossii (a, b, g and h). a) Cross-sections through the normal lamellae and detail in c; b) Branchial detachment and detail in d; e) Hyperplasia (*) and aneurysm (). f) Detail of aneurysm. h) Cross-sections through the liver and detail in g) () nucleolus; () lipid droplets. i) Necrosis.

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stations. This alteration acts as a defensive mechanism, decreasing the superficial area of the gills, and increasing the spreading distance to the harmful agent (Thophon et al., 2003). Aneurysm was found only one N. rossi and five N. coriiceps, and for Van den Heuvel et al. (2000), this damage leads to death of the pillar cells, causing accumulation of blood cells in the region. Hyperplasia of the gills was the main pathology found, detected in both species but predominant in the N. coriiceps. Hyperplasia may be a typical defense mechanism which works by increasing the diffusal distance between the polluents and the blood flow, causing hindrance to gas exchanges (Dutta et al., 1993; Karan et al., 1998).

Conclusion Liver and branchial alterations reported in this study are not specific of one harmful agent, with the possibility of being a result of physiological mechanisms or many types of physical, chemical and biological agents of Admiralty

Bay. From the data analyzed, it can be concluded that the functionality of the analyzed organs was not affected and thus, may not be classified as lethal to the species under investigation.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5; and process: n° 52.0125/2008-8) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA), and Inter-Ministry Commission for Resource of the Sea (CIRM) and PQ for L. Donatti nr. 305562/2009-6.

References Bernet, D.; Schmidt, H.; Meier, W.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. & Wahli, T. (1999). Histopathology in fish: proposal for a protocol to assess aquatic pollution. Journal of Fish Diseases, 22: 25-34. Bícego, M.C.; Weber, R.R. & Ito, R.G. (1996). Aromatic hydrocarbons on surface waters of Admiralty bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 32:549-53. Brasileiro-Filho, G. (1994). Bogliolo Patologia. 5. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan. Clark, G. (1981). Staining procedures. Baltimore: Willians & Wilkins. Dutta, H. M.; Richmonds, C. R. & Zeno, T. (1993). Effects of Diazinon on the bluegill sunfish Lepomins macrochirus. Journal of Environmental Pathology, 12 (4): 219-27. Karan, V.; Vitorović, S.; Tutundžić, V. & Poleksić, V. (1998). Functional enzymes activity and gill histology of carp after copper sulfate exposure and recovery. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, B-40: 49-55. Karnovsky, M.J. (1965). A formaldehyde-glutaraldehyde fixative of high osmolality for use in electron microscopy. Journal of Cell Biology, 27: 137-8. Mallat, J. (1985), Fish gill structural changes induced by toxicants and others irritants: A statistical review. Canadian Journal of Fishes Aquatic Science, 42: 630-48. Martins, C.C; Rose, M.C.B.; Taniguchi, S.; Lourenço, R.A; Figueira, R.C.L.; Mahiques, M.M. & Montone, R.C. (2010). Historical Record of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) in marine sediment cores from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Environmental Pollution, 158: 192-200. Myers, M.S. & Fournie, J.W. (2002). Histophatological biomarkers as integrators of anthropogenic and environmental stressors. In: Adams, S.M. Biological indicators of aquatic ecosystem stress. American Fisheries Society: Bethesda, MD.

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Montone, R.C.; Martins, C.C.; Bícego, M.C.; Taniguchi, S.; Silva, D.A.M.; Campos, L.S. & Weber, R.R. (2010). Distribution of sewage input in marine sediments around a maritime Antarctic research station indicated by molecular geochemical indicators. Science of the Total Environment, 408: 4665-71. Ngan, P. V.; Gomes, V.; Passos, M.J.A.C.R.; Ussami, K.A.; Campos, D. Y. F.; Rocha, A. J. S. & Pereira, B.A. (2007). Biomonitoring of the genotoxic potential (micronucleus and erythrocyte nuclear abnormalities assay) of the Admiralty Bay water surrounding the Brazilian Antarctic Research Station “Comandante Ferraz”, King George Island. Polar Biology, 30: 209-17. Oliveira, L.M.; Mendonça, E.S.; Jham, G.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Silva, I.R. & Albuquerque, M.A. (2007). Hidrocarbonetos em solos e sedimentos do entorno da Estação Antártica Brasileira Comandante Ferraz. Oecologia Brasiliensis 11 (1): 144-156. Roberts, R.J. (1989). Fish Pathology. 2nd. ed. London: Baillière Tindall. Santos, A.A.; Ranzani-Paiva, M.J.T.; Felizardo, N.N. & Rodrigues, E.L. (2006). Análise histopatológica de fígado de tilápiado-nilo, Oreochromis niloticus, criada em tanque-rede na represa de Guarapiranga, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. Thophon, S.; Kruatrachue, M.; Upatham, E.S.; Pokethitiyook, P.; Sahaphong, S. & Jaritkhuan, S. (2003). Histopathological alterations of white seabass, Lates calcarifer, in acute and subchronic cadmium exposure. Environmental Pollution, 121:307-20. Tin, T.; Fleming, Z.L.; Hughes, K.A.; Ainley, D.G.; Convey, P.; Moreno, C.A.; Pfeiffer, S.; Scott, J. & Snape, I. (2008). Impacts of local human activities on the Antarctic environment. Antarctic Science 21: 3-33. Van Den Heuvel, M.R.; Power, M.; Richards, J.; Mackinnon, M. & Dixon, D.G. (2000). Disease and gill lesions in Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens) exposed to oil sands mining-associated waters. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, B-46: 334-41.

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10 A BASELINE STUDIES ON PLASMATIC CONSTITUENTS IN THE Notothenia rossii AND Notothenia coriiceps IN ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA Rodrigues Jr.3,*, E.; Feijó-Oliveira, M.3; Gannabathula, S. V.1; Suda, C. N. K.1; Carvalho, C. S.4; Donatti, L.3; Lavrado, H. P.2; Rodrigues, E.1 1 Universidade de Taubaté – UNITAU, Taubaté, SP, Brazil Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – URFJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 3 Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil 4 Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, SP, Brazil

*e-mail: edsonrodj@gmail.com

Abstract: The Antarctic Peninsula, a pristine natural system has been found to be very sensitive to changes in the environment arising from climate changes and anthropic activities. The plasmatic levels of various metabolic constituents in fish have been used to identify the effect of environmental changes. The present study aims to establish base line of plasmatic constituents (glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, total protein and albumin) concentrations in two Antarctic fish species, Notothenia rossii and Notothenia coriiceps, which are abundant in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Blood sample collection was done by caudal vessel puncture immediately after capture. Plasmatic levels of glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol were significantly higher in N. rossii, at Refuge 2 compared to the other two sites, whereas there was no significant difference in albumin and total protein concentrations from the three sites. For N. coriiceps, only the albumin levels were higher at Refuge 2 compared to the other sites. The differences in the plasma constituent’s levels may be due to the physical and chemical differences in marine environments at sampling sites, as well as the morphological and lifestyle behavior of the two fish species. Key words: Antarctica, Notothenia, biomarkers, blood

Introduction Admiralty Bay is the largest embayment located in King George Island, South Shetland Islands, which presents characteristics of a fjord, with a branching system of inlets and is an Antarctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA #1) (Leal et al., 2008; Valentin et al., 2010). About 1300 species of benthic organisms are known, including 35 species of ﬁsh of 24 genera and 10 families, where Notothenia rossii and Notothenia coriiceps are in the four most abundant species (Skora & Neyelov, 1992; Siciński et al., 2011). The two species have different adaptations to the water column. N. coriiceps is demersal and sedentary, feeds on benthic organisms, undergoes dormancy and metabolic suppression during winter (Campbell et al., 2008). N. rossii

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is semipelagic, migratory and feeds on water column prey during the summer months (Barrera-Oro, 2003; Campbell et al., 2008). The present study aims to investigate levels of plasmatic glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, total proteins and albumin in two Antarctic ﬁsh species, N. rossii and N. coriiceps, at three different sites in Admiralty Bay. The studies were carried out to establish a baseline data for biochemical biomarkers and to understand the effects of climate change and pollutants on biological response of Antarctic organisms for monitoring Admiralty Bay. This is one of the goals in Antarctic Environmental research of the Brazilian National Institute of Science and TechnologyAntarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA).

Materials and Methods Specimens of N. rossii and N. coriiceps were caught at Admiralty Bay, between December 2009 and March 2010, by hook and line fishing at depths between 10 m and 20 m. The sampling sites were Glacier Ecology Inlet (ECO; 62° 10’ 03.5” S 58° 26’ 59.8” W; close to penguin rookeries), Punta Plaza marine environment (PP; 62° 05’ 26.9” S and 58° 24’ 11.9” W; at least 8 km from penguin rookery), and Refuge 2 (R2; 62° 04’ 24.1 S and 58° 25’ 19.2”; in the Mackeller Inlet near a glacier). In addition to these three areas, fish specimens of the two species were collected near the oil tank at EACF using fishing net. The data obtained for these samples were not used in this study, as the level

collected by caudal vessel puncture with a heparinized syringe. The samples were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 2,000 g, The plasma was transferred to cryogenic tubes and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Plasma levels of glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, total proteins and albumin, were determined using reagent kits of Labtest Diagnostic S/A. The spectrophotometer readings were carried out using a BMG Fluostar microplate reader on 96 wells microplates. The statistical analysis to compare the sampling sites of each species was done by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey a posteriori multiple pair wise test. Differences were considered significant for p < 0.05.

of stress of the fish caught using the fishing net is very high

Results

compared to hook and line fishing.

Plasmatic glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, total proteins

To minimize the effect of stress on fish specimens, the

and albumin levels of N. rossii and N. coriiceps from three

blood collection was done in less than 60 seconds after the

sampling sites are summarized in Figure 1. In N. rossii the

fish was removed from the water. The blood samples were

glucose, TG and cholesterol levels in R2 were significantly

Figure 1. Plasma levels of glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol, total proteins and albumin of Antarctic fish N. rossi and N. coriiceps at the sampling sites Point Plaza (PP), Glacier Ecology (ECO) and Refuge 2 (R2). Asterisks above bars indicate significant difference between the sampling sites (*p < 0,05; **p < 0.01).

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higher than ECO and PP, where as total proteins levels in R2 N. rossii were lower than PP. The plasmatic levels of glucose, TG and cholesterol in N. coriiceps of the three sampling sites were not significantly different, but were observed lower plasma total proteins and higher albumin levels in N. coriiceps of R2.

Discussion ECO inlet is close to a large penguin colony under ornithogenic influence; R2 is located in the Mackellar inlet and close to a glacier; whereas the PP is far from Penguin rookeries, glaciers and scientific station. The differences in these three environments were not able to modulate the plasmatic levels of glucose, TG and cholesterol in N.coriiceps, but the same was not observed in N. rossii. The difference in the results for the two fish species could be due to functional capacities, which differ according to their lifestyle, and in turn defines their tolerance to environmental changes (Bilyk & DeVries, 2011; Mark et al., 2012). Glycaemia has been used to indicate stress in fish (Pankhurst, 2011). The glucose metabolism has been considered of secondary energy importance, even though tissues such as brain, kidneys and gills have high glucose consumption (Enes et al., 2009). The branchial tissue of Antarctic fish has elevated oxidative potential for glucose, compared to monounsaturated fatty acid (Crockett et al., 1999). This way, the glicemia rise in vertebrates has been associated with energy demands “fight to flight” reaction (Pottinger et al., 2000). The hyperglycaemia of N. rossii in R2 is not clear, but must be related to specific energy demands, inherent to the local marine environment, and must be the aim of future studies. The lipid transport in fish is similar to that of mammals. The very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) is the main carrier of TG (Nanton et al., 2006). The high levels of TG and cholesterol in N. rossii at R2 can be an indication of high levels of the VLDL. Hepatic, muscular and cardiac tissues of Antarctic fish have elevated oxidative potential for monounsaturated fatty acids and supports an energy metabolism based on lipid (Sidell et al., 1995). The cause of the higher plasmatic TG at R2 is not clear, but may have a relation with N. rossii feeding behavior. The Antarctic krill is part of N. rossii diet, which is capable of migrating vertically in the water column and feeding on this crustacean during

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the summer. The presence of elevated levels of fluoride in the krill carapace may have a relation with higher glucose and TG levels observed in R2. Fluoride studies with nonAntarctic organisms showed that this halogen is capable of increasing the blood levels of glucose and lipid. The albumin concentration in the fish blood is low and absent in some cases (Metcalf et al., 2007). The main physiological function of this protein includes the transport of fatty acids, ions and coloidosmotic pressure control. These differences can be related to the different physiological and environmental characteristics. Taking into account and comparing the base line data between the two species may be N. corriceps shows advantages in being used for bioassays for selection of biomarkers and monitoring programs.

Conclusion The results presented showed that the marine environments of Admiralty Bay may have particularities capable of distinctly modulating glucose, TG, cholesterol, total proteins and albumin levels in the blood of Antarctic fish N. rossii and N. coriiceps. Therefore the levels of these plasmatic constituents cannot be taken as homogenous in Admiralty Bay for these fish species. This baseline study of plasmatic constituents is important to environmental monitoring in the context of climate changes.

Acknowledgements Donatti, L., and Rodrigues, E. thank the Brazilian Federal Agency for the Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) for the PhD Fellow of Rodrigues Jr3. E. (Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, Federal University of Paraná). This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Barrera-Oro, E. (2003). Analysis of dietary overlap in Antarctic fish (Notothenioidei) from the South Shetland Islands: no evidence of food competition. Polar Biology, 26(10): 631-7. Bilyk, K.T. & DeVries, A.L. (2011). Heat tolerance and its plasticity in Antarctic fishes. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 158(4): 382-90. Campbell, H.A.; Fraser, K.P.P.; Bishop, C.M.; Peck, L.S. & Egginton, S. (2008). Hibernation in an Antarctic fish: On ice for winter. PLoS ONE, 3(3): e1743. Crockett, E.L.; Londraville, R.L.; Wilkes, E.E. & Popesco, M.C. (1999). Enzymatic capacities for β-oxidation of fatty fuels are low in the gill of teleost fishes despite presence of fatty acid-binding protein. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 284(3): 276-85. Enes, P.; Panserat, S.; Kaushik, S. & Oliva-Teles, A. (2009). Nutritional regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism in fish. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 35(3): 519-39. Leal, M.A.; Joppert, M.; Licínio, M.V.; Evangelista, H.; Maldonado, J.; Dalia, K.C.; Lima, C.; Barros Leite, C.V.; Correa, S.M.; Medeiros, G. & Dias Da Cunha, K. (2008). Atmospheric impacts due to anthropogenic activities in remote areas: The case study of Admiralty Bay/King George Island/Antarctic Peninsula. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 188(1-4): 67-80. Mark, F.C.; Lucassen, M.; Strobel, A.; Barrera-Oro, E.; Koschnick, N.; Zane, L.; Patarnello, T.; Pörtner, H.O. & Papetti, C. (2012). Mitochondrial function in antarctic nototheniids with ND6 translocation. PLoS ONE, 7(2). Metcalf, V.J.; George, P.M. & Brennan, S.O. (2007). Lungfish albumin is more similar to tetrapod than to teleost albumins: Purification and characterisation of albumin from the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 147(3): 428-37. Nanton, D.A.; McNiven, M.A. & Lall, S.P. (2006). Serum lipoproteins in haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus L. Aquaculture Nutrition, 12(5): 363-71. Pankhurst, N.W. (2011). The endocrinology of stress in fish: An environmental perspective. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 170(2): 265-75. Pottinger, T.G.; Carrick, T.R.; Appleby, A. & Yeomans, W.E. (2000). High blood cortisol levels and low cortisol receptor affinity: Is the chub, Leuciscus cephalus, a cortisol-resistant teleost? General and Comparative Endocrinology, 120(1): 108-17. Siciński, J.; Jazdzewski, K.; Broyer, C.D.; Presler, P.; Ligowski, R.; Nonato, E.F.; Corbisier, T.N.; Petti, M.A.V.; Brito, T.A.S.; Lavrado, H.P.; Blazewicz-Paszkowycz, M.; Pabis, K.; Jazdzewska, A. & Campos, L.S. (2011). Admiralty Bay Benthos Diversity - A census of a complex polar ecosystem. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 58(1-2): 30-48. Sidell, B.D.; Crockett, E.L. & Driedzic, W.R. (1995). Antarctic fish tissues preferentially catabolize monoenoic fatty acids. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 271(2): 73-81. Skora, K.E. & Neyelov, A.V. (1992). Fish of Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Polar Biology, 12(3-4): 469-76. Valentin, Y.Y.; Dalton, A.G. & Lavrado, H.P. (2010). Annual Activity Report 2010. São Carlos: Editora Cubo.

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11 EFFECT OF DIESEL OIL ON GILL ENZYMES OF ENERGY METABOLISM, ANTIOXIDANT DEFENSE AND ARGINASE OF THE GASTROPOD Nacella concinna (STREBEL 1908) FROM KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA Feijó de Oliveira, M1.; Rodrigues Júnior, E1.; Gannabathula, S. V2.; Suda, C. N. K2.; Donatti, L1.; Lavrado, H. P3.; Rodrigues, E2,* Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR, Centro Politécnico, s/n, Jardim das Américas, CEP 81990-970, Curitiba, PR, Brazil 2 Instituto Básico de Biociências, Universidade de Taubaté – UNITAU, Av. Tiradentes, 500, Centro, CEP 12030-180, Taubaté, SP, Brazil 3 Departamento de Biologia Marinha, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil 1

*e-mail: rodedson@gmail.com

Abstract: Raising human impact and pollution in Antarctica has focused studies to verify possible biomarker for environmental monitoring. Nacella concinna is the most conspicuous macro invertebrate of the Antarctic intertidal zone. The diesel oil leakage of icebreaker Bahia Paradise reduced in 50% N. concinna populations near Palmer Scientific Station. The aim of this study was to verify the effect of diesel oil on activity of enzymes hexokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, malate dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phoshate dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, catalase, superoxide dismutase and arginase of Nacella concinna gills. Specimens collected in Keller Peninsula were maintained in mini aquariums containing 1% or 5% of diesel oil. The results showed that the enzymes arginase, phosphofructokinase and catalase are potential biomarkers for diesel oil pollution. Keywords: Antarctica, Nacella concinna, diesel oil, biomarkers

Introduction The gastropod Nacella concinna is the most conspicuous

by international scientific efforts after the International

macro invertebrate in the Antarctic seas, with an ample

Polar year 1957/58 (Tin et al., 2009). The concerns about

geographic distribution, and has been postulated as a sentinel

the pollution around scientific stations and round the

organism due to its capacity for bioaccumulation of heavy metals (Ahn et al., 2002). The exposure to climate to the terrestrial environment when the tide recedes, freezing in winter, friction of the ice on sediments and rocks, reduction of salinity due to the entry of melt waters in to the sea and the exposure to ultraviolet radiation have been considered the principal stress factors on the organisms that inhabit the Antarctic intertidal zones (Davenport, 2001; Peck et al., 2006; Barnes & Peck, 2008; Obermüller et al., 2011).

148

Anchorage locations of shipping vessels was justified after the sinking of the icebreaker Bahia Paradise in 1989, which resulted in the leakage of 600,000L of diesel oil in the Arthur Harbor, Antarctic Peninsula, close to the Palmer Scientific Station (USA) (Kennicutt II et al., 1992). In this case, the gastropod N. concinna population was reduced by 50% and only partially recovered after one year. Bioassays of N. concinna showed that diesel oil could elevate the protein

Human presence in the Antarctic has increased

oxidation and the levels of glutathione peroxidase, in

significantly during the last few decades and has accelerated

addition to reducing the levels of the catalase in the digestive

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gland. Whereas the levels of he dismutase superoxide were not altered (Ansaldo et al., 2005). The present study aims to verify the effect of diesel oil on the concentrations of the energy metabolism enzymes, the antioxidant defense and metabolism of L-arginine in the gills, as possible biomarkers of the environmental impact.

Materials and Methods

Specimens of N. concinna were collected from the Keller peninsula (62o 05’ 28.8” S and 58o 24’ 21.3” W), close to the Brazilian Antarctic station Commandant Ferraz (EACF), during the period January to March 2011. The experiments were conducted in mini aquariums (2.5 L) with 10 specimens/aquarium, subjected to thermo-saline condition 0 °C and 35 psu, with 5% and 1% diesel oil and control without diesel oil. The bioassays had duration of 8 days, aerated continuously, water changed daily and 12 hours of photoperiod without alimentation. Natural controls were established using specimens that were dissected immediately after the collection. All the tissue samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen for posterior analysis. The homogenates were prepared in the proportion of 1 g of gill for 10 mL of buffer Tris-HCL 50 mM, pH 7.4, sonicated for 15 seconds, centrifuged at 12,000 x g, for 10 minutes, and the supernatants used to determine the activities of the enzymes: hexokinase (HK) (Baldwin et al., 2007); phosphofructokinase (PFK) (Baldwin et al., 2007); lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (Thuesen et al., 2005); citrate synthase (CS) (Saborowski & Buchholz, 2002); malate dehydrogenase (MDH) (Childress & Somero, 1979); glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) (Ciardiello et al., 1995); glutathione reductase (GRED) (Sies et al., 1979); superoxide dismutase (SOD) (Crouch et al., 1981); catalase (CAT) (Regoli et al., 1997); arginase (ARG) (Iyamu et al., 2008). The enzymatic activities were normalized with the concentrations of proteins, determined by the “bicinchoninic acid” (BCA, kit QuantiPro - Sigma) method. The statistical analysis was done using Statistica 5.0 for Windows. The results are presented as mean ± SEM (standard error of the mean). Statistical comparison between groups was done using three way ANOVA, followed by the multiple pairwise Tukey “a posteriori” comparison test. Levene’s test was used to determine the homoscedasticity of the data, and a log x correction was applied when required. Differences were considered significant for p < 0.05.

Results The effect of two different concentrations of diesel oil (D1% and D5%) on the gill levels of HK, PFK, LDH, CS, MDH, G6PDH, GRED, CAT, SOD and ARG, in the thermo-saline 0-35 experimental condition are summarized in Figure 1. The increase in the levels of HK, GRED and SOD, as well as reduction of MDH and G6PDH, observed in the presence of diesel oil were not significant. The PFK levels were upregulated in the presence of diesel oil 5% (D5%), whereas CAT with D5% was downregulated. The levels of ARG were significantly upregulated in the presence of D%5.

Discussion The enzymes LDH, MDH and CS have been used as markers of potential anaerobic and aerobic ATP generators in the cells (Torres & Somero, 1988) The branchial levels of LDH, MDH and CS are not influenced by the presence of diesel oil, indicating that the aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways may not be influenced by the diesel oil effect in this tissue. The principal glycolytic pathway regulator enzyme PFK levels were upregulated in the presence of diesel oil. The enzymes G6PDH, GRED and SOD, directly or indirectly, participate in the cellular antioxidant defense. G6PDH catalyze reducing reactions of NADP+ to NADPH+H+, GRED reduces glutathione and SOD decomposes O2–. SOD is often called the primary defense against oxidative stress because superoxide is strong initiator of chain reaction and may the raise in the levels of SOD can be related to the raise of superoxide in the presence of diesel oil. CAT is part of the antioxidant defense enzymes and does the decomposition of 2H2O2 in H2O and O2. It was downregulated in the presence of diesel oil. The levels of ARG were upregulated in the presence of diesel oil. This enzyme participate in the intracellular control of phospo-L-Arginine, nitric oxide and polyamines levels (Wu & Morris Junior, 1998). The levels of CS, LDH and SOD are significantly higher in natural control than in experimental control (Figure 1). The elevated levels of SOD in the natural control can be related to this gastropod migration to the intertidal zone during the austral spring and its exposition to more elevated temperature, which could be inducing increase in SOD (Abele et al., 1998). The thermic stress has effect on the energy demand of N. concinna and is capable of reducing ATP levels, lift the oxygen consumption and down

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Figure 1. Activity of enzymes hexokinase (HK), phosphofrutokinase (PFK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), citrate synthase (CS), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), glutathione reductase (GRED), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and arginase (ARG) of Nacella concinna gills. Data are expressed as means ± SE. Asterisk indicates significant differences between nature control (NC) and experimental control (EC). Different letters indicate differences between treatments.

regulate the CS levels in the foot muscle of this gastropod (Pörtner et al., 1999).

by the ambient conditions of the intertidal zone is capable of upregulating these enzymes levels. The enzymes ARG, PFK and CAT can be used as potential biomarkers for

150

Conclusion

diesel oil pollution, considering that: a) the natural stress in

The elevated levels of enzymes CS, LDH and SOD in gills of nature controls in relation to experimental control (thermosaline condition 0-35), showed that natural stress imposed

alterations in these enzymes compared to experimental

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the intertidal zone was not capable of inducing expressive controls; b) diesel oil induced significant alterations in

these enzymes levels; c) except PFK, the effect of diesel oil

APA) that receives scientific and financial support from the

on the ARG and CAT enzymes levels was more intense in

National Council for Research and Development (CNPq

the experimental condition of 5% than at 1%.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-

process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Abele, D.; Burlando, B.; Viarengo, A. & Portner, H.-O. (1998). Exposure to elevated temperatures and hydrogen peroxide elicits oxidative stress and antioxidant response in the Antarctic intertidal limpet Nacella concinna. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 120(2): 425-35. Ahn, I.Y.; Kim, K.W. & Choi, H.J. (2002). A baseline study on metal concentrations in the Antarctic limpet Nacella concinna (Gastropoda: Patellidae) on King George Island: Variations with sex and body parts. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(5): 424-31. Ansaldo, M.; Najle, R. & Luquet, C.M. (2005). Oxidative stress generated by diesel seawater contamination in the digestive gland of the Antarctic limpet Nacella concinna. Marine Environmental Research, 59(4): 381-90. Baldwin, J.; Elias, J.P.; Wells, R.M.G. & Donovan, D.A. (2007). Energy metabolism in the tropical abalone, Haliotis asinina Linné: Comparisons with temperate abalone species. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 342(2): 213-25. Barnes, D.K.A. & Peck, L.S. (2008). Vulnerability of Antarctic shelf biodiversity to predicted regional warming. Climate Research, 37(2-3): 149-63. Childress, J.J. & Somero, G.N. (1979). Depth-related enzymic activities in muscle, brain and heart of deep-living pelagic marine teleosts. Marine Biology, 52(3): 273-83. Ciardiello, M.A.; Camardella, L. & Di Prisco, G. (1995). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from the blood cells of two antarctic teleosts: Correlation with cold adaptation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Protein Structure and Molecular Enzymology, 1250(1): 76-82. Crouch, R.K.; Gandy, S.E.; Kimsey, G.; Galbraith, R.A.; Galbraith, G.M. & Buse, M.G. (1981). The inhibition of islet superoxide dismutase by diabetogenic drugs. Diabetes, 30: 235-41. Davenport, J. (2001). Meltwater effects on intertidal Antarctic limpets, Nacella concinna. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, 81: 643-9. Iyamu, E.W.; Asakura, T. & Woods, G.M. (2008). A colorimetric microplate assay method for high-throughput analysis of arginase activity in vitro. Analytical Biochemistry, 383(2): 332-4. Kennicutt II, M.C.; McDonald, T.J.; Denoux, G.J. & McDonald, S.J. (1992). Hydrocarbon contamination on the antarctic peninsula. II. Arthur Harbor inter- and subtidal limpets (Nacella concinna). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24(10): 506-11. Obermüller, B.E.; Morley, S.A.; Clark, M.S.; Barnes, D.K.A. & Peck, L.S. (2011). Antarctic intertidal limpet ecophysiology: A winter-summer comparison. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 403(1-2): 39-45. Peck, L.S.; Convey, P. & Barnes, D.K.A. (2006). Environmental constraints on life histories in Antarctic ecosystems: Tempos, timings and predictability. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 81(1): 75-109. Pörtner, H.O.; Peck, L.; Zielinski, S. & Conway, L.Z. (1999). Intracellular pH and energy metabolism in the highly stenothermal Antarctic bivalve Limopsis marionensis as a function of ambient temperature. Polar Biology, 22(1): 17-30.

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Regoli, F.; Principato, G.B.; Bertoli, E.; Nigro, M. & Orlando, E. (1997). Biochemical characterization of the antioxidant system in the scallop Adamussium colbecki, a sentinel organism for monitoring the Antarctic environment. Polar Biology, 17(3): 251-8. Saborowski, R. & Buchholz, F. (2002). Metabolic properties of Northern krill, Meganyctiphanes norvegica, from different climatic zones. II. Enzyme characteristics and activities. Marine Biology, 140(3): 557-65. Sies, H.; Koch, O.R.; Martino, E. & Boveris, A. (1979). Increased biliary glutathione disulfide release in chronically ethanoltreated rats. FEBS Letters, 103(2): 287-90. Thuesen, E.V.; McCullough, K.D. & Childress, J.J. (2005). Metabolic enzyme activities in swimming muscle of medusae: is the scaling of glycolytic activity related to oxygen availability? Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, 85(03): 603-11. Tin, T.; Fleming, Z.L.; Hughes, K.A.; Ainley, D.G.; Convey, P.; Moreno, C.A.; Pfeiffer, S.; Scott, J. & Snape, I. (2009). Impacts of local human activities on the Antarctic environment. Antarctic Science, 21(1): 3-33. Torres, J.J. & Somero, G.N. (1988). Metabolism, enzymic activities and cold adaptation in Antarctic mesopelagic fishes. Marine Biology, 98(2): 169-80. Wu, G. & Morris Junior, S.M. (1998). Arginine metabolism: nitric oxide and beyond. Biochemical Journal, 336: 1-17.

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12 PHYTAL MACROFAUNA COMPOSITION OF THE Himantothallus grandifolius (HETEROKONPHYTA, DESMARESTIACEAE) FROM ADMIRALTY BAY (KING GEORGE ISLAND, SOUTH SHETLAND ISLANDS, ANTARCTICA) Tais Maria de Souza Campos1,*, Ingrid Avila da Costa2, Geyze Magalhães Faria1, Yocie Yoneshigue-Valentin1, Adriana Galindo Dalto1 1

Laboratório de Macroalgas Marinhas, Departamento de Botânica,Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av.Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, bloco A, sala A1-094, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil *e-mail: tmscampos@yahoo.com.br

Abstract: Phytal ecosystems are characterized as an important area of production and energy transference, due to the complex trophic web that naturally establishes between diverse organism groups that co-inhabit this eutrophic region. Benthic organisms, especially of the macro- and meiobenthic, constitute the associated fauna of the phytal kelps. Himantothallus grandifolius is the most prominent Antarctic kelp species. It is usually found in the Antarctic Peninsula Islands of the Maritime Antarctic region, despite the ecological importance of associated fauna. The present work has the objective to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively the macrofauna phytal of the H. grandifolius collected in February 2011 at Mackelar inlet (Admiralty Bay), with special focus on taxonomic determination of the associated Isopods fauna. Preliminary results showed that the dominant faunal group was Amphipods (n = 1776), followed by Ectoprocta (n = 496). Isopods occurred in fewer density (n = 207 ind.) and so far have been identified at the following family level (Gnathiidae, Munnidae, Plakarthidae, Jaeropsidae , Sphaeromathidae and Janiridae). Keywords: Kelps, Himantothallus grandifolius, phytal fauna, Isopods

Introduction The seaweed and seagrass communities have a great importance in the development of invertebrate and vertebrate communities, creating favorable conditions of habitat, shelter, feeding, reproduction and development for the life cycles of various marine organisms. The marine biocenosis constituted by animals that live associated to these plant-substrates is designated phytal (Masunari & Forneris, 1981; Remane, 1933; Masunari, 1987). Phytal communities are mainly composed by invertebrates of the macrofauna (0.5 to 2 mm) and meiofauna (0.045 to 0.5 mm) size classes. In Admiralty Bay Antarctica, especially in, phytal communities are very little studied (Pabis & Sincinski,

2010; Sicinski et al., 2011). Over all, in Admiralty Bay there are some 36 macroalgae species (Zielinski, 1990) and the Desmarestiaceae is the most common family. From the 36 species Himantothallus grandifolius is the most common kelp in the whole Bay. H. grandifolius a Heterokontophyta algae constituted by leaf-like thallus with corrugate edges narrowing downwards forming a short stipe, which can reach a large size both in width, more than 1m, and depth of between 5-15 m in total length. This kelp is found attached to rocks and stones by a great number of appendages forming a strong holdfast. Thallus and holdfast of these large brown algae are considered to be structurally complex habitats

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(Steneck et al., 2002), consisting in a rich aggregation in a sublittoral zone ranging within a depth of 10 to 90 m (Zielinski, 1990). Phytal fauna of the Admiralty Bay is often composed of

Table 1. Composition and density (no.ind.) of phytal macrofauna organisms found on Himantothallus grandifolius.

Taxon Acari

Holdfast region

Tallus region

Amphipods, Isopods, Polychaetes, bryozoans and ascidians

Amphipoda

1767

116

like the phytal in other places of the world (Mukai, 1971;

Asteroidea

Kito, 1975; Hicks, 1977; Coull & Wells, 1983; Johnson

Bivalvia

& Scheibling, 1987; Preston & Moore, 1988; Curvêlo &

Copepoda

181

Corbisier, 2000; Krzysztof & Sicinski, 2010). There are

Cumacea

Gastropoda

Holoturoidea

few studies on Antarctic macroalgae phytal communities, despite their great importance in marine coastal ecosystems. The aim of the present study was to describe phytal macrofauna composition associated to H. grandifolius in

Nematoda

281

Admiralty Bay, emphasizing Isopod fauna composition.

Nemertea

Ofiuroidea

Materials and Methods

Oligochaeta

Admiralty Bay is located in the King George Island

Ostracoda

in the central region of South Shetlands Archipelago

Polyplacophora

Polychaeta

158

Ectoprocta

472

Gnathiidae*

Admiralty Bay is covered by macroalgae. The specimen of

Sphaeromatidae*

Himantothallus grandifolius was collected in Mackelar inlet

Plakarthriidae*

near Peruvian Station of Machu Pichu up at 15 meters deep

Munnidae*

in February 2011. The specimen measured approximately

Janiridae*

8 m long and 60 cm wide. The holdfast was circular and the

Jaeropsidae*

3215

178

(Rakusa-Suszczewski, 1980) 62° 05” S and 58° 24” W. The bay covers some 122.08 km2 (Battke, 1990) and is comprised of three inlets, Martel, Mackelar and Ezcurra. It is the largest bay of King George Island, and about 30% of the bottom of

diameter was approximately 45 cm. After collecting this specimen, it was stored and frozen immediately. In Brazil, the specimen was thawed (defrosted) at room temperature (25 °C) in Macroalgae laboratory (Biology Institute/UFRJ). During thawing, the organisms associated to seaweed were

Total Total Holdfast and tallus

3393

* Isopod Families

carefully collected and immediately fixed in neutralizing formaldehyde 4%. The holdfast was washed to remove the sediment and organisms. The sediment was elutriated and the supernatant was poured on two sieves with meshes

The preliminarily results showed that phytal fauna of

of 0.500 and 0.045 mm to separate the macrofauna and

Himantothallus grandifolius were composed by a diversity

meiofauna organisms. Macrofauna organisms were sorted

of organisms: Acari, Crustacea, Mollusca, Echinodermata,

into higher taxonomic levels (Phylum, Class, Order, and

Nematoda, Nemertea, Annelida and Ectoprocta (Table 1).

others). The Isopods were separated for preliminarily taxonomic identification to Family level and expressed in

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Results

Amphipod was the dominant group (n = 1776 ind),

number of individuals found across the seaweed thallus

followed by Ectoprocta (n = 496 ind). Isopod found in fewer

and holdfast.

individuals (n = 207 ind) and the families were Gnathiidae,

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Figure 1. Isopods families associated to Himantothallus grandifolius sampled in Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica). a) Plakarthriidae; b) Gnathiidae; c) Munnidae; d) Janiridae; e) Jaeropsidae; and f) Sphaeromathidae.

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Munnidae, Plakarthidae, Jaeropsidae, Sphaeromathidae and Janiridae (Figure 1). The holdfast was the thallus region with the greater diversity. There are a relatively small number of studies focused on the fauna of Antarctic and Subantarctic macroinvertebrates associated with holdfasts of various macroalgae (Arnaud, 1974).

Discussion Frequently, the dominant groups of the phytal fauna are Peracarids Crustacea, especially Amphipods, Isopods, Tanaidaceans (Mukai, 1971; Kito, 1975; Hicks, 1977; Coull & Wells, 1983; Johnson & Scheibling, 1987; Preston & Moore, 1988; Curvêlo & Corbisier, 2000), similar with the faunal composition observed in the present work. Through the taxonomic identification it has been possible from the results obtained so far to suggest that holdfast was the region with the greatest diversity of organisms. The latter can be explained by the morphological aspects of the holdfast such as textures and interstitial spaces that accumulate sediment, debris and epiphytes, in addition to providing a greater degree of protection from as wave exposure and predators (Muralikrishnamurty, 1983; Preston & Moore, 1988). The Antarctic marine environment is very peculiar, and presents features like extremely low and stable seawater

temperature, 4 °C a –70 °C, marked differences in the incidence of light throughout the year, small fluctuations in salinity during the summer and a marked seasonality in food resource input in relation to the annual cycle of primary productivity (Gutt, 2007). In this environment, large macroalgae (Kelps) modify physical factors such as light or water movement and can play a fundamental role on the distribution patterns and diversity of the marine organisms (Reed & Foster 1984, Bulleri et al., 2002).

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receive scientific and financial supports of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). The authors also acknowledge the research fellows for Scientific Initiation (Tais Maria de Souza Campos, - CNPq 110657/2011-0) and Post-doctoral (Adriana Galindo Dalto CAPES/FAPERJ E-26/102.016/2009).

References Arnaud, P.M (1974). Contribution a la bionomie marine benthique des regions antarctiques et subantarctiques. Tethys, 6: 465-656. Battke, Z. (1990). Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Map, 1 :50.000. Nackladem Instytutu Ekologii, Polish Academy of Science. Bulleri, F.; Bertocci, I. & Micheli, F. (2002). Interplay of encrusting coralline algae and sea urchins in maintaining alternative habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 243: 101-109. Coull, B.C. & Wells, J.B.J. (1983). Refuges from fish predation: experiments with phytal meiofauna from the New Zealand roccky intertidal. Ecology, 64: 1599-1609. Curvêlo, R.R. & Corbisier, T.N. (2000). The meiofauna associated with Sargassum cymosum at Lázaro beach, Ubatuba, São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Oceanografia, 48(2): 119-130. Gutt, J. (2007). Antarctic macro-zoobenthic communities: a review and an ecological classification. Antarctic Science, 19 (2): 165-182. Hicks, G.R.F. (1977). Observations on substrate preference of marine phytal Harpacticoids (Copepoda). Hydrobiologia, 56(1): 7-9. Johnson, S.C. & Scheibling, R.E. (1987). Structure and dynamics of epifaunal assemblages on intertidal macroalgae Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus in Nova Scotia, Canada. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 37: 209-227.

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Kito, K. (1975). Preliminary report on the phytal animals in the Sargassum confusum region in Oshoro Bay, Hokkaido. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 6, Zoology, 20(1): 141-158. Krzysztof, P. & Sicinski, J. (2012). Polychaete fauna associated with holdfasts of the large brown alga Himantothallus grandifolius in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctic. Polar Biology, 33: 1277-1288. Masunari, S. & Forneris, L. (1981). O Ecossistema Fital – Uma Revisão. Seminários de Biologia Marinha, Academia Brasileira de Ciências, Rio de Janeiro. p. 149-172. Masunari, S. (1987). Ecologia das Comunidades Fitais. Academia de Ciências do Estado de São Paulo. Simpósio sobre ecossistemas da costa sul e sudeste Brasileira. 459 p. Mukai, H. (1971). The phytal animals on the thalli of Sargassum serratifolium in Sargassum sp. Region, with reference to their seasonal fluctuations. Marine Biology, 8: 170-182. Muralikrishnamurty, P.V. (1983). Intertidal phytal fauna of Gangavaram, east coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 2(2): 85-89. Pabis, K. & Siciski, J. (2010). Distribution and diversity of polychaetes collected by trawling in Admiralty Bay—and Antarctic glacial fiord. Polar Biology, 33: 141-151. Preston, A. & Moore, P.G. (1988). The flora and fauna associated with Cladophora albida Kutz. From rockpools on Great Gambrae Island, Scotland. Ophelia, 29: 169-186. Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. (1980). Environmental conditions and the functioning of Admiralty Bay (South Shetland Islands) as a part of the near shore Antarctic ecosystem. Polish Polar Research, 1: 11-27. Reed, D.C. & Foster, M.S. (1984). The effects of canopy shading on algal recruitment and growth in a giant kelp forest. Ecology, 65(3): 937-948. Remane, A. (1933) Verteilung und Organization der Benthonischen in Mikrofauna in der Kieler Bucht. Wiss Meeresunters, Abt Kiel, 21: 163-221. Steneck, R.S.; Graham, M.H.; Bourque, B.J.; Corbett, D.; Erlandson, J.M.; Estes, J.A. & Tegner, M.J. (2002). Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation, 29: 436-59. Sicinski, J.; Krzysztof, J.; De Broyer, C.; Piotr, P.; Ryszard, L.; Nonato, E.F.; Corbisier,T.N.; Brito,T.A.S.; Lavrado, H.P.; BazewiczPaszkowycz, M.; Krzysztof, P. Jaz˙dz˙ewska, A. & Campos, L.S. (2011). Admiralty Bay Benthos Diversity A census of a complex polar ecosystem. Deep-Sea Research II, 58: 30-48. Zielinski, K. (1990). Bottom macroalgae of the Admiralty Bay King George Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica. Polish Polar Research, 11 (12): 95-131.

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13 TRACKING NON-NATIVE SPECIES IN THE ANTARCTIC MARINE BENTHIC ENVIRONMENT Andrea de Oliveira Ribeiro Junqueira1,*, Ana Carolina Fortes Bastos1, Bruna Rachel Rocha1 Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, CCS, bloco A, sala 089, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro,RJ, Brazil 1

*e-mail: ajunq@biologia.ufrj.br

Abstract: Antarctica is not as isolated as once thought. Although persistent and invasive species have not been detected in the marine environment, some transient species have been. In the present study we investigate the biogeographical patterns of 529 benthic species of 5 target phyla recorded in the Admiralty Bay considering that it is an important tool for the identification of species origin. Most species of Admiralty Bay of the studied phyla are endemic to Sub Antarctica and Antarctica. The second highest percentage was of species with continuous distribution. Chordata and Annelida presented the highest number of disjoint species. However most disjoint species predominate in Antarctica and Sub Antarctica indicating their origin in the Southern Ocean. Cosmopolitan patterns appear to be correlated to taxonomic misidentification or to the occurrence of cryptic species that are being revealed by molecular studies. Only a few disjoint species deserve further investigation. Keywords: bioinvasion, biogeographical patterns, endemism

Introduction Bioinvasion means the movement of species into an area

Another factor that influences bioinvasion rates is the

beyond their natural range, as a result of human activity.

transport of people and goods that are increasing due to

In Antarctica this includes movement of species between

logistic, scientific, fisheries and tourism activities every

biogeographic zones. The main barrier to introductions

year. Finally, non native species is the highest priority issue

of non indigenous species (NIS) in the Southern Ocean is the physical dissimilarity between donor and recipient areas. There are no records of persistent and invasive non indigenous species in the Antarctic marine environment. So, why are we concerned about bioinvasion in maritime Antarctica? We know now that Antarctica is not as isolated as once thought (Clarke et al., 2005). Non native organisms including terrestrial invertebrates and plants, marine Crustacean (adult and larvae) and algal dense mats of an introduced

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in the CEP (Committee on Environmental Protection) five year work plan highlighting that we need to be proactive. Carlton (2009) listed 12 potential sources of errors that have led to invader underestimation. The lag time in recognizing that an introduced species has been mistakenly redescribed ranges from months to over 100 years. Although two hundred terrestrial plants and animals have been recognized as introduced in the sub Antarctic islands there are no records for the marine environment.

species (Enteromorpha intestinalis) have already been found

Considering these facts, the investigation of

in the Antarctic environment (Frenot et al., 2005). The

biogeographical patterns is an important tool for the

rapid regional warming of the Antarctic Peninsula during

identification of species origin. This study has investigated

the last 50 years also leads to more favorable conditions of

biogeographical patterns of benthic species recorded in

establishment of non indigenous species (Convey, 2006).

Admiralty Bay.

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Materials and Methods The study of species distribution focused on species of five target phyla (Mollusca, Echinodermata, Annelida, Artropoda and Chordata) found in Admiralty Bay and are available in a list at the site www.abbed.uni.lodz.pl, referring to the survey conducted by Sicinski et al. (2011). The study was made using the online database OBIS – Ocean Biogeography Information System (OBIS, 2012) and GBIF – Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2012). According to the distribution pattern in marine biogeographic zones proposed by Rass (1986), species were classified as: I) cosmopolitan: for those of wide distribution and that are present in at least three ocean basins; II) continuous: for species located in adjacent biogeographic areas (but at a lower rate than required for classification as cosmopolitan), III) disjoint: species that have occurrences in distinct biogeographic regions (separated by areas of non-occurrence); IV) endemic: for species distributed within the boundaries of the Southern Ocean (Sub Antarctica and Antarctica).

Results The number of macrozoobenthos taxa of the phylum Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Chordata recorded by Sicinski et al. (2011) was 603. In this study, we analyzed the distribution pattern of taxa identified at species level, totalling 529 species (87.7%). The phylum Arthropoda showed the largest number of taxa (257), proving to be the one with the greatest biodiversity

in the marine environment of Admiralty Bay from the phyla studied. The phylum Chordata registered the lowest number of taxa (16). Most species of Admiralty Bay phyla studied are endemic to Sub Antarctica and Antarctica (Figure 1). The highest percentage of endemic species was found to the phylum Echinodermata. The second highest percentage was of species with continuous distribution. The phylum Chordata had the highest percentage of species with this distribution. Most cosmopolitan species were from the phyla Annelida. The percentage of disjoint species of Chordata and Annelida were the highest among the phyla studied. Some species were not found in databases, and the phylum Annelida presented the highest percentage of species with no data (Figure 1). Cosmopolitan (Table 1) and Disjoint (Table 2) species were classified according to their dominance pattern in Antarctica, Sub Antarctica, South America and other bioregions.

Discussion The introduction of a species is not always documented. Species that were introduced many years ago (historical introductions) are already in complete equilibrium with the native biota (Villac et al., 2008). Cosmopolitan species are often classified as cryptogenic, species that cannot be recognized as native or introduced (Carlton, 2009). In NIS surveys cryptogenic species are often indicated as potential introduced species to avoid underestimation of bioinvasion under a precautionary approach.

Figure 1. Distribution patterns of the 539 benthic species of Admiralty Bay of five target phyla (Mollusca, Echoinodermata, Annelida, Artropoda and Chordata).

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Table 1. Percentage of records in the Southern Ocean, South America and other bioregions of cosmopolitan species with their respective dominance pattern.

I- Substantial number of records in Antarctic and Sub Antarctic Number of records

Antarctic

Sub Antarctic

South America

Others

Hauchiella tribullata

15.9

84.1

Leucothoe spinicarpa

527

11.2

3.4

5.1

80.3

Molpadia musculus

283

16.6

2.5

12.4

68.5

271

18.8

5.5

2.2

73.5

Neanthes kerguelensis

II-Few records in Antarctic an Sub Antarctic in relation to total Number of records

Antarctic

Sub Antarctic

South America

Others

Artacama proboscidea

320

1.2

98.8

Brada villosa

673

0.9

99.1

Capitella capitata

6468

0.1

0.6

99.3

Levinsenia gracilis

3684

0.3

0.5

99.2

Mystides borealis

184

6.5

93.5

Notomastus latericeus

5967

0.6

0.1

0.4

98.9

Ophelina cylindricaudata

862

4.9

1.0

94.1

Pista cristata

1773

0.4

99.6

Scalibregma inflatum

4600

0.05

98.5

Syllis armillaris

589

3.9

0.8

95.3

Thelepus cincinnatus

827

6.2

0.4

0.1

93.3

In the present study we investigated the species origin of

was of species with continuous distribution. Disjoint and

44 species that presented a disjoint or cosmopolitan pattern

cosmopolitan species represented only 8.3% of the total.

of distribution from their dominance pattern in Antarctica,

The results obtained do not allow us to make conclusions

Sub Antarctica, South America and other bioregions.

about which species were introduced to the Southern Ocean.

The biogeographical patterns of species with few records

However they provide detailed information about disjoint

cannot be well established. Cosmopolitan patterns appear

and cosmopolitan species indicating which species deserve

to be correlated to taxonomic misidentification or to the

further investigation.

occurrence of cryptic species. Particularly cosmopolitan patterns with few records in Antarctica and Sub Antarctica are probably a complex of species that are being revealed by molecular studies. Most disjoint species predominate in Antarctica and Sub Antarctica indicating their origin in the Southern Ocean. Only a few disjoint species, especially for the most number of records in South America, deserve further investigation.

Conclusion

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The great majority of investigated species were endemic

and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and Inter-

to the Southern Ocean. The second highest percentage

Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

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Table 2. Percentage of records in the Southern Ocean, South America and other bioregions of disjoint species with their respective dominance pattern.

I- Dominance in Antarctic and Sub Antarctic Number of records

Antarctic

Sub Antarctic

South America

Others

Cirrophorus brevicirratus

81.0

19.0

Hippomedon kergueleni

74.0

21.7

4.3

Iathrippa sarsi

66.7

27.8

5.5

Laetmonice producta

199

66.3

9.1

1.5

23.1

Mirandotanais vorax

70.3

10.8

18.9

Neobuccinum eatoni

190

91.0

8.4

0.6

Ophiolimna antarctica

120

61.7

16.2

1.7

20.0

Ophioplocus incipiens

202

54.5

44.0

0.5

1.0

Praxillella kerguelensis

85.7

14.3

Syllides articulosus

92.9

7.1

Synoicum adareanum

173

96.5

0.6

2.9

Tanaopsis gallardoi

88.9

11.1

II- Dominance in Antarctic. Sub Antarctic and South America Number of records

Antarctic

Sub Antarctic

South America

Others

Amphiura joubini

245

49.4

3.7

46.5

0.4

Cnemidocarpa verrucosa

257

82.9

10.5

5.8

0.8

Laevilitorina caliginosa

16.7

34.8

42.4

6.1

Laonice weddellia

81.5

15.2

3.3

Lissarca miliaris

25.0

9.6

63.5

1.9

Polycheria antactica

35.0

25.4

19.0

20.6

Travisia kerguelensis

59.1

9.1

21.2

10.6

Yoldia eightsi

132

78.1

11.4

8.9

1.6

II- Dominance in Antarctic and South America Number of records

Antarctic

Sub Antarctic

South America

Others

Astyra antarctica

80.0

20.0

Brania rhopalophora

50.0

3.6

46.4

Corella eumyota

187

65.8

0.5

8.6

25.1

Lumbrineris magalhaensis

137

48.9

0.7

18.2

32.2

Natatolana meridionalis

78.6

21.4

Pista corrientis

76.9

23.1

Pseudharpinia dentata

63.9

34.4

1.7

Scoloplos marginatus

90.2

7.3

2.5

Trypanosyllis gigantea

66.7

12.5

20.8

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References Carlton, J.T. (2009). Deep invasion ecology and the assembly of communities in historical time. In: Rilov, G. & Crooks, J. Biological Invasions in marine ecosystems: Ecological, management and geographic perspectives. Heidelberg: Springer. Ecological Studies 204. 641 p. Clarke, A.; Barnes, D.K.A. & Hodgson, D.A. (2005). How isolated is Antartica? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20(1): 1-3. Convey, P. (2006). Non-native species in the Antarctic terrestrial environment – presence, sources, impacts and predictions. In: De Poorter, M.; Gilbert, N.; Storey, B. & Rogan-Finnemore, M. (Orgs.). Non-native species in the Antarctic – Final Report. New Zealand: University of Canterbury Christchurch. 40 p. Frenot, Y.; Chown, L.S.; Whinam, J.; Selkirk, P.M.; Convey, P.; Skotnicki, M. & Bergstrom, D.M. (2005). Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biological Reviews, 80: 45-72. Global Biodiversity Information Facility - GBIF. (2012). Available from: < www.gbif.org>. (accessed: April 29, 2012). Ocean Biogeography Information System - OBIS (2012). Available from: < www.iobis.org/mapper>. (accessed: April 29, 2012). Rass, T. S. (1986). Vicariance ichtyogeography of Atlantic Ocean pelagial. Pelagic Biogeography, (49): 237-241. Sicinski, J.; Jazdzewski, K.; De Broyer, C.; Presler, P.; Ligowski, R.; Nonato, E.F.; Corbisier, T.N.; Petti, M.A.V.; Brito, T.A.S.; Lavrado, H.P.; Błazewicz-Paszkowycz, M.; Pabis, K.; Jazdzewska, A. & Campos, L.S. (2011). Admiralty Bay Benthos Diversity – A census of a complex polar ecosystem. Deep-Sea Research II, 58: 30-48. Villac, M.C.; Ferreira, C.E.L & Junqueira, A.O.R. (2008). Bioinvasão. In: Baptista Neto, J.A.; Wallner-Kersanach, M. & Patchineelam, S.M. Poluição marinha. Rio de Janeiro: Interciência. 412 p.

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14 DOMINANCE OF TARDIGRADA IN ASSOCIATED FAUNA OF TERRESTRIAL MACROALGAE Prasiola crispa (CHLOROPHYTA: PRASIOLACEAE) FROM A PENGUIN ROOKERY NEAR ARCTOWSKI STATION (KING GEORGE ISLAND, SOUTH SHETLAND ISLANDS, MARITIME ANTARCTICA) Adriana Galindo Dalto1,*, Geyze Magalhães de Faria1, Tais Maria de Souza Campos1, Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin1 Laboratório de Macroalgas Marinhas, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, sala A1-94, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

*e-mail: agdalto@gmail.com

Abstract: Tardigrada are among the microinvertebrates commonly associated to terrestrial vegetation, especially in extreme environments such as Antarctica. In the austral summer 2010/2011, Tardigrada were found in high densities on Prasiola crispa sampled at penguin rookeries from Arctowski Station area (King George Island). Taxonomic identifications performed to date suggest that the genus Ramazzottius is the dominant taxa on P. crispa. This genus has been reported for West Antarctica and Sub-Antarctic Region. In this context, the present work intends to contribute to the knowledge of the terrestrial invertebrate fauna associated to P. crispa of the ice-free areas around Admiralty Bay. Keywords: microinvertebrates, terrestrial macroalgae, tardigrada, Ramazzottius

Introduction Tardigrada are micrometazoans (average 250-500 µm) that present a large distribution in variety of diverse habitats, from rain forests to arid polar environments, including nunataks and mountain tops to abyssal plains of the oceanic regions (Brusca & Brusca, 2007; McInnes, 2010a). In terrestrial environments, Tardigrada are abundant, especially in mosses and lichens, which is the main component of the crypticfauna. Many linmo-terrestres tardigrades can survive to total desiccation in a state of cryptobiosis (ametabolic state) that is a protection against desiccation and freezing under natural conditions, but anydrobiosis also allows a resistance against unnatural abiotic extremes (Jönsson & Bertolani, 2001). Actually, about 800 species of Tardigrada have been described from marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments (Nelson & Marley, 2000).

Antarctic Tardigrada were at the beginning described by Murray (1906) and Richters (1908) (apud Convey & McInnes, 2005), after species lists of Antarctic Tardigrada were prepared by Morikawa (1962), Sudzuki (1964), Jennings (1976, 1979) and Utsugi & Ohyama (1989, 1993). Tardigrada species are currently known from the continental and Maritime Antarctica biogeographical zones (Pugh, 1993; Convey & McInnes, 2005). Actually, 17 genera and 48 species have been described for associated fauna of terrestrial vegetation of ice-free areas in Antarctica and SubAntarctica regions (McInnes, 2010b), 11 of these species were reported for King George Island (South Shetland Islands, Maritime Antarctica) by Utsugi & Ohyama (1993). In King George Island, terrestrial vegetation is almost exclusively cryptogamic, comprising mostly mosses,

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liverworts, lichens, algaes (Smykla et al., 2007). In this island, mats of the nithphilous algae Prasiola crispa occupy wet areas extremely high nutrient concentration at active rookeries at the coastal regions around Admiralty Bay (South Shetland Islands, Maritime Antarctica) (Smykla et al., 2007). According to Jennings (1976, 1979) this foliaceae algae is among the substrates with higher faunal species richness and Tardigrada is among these organisms (Broady, 1989). Nevertheless, Antarctic terrestrial biota is known to have low diversity, a high degree of endemism and clear patterns of biogeographic distribution defined by consistent biological and climatic differences (Convey & McInnes, 2005; Convey & Stevens, 2007). Added to this, the Antarctic terrestrial biota include organisms ecophysiology adapted to environmental pressures involving very low temperatures, nutrient limitation, environmental radiation, lack of liquid water, desiccation and physical abrasion (Convey et al., 2008). Recent studies have shown that this biota has an

ancient origin and has persisted in isolation for ten million years (Convey & Stevens, 2007; Convey et al., 2009; Chow & Convey, 2007). These characteristics result in the terrestrial communities of Antarctica being particularly sensitive to the effects of human presence in the region and to climate change. In this context, the present study intends to contribute to the knowledge of the composition of the Tardigrada assemblages on the terrestrial macroalgae Prasiola crispa of the ice-free areas around Admiralty Bay.

Materials and Methods Prasiola crispa were sampled on the rocks and soil adjacent to the penguin rookeries of Ornithologist Stream area (Polar Polish Arctowski Station, King George Island) in January 2011 (XXIX Brazilian Antarctic Operation) (Figure 1). Three samples of 3 cm² were observed in vivo and later preserved in formaldehyde 4% for posterior analysis, quantification and identification of the fauna. In the

Figure 1. Location of Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Peninsula), highlighted the scientific stations of Brazil and Poland. Illustration: Rafael Bendayan de Moura.

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laboratory the organisms were separated through sieves

Tardigrada preference for the relatively rich organic soils

(500 and 38 µm size meshes). After the total organism

rather than moss and peat substrates.

quantifications under stereoscopic microscope, Tardigrada

At the moment, taxonomic identifications showed

specimens were removed and post fixed in GAW solution

that Tardigrada specimens founded on the Prasiola

(Glycerin - Acetic acid - Water), before being passed

crispa samples from Ornithologist Stream are the family

through a glycerol series and mounted in Faure’s medium

Hypsibiidae and genus Ramazzotius Binda & Pilato, 1986.

(McInnes et al., 2001). After drying, slides were ringed with glycerol. Taxonomic identifications were performed by

The Hypsibiidae family are a significant and dominant in polar habitats (McInnes & Pugh, 2007). This dominance

optical microscopy and based on Pilato & Binda (2010) keys.

cannot be explained only by the fact that it possesses features

Results

partenogenisis, whereas other families (e.g. Macrobiotidae,

The associated microfauna of Prasiola crispa were composed by Rotifera, Nematoda, Tardigrada, Acari and Collembola. Tardigrada was the taxa found in greatest density, up to 7002,67 ind.cm–2 (x = 2842,11 ind.cm–2, n = 3) (Table 1), representing 66% of the total microfauna. The taxonomic identifications conducted so far indicate that the specimens found Tardigrada specimens belong to the Family Hypsibiidae, genus Ramazzotius Binda & Pilato, 1986. Other identifications still in progress, and at the end identified specimens will be deposited in the collection.

such as cold tolerance (Cryptobiosis), aerial dispersion or Echiscidae) also have such features. McInnes (2007) suggest that this dominance was more likely to food sources, many Hypsibiidae are hydrophilic, bactereophages and/ or algivores, a factor that can be an advantage to colonize polar habitats. Ramazzottius are cosmopolitan genus (Ramazzotti & Maucci, 1983). Ramazzottius are widespread throughout the world (Ramazzotti & Maucci, 1983; McInnes, 1994), including the previous record of Antarctica continental and sea. Among the many collection of bryophytes, species of Echiniscus, Hypsibius, Macrobiotus (and segregate genera), Milsenium and Ramazzottius seem particularly common.

Discussion and Conclusion

The genus Ramazzottius is characterized by Hypsibius-type

Jennings (1976) when studied the Tardigrada from the

claws, but only Ramazzottius has a long and straight basal

Antarctic Peninsula and Scotia Ridge Region found a

portion on the outer claw more strongly developed than

high dominance of tardigrada only on sites of the foliose

the secondary branch in addition to a thin main branch

alga Prasiola crispa. According Convey & McInnes (2005)

inserted high on the basal portion by means of a flexible

some terrestrial ecosystems dominated by Tardigrades, and

tract (C) (Bertolani & Rebecchi 1993). Sometimes this

organisms which would generally be ubiquitous such as

tract is very lightly sclerified and the primary branch seems

Nematode can also very often be absent. This showed the

almost completely separate from the rest of the claw (Nelson

Table 1. Composition and density (ind.cm–2) of microfauna associated to Prasiola crispa.

Taxa

Arctowski 22

Arctowski 23

Arctowski 24

Sum

Ind.cm–2

Relative abundance (%)

Tardigrada

147,67

1376,00

7002,67

8526,33

2842,11

2984,39

66,0

Nematoda

88,67

112,67

3965,33

4166,67

1388,89

1821,85

32,3

Acari

1,67

45,00

67,33

114,00

38,00

27,26

0,9

Rotifera

74,00

0,00

74,00

24,67

34,88

0,6

Collembola

1,00

2,67

28,67

32,33

10,78

12,67

0,3

Total Microfauna

314,00

1536,33

11064,00

12914,33

4304,78

4805,47

100,0

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165

Figure 2. Taxonomic details of genus Ramazzottius. a) animal in dorso-lateral; b) bucco-pharyngeal apparatus (b1: buccal armature Hypsibius type - pharyngeal apophyses and macroplacoids and b2: stylet furcae shape (typically-shaped); c) Ramazzotius-type claw d)s Sensory organs.

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& Marley, 2000), a blunted apophysis, asymmetric on the frontal plane, for stylet muscle insertion onto the buccal tube (B); two paired anteriorly located elliptical sensory organs and dorsolaterally (D) (Bertolani & Rebecchi 1993) (Figure 2). Specific taxonomic identification is in process, furthermore, recent research studies have shown that Prasiola crispa possesses potential bioactive substances for insecticide activity, which is indicative of how important it is to increase the knowledge about this alga and all the associated microfauna related to it.

APA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM). Adriana G. Dalto, Geyze M. Faria and Tais M. S. Campos thank those responsible for the Postdoctoral Research Fellow (CAPES/ FAPERJ E-26/102.016/2009), Technical Support fellow

Acknowledgements

(DTI-3 CNPq/INCT-APA 383830/2011-7) and Scientific

This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-

respectively.

Initiation fellow (CNPq/INCT-APA 110657/2011-0),

References Bertolani, R. & Rebecchi, L. (1993). A revision of the Macrobiotus hufelandi group (Tardigrada, Macrobiotidae) with some observationson the taxonomic characters of eutardigrades. Zoological Scripta, 22: 127-152. Binda, M.G. & Pilato, G. (1986). Ramazzottius, nuovo genere di eutardigrado (Hypsibiidae). Animalia (Catania). 13: 159-166. Broady, P.A. (1989). Survey of algae and other terrestrial biota at Edward VII Peninsula. Marie Byrd Land. Antarctic Science, 1, 215 224. Brusca, R.C. & Brusca, G.J. (2007). Invertebrados. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan. 936 p. Chow, S.L. & Convey, P. (2007). Spatial and Temporal variability across life’s hierarchies in the terrestrial Antarctic. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society B: Biologiacal Science, 362: 2307-2331. Convey, P. & McInnes, S. (2005). Exceptional Tardigrade - Dominated Ecosystems in Ellsworth Land, Antarctica. Ecology, 86(2): 519-527. Convey, P. & Stevens, M.I. (2007). Antarctic biodiversity. Science, 317: 1877-1878. Convey, P.; Gibson, J. A. E.; Hillenbrand, C. D.; Hodgson, D. A.; Pugh, P. J. A.; Smellie, J. L.; Stevens, M. I. (2008). Antarctic terrestrial life-challenging the history of the frozen continent? Biological Reviews, 83: 103-117. Convey, P.; Bindschadler, R.; Prisco, G.; Fahrbach, E.; Gutt, J.; Hodgson, D.A.; Mayewski, P.A.; Summerhayes, C.P. & Turner, J. (2009). Antarctic climate change and the environment. Antarctic Science, 21: 541. Jennings, P.G. (1976). Tardigrada from the Antarctic Peninsula and Scotia Rigde Region. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 47: 77-95. Jennings, P.G. (1979). The Signy Island terrestrial reference sites: X. Population dynamics of Tardigrada and Rotifera. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 42: 89-105. Jönsson, K. & Bertolani, R. (2001). Facts and fiction about long-term survival in tardigrades. Journal of Zoology, 255: 121123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0952836901001169 McInnes, S. (1994). Zoogeographic distribution of terrestrial/freshwater tardigrades from current literature. Journal of Natural History, 28: 257-352.

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McInnes, S.J.; Chown, S.L.; Dartnall, H.J.G. & Pugh, P.J.A. (2001). Milnesium tardigradum a monitor of high altitude microâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;invertebrates on sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Tardigrada, Copenhagen. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 240(3-4): 461-466. McInnes, S. J. &. Pugh, P.J.A. (2007). An attempt to revisit the global biogeography of limno-terrestrial Tardigrada. Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium on Tardigrada. Journal of Limnology, 66(Suppl. 1): 90-96. McInnes, S. (2010a). Taxonomy, biodiversity and biogeography: Tardigarda and Antarctic meiofauna. Ph.D. Anglia Ruskin University. 77p. Available from: <http://hdl.handle.net/10540/216030>. McInnes, S.J. (2010b) Echiniscus corrugicaudatus (Heterotardigrada; Echiniscidae) a new species from Ellsworth Land, Antarctica. Polar Biology, 33: 59-70. Morikawa, K. (1962). Notes on some tardigrada fr om the Antarctic region. Biol. Results Jpn. Antarct Res. Exp. (JARE), 17: 3-7. Nelson, D.R. & Marley, N.J. (2000). The biology and ecology of lotic Tardigrada. Freshwater Biology, 44: 93-108. Pilato, G. & Binda, M.G. (2010). Definition of families, subfamilies, genera and subgenera of the Eutardigrada, and keys to their identification. Zootaxa, 2404: 1-54. Pugh, P.J.A. (1993). A synonymic catalogue of the Acari from Antarctica, the sub-Antarctic islands and the Southern Ocean. Journal of Natural History, 27: 323-421. Ramazzotti, G.; Maucci, W. (1983). Il Phylum Tardigrada. 3rd ed. Memorie dell. Istituto Italiano di Idrobiologia. v. 41, p. 1-1012. Smykla, J.; Wolek, J. & Bercikowski, A. (2007). Zonation of vegetation related to penguin rookeries on King George Island, Maritime Antarctic. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research, 39: 143-151. Sudzuki, M. (1964). On the microfauna of the Antarctic region. I. Moss-water community at Langhovde, J.A.R.E. 1956-1962 Scientific Reports Series E, 19: 1-30. Utsugi, K. & Ohyama, Y. (1989). Antarctic tardigrada. Proceedings of the NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology, 2: 190-197. Utsugi, K. & Ohyama, Y. (1993). Antartic Tardigrada III. Fildes Peninsula of King George Island. Proceedings of the NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology, 6: 139-151.

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THEMATIC AREA 4

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 172 Zaganelli, D. M. and Alvarez, C. E. Relationship Between Noise and Psychological Comfort of the Users in the Comandante Ferraz Antartic Station.

178 Pagel, E. C., Beghi, S. P., Alvarez, C. E., Reis Junior, N. L. C., Antunes, P. W. P., Cassini, S. T. and Santos, J. M. Analysis of Indoor Aldehydes in the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station.

184 Leripio, A. A., Pereira, B. B., Echelmeier, G. R. and Pavani, L. Results of Internal Audit in the Environmental Management System of Brazilian Antarctic Scientific Station Comandante Ferraz.

188 Cury, J. C. Jesus, H. E., Villela, H. D. M., Peixoto, R. S., Schaefer C. E. G. R., BĂcego, M. C.,

Jurelevicius, D. A., Seldin, L., Rosado, A. S. Bioremediation of the Diesel-Contaminated Soil of the Brazilian Antarctic Station.

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Team Leader

Dr. Cristina Engel de Alvarez Vice-Team Leader

Dr. Alexandre de Avila Leripio The issues related to comfort and security for a building in Antarctica are also, necessarily, related to environmental factors, due to the specific characteristics of the Antarctic environment. Thus, over the years, the group of researcher scientists related to technology and environmental management have sought to improve specific aspects, at certain moments having as their objective the efficacy of systems already adopted by Brazil at their Brazilian Station – Comandante Ferraz (from now on EACF, Portuguese acronym), and at other times opening new frontiers of study from the previous results obtained. This year, among the main results obtained, the most noteworthy was the research in the field of acoustics, now with a focus on its influence on the psychological behaviour of the users. The article, “Relationship between noise and psychological comfort of the users in the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station” evaluates the question of noise using as instrument correlated national and international norms, and furthermore, offers a warning regarding the conditions of specific exposure to be considered in different ambiences such as might be found in a building in Antarctica. Attention is called to pioneer research undertaken in this period, “Analysis of Indoor Aldehydes in the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station”, which studied the quality of indoor air, with strong emphasis on volatile organic composites, especially the aldehydes, whose presence in the flooring and the furniture has reinforced the need for monitoring. In the research it was established that in some locations of EACF, the concentration of formaldehyde surpassed the directives proposed by the WHO – World Health Organization,

making evident the necessity for more attention to this matter. The article “Results of internal audit in the environmental management system of Brazilian Antarctic Scientific Station Comandante Ferraz” shows the results of the internal audit undertaken between December 2011 and January 2012 at EACF, having as principle references the Madrid Protocol and the standard ISO 14001:2004. It was verified that EACF has a partial level of conformity of 86.2% in relation to the requirements of ISO 14001:2004, which serves as fundamental information in delineating an Environmental Management Programme. If on the one hand there is vital concern in reducing the impacts occasioned by human occupation of Antarctica, on the other hand, it is necessary to deal with strategies that seek to recover the consolidated impacts. In this respect, the article “Bioremediation of the diesel-contaminated soil of the Brazilian Antarctic Station”, presents an alternative proposal for the treatment of areas contaminated by oil – which includes the essential deepening of the research -, especially of those related to the leakage of fuel. The partial results were obtained from the carrying out of a successful experiment undertaken ex situ. Thus, Thematic Area 4, restates it vocation of incentivising research in the areas of technology and management considering the useful lifecycle of a building, which extends from planning (prevention); usage and operation (management) until the final destination, recycling or removal of the installations (recovery).

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1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOISE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL COMFORT OF THE USERS IN THE COMANDANTE FERRAZ ANTARCTIC STATION Deborah Martins Zaganelli1,*, Cristina Engel de Alvarez1 Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo – UFES, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, CEP 29075-910, Vitória, ES, Brazil

* e-mail: debbiezaganelli@yahoo.com

Abstract: The Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station is a base camp and working place, housing a diversity of individuals in a restricted environment. Comfort is an essential criterion for the residence time to be effectively productive, in particular in relation to acoustics. The relevance of this study is based on the correlation between noise levels data and potential effects on the human body, in addition to contributing to the creation of noise prevention methods. The purpose of this paper is to assess the impact of noise levels on psychological comfort of the researchers of that Station. The data was gathered in situ, during XXVIII Antarctic Operation, according to the Brazilian Technical Standard for measurement procedures and additional parameters developed for the Station. Then, the systematization and analysis were carried out, and subsequently a mapping with mean noise levels was developed and the potential correlations with physical, physiological and psychological effects on human beings were verified. In some working environments the noise levels did not meet the comfort parameters; however they consider an 8-hour workday. In the remaining environments whose activities are of rest and work, only the adjacent outdoor points were analyzed, where the required isolation standards for sealing materials were found. Even though additional actions for further research were required, such as questionnaires and users physical evaluation, the outcomes obtained so far will serve as aid for the construction of new buildings that will make up the Station, with emphasis on the necessity of acoustic treatment of the environments to reduce noise from outdoor and indoor activities, especially in long term research locations. Keywords: acoustic, noise, psychological comfort, Antarctic

Introduction Sound is the propagation of mechanical energy through material medium in the form of wave motion, irradiated three-dimensionally in all directions. While sound has a defined frequency, noise is a vibratory physical phenomenon with undefined characteristics of pressure and frequency, disharmoniously mixed with each other (Grandjean, 1988 apud Abrahão et al., 2009). It is the ear that captures the sounds and noise vibrations, allowing communication and as well acting as an alarm system for the body. When the hearing system is exposed to high magnitude sounds and noises, not only is its function affected but it also results in physical, psychological and physiological harm. Longterm exposure can lead to hearing loss and extra-hearing disorders.

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The purpose of this research was to assess the impact of noise levels on the psychological comfort of the researchers of the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (EACF, Portuguese acronym). The hypothesis was that the noise levels generated by maintenance and operational equipment both outdoors and indoors at EACF may cause acoustic discomfort to the users. The relevance of this study is based on the correlation between the noise level data, according to the environments, and the potential effects on the human body. It has also contributed with data to create prevention methods in buildings based in Antarctica, such as using techniques and materials that do not demand using noisy equipment for their maintenance and the specification of more silent

operating equipment, and also ways to control noise, with materials such as acoustic isolation (soundproofing) of the environments that have transmitting equipment. This study also generates additional reflections that can be used outside the Antarctic environment, with application to the reality of urban spaces, for example. However, the great difference between the comfort conditions for an urban worker and the specific condition of the users of a Scientific Station are highlighted, where the stress situation and the confinement may contribute to enhance the sensation of discomfort.

Materials and Methods The data was collected in situ by trained researchers from the Planning and Projects Laboratory of the Federal University of Espírito Santo during the XXVIII Antarctic Operation in a period of 15 nonconsecutive days (due to climatic variations), from 02 to 22 December 2009. The measurement procedure followed the recommendations of the Brazilian Technical Standard NBR 10151 (ABNT, 1987a) and a methodology developed specifically for EACF, because it is a different environment from the Brazilian one, where some additional parameters were set up such as compliance with factors compromising the reliability of measurements, according to Alvarez & Yoshimoto (2004). Initially, the identification of main sound sources that generate discomfort to users was undertaken and 13 and 10 points of outside and inside measurements were set up, respectively, as well as the measurement times: during daytime, with higher levels resulting from the operation of several types of equipment, and during night time, with lower sound levels. The equipment used was a digital sound level meter with calipers (ExtechTM) set at weighing A. This setting has been justified in several studies showing that sound levels measured in dB(A) are the closest to the perceptual characteristics of human hearing (Grandjean & Kroemer, 2005). For the analysis of collected data, the mean and standard deviation values of the noise levels measured at each point were calculated in order to show their degree of variability. Then, the analysis of data for every environment was performed observing the variation during different collection days and during two periods, daytime and night time, as well as active noise sources at the time of the measurements. This was followed by

acoustic mapping of EACF according to the comfort levels established by standard NBR 10152 (ABNT, 1987b). The data of the standard and measurement were overlapping and their differences were noted, and subsequently possible correlations with physical, physiological and psychological effects from noise on human beings were carried out.

Results During the period of measurement, the main noise sources identified in the inner environments of the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (EACF) were the electric power generators, located in the Machinery Room and Garage, and the air compressors of the Aquariums and Carpentry. In the outdoor environment, the noisiest were the vehicles – tractor and boat – in operation, including all night on one of the days. The largest variations in noise levels throughout the study occurred on days when two electric power generators had been replaced, mainly at point B, in the Machinery Room, where the noise reduction was more significant in the days following the change of the electric power generators. It was also found that the operational equipment, such as generators, compressors and trash incinerator led to alterations in the noise level not only in the measurement environments, but also in the adjacent ones too. It is noteworthy that the interior of the cabins was not considered, since the settings of reduced dimensions did not allow using the methodological determinants required by specific standard to use the sound level meter. However, the assessment of environment is considered to be of essential importance as negative effects of noise interferes with the length and quality of sleep, in addition acts indirectly leading to decrease of the daily performance of the human being, mainly in tasks requiring concentration. The collected data were systematized and appear in the Figure 1.

Discussion When the data related to daytime and night time periods of measurement were compared, reduced noise mean value was found at some points. In general, the places of measurement are passage environments (points A, Garage; B, Machinery Room; C, Old Garage; E, Triage Room), except

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Figure 1. EACF acoustic mapping showing the (a) average daytime noise level and the (b) average night time noise level, compared with the NBR 10152.

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the points D (Carpentry) and E (Screening Room), where

daytime and night time periods, thus the levels should be

the standing time was lower.

compatible in both situations, since in these places the use

In these places, the inner measurement of the environment

of alternatives to protect the user against noise are difficult,

could be ascertained, at which point E the mean noise levels

such as using earplugs and controls to reduce the exposure

during daytime and night time were 64.44 dB(A) and

time, are hampered.

54.73Â dB(A), respectively, noting a decrease of 9.01 dB(A)

By observing the measurement points next to the Cabins

for the night time period. The standard deviation values

(9, 10, 11 e 12), at point 9 a decrease of 7.04 dB(A) during the

showed a range of 3.84 dB(A)/daytime and 4.33 dB(A)/night

night time period was found; at points 10 and 11 an increase

time. The time of louder noise was during the measurement

of 2.45 dB(A) and 0.85 dB(A), respectively were found; and

on December 12th, at 10 am, reaching 72 dB(A) when

at point 12 a decrease of 1.62 dB(A) was noted. In order

impact noise (from a hammer) occurred in the Carpentry.

to adequate to the level of 35 dB(A), the level considered

In order to adequate this environment to a level

comfortable according to NBR 10152 (ABNT, 1987b), would

considered comfortable, 40 dB(A), according to standard

require sealing materials to isolate the external noise during

NBR 10152 (ABNT, 1987a), it would be necessary to reduce

the daytime period, reducing its level of transmission into

this average to 24.44 dB(A)/daytime and 14.73 dB(A)/night

the environment in 28.17 dB(A), 20.40 dB(A), 23.00Â dB(A)

time. In order to achieve the level considered acceptable, 50

and 21.57 dB(A), respectively at points 9, 10, 11, and 12. In

dB(A), it would be necessary to reduce 14.44 dB(A)/daytime

order to achieve the level of 40 dB(A), the level considered

and 4.73 dB(A)/night time. However, by applying the NR 15

acceptable, would require a decrease of 23.17 dB(A), 15.40

(Brasil, 1978) the standing time in this environment could be

dB(A), 18.00 dB(A) and 16.57 dB(A), respectively.

an 8-hour working day, although it is already characterized as a situation of discomfort.

Hearing, being the first alert sense of the human being, is always active even during sleep and according to the

In the Carpentry (point D), higher sound level also was

World Health Organization (WHO, 1980), the effects of

found on December 12 , at 10 am, recording 89.9 dB(A).

noise on sleep starts from 35 dB (A), thus beginning of

According to the mean of the environment of 72.33 dB(A),

alertness. Above the mentioned level deep sleep time is

the standing time inside it also could be an 8-hour working

reduced, in addition it extends beyond sleep time by a

day, as reported in the NR 15, in a discomfort situation.

further 20 minutes for levels higher than 65 dB(A) and up

Murgel (2009) have reported that exposure to noise levels

to 10 minutes for levels up to 55 dB(A), according Murgel

above 70 dB(A) may lead to sensitive neuropsychological

(2009). Thus, the importance of meeting the standard is

changes whose symptoms are increased heart and

noted, mainly in the dormitory environments, in order to

respiratory rates and high blood pressure, effects from an

ensure deep sleep, which is the most restorative sleep phase

alert and defense status to which the body is subjected.

and which will allow the good performance of tasks on the

Above this level the body stress increases, and at around

following day.

100 dB(A) there may be immediate loss of the hearing (Souza, 1992).

In Laboratory and Library Rooms, which require intellectual work, the need to keep noise below 55 dB (A)

In the remaining points, the significance for analysis was to

is justified to avoid losses in productivity and the likelihood

confirm whether the indoor working and rest environments

of errors in tasks requiring concentration and memory

needing less noise level and having higher standing time

(Murgel, 2009).

were in accordance with the recommendations of standard

In environments where intelligible verbal communication

NBR 10152, such as the Cabins, Ward, Department of

is important, such as the Department of Communication

Communication, Library, Audio and Video Room and

and the Audio and Video Room, it is recommended to keep

Laboratories. As the EACF is a Scientific Station, one aspect

the noise level up to 45 dB(A), so that the conversation

considered is that its environments are used both during

be performed in a normal tone of voice. When the level

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increases to 55 dB (A) the speech recognition has become difficult, and when it reaches 65 dB (A) a higher vocal effort is required. The necessary reductions in the daytime period in order to reach both the comfortable and the acceptable levels for theses environments to meet the standard, respectively, would be: in the Department of Communication, point I, 24.69 dB(A) and 19.69 dB(A); point J, 21.79 dB(A) and 16.79 dB(A). In the Audio/Video Room, point G, 35.24 dB (A) and 25.24 dB(A); point H, 27.98 dB(A) and 17.98 dB(A); point I, 24.69 dB(A) and 14.69 dB(A); point J, 21.79 dB(A) and 11.79 dB(A). For the night time period, the reductions to reach both the comfortable and acceptable levels would be: Department of Communication, point I, 23.20 dB(A) and 18.20 dB(A); point J, 19.39 dB(A) and 14.39 dB(A). In the Audio/Video Room, point G, 35.04 dB(A) and 25.04 dB(A), point H, 27.81 dB(A) and 17.81 dB(A); point I, 23.20 dB(A) and 13.20 dB(A); point J, 19.39 dB(A) and 9.39 dB(A).

exposure to noises with the aid of professionals from other

Conclusion

design decisions such as the location of noisy equipment,

fields of science also would complement this research. In environments directly analyzed, namely Carpentry and Screening Room, the mean noise levels showed differences with the standards parameters; thus, in the future specific solutions should be applied to reduce the noise. In these cases the options are: to reduce the noise at source, to diminish the noise in the environment where the source is located, to decrease the noise between the environment where it is produced and the other environment, or to minimize the noise at the own hearing organ. In environments indirectly analyzed, namely Cabins, Ward, Department of Communication, Library, Laboratories, and Audio/Video Room, further research of construction materials is recommended to achieve the correct measurement of indoor noise level. Acoustic mapping is an important tool that can help in

In order to measure the actual noise level from environments

specification of less noisy equipment, use of materials with

of the EACF the internal measurement of their rooms would

acoustic qualities and use of materials that do not require

be required, which was expected to occur in the summer of

maintenance with noisy equipment.

2012/2013. However, on 25 February, 2012, a fire destroyed part of the EACF, creating discontinuity of all the studies. Thus, the data obtained and measured will serve mainly to

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and

aid in the preparation of the Reference Term that will guide

Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA)

the construction of new buildings that will comprise the

that receive scientific and financial supports of the National

EACF, standing out as desirable the need for more research

Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n°

regarding the sealing materials of environments and their

574018/2008-5) and Research Support Foundation of the

contribution to isolation of the sources of noise, whether

State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170,023/2008).

outdoors or indoors. The application of questionnaires to

The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian

users for subjective assessing of the noise that points out

Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI),

psychological changes, as well as physical evaluations to

of Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission

verify the hearing thresholds of the users and the time of

for Resources of the Sea (CIRM).

References Abrahão, J.; Sznelwar, L.; Silvino, A.; Sarmet, M. & Pinho, D. (2009). Introdução à ergonomia: da prática à teoria. São Paulo: Blucher. Alvarez, C.E. & Yoshimoto, M. (2004). Avaliação de impacto acústico na Estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz: resultados preliminares. In: Anais da XV Reunion de Administradores de Programas Antárticos Latinoamericanos – RAPAL; 2004; Guayaquil.

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Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas – ABNT. (1987a). NBR 10151: Avaliação do ruído em áreas habitadas visando o conforto da comunidade. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT. Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas – ABNT. (1987b). NBR 10152: Níveis de ruído para conforto acústico. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT. Brasil. Ministério do Trabalho e Emprego. (1978). Norma Regulamentadora NR 15. Atividades e operações insalubres. Brasília: Ministério do Trabalho e Emprego. Grandjean, E. & Kroemer, K.H.E. (2005). Manual de ergonomia: adaptando o trabalho ao homem. Tradução de Lia Buarque de Macedo Guimarães. 5. ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman. Murgel, E. (2009). Fundamentos de acústica ambiental. São Paulo: Senac São Paulo. Souza, F.P. (1992). Efeitos da Poluição Sonora no Sono e na Saúde em Geral - Ênfase Urbana. Revista Brasileira de Acústica e Vibrações, 10: 12-22. World Health Organization – WHO. (1980). Noise. Geneva: WHO.

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2 ANALYSIS OF INDOOR ALDEHYDES IN THE COMANDANTE FERRAZ ANTARCTIC STATION Érica Coelho Pagel1,*, Sandra P. Beghi1, Cristina Engel de Alvarez1, Neyval Costa Reis Júnior1, Paulo Wagnner P. Antunes1, Sérvio Túlio Cassini1, Jane M. Santos1 1

Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo – UFES, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, CEP 29075-910, Vitória, ES, Brazil *e-mail: erica.pagel@gmail.com

Abstract: The study of indoor air quality has recently increased since most of the time people are in closed spaces. A large contribution to the emission of indoor pollutants is originated from human activities and building processes. Volatile Organic Compounds, mainly from the aldehydes group are present in most parts of new flooring and furnishing, furthermore, these substances have adverse effects on human health. This study investigated the aldehyde concentration using passive samplers in many places of Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Station. The results showed compounds like formaldehyde, acrolein, acetaldehyde and hexanaldehyde with significant concentration indoors, in that formaldehyde concentration in new rooms exceeded the guidelines of The World Health Organization. Therefore, these results show the need for monitoring these compounds as well as the study of the sources of emission. Keywords: aldehydes, indoor air quality, passive sampling, building materials

Introduction Over the last half-century there have been major changes

Research on Cancer due to its carcinogenicity. It has an effect

in building materials, personal habits and consumer

on health depending on environment levels. The olfactory

products used indoors: composite-wood, synthetic carpets,

detection threshold is 60 µg/m³ and varies according to

polymeric flooring, foam cushioning, plastic items, scented

each person; it can cause headaches, nausea or dizziness. It

cleaning agents, time spent indoors, air- conditioning and

can also cause mucous irritations as a result of exposure at

others have become ubiquitous (Weschler, 2008). These

levels from 10 µg/m³ and chronic exposure of formaldehyde

new habits and new chemical substances in indoor spaces

can induce conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, bronchitis

other than architectural typology can intensify low rates

or coughing (Clarisse et al., 2003). The World Health

of air exchange and contribute significantly to indoor air

Organization recommended an exposure limited to

quality of a building.

100 µg/m³ for about 30 minutes to prevent long-term effects

Studies have shown that building materials are responsible

on human health including cancer (WHO, 2010). It is known

for about 40% of the level of emissions of indoor pollutants,

that other specific aldehydes like acrolein and acetaldehyde

with significant amounts of emission coming from Volatile

also cause irritation of eyes, skin and mucous membranes of

Organic Compounds (VOCs) present in these materials

the human respiratory tract. The acetaldehyde, for example,

(Missia et al., 2010). Among compounds, aldehydes are of

has been classified as B2, as a likely human carcinogen of

particular interest due to their impact on health and because

low carcinogenic hazard (Weng et al., 2009).

they are mainly domestic environment pollutants.

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The purpose of our work is to identify and quantify

Most studies of aldehydes are related to formaldehyde,

VOCs of the aldehyde group inside Comandante Ferraz

classified in Group 2A by the International Agency of

Antarctic Station located in Admiralty Bay, King George

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Island, South Shetlands archipelago. The results will

humidity, 26%. The space distribution samplers were placed

evaluate the contribution of pollution sources from human

according to Figure 1.

activities and building materials, as Antarctica is a natural environment without the anthropogenic interference of urban centers. Moreover, a large time spent indoors at the Antarctica Station with probable indoor sources of emission is a motivation of studies related to health and Sick Building Syndrome (SBS).

Materials and Methods The experiment was carried out from January 14th to February 3rd in the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station. The sampler spaces were selected because of their high usage with likely indoor pollution sources. The study considered ten indoor spaces. Three spaces of general use: living room, library and gym. Three bedrooms: two for two people and the third being the Arsenal

Aldehydes were sampled using Radiello® Aldehydes Samplers (Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, 2011). These are passive samplers that are impregnated cartridges with 2,4-dinitrophenyhydrazones adsorbent in a cylindrical body. The samplers were left about 3, 6 or 7 days according to manufacturer’s recommendation and the potential pollution of space. A total of 16 samplers and four blanks (samplers that were not exposed to the environment in order to detect back noise or transport contamination) were placed. The samplers were exposed at a standard height of 1.5 m (The European Standard, 2006), which is the medium height of human breathing, and when possible in the space centre (Figure 2). A questionnaire was also made for each space,

accommodation (twelve people). Four work spaces: kitchen,

summarizing the present building material, the human

carpentry, “Ferrazão” and a space near the incinerator. The

activities during the sampling and other pollution sources.

kitchen was located inside the main body of the station and

After exposure the cartridge was set in a specific and

the other workspaces were located outside the main body of

identified glass tube and stored in the refrigerator (below

the station, without a heating system, but with roof cover.

4 °C) in the station to be transported in the same conditions

In general, the mean indoor temperature of the spaces is

to Brazil. In Brazil the adsorbent was put into a tube with

22 °C and the relatively humidity around 33%. In the outside

2 mL of acetonitrile, and then it was closed and sonicated

working area the mean temperature is 9 °C and the relatively

for 30 minutes. The final solution of each sampler was then

Figure 1. Floor map of the Brazilian Antarctic Station showing the sites of aldehydes passive samplers.

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filtered and stored in vials, below 4 °C, awaiting analysis

air carbonyls was 196.06 µg/m³. The acrolein was the

(Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, 2011).

most abundant carbonyls in most air samples, followed by

Sampler analyses were performed by reverse-phase High

acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, hexanaldehyde, butyraldehyde,

Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) using an UV

pentanaldehyde, isopentanaldehyde, propinaldehyde

detector operated at a wavelength of 365 nm. The hydrazone

and benzaldehyde with the average value of respectively

separation was carried out on Agilent Technologies C18

44.41 µg/m³; 38.33 µg/m³; 33.68 µg/m³; 30.88 µg/m³;

column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) associated with a precolumn.

21.80 µg/m³; 9.01 µg/m³; 8.45 µg/m³; 8.30 µg/m³ and

Two solutions were used for gradient elution: solution A

1.21 µg/m³. Acrolein, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde and

contained water and solution B contained acetonitrila.

hexanaldehyde accounted for respectively 22%, 20%, 17%

Starting conditions: 40% of solution A and 60% of solution

and 16% of total aldehydes indoor air.

B for seven minutes, then a linear gradient was applied over

The acetaldehyde concentration was higher in the

20 minutes with 100% of solution B. After, between 21 and

living room (70.02 µgm³; 81.28 µg/m³; 58.13 µg/m³) and

30 minutes 40% of solution A and 60% of solution B were

kitchen (70.63 µg/m³; 80.22 µg/m³; 108.86 µg/m³) than

applied again. The eluent flowing rate was 2.0 mL/min, the

other places. The formaldehyde concentration was higher

temperature was constant in 37 °C (Collins, 2007, modify).

in the bedrooms (100.93 µg/m³ for bedroom 10 and

The determination of the carbonyls was done according

131.67 µg/m³ for bedroom 21). Bedroom 21 had a significant

to the Environment Protect Agency methodology (EPA,

concentration of hexanaldehyde too (97.52 µg/m³) contrary

1999). The aldehydes quantification was done using a

to the concentration for bedroom 10 (13.58 µg/m³). In

standard hydrazone solution TO11/IP-6A (cod. 47285-

the library the main compounds found were: acrolein

U - Supelco, Bellefonte PA, USA). Both detection and

(61.84 µg/m³; 58.54 µg/m³), formaldehyde (36.10 µg/m³;

quantification limits were calculated for all samplers

39.48 µg/m³), acetaldehyde (20.66 µg/m³; 24.1152/m³) and

according to the guide for validation of analytical and

hexanaldehyde (18.76 µg/m³; 19.11 µg/m³).

bioanalytical methods (ANVISA, 2003).

The least concentration from all the compounds was found in the gym, “Ferrazão”, carpentry and incinerator. The

Results

concentration of propinaldehyde and benzaldehyde was

Figure 3 shows the aldehydes concentration found for each sampler place. The average concentration of total indoor

found by Clarisse et al. (2003).

Figure 2. a and b): Passive samplers located 1,5 m high in the living room.

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found in minor importance, similar to the concentration

Figure 3. Concentration of indoor air aldehydes in the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station rooms.

Discussion

and kitchen are cleaned about four times a day. Moreover

Levels of acrolein, acetaldehyde and formaldehyde are the

these rooms have a large number of people during breakfast,

most studied in relation to indoor air quality (Andrade et al.,

lunch, dinner and parties. Andrade et al. (2002) stated that

2002). Studies related to heated cooking oils produce

the main source of acetaldehyde in human organism is

considerable amounts of acrolein. Cooking is an important

the metabolism of ethanol. Part of this concentration can

source of indoor acrolein. In addition it is also formed by

also result from wood products such as doors, walls and

the oxidation of voltatic organic carbon species released

plywood floor (Marchand et al., 2005) found in the living

by building materials (Seaman et al., 2009). The abundant

room of the station.

concentration of acrolein found in the cartridges in our

Many studies reported that formaldehyde is released by

work can be explained by the activity of frying in a closed

various building materials mainly wood-pressed products

building like the Antarctic Station. Some spaces like living

and the levels are significantly greater in new buildings

room and kitchen sometimes have open windows but the

(Missia et al., 2010). The rooms that had the highest

bedrooms and the library were closed most of the time

concentration for formaldehyde were the bedrooms. The

resulting in higher concentration.

highest concentration was found in bedroom 21 probably

There are three main sources of acetaldehyde: cleaning

because it is one of the most recently built bedrooms of

agents, people and building materials. The higher

the station. It was first utilized in this campaign. There was

acetaldehyde concentration in the kitchen and living room

laminated wood flooring and composite-wood furnishings.

can be related to a constant use of cleaning agents in this

Bedroom 10 had the same building materials but it was

place. In the Brazilian Antarctic Station the living room

older, although this bedroom showed significant levels of

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formaldehyde concentration too. Despite many studies associated VOCs concentration in new buildings, little is known about the behavior of these indoor compounds after a certain period of time (Clarisse et al., 2003). It is important to note that the formaldehyde concentration in bedroom 21 for an exposure of seven days was greater than the limit of the World Health Organization, which is 100 µg/m³ for 30 minutes exposition. Lower values were found in other studies. Missia et al. (2010) found 5.8-62.6 µg/m³ inside three buildings with different ages and different ventilation systems and Weng et al. (2009) found a mean concentration for formaldehyde of 90.61 µg/ m³ inside supermarkets, stores and cinemas. Bedroom 21 showed the highest hexanaldehyde concentration compared to bedroom 10, which had the same building materials. This is due to the new plywood sub floor in bedroom 21, which is a probable major hexanal source, this compound is observed in abundance in new spaces with less than two years of construction using this material (Marchand et al., 2005). The library showed significant levels of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. A variety of VOCs are known to be emitted from paper and other cellulose-based materials during degradation, this includes the aldehydes as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde (Fenech et al., 2010). The least concentration of aldehydes was shown in the places with greater air exchange, such as the gym, where the windows are frequently opened, and also in “Ferrazão”,

carpentry and incinerator that are located outside the main body of the station.

Conclusion Compounds such as acrolein, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and hexanaldehyde make a significant contribution to indoor air quality. Regarding building material, it is very likely that the pressed wood used in the floor, walls and furnishing present in the Antarctic Brazilian Station are responsible for many emissions of these pollutants. The formaldehyde, that is dangerous to health, showed higher levels in bedrooms mainly the new bedroom. Furthermore, the human activities such as cooking and cleaning agents were also responsible for some of the compounds detected. This may indicate the need to review the building materials and indoor ventilation strategy, as an important instrument of control of the sources of pollutant emissions.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Agência Nacional De Vigilância Sanitária – ANVISA. (2003). Resolução nº 899, de 29 de maio de 2003. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil, Brasília, maio. Andrade, M.A.S.; Pinheiro, H.L.C.; Pereira, P. & Andrade, J. (2002). Compostos carbonílicos atmosféricos. Química nova, 25(6): 1117-1131. Clarisse, B.; Laurent, A.M.; Seta, N.; Moullec, Y.; Le; Hasnaoui, A.E. & Momas, I. (2003). Indoor aldehydes: measurement of contamination levels and of their in Paris dwellings. Atmospheric Environment, 92(3): 245-53. Collins, C.H.; Braga, G.L. & Bonato, P.S. (2007). Fundamentos de cromatografia. São Paulo: Ed. Unicamp. 453 p. European Standard. (2006). EN ISO 16000-1: Indoor air: general aspects of sampling strategy. Bruxelas.

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Fenech, A.; Strlic, M.; Cigic, I.; Levart, A.; Gibson, L.; Bruin, G.; Ntanos, K.; Kolar, J. & Cassar, M. (2010). Volatile aldehydes in libraries and archives. Atmospheric Environment, 92(3): 245-53. Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri (2011). Manual Radiello. Ed. Supelco. Marchand, C.; Bulliot, B.; Calve, S.; Mirabel, P. Aldehyde measurements in indoor environments in Strasbourg â&#x20AC;&#x201C; France. (2005). Atmospheric Environment, 40(7): 1336-1345. Missia, D.; Demetriou, E.; Michael, N.; Tolis, E.I. & Bartzis, J.G. (2010). Indoor exposure from building materials: a field study. Atmospheric Environment, 44(35): 4388-4395. Seaman, V.; Bennett, D.; Cahill, T. (2009). Indoor acrolein emission and decay rates resulting from domestic cooking events. Atmospheric Environment, 43(39): 6199-6204. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EPA. (1999). TO-11A: Determination of Formaldehyde in Ambient Air Using Adsorbent Cartridge Followed by HPLC.USA. Weng, M.; Zhu, L.; Yang, K. & Chen, S. (2009). Levels and health risks of carbonyl compounds in selected public places in China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 164(2-3): 700-6. Weschler, C.J. Changes in indoor pollutants since the 1950s. (2008). Atmospheric Environment, 43(1): 153-169. World Health Organization - WHO. (2010). Guidelines for indoor air quality. Europe.

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3 RESULTS OF THE INTERNAL AUDIT IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF THE BRAZILIAN ANTARCTIC SCIENTIFIC STATION “COMANDANTE FERRAZ” Alexandre de Avila Leripio1,*, Bruna Barni Pereira2, Gustavo Rohden Echelmeier2, Leda Pavani2 1

Programa de Mestrado em Gestão de Políticas Públicas, Universidade do Vale do Itajaí – UNIVALI, Rua Uruguai, 458, Sala 401, Bloco 16, CEP 88302-202, Itajaí, SC, Brazil 2 Centro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do Mar, Universidade do Vale do Itajaí – UNIVALI, Rua Uruguai, 458, Sala 10, Bloco 26, CEP 88302-202, Itajaí, SC, Brazil *e-mail: leripio@terra.com.br

Abstract: With the purpose of strengthening and formalizing the fulfillment of the principles relating to the Antarctic environment protection established in the Madrid Protocol, an Environmental Management System certifiable to ISO14001:2004 was set up at the Brazilian Antarctic Scientific Station “Comandante Ferraz” (EACF, from now on), to limit the negative environmental impacts. The internal audit of the Environmental Management System of EACF was conducted between December 2011 and January 2012, to verify the compliance of facilities and activities of the EACF in relation to the requirements established by the standard, aiming at the certification audit, scheduled for November 2012.The audit was conducted through interviews, data collection, observations and analysis of documents and records, and then the findings were discussed and the non-conformities identified. The level of compliance of the EACF with reference to the requirements of the standard ISO 14.001:2004 came to 86,2%. The conclusion arising from the findings is that the organization is in a situation of partial compliance with the requirement staken as a reference and scope of the environmental audit. Keywords: Environmental Management System, Antarctica, Comandante Ferraz, ISO 14.001:2004

Introduction The concern with the quality of the environment is not new, but it was in the late twentieth century that it was finally inserted in the plans of the governments of many countries and different segments of society such as among economists, scientists and as part of technological concerns. In this same period, there was an advance in terms of institutionalizing a new political world aimed at environmental responsibility and sustainable development, result of a more critical analysis of the relationship between society and the environment that goes beyond geographical and temporal boundaries. The organizational responsibility of the environment stopped being only a mandatory feature to become a voluntary action, exceeding the expectations of society.

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Antarctica is the continent whose natural conditions are most preserved, where environmental impacts can cause irreversible consequences and, for this reason, it is appropriate to be above the legal requirements. Given this, the Environmental Management System (EMS from now on) goes beyond being just a preventive strategy to constitute a need in itself, this because, environmental quality requires at least a more rational use of inputs, an aspect of great importance when we speak of supply logistics for Antarctic stations. In order that the commitments made by Brazil for the international community are met with an emphasis on preventive attitudes, during the years 2010 and 2011 the certifiable EMS ISO 14001:2004 was set up at EACF, which

had the objective of strengthening and formalizing the

The checklist was developed and used to facilitate and

fulfillment of the principles relating to protection of the

ensure that the observations and search of non-compliances

Antarctic environment established in the Madrid Protocol,

were conducted on all the EACF modules contemplating

to limit the negative environmental impacts in the Antarctic

all the procedures established in the EMS documentation.

environment.

The audit team consisted of the group-base of Brazilian

Indispensable to the EMS, the internal audit was

Navy and researchers from the National Institute of

conducted between December 2011 and January 2012

Environmental Science and Technology of Antarctic

with the objective of verifying the compliance of EACF

Environmental Research (INCT-APA).

installations and activities with requirements established

With the documents and team ready, the audit was

by ISO 14001:2004 aiming at the certification audit, which

initiated, first undertaking the opening meeting, which

was scheduled for November 2012.

presented the objective and scope, the audit team, the timing

It was observed with the internal audit that the organization is in a situation of partial conformity with the requirement staken as a reference and the scope of the environmental audit, reaching 86.2% of compliance with the requirements of ISO14001:2004. It is noteworthy that, the EMS of EACF will not obtain a certification audit pass, because on February 25th, after the internal audit, a serious accident occurred with the outbreak of fire at EACF, destroying it completely and causing the deaths of two Brazilian military.

Materials and Methods The internal environmental audit was carried out to verify the compliance of EACF installations and activities, in relation to the requirements of ISO 2004, which provides for Environmental Management System - Specification with Guidance for Use (ISO 14001, 2004). The internal audit process was applied in all EACF installations and activities that were covered by the EMS. The focus of the internal audit concerned the processes that have activities with aspect and impact significance and so have specific procedures developed in the EMS of EACF. The steps of the audit were conducted in modules that had activities contemplated in the EMS of EACF. Firstly the objective and scope of the audit was defined, and then the documents requested for preliminary analysis.

of the audit and the guides who accompanied the audit by the audited. The audit was conducted through interviews, data collection, observations and analysis of documents and records, and then the findings were discussed and the nonconformities defined. The audit report was presented to the management representative, to show the collected data and the conclusions of the audit, and so, confirm the proposed plans of action or suggest other strategies for the correction of non-conformities.

Results The completion of the internal audit counted with the full support of everyone in the EACF, especially the members of Brazilian Navy, sometimes acting like internal auditors or like support team to achieve this important stage of EMS of the EACF. With the realization of the Environmental Audit inside the installations and processes of the organization, some evidence that formed the basis for findings was collected, which indicates the need for corrective and preventive actions in order to fully attend the established recommendations set by default reference adopted. As a summary of the findings we have made the identification of five non-conformities of great importance,

After the preliminary analysis of the documents, the

non-conformity with less significance and ten observations.

preparation stage for the audit was initiated, which defined

The conclusion resulting from the findings is that the

the Audit Plan, for this, the audit team was selected and

organization is in a situation of Partial Compliance with

trained, and finally the work documentation, the check-list

the requirements taken as a reference and scope of the

and audit protocols were developed.

environmental audit.

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Figure 1. Requirements of ISO 14.001:2004.

Grouping the results obtained for each requirement of ISO 14.001:2004 in applying the evaluation tool allowed the results shown in Figure 1. Overall, the level of attendance of EACF in reference to the requirements of the ISO 14.001:2004 was 86.2%, where the principle “Environmental Policy” was the only one which achieved 100% of compliance.

Discussion By reason of non-registration of new activities with potential impact on the environment and no clear definition of the plan presented at the Expedition XXIX about the objectives, the principle of “planning” which involves items Environmental Aspects, Legal Requirements and Objectives, Targets and Programs reached a level of 80% compliance. The highest level of compliance was observed in the requirements referred to “Implementation and Operation” at 88%: Resources, roles, responsibilities and authorities (93%), Competence, training and awareness (100%), Communication (80%), Documentation (92%), Control of Documents (100%), Operational Control (90%) and

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Emergency Preparedness and Response, however, the latter was the item with the lowest attendance requirements (60%), special attention should be given to the implementation of corrective actions related to it. The group of items “Monitor and Measure” reached a level of compliance with the requirements of 83%, requiring corrective actions, in relation to registration and updating procedures adopted in EACF. Finally, the principle of “Review and Improvement” scored the second lowest compliance with the requirements of the standard, 80%, due to the administrative disputes involving EMS of EACF.

Conclusions Some observations have resulted in adapting the EMS documents of EACF when the way the activity was performed was more appropriate or more applicable to the reality of the Antarctic environment, otherwise, when non-conformities were identified, the best way to solve them was sought through discussions with stakeholders in the

area, or by bibliographic research, resulting in the proposed recommendations for each finding. Special attention on the part of the organization with respect to major non-conformities mentioned in the report was recommended, noting that the internal audit function is to check the pending items and record them properly, being the Chief of EACF, as management representative, the responsible for reporting and performing periodic requests for PROANTAR (Brazilian Antarctic Program) based also on the internal audit report, with the support of the coordinator of internal audit, Sub-Chief of EACF.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References International Organization for Standardization – ISO. (2004). NBR ISO 14.001:04: Environmental Systems Management Specifications and Directives of Usage. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT.

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4 BIOREMEDIATION OF THE DIESEL-CONTAMINATED SOIL OF THE BRAZILIAN ANTARCTIC STATION Juliano C. Cury1,*, Hugo E. Jesus2, Helena D. M. Villela3, Raquel S. Peixoto2, Carlos E. G. R. Schaefer4, Marcia C. Bícego5, Diogo A. Jurelevicius2, Lucy Seldin2, Alexandre S. Rosado2 Universidade Federal de São João del Rei – UFSJ, Campus Sete Lagoas, Rod. MG 424, Km 47, Itapuã, CP 56, CEP 35701-970, Sete Lagoas, MG, Brazil 2 Laboratório de Ecologia Microbiana Molecular, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Brigadeiro Trompowsky, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21949-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil 3 Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, Bloco 9 Superior, Sala 0970, Butantã, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 4 Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa – UFV, Av. Peter Henry Rolfs, s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 3657-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil 5 Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo – USP, Praça do Oceanográfico, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-120, São Paulo, SP, Brazil 1

*e-mail: jccury@hotmail.com

Abstract: Antarctic soils are under constant risks of oil contamination due the presence of scientific stations. Bioremediation is the best choice for their recovery. However, before taking the initiative, it is important to test their effect on hydrocarbon depletion and microorganisms. Furthermore, it is important to search for hydrocarbon degraders and bioindicators for monitoring. Our studies showed that the low concentration of N may be causing the recalcitrance of the hydrocarbons in the soil. The microbial characterization revealed alteration of structure and low diversity of the microbial communities in the diesel-polluted soils. The results of an ex situ microcosm experiment revealed depletion of the hydrocarbons content due the aeration and the application of N fertilizer, as well as effects under the microbial communities. An in situ microcosm experiment with the application of N fertilizer and oil-degrader bacterial species previously isolated confirmed the changes under the microbial community. However, it is important to point out that the impact of the fertilizer under microbial community is lower than the oil impact. The present data provides information that allows us to propose the appropriate methodology that can be applied in the area of the Brazilian Antarctic Station for the bioremediation process. In addition, to provide information that allows us to propose an appropriate action plan using better recommended materials (e.g. type and dose of fertilizer; stock of consortia of degraders strains) that will be available for immediate use in the case of new contaminations due to fuel spills in the new Brazilian Antarctic Station. Keywords: Bioremediation, hydrocarbons, Antarctic, soil

Introduction Since the installation of scientific stations, Antarctic soils are under constant risk of fuel spills, especially due to the leaking of tanks, diesel transference and vehicle refueling (Aislabie et al., 2004). Anthropogenic activities like these spills can damage the equilibrium of the delicate Antarctic environments, which used to possess the last remaining pristine zones on Earth (Reinhardt & Van Vleet 1986; Delille et al., 2004).

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In some cases, the attempt to cleanup can be made using physical and chemical methods. However, for the Antarctic environments this is not so simple. Displacement of the machinery necessary for the application of physical methods would be very expensive, whereas the application of chemical methods would be dangerous considering the risks of additional environmental impacts. Therefore, bioremediation techniques have been considered an appropriate remediation technology for polar soils, being

relatively more cost-effective and benign (Aislabie et al., 2006). Bioremediation techniques are based on the ability of some microorganisms to use the petroleum hydrocarbons as energy source (Alexander, 1994). The monitored natural attenuation is the best cost-effective choice to be applied in oil-polluted sites considering the low-risk and presenting high rates of hydrocarbon degradation. However, in polar soils the environmental conditions are suboptimal for biodegradation (Aislabie et al., 2006). As for some soils out of the Polar Regions, a cause of hydrocarbon recalcitrance can be the depletion of nutrients (especially N and P). An alternative to overcome this problem is the technique of biostimulation (Alexander, 1994), with the addition of fertilizers (e.g. N-P-K, MAP, DAP). However, these additions must be made carefully due the typical coarsetextured, low-moisture Antarctic soils because excess levels of fertilizers can inhibit hydrocarbon biodegradation by decreasing soil water potentials (Aislabie et al., 2006). Other potential limitations for the activity of degraders present in Antarctic soils include low temperature and moisture, alkalinity and the potentially inhibitory effect of toxic hydrocarbons (Aislabie et al., 2006). Since the microorganisms are responsible for the degradation of the hydrocarbons, it is very important to know their dynamics. According to Aislabie et al. (2006), studies have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbondegrading bacteria in polluted polar soils. Beside, Luz et al. (2004, 2006) demonstrated that genes involved in hydrocarbons degradation are present in the region of the Brazilian Antarctic Station (EACF). Additionally, it is known that the presence of oil can change the microbial diversity of Antarctic soils (Saul et al., 2005), and the knowledge of how it occurs may be important for bioindicators selection and further monitoring. The aim of this work was to characterize the soil properties, the extent of oil contamination and the microbial diversity of polluted and adjacent unpolluted soils of the Brazilian Antarctic Station. Beyond that, we aimed to test the impact of the application of different doses of fertilizer and previously selected degrader strains on depletion of the hydrocarbons and changes in microbial community structure, to propose an efficient and sustainable alternative to minimize the oil pollution at EACF.

Materials and Methods The sampling site is located on the front of the Brazilian Antarctic Station. The area close to the fuel tanks was subjected to a 20,000-L diesel spill in 1986. Previous analysis indicates that the reached soil contains variable concentrations of hydrocarbons in its subsurface (0.5-1.0 m) (data not shown). Subsurface staining and smell was evident at several areas near the fuel tanks, indicating the presence of the hydrocarbons. Five superficial (1 m) soil samples were collected in triplicate in March 2010, during the Antarctic Summer. Three samples (1, 2 and 3) were collected in the oil-polluted area, whereas the other two samples (4 and 5) were collected in the oil-unpolluted area (Figure 1). The structure and diversity of the microbial communities of the soil samples are characterized using DGGE and SSU rDNA sequencing methods, respectively. To confirm the indigenous bacterial hydrocarbons degrading potential we performed a survey by PCR using specific primers for genes involved in degrading pathways. We performed ex situ and in situ microcosm bioremediation experiments to test the hydrocarbons depletion and the impact of the treatments under the microbial communities. In the ex situ experimental doses of MAP fertilizers (biostimulation) were tested, whereas in the in situ microcosm a concentration of MAP plus the reintroduction of bacterial degraders previously isolated from the contaminated soil (bioaugmentation) were tested.

Results Nitrogen is present in extremely low levels in the soil samples collected in the Brazilian Antarctic Station before the fertilizer application. After two months since the application of the MAP fertilizer, the content of N became detectable and ranged from 0.02 to 0.08 dag.kg–1 in the soil of the in situ microcosm experiment. Figure 2 shows the content of hydrocarbons of the original soil samples collected in oil-polluted (1 to 3) and oil-unpolluted (4 and 5) areas and in oil-contaminated and oil-uncontaminated soils after the microcosm experiment. We can observe a linear decrease of hydrocarbons amount from point 1. After 60 days of incubation, the hydrocarbons content decreased linearly until the treatment with 250 mg N.kg–1. The DGGE analyses revealed that the collection points harbor different bacterial community structures since

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Figure 1. Soil sampling points in the front of the Brazilian Antarctic Station. Samples 1 to 3 were collected in the oil-polluted area whereas the samples 4 and 5 were collected in the oil-unpolluted area.

Figure 2. TPHs (total petroleum hydrocarbons) content of soil samples collected in the front of the Brazilian Antarctic Station and after the microcosm experiment. Samples 1 to 3 were collected in the oil-polluted area whereas the samples 4 and 5 were collected in the oil-unpolluted area. I: initial content, calculated as the mean of content of the original soil samples. N: mixture (1:1) of the oil-unpolluted soil samples (4 and 5). C: mixture (1:1:1) of the oil-polluted soil samples (1, 2 and 3). Numbers after the letters indicate the amount of added Nitrogen (mg.kg–1).

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the repetitions of the triplicate or duplicate used always grouped together (Figure 3). The dendrograms shows a strong tendency of grouping due to the presence or absence of the hydrocarbon pollution. Furthermore, the DGGE analysis showed that the application of fertilizer and the reintroduction of bacterial degraders influence the determination of the structure of the bacterial communities of the soil (Figure 4). The SSU rDNA sequence results indicate a tendency of higher bacterial and microeukaryotic diversity in the oil-uncontaminated soil (Figure 5), indicating a toxic effect of the diesel present in the area. The results from PCR amplification of key genes encoding bacterial hydrocarbon degradation pathways showed that expected fragments of alkB gene, encoding for aerobic alkane degradation, and bamA gene, the biomarker of aromatic degradation by anaerobic bacteria, were found in both contaminated and uncontaminated soils. The Grampositive α-subunit-RHD do not presented amplification in the oil-uncontaminated soil samples and the α-subunit-

RHD from Gram-negative was not amplified only for the samples of the oil-uncontaminated soil of the sampling point 4. Fragments of the expected size of benzyl- and

alkylsuccinate synthase genes (bssA and assA) were only detected on lower oil-contamination level soil (sampling point 3), and in all oil-uncontaminated soils.

Figure 3. DGGE profiles of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA gene fragments of bacterial communities of the soil samples collected in oil-polluted (1 to 3) and oilunpolluted (4 and 5) areas of the Brazilian Antarctic Station. a) Samples 1, 2, 4 and 5 where the triplicate was used. b) Samples 1 and 2 in duplicate, sample 3 in triplicate and samples 4, 5, N (mixture 1:1 of samples of oil-unpolluted area), C (mixture 1:1:1 of samples of oil-polluted area) and M (mixture 1:1 of C and N). Clustering analysis was based on Pearsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s correlation index and the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages.

BEBA

Figure 4. DGGE profiles of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA gene fragments of bacterial communities of soil with a history of contamination a) and soil uncontaminated added with 2% of diesel. C: control; BE: biostimulation (250 mg.kgâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;1 N); BA: bioaugmentation; BEBA: biostimulation plus bioaugmentation.

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a Bacteria

b Archaea

c Microeukaryotes

Figure 5. Rarefaction curves calculated using DOTUR0.03. The partial sequences of microbial SSU rRNA genes from Antarctic oil-contaminated and oiluncontaminated soils (mixture 1:1:1 and 1:1 of samples of oil-polluted and oil-unpolluted areas of the Brazilian Antarctic Station, respectively) was used. a, b, c) curves of each library of each bacterial, archaeal and microeukaryotic domains respectively.

Discussion and Conclusion

192

soil compression due the thaw of the upstream snow

The recalcitrance of hydrocarbons in cold soils may be due

and the constant traffic of vehicles, respectively, which

characteristics as: low temperatures (Haider, 1999), lack of

decreases the oxygen diffusion. The absence of degrading

final electron acceptors (especially oxygen) (Johnsen et al.,

microorganisms not seems to be one recalcitrance factor

2005), low nutrient concentrations or availability

considering the positive results obtained in the PCR of

(especially N and P) (Aislabie et al., 2006), or the absence of

the tested genes involved in the hydrocarbon degradation.

microorganisms capable of using hydrocarbons as C source

These results indicate that the microbial community of

(Johnsen et al., 2005; Huesemann et al., 2002). Two of the

the oil-polluted soil of the Antarctic Brazilian Station is

cited factors must be contributing to the hydrocarbon

able to perform metabolic pathways of the hydrocarbon

recalcitrance in the soil of the Brazilian Antarctic Station:

degradation. An indication of the microorganisms

the nutrient content, especially Nitrogen, considering

participation in the hydrocarbon depletion via degradation

the negligible amounts of this element in soil; and the

is the dose-response effect observed with the application

lack of oxygen as electron acceptor, considering that the

of the Nitrogen. The application of N at a rate between 125

polluted area remains under constant water logging and

and 250 mg.kg–1 seems to be sufficient to promote further

| Annual Activity Report 2011

degradation of the hydrocarbons regardless the effect of the aeration. The present data provides information that allows us to propose the appropriate methodology that can be applied in the area of the Brazilian Antarctic Station for the bioremediation process. In addition, it provides information that allows us to propose an appropriate action plan using better recommended materials (e.g. type and dose of fertilizer; stock of a consortia of degraders strains) that will be available for immediate use in the case of new contaminations due to fuel spills in the Brazilian Antarctic Station.

Acknowledgements This work integrates the National Institute of Science and Technology Antarctic Environmental Research (INCTAPA) that receives scientific and financial support from the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq process: n° 574018/2008-5) and Carlos Chagas Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ n° E-16/170.023/2008). The authors also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of Environment (MMA) and InterMinistry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Aislabie, J.; Balks, M.R.; Foght, J. & Waterhouse, E.J. (2004). Hydrocarbon spills on Antarctic soils: effect and management. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(5): 1265-1274. Aislabie, J.; Sauld, D.J. & Foght, J.M. (2006). Bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated polar soils. Extremophiles, 10: 171-179. Alexander, M. (ed.) (1994). Biodegradation and Bioremediation. San Diego: Academic Press Inc. Delille, D.; Coulon, F. & Pelletier, E. (2004). Biostimulation of natural microbial assemblages in oil-amended vegetated and desert sub-Antarctic soils. Microbial Ecology, 47:407-415. Haider, K. (1999). Microbe-soil-organic contaminant interactions. In: Adriano, D.C.; Bollag, J.M.; Frankenberger, W.T. & Sims, R.C. (Eds.). Bioremediation of contaminated soils. Madison: ASA/CSSA/SSSA. p. 33-51. Huesemann, M.H.; Hausmann, T.S. & Fortman, T.J. (2002). Microbial factors rather than bioavailability limit the rate and extent of PAH biodegradation in aged crude oil contaminated model soils. Bioremediation Journal, 6(4): 321-336. Johnsen, A.R.; Wick, L.Y. & Harms, H. (2005). Principles of microbial PAH-degradation in soil. Environmental Pollution, 133(1): 71-84. Luz, A.P.; Pellizari, V.H.; Whyte, L.G. & Greer, C.W. (2004). A survey of indigenous microbial hydrocarbon degradation genes in soils from Antarctica and Brazil. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 50: 323-333. Luz, A.P.; Ciapina, E.M.P.; Gamba, R.C.; Lauretto, M.S.; Farias, E.W.C.; Bicego, M.C.; Taniguchi, S.; Montone, R.C. & Pellizari, V.H. (2006). Potential for bioremediation of hydrocarbon polluted soils in the Maritme Antarctic. Antarctic Science, 18(3): 335-343. Reinhardt, S.B. & Van Vleet, E.S. (1986). Hydrocarbons of Antarctic midwater organisms. Polar Biology, 6:47–51. Saul, D.J.; Aislabie, J.M.; Brown, C.E.; Harris, L. & Foght, J.M. (2005). Hydrocarbon contamination changes the bacterial diversity of soil from around Scott Base, Antarctica. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 53: 141-155.

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EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ACTIVITIES Deia Maria Ferreira1,*, Benedita Aglai Oliveira da Silva1, Rômulo Loureiro Casciano1,2, Leilane Fasollo de Azevedo1, Francine Nascimento Quintão Costa1, Bianca Sousa Gonçalves1, Jenifer Souza1, Luiz Gustavo Fernandes de Sousa1 Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, bloco A, sala A2-102, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21.941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil 2 Professor das Escolas Municipais Santos Anjos Custódios e Américo Vespúcio, Cabo Frio, RJ, Brazil

*e-mail: deia@biologia.ufrj.br

Abstract: The educational materials and activities presented arose from the need to publicize the results of research carried out by the National Institute of Science and Technology - Antarctic Environmental Research (INCT-APA) to basic education students and teachers and to the general public. The materials are intended to provide a sample of those investigations and to present the work of researchers who are in Antarctica. The methodology consists in transcribing the scientific language of the published articles to an easier-to-understand language for the school frequenter public and for those who visit exhibitions for scientific dissemination. Two exhibitions were held, the FAPERJ Fair and the VIII National Week of Science and Technology, both in Rio de Janeiro city. For the exhibitions, information and educational materials about the Antarctic ecosystems were developed: interactive theater, an activity using cut and painted Styrofoam hats shaped like animals (krill, fish, seal, seabird, penguin and whale); two informative panels about Antarctica and the research undertaken; a model of Brazilian Antarctic Station Comandante Ferraz; collections of animals and plants of the continent; the game A Tour of the Antarctica, where participants are the pieces themselves; an interactive media which focuses on the continent, the story of its occupation and environmental problems generated by human occupation is presented by a whale and her calf born in Brazil, a seal and a penguin. An Agenda and t-shirts complete the work. Keywords: Antarctic, scientific popularization, teaching sciences, teaching ecology

Introduction Research centers and universities, which usually concentrate a large amount of researchers, are often isolated spheres of knowledge in society. Dissemination of science can be understood as an action of social commitment, by citizens who have the opportunity and the privilege of participating in university institutions of higher education. As a rule, the scientific language of articles is very peculiar and its understanding is carried out by peers and/or those interested in that specific area of knowledge, a restricted set of people. It is know that science should be one of the conditions necessary for the formation and training of individuals to deal with the world in which they are inserted. To transpose this language, the choice was for the development of educational and playful materials, which have been successfully used in the teaching/learning process in various areas of knowledge such as Biology, Mathematics and Chemistry (Melim et al., 2009; Rossetto, 2010; Alves, 2001; Barbosa et al., 2004; Zanom et al., 2008; Domingos & Recena, 2010). Analyzing didactic games, Gomes & Friedrich (2001) recognize the pedagogical value

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of the didactic game, as well as an effective contribution to the teaching-learning process in the areas of Science and Biology. In this project, the purpose has been, the dissemination and popularization of science integrated actions aimed at getting to know the Antarctic region with its peculiarities, what the INCT-APA researchers do and to contribute to this knowledge to enable it to reach basic education and the general public. The project has been developed by Undergraduate Degree Course students in Biological Sciences and Fine Arts. It integrates a set of educational materials, activities and actions for planning, developing and implementing exhibitions for scientific exhibitions to the general public.

Materials and Methods The methodology consists of transcribing the language of scientific articles developed by INCT-APA researchers in different areas of knowledge for the development of educational materials. Teaching materials about the

Antarctic ecosystems are developed, emphasizing the importance of these environments to existing conditions in South America, in particular Brazil’s coastline and these and other materials are used on large exhibitions for schools and for the general public. The production of materials for scientific dissemination related to the knowledge of the coastal ecosystems of the State of Rio de Janeiro has formed the basis of materials developed about Antarctica since 2010 (Bozelli & Ferreira, 2009, 2010) Experiences in ecology contributions to the teaching practice (Bozelli et al., 2011) offers a compilation of educational practices, games and dynamics of eleven out of the twenty-seven courses for teachers developed and carried out by the team. Playful activities as a facilitator of the teaching/learning process must be highlighted. The area of education in particular should take on renewed assignments, developing projects of educational experimentation, elaboration of teaching materials and implementation of new pedagogical methods. The transcription of language takes different forms, namely: games, booklets, fact sheets, material for theater and exhibitions, using these and other materials, such as fixed specimens of Antarctic plants and animals.

Results

Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) open to the public to bring together researchers and entrepreneurs, where visitors can see, in a vast panorama, the diversity of products and processes resulting from investigations and relevant projects developed with the support of the Foundation in the areas of Science, Technology and Innovation. It was held at the Centro Cultural Ação da Cidadania, located in the port area of Rio de Janeiro. The stand especially attracted the attention of children and adolescents. Animals, algae and plants of the continent were exposed, as well as a replica of the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station and a banner about what the INCT-APA researchers do in Antarctica. The best researchers from the State of Rio de Janeiro exposed and visited the exhibition and received FAPERJ funding, among others (Figure 1). • VIII National Week of Science and Technology/ CNPq (2011) The National Week of Science and Technology is an event of the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq) that aim the mobilization of public, in particular children and youngsters, around themes and activities of science and technology. It was held in 2011 in the hall of the rectory of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) and attracted 3,000 visitors among basic educations schools, general public and the university public itself. The stand was 60 m² and

The Exhibitions:

it was divided into five activities, each involving one to

• The FAPERJ Fair of Science, Technology & Innovation 2011 is an event of the Carlos Chagas Research Support

two mediators, undergraduate students of Biological

Figure 1. The FAPERJ Fair of Science, Technology & Innovation 2011. Photo: Geyze M. Faria.

Figure 2. VIII National Week of Science and Technology/CNPq (2011). Photo: Rafael B. Moura.

Sciences and Fine Arts (Figure 2).

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Informative and educational materials developed: 1. Game “A Tour of the Antarctica”: The game consists of a path divided into gaps of different alternating colors (yellow, green, pink and blue) and for each color there are their respective cards. These cards, in addition to determining the course of the game, contain information and fun facts about interactions among marine organisms, about birds and mammals, about the icy continent, as well as aspects of man’s relationship with the Antarctic environment. Players are the pins themselves and the number of spaces to move is determined by rolling a giant dice, which contains numbers from 1 to 6. The objective of the game is to get children, adolescents and young people to know a little of the ecosystems of this region in an enjoyable and dynamic way (Figure 3). 2. Interactive panel magnetized: an interactive panel illustrating the antarctic environments with the different Magnets shaped like animals and plants for the children to place, choosing the most appropriate place for each species and discussing with the mediator (Figure 4). 3. DVD: Antarctica is first shown in a short animated video by these characters: the blue whale, the blue whale cub, Weddell the seal and Gentoo the Penguin. In this animation the blue whale takes its calf, which was born near the Brazilian coast, to discover Antarctica for the first time. It uses the long journey to tell a little about the Antarctic continent and, when they arrive there, with the help of the seal and the penguin, news things will happen. After this brief introduction, the public is invited

Figure 3. Game “A Tour of the Antarctica”. Photo: Rômulo L. Casciano.

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to interact with various topics present in the DVD, including a history of discovery and exploration, fauna, flora and the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station, where the researchers stay. The Antarctic ecosystems, their biodiversity, importance to global climate dynamics and some of the environmental problems created by human presence are presented. In this DVD there is also an interactive game of questions and answers for checking learning. Links to interesting websites on the topic will also be made available (Figure 5). 4. Antarctic animal hats: developed with painted craft foam, these were used to dramatize ecological interactions among marine organisms: krill, fish, seal, skua, penguin and whale (Figure 6). 5. Informative panels, EACF model and Antarctic clothes: two panels inform the visitor about what the

Figure 4. Interactive panel magnetized. Photo: Rômulo L. Casciano.

Figure 5. DVD with Antarctic environment images and interactive game of questions and answers for checking learning. Photo: Rafael B. Moura.

researchers do and what the station where they stay during research is like. EACF Model with the size of 1mÂ˛, showing the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station to the participants in the event. It was developed on a base of wood and Styrofoam, painted

cardboard paper modules and accessories adapted by an undergraduate student at the School of Fine Arts. The Antarctic clothes provided by the Navy of Brazil (ESANTAR-RJ) were displayed on a mannequin (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Antarctic animal hats krill, fish, seal, skua, penguin and whale. Photos: Rafael B. Moura; Jenifer Souza.

Figure 7. Informative panels, EACF model and Antarctic clothes. Photos: Geyze M. Farias.

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6. T-shirts: for each exhibition, t-shirts identifying the INCT-APA team were created (Figure 8). 7. Folder: an educational folder is currently being developed, where there will be illustrations, stories and activities about the Antarctic ecosystems and some of their species, especially chosen since they generate great interest in the school public. The activities are games such as word search, crossword puzzles and cryptograms in which readers can apply in a playful way the knowledge the acquired throughout the booklet. 8. Agenda 2012: a diary has been developed in 2011 for the year 2012 (Figure 9). 9. Exhibition of plants and animals: collections of Antarctic plants and animals were exposed for observation (Figure 10). Figure 9. Agenda 2012 developed in 2011 for the year 2012.

Figure 10. Exhibition of the Antarctic plants and animals. Photo: Rafael B. Moura.

Acknowledgements

Figure 8. T-shirts for the INCT-APA team.

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also acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Ministries of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), of

Environment (MMA) and Inter-Ministry Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM).

References Alves, E.M.S. (2001). A ludicidade e o ensino de matemática: uma prática possível. 4. ed. Campinas: Papirus. Coleção Papirus educação. Barbosa, P.M.M; Alonso, R.S. & Viana, F.E.C. (2004). Aprendendo Ecologia através de cartilhas. In: Anais do 7° encontro de extensão da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; 2004; Belo Horizonte. Bozelli, R. L., Ferreira, D.M. Parque Nacional da Restinga de Jurubatiba: fichas dos seres Volumes. 4, 5 e 6. Rio de Janeiro. 2010. Bozelli, R.L.; Ferreira, D.M.; Santos, L.M.F. & Rocha, M.A.P.M. (2011). Vivências em Ecologia contribuições à prática docente. Rio de Janeiro. Gomes, R.R. & Friedrich, M.A. (2001). A contribuição dos jogos didáticos na aprendizagem de conteúdos de Ciências e Biologia. I Encontro Regional de Biologia. In: Anais do EREBIO; 2001; Niteroi. p. 389-392. Domingos, D.C.A. & Recena, M.C.P. (2010). Elaboração de jogos didáticos no processo de ensino e aprendizagem de química: a construção do conhecimento. Ciências & Cognição, 15(1): 272-281. Melim, L.M.C.; Spiegel, C.N.; Alves, G.G. & Luz; M.R.M.P. (2009). Cooperação ou competição? Avaliação de uma estratégia lúdica de ensino de Biologia para estudantes do ensino médio. In: Anais do VII Encontro Nacional de Pesquisa em Educação em Ciências; 2009; Florianópolis. ROSSETTO. E.S. Jogo das organelas: o lúdico na Biologia para o ensino médio e superior. Revista Iluminart do IFSP, V. 1, n. 4. Sertãozinho, 2010. 118-123 ZANON. D.A.V; GUERREIRO. M.A.S; OLIVEIRA. R.C. Jogo didático Ludo Químico para o ensino de nomenclatura dos compostos orgânicos: projeto, produção, aplicação e avaliação. Ciências & Cognição 2008. v 13: 72-81.

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FACTS AND FIGURES Human Resources: Capacity Building

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2 POST-DOCTORATE FELLOWS

1 MScs STUDENTS

The illustration below highlights the Antarctic capacity of developed human resources during the three years of the INCT-APA, taking into account all the funding provided by CNPq, CAPES, FAPERJ and others regional institutions for scientific support.

THEMATIC AREA 2

THEMATIC AREA 1

The research activities of INCT-APA involved undergraduate and postgraduate students. The fellowships was focus especially at Master of Science, PhD and Postdoctoral fellows, but students of scientific initiation had also been engaged in the studies, as well as trained technical staff.

1 POST-DOCTORATE FELLOWS

1 PhD STUDENT

5 GRADUATE TECHNICAL FELLOW (AT-NS)

4 MScs STUDENTS

5 UNDERGRADUATE SCIENTIFIC FELLOW (IC)

1 GRADUATE TECHNICAL FELLOW (AT-NS)

5 TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS FELLOW (AT-NM)

2 UNDERGRADUATE SCIENTIFIC FELLOW (IC)

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THEMATIC AREA 4 THEMATIC AREA 3

3 POST-DOCTORATE FELLOWS

4 PhD STUDENTS

1 PhD STUDENTS

2 MScs STUDENTS

1 GRADUATE FELLOW (DTI-3)

2 GRADUATE TECHNICAL FELLOW (AT-NS)

6 MScs STUDENTS

7 GRADUATE FELLOW (DTI-3)

6 GRADUATE TECHNICAL FELLOW (AT-NS)

17 UNDERGRADUATE SCIENTIFIC FELLOW (IC)

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PUBLICATIONS Papers Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Hibbins, R.E.; Batista, P.P.; Gobbi, D.; Takahashi, H.; Andrioli, V.F.; Fechine, J.; Denardini, C.M. Case study of a mesospheric wall event over Ferraz station, Antarctica (62&deg; S). Annales Geophysicae, v. 29, p. 209-219, 2011. Bageston, J.V.; Wrasse, C.M.; Batista, P.P.; Hibbins, R.E.; Fritts, D.C.; Gobbi, D.; Andrioli, V.F. Observation of a mesospheric front in a dual duct over King George Island, Antarctica. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussion (Online), v. 11, p. 16185-16206, 2011. Barboza, C.A.M.; Moura, R.B.; Lanna, A.M.; Oackes, T.; Campos, L.S. Echinoderms as clues to Antarctic South American connectivity. Oecologia Australis, v. 15, p. 86-110, 2011. Campos, L.S.; Bassoi, M.; Nakayama, C.R.; YoneshigueValentin, Y.; Lavrado, H.P.; Menot, L.; Sibuet, M. Antarctic South American interactions in the marine environment: a COMARGE and CAML effort through the South American consortium on Antarctic marine biodiversity. Oecologia Australis, v. 15, p. 5-22, 2011. Cipro, C.V.Z.; Yogui, G.T.; Bustamante, P.; Taniguchi, S.; Sericano, J.L.; Montone, R.C. Organic pollutants and their correlation with stable isotopes in vegetation from King George Island, Antarctica. Chemosphere (Oxford) v. 85, p. 393-398, 2011. Correia, E. Study of Antarctic-South America connectivity from ionospheric radio soundings. Oecologia Australis, v. 15, p. 10-17, 2011. Correia, E.; Kaufmann, P.; Raulin, J.P.; Bertoni, F.C.; Gavilán, H.R. Analysis of daytime ionosphere behavior between 2004 and 2008 in Antarctica. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, v. 73, p. 2272-2278, 2011. Costa, E. S.; Ayala, L.; Sul, J.A.I.; Coria, N.R.; SánchezScaglioni, R.E.; Alves, M.A.S.; Petry, M.V.; Piedrahita, P. Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic seabirds in South America: a review. Oecologia Australis (Press), v. 15, p. 59-68, 2011. Guerra, R.; Fetter, E.; Ceschim, L.M.M.; Martins, C.C. Trace metals in sediment cores from Deception and Penguin

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Islands (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 62, p. 2571-2575, 2011. Miloslavich, P.; Klein, E.; Díaz, J.M.; Hernández, C.E.; Bigatti, G.; Campos, L.S. ; Artigas, F.; Castillo, J.; Penchaszadeh, P.E.; Neill, P.E.; Carranza, A.; Retana, M.V.; Díaz de Astarloa, J.M.; Lewis, M.; Yorio, P.; Piriz, M.L.; Rodríguez, D.; Yoneshigue-Valentin, Y.; Gamboa, L.; Martín, A.; Thrush, S. Marine Biodiversity in the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of South America: Knowledge and Gaps. Plos One, v. 6, p. e14631, 2011. Nakayama, C.R.; Kuhn, E.; Araújo, A.C.V.; Alvalá, P.C.; Ferreira, W.J.; Vazoller, R.F.; Pellizari, V.H. Revealing archaeal diversity patterns and methane fluxes in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, and their association to Brazilian Antarctic Station activities. Deep-Sea Research. Part 2. Tropical Studies in Oceanography, v. 58, p. 128-138, 2011. Ribeiro, A.P.; Figueira, R.C.L.; Martins, C.C.; Silva, C.R.A.; França, E.J.; Bícego, M.C.; Mahiques, M.M.; Montone, R.C. Arsenic and trace metal contents in sediment profiles from the Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 62, p. 192196, 2011. Rodrigues, E.; Suda, C.N.K; Rodrigues Jr, E.; Oliveira, M.F.; Carvalho, C.S; Vani, G.S. Antarctic fish metabolic responses as potential biomarkers of environmental impact. Oecologia Australis, v. 15, p. 124-149, 2011. Sicinski, J.; Jazdzewski, K.; Broyer, C.; Presler, P.; Ligowski, R.; Nonato, E. F.; Corbisier, Thais N.; Petti, M.A.V.; Brito, T.A.S.; Lavrado, H.P. Admiralty Bay benthos diversity a census of a complex polar ecosystem. Deep-Sea Research. Part 2. Tropical Studies in Oceanography, v. 58, p. 30-48, 2011. Sul, J.A.I.; Barnes, D.K.A.; Costa, M.F.; Convey, P.; Costa, E.S.; Campos, L.S. Plastics in the antarctic environment: are we looking only at the tip of the iceberg? Oecologia Australis, v. 15, p. 150-170, 2011. Yogui, G.T.; Sericano, J.L.; Montone, R.C. Accumulation of semivolatile organic compounds in Antarctic vegetation: a case study of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Science of the Total Environment, v. 409, p. 3902-3908, 2011.

Monographs (2009-2011) Gomes, P. F. Proposta de metodologia para avaliação de impacto paisagístico: aplicação nas instalações brasileiras na Antártica. Monografia em Arquitetura. Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, UFES, Brasil, 2009. Wisnieski, E. Esteróis Marcadores Geoquímicos em Colunas Sedimentares da Enseada Martel, Baía do Almirantado, Península Antártica. Monografia em Oceanografia. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2009. Aguiar, S. N. Geoquímica de esteróis biogênicos em sedimentos de duas enseadas (Mackelar e Ezcurra) na Baía do Almirantado, Península Antártica. Monografia em Oceanografia. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2010. Duarte, D. Efeito da salinidade, temperatura e fluoreto na atividade enzimática da ATPase Na/K branquial do peixe antártico Notothenia rossii (Richardson, 1844). Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade de Taubaté, UNITAU, Brasil, 2010. Lanna, A. M. Composição específica e distribuição espacial de Echinodermata da zona costeira rasa na Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Monografia o em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ, Brasil, 2010. Pedreiro, M. R. D. Estudo comparativo da ação do fluoreto na morfologia branquial de Notothenia rossii e Notothenia corriceps sob estresse térmico e salino. Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2010. Prado, C. P. B. (2010). Efeito da salinidade, temperatura e fluoreto sobre os níveis teciduais da enzima arginase em brânquias do peixe antártico Notothemis rossii (Richardson, 1844). Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade de Taubaté, UNITAU, Brasil. Teixeira, M. G. Efeito da salinidade e da temperatura na atividade de enzimas do metabolismo energético de brânquias do peixe antártico Notothenia rossii (Richardson,1844). Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade de Taubaté, UNITAU, Brasil, 2010.

Medina, R. G. Análise da divergência genética e morfológica em populações naturais de Polytrichum juniperinum hedw. da Antártica e América do Sul. Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade Federal do Pampa, UNIPAMPA, Brasil, 2011. K r e b s b a c h , P. H i s t o l o g i a e c a r a c t e r i z a ç ã o histoquímica da estrutura estomacal do peixe antártico Notothenia rossii (Richardson, 1844) sob condições de estresse térmico. Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2011. Segadilha, J. L. Tanaidacea de duas enseadas da Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Monografia em Biologia. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ, Brasil, 2011. Souza, T. C. Asteoidea (Equinodermata) coletados durante o Programa Antártico Brasileiro nas Ilhas Shetland do Sul e Estreito de Bransfields, Antártica. Monografia em Ciências Biológicas. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ, Brasil, 2011.

Master of Science Dissertations (2010-2011) Ceschim, L. M. M. Estudo das variações temporais no aporte de matéria orgânica sedimentar das Ilhas Deception e Pingüim, Península Antártica: uma aplicação dos esteróis como marcadores de processos geoquímicos. Dissertação em Sistemas costeiros e oceânicos. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2010. Rodrigues Júnior, E. R. Impacto do fluoreto na resposta metabólica do peixe Antárticos Notothenia rossii (Richardson, 1844) aclimatado sob condições de estresse térmico e hiposmótico. Dissertação em Biologia Celular e Molecular. Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR, Brasil, 2010. Soares, G. R. Desenvolvimento de soluções alternativas para conservação de água na Estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz. Dissertação em Engenharia Ambiental. Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, UFES, Brasil, 2010. Cruz-Kaled, A. C. Variação temporal e espacial de larvas de invertebrados marinhos da Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Dissertação em Oceanografia. Universidade de São Paulo, USP, Brasil, 2011.

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Fanticele, F. B. Avaliação de conforto térmico da estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz. Dissertação em Engenharia Civil. Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, UFES, Brasil, 2011. Monteiro, G. S.C. Variação temporal de pequena escala da macrofauna bentônica da zona costeira rasa da Enseada Martel (Baía do Almirantado, Antártica), com ênfase nos anelídeos poliquetas. Dissertação em Oceanografia Biológica. Universidade de São Paulo, USP, Brasil, 2011. Seibert, S. Ecologia Reprodutiva de Catharacta lonnbergi, na Ilha Elefante e na Ilha Rei George, Antártica. Dissertação em Biologia. Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, UNISINOS, Brasil, 2011.

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Sodré , E. D. Emissões Atmosféricas e Implicações Potenciais Sobre a Biota Terrestre, Devido às Atividades Antrópicas, na Baía do Almirantado/ Ilha Rei George – Antártica. Dissertação em Biociências. Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ, Brasil, 2011.

PhD Thesis Sodré, E.D. Emissões atmosféricas e implicações potenciais para a biota terrestre devido às atividades antrópicas na Baía do Almirantado/ Ilha Rei George-Antártica. Tese de Doutorado. Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro. p 168. 2011.

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E-MAILS

I N C T – A PA R E S E R A C H T E A M Thematic Area 1

ANTARCTIC ATMOSPHERE AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN SOUTH AMERICA Dr. Neusa Maria Paes Leme (INPE) – Team Leader of Thematic Area 1 neusa_paesleme@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Emília Correia (INPE – CRAAM) – Vice-Team Leader of Thematic Area 1 ecorreia@craam.mackenzie.br

Dr. Amauri Pereira de Oliveira (IAG/USP) apdolive@usp.br

Dr. José Henrique Fernandez (UFRN) jhenrix@gmail.com

Dr. Damaris Kirsch Pinheiro (UFSM) damariskp@gmail.com / damaris@lacesm.ufsm.br

Dr. José Valentin Bageston (INPE) bageston@gmail.com

Dr. Jacyra Ramos Soares (IAG/USP) jacyra@usp.br

TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS AND STUDENTS José Roberto Chagas (DGE/INPE) chagas@dge.inpe.br

Marcelo Romão Oliveira (INPE) marcromao@hotmail.com

Marilene Alves da Silva (CPTEC/INPE) marilene.alves@cptec.inpe.br

André Barros Cardoso da Silva (INPE) – MSc. Student andrebcs@hotmail.com

Thematic Area 2

IMPACT OF GLOBAL CHANGES ON THE ANTARCTIC TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT Dr. Antonio Batista Pereira (UNIPAMPA) – Team Leader of Thematic Area 2 – Vegetal communities antoniopereira@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Maria Virginia Petry (UNISINOS) – Vice-Team Leader of Thematic Area 2 – Marine seabirds communities vpetry@unisinos.br

206

Adriano Luis Shünnemam (UNIPAMPA) als@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Juliano de Carvalho Cury (UFSJ) jccury@hotmail.com

Dr. Alexandre Soares Rosado (IMPPG/UFRJ) arosado@globo.com / asrosado@micro.ufrj.br

Dr. Ricardo José Gunski (UNIPAMPA) rgunski@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Cháriston André Dal Belo (UNIPAMPA) charistondb@gmail.com

Dr. Larissa Rosa de Oliveira (UNISINOS) larissaro@unisinos.br

Dr. Frederico Costa Beber Vieira (UNIPAMPA) fredericovieira@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Uwe Horst Schulz (UNISINOS) uwe@unisinos.br

Dr. Luiz Fernando Würdig Roesch (UNIPAMPA) luizroesch@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Analía del Valle Garnero (UNIPAMPA) analiagarnero@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Jair Putzke (UNISC) jair@unisc.br

Dr. Adriano Afonso Spielmann (UFMS) adrianospielmann@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Jeferson Luis Franco (UNIPAMPA) jefersonfranco@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Filipe de Carvalho Victória (UNIPAMPA) filipevictoria@gmail.com

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Dr. Juliano Tomazzoni Boldo (UNIPAMPA) julianoboldo@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Thais Posser (UNIPAMPA) thaisposser@hotmail.com

Dr. Margéli Pereira de Albuquerque (UNIPAMPA) margeli_albuquerque@hotmail.com

Dr. Valdir Marcos Stefenon (UNIPAMPA) valdirstefenon@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Paulo Marcos Pinto (UNIPAMPA) paulopinto@unipampa.edu.br

Dr. Victor Hugo Valiati (UNISINOS) valiati@unisinos.br

Dr. Roberta da Cruz Piucco ropiuco@gmail.com

Dr. Luis Fernando da Costa Medina (UNISINOS) lfmedina@unisinos.br

TECHNICAL ASSITANTS AND STUDENTS Hugo Emiliano de Jesus (UFRJ) – MSc. student hugoemil@gmail.com

MSc. Elisa de Souza Petersen – PhD Student elisapetersen@yahoo.com.br

MSc. Jacqueline Brummelhaus – PhD student jaquebrummelhaus@gmail.com

MSc. Lucas Krüger Garcia biokruger@gmail.com

Thematic Area 3

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ANTARCTIC MARINE ENVIRONMENT Dr. Helena Passeri Lavrado (IB/UFRJ) – Team Leader of Thematic Area 3 hpasseri@biologia.ufrj.br/ hplavrado@gmail.com

Dr. Edson Rodrigues (UNITAU) – Vice-Team Leader of Thematic Area 3 rodedson@gmail.com

Dr. Adriana Galindo Dalto (IB/UFRJ) agdalto@gmail.com

Dr. Edmundo Ferraz Nonato (IOUSP) efnonato@usp.br

Dr. Ana Carolina Vieira Araujo (IOUSP) acvaraujo@gmail.com

Dr. Fernanda Imperatrice Colabuono (IOUSP) ferimp@hotmail.com

Dr. Andrea de Oliveira Ribeiro Junqueira (UFRJ) ajunq@biologia.ufrj.br

Dr. Flavia Sant’Anna Rios (UFPR) flaviasrios@ufpr.br

Dr. Andreza Portella Ribeiro (IOUSP) aportellar@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Gannabathula Sree Vani (UNITAU) srvani@hotmail.com

Dr. Arthur José da Silva Rocha (IOUSP) arthur@usp.br

Dr. Joel Campos de Paula (UNIRIO) depaula.joelc@gmail.com

Dr. Cecilia Nahomi Kawagoe Suda (UNITAU) cnksuda@hotmail.com

Dr. José Juan Barrera Alba (IB/UFRJ) juanalba@usp.br

Dr. César de Castro Martins (UFPR) ccmart@ufpr.br

Dr. Lucélia Donatti (UFPR) donatti@ufpr.br

Dr. Cleoni dos Santos Carvalho (UFSCar) carvcleo@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Lúcia de Siqueira Campos (IB/UFRJ) campos-lucia@biologia.ufrj.br

Dr. Cristina Rossi Nakayama (IOUSP) crnakayama@gmail.com

Dr. Manuela Bassoi (IB/UFRJ) manu.bassoi@gmail.com

Dr. Denise Rivera Tenenbaum (IB/UFRJ) deniser@biologia.ufrj.br

Dr. Marcelo Renato Lamour (UFPR–CEM) mlamour@ufpr.br

E-mails |

207

Dr. Márcia Caruso Bícego (IOUSP) marciacaruso@usp.br

Dr. Satie Taniguchi (IOUSP) satie@usp.br

Dr. Márcio Murilo Barboza Tenório (IB/UFRJ) mbtenorio@hotmail.com

Dr. Silvio Tarou Sasaki (IOUSP) ssasaki@usp.br

Dr. Maurício Osvaldo Moura (UFPR) mauricio.moura@ufpr.br

Dr. Susete Wambier Christo (UEPG) wambchristo@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Mônica Angélica Varella Petti (IOUSP) mapetti@usp.br

Dr. Tânia Zaleski (UFPR) taniazaleski@gmail.com

Dr. Rolf Roland Weber (IOUSP) rweber@usp.br

Dr. Thais Navajas Corbisier (IOUSP) tncorbis@usp.br

Dr. Rosalinda Carmela Montone (IOUSP) - Vice–coordinator

Dr. Theresinha Monteiro Absher (UFPR) tmabsher@ufpr.br

of INCT–APA rmontone@usp.br Dr. Rubens Cesar Lopes Figueira (IOUSP) rfigueira@usp.br Dr. Rubens Duarte (IOUSP) rubensduarte13@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Vivian Helena Pellizari (IOUSP) vivianp@usp.br Dr. Vicente Gomes (IOUSP) vicgomes@usp.br Dr. Yocie Yoneshigue Valentin (IB/UFRJ) – General

Dr. Sandra Bromberg (IOUSP) bromberg@usp.br

Coordinator of INCT–APA yocie@biologia.ufrj.br/ yocievalentin@gmail.com

TECHNICAL ASSITANTS AND STUDENTS

208

Andre Monnerat Lanna (UFRJ) andrebioufrj@gmail.com

MSc Josilene da Silva (IOUSP) josilenehsilva@gmail.com

MSc. Cintia Machado (UFPR)– PhD student cin_machado@yahoo.com.br

MSc. Maria Isabel Sarvat de Figueiredo (UFRJ) belfig@gmail.com

MSc. Claúdio Adriano Piechnik (UFPR) – PhD student claudio.sapiens@gmail.com

MSc. Paula Foltran Gheller (IOUSP) – PhD student paulafgheller@usp.br

MSc. Edson Rodrigues Junior (UFPR) – PhD Student edsonrodj@gmail.com

MSc. Rafael Bendayan de Moura (UFPE) – PhD student lytechinusvariegatus@gmail.com

Geyze Magalhães de Faria (UFRJ) geyzefaria@gmail.com

MSc. Priscila Ikeda Ushimaro (IOUSP) priscobain@yahoo.com.br

Mariana Feijó-Oliveira (UNITAU) – MSc. Student mari.feijo@bol.com.br

Tais Maria de Souza Campos (UFRJ) tmscampos@yahoo.com.br

MSc. Gabriel Sousa Conzo Monteiro (IOUSP) gabrielmonteiro@usp.br

MSc. Yargos Kern (UFPR) ykern@cem.ufpr.br

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Thematic Area 4

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Dr. Cristina Engel de Alvarez (UFES) – Team Leader of Thematic Area 4 cristinaengel@pq.cnpq.br / engelalvarez@hotmail.com

Dr. Alexandre de Ávila Lerípio (UNIVALI) – Vice-Team Leader of Thematic Area 4 leripio@terra.com.br

Dr. Domingos Sávio Lyrio Simonetti (UFES) d.simonetti@ele.ufes.br

Dr. Ricardo Franci Gonçalves (UFES) franci@fluir.eng.br

Dr. Jussara Farias Fardin (UFES) jussara@ele.ufes.br

MSc. Anderson Buss Woelffel (UFES) andersonbwarquiteto@gmail.com

Dr. Neyval Costa Reis Junior (UFES) neyval@inf.ufes.br Dr. Paulo Sérgio de Paula Vargas (UFES) paulo.s.vargas@ufes.br

TECHNICAL ASSITANTS AND STUDENTS Deborah Martins Zaganelli - MSc student

MSc. Érica Coelho Pagel - PhD student

EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ACTIVITIES MSc. Déia Maria Ferreira dos Santos (IB/UFRJ) deia@biologia.ufrj.br

Rômulo Loureiro Casciano (IB/UFRJ) – Biologist rlcasciano@yahoo.com.br

Dr. Benedita Aglai Oliveira da Silva (IB/UFRJ) aglai@biologia.com.br

EXTERNAL COLLABORATORS Thematic Module 1

ANTARCTIC ATMOSPHERE AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN SOUTH AMERICA Dr. Alberto Waingort Setzer – Brazil (INPE/REDE CLIMA/ INCT para Mudanças Climáticas) alberto.setzer@cptec.inpe.br

Dr. Luciano Marani – Brazil (INPE/REDE CLIMA/ INCT para Mudanças Climáticas) lmarani@dge.inpe.br

Dr. Heitor Evangelista da Silva – Brazil (UERJ/INCT–Criosfera) heitor@uerj.br/ evangelista.uerj@gmail.com

Dr. Plínio Carlos Alvalá – Brazil (INPE/REDE CLIMA/ INCT para Mudanças Climáticas) plinio@dge.inpe.br

E-mails |

209

Tecnologista Heber Passos (INPE/INCT REDE CLIMA) heber.passos@cptec.inpe.br

Dr. Francesco Zaratti – Bolivia (University of San Andrès) zaratti@entelnet.bo

Dr. Eduardo J. Quel – Argentina (Argentine Armed Forces Scientifi c and Technical Research Institute – CITEFA) eduardojquel@gmail.com; quel@citefa.gov.ar

Dr. Cláudio Cassicia R. Salgado – Chile (University of Magallanes – UMAG) c.casiccia@gmail.com; claudio.casiccia@umag.cl

Dr. Elian Wolfram – Argentina (Argentine Armed Forces Scientifi c and Technical Research Institute – CITEFA) ewolfram@gmail.com; ewolfram@citefa.gov.ar Dr. Jacobo Salvador – Argentina (Argentine Armed Forces Scientifi c and Technical Research Institute – CITEFA) jsalvador@citefa.gov.ar

Dr. Félix Zamorano – Chile (University of Magallanes – UMAG) felix.zamorano@umag.cl Dr. Kazuo Makita – Japan (Takushoku University) kmakita@la.takushoku-u.ac.jp Dr. Hiromasa Yamamoto – Japan (Rikkyo University) yamamoto@rikkyo.ac.jp

Thematic Module 2

IMPACT OF GLOBAL CHANGES ON THE ANTARCTIC TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT Lubomir Kowacik – Slovakia (Comenius Univiversity) kovacik@fns.uniba.sk Dr. Heitor Evangelista da Silva – Brazil (UERJ/INCT–Criosfera) heitor@uerj.br/ evangelista.uerj@gmail.com

210

| Annual Activity Report 2011

Dra. Guendalina Turcatto(PUCRS) guendato@pucrs.br Dr. Gisela Dantas (UFMG) dantasgpm@gmail.com Dr. Maria Angélica Oliveira (UFSM) angelcure@gmail.com

A n n u a l A c t i v i t y R e p o r t 2 0 11 Expedient Editors

Production Proofreader

Collaboration Photograph Courtesy

Telephone/ Fax E-mail Home Page

Thematic Area 1 (Antarctic Atmosphere) Neusa Maria Paes Leme – INPE (Team Leader) Emília Corrêa – Mackenzie/INPE (Vice-team Leader)

International Scientific Assessor Lúcia de Siqueira Campos – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 2 (Antarctic Terrestrial Environment) Antonio Batista Pereira – UNIPAMPA (Team Leader) Maria Virgínia Petry – UNISINOS (Vice-team Leader)

Project Manager Assessor Adriana Galindo Dalto – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 3 (Antarctic Marine Environment) Helena Passeri Lavrado – IB/UFRJ (Team Leader) Edson Rodrigues – UNITAU (Vice-team Leader)

Executive Office Carla Maria da Silva Balthar – IB/UFRJ

Thematic Area 4 (Environmental Management) Cristina Engel de Alvarez – UFES (Team Leader) Alexandre de Avila Leripio – UNIVALI (Vice-team Leader)

Finance Technical Support Maria Helena Amaral da Silva – IBCCF/UFRJ Marta de Oliveira Farias – IBCCF/UFRJ

Production