Test Bank for American Corrections Concepts and Controversies,
2nd edition, Barry A. Krisberg Susan Marchionna Christopher J. Hartney
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Chapter 8: Juvenile Corrections
Test Bank
Multiple Choice
1. The first reform schools opened in ______.
A. New York
B. California
C. Nevada
D. Illinois Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Easy
2. Juveniles incarcerated in the House of Refuge were predominantly the children of ______.
A. poor immigrants
B. wealthy socialites
C. middle-class merchants
D. foreign tourists
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
3. Upon release from the House of Refuge, juveniles would be ______.
A. conscripted into the military
B. placed in vocational apprenticeships
C. forced to join the clergy
D. placed under mandatory house arrest
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
4. Which group was opposed to the religious teachings of the Houses of Refuge?
A. federal government
B. Catholic Church
C. trade unions
D. children's rights groups
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
5. It is estimated that almost ______ of youth ran away from the Refuges.
A. 10%
B. 20%
C. 30%
D. 40%
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
6. How did the Houses of Refuge receive their funding?
A. private donations from wealthy benefactors
B. government grants
C. selling the labor of inmates to private manufacturers
D. conducting tours of the facilities
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
7. The first statewide juvenile correctional facility was built in which state?
A. Maine
B. Connecticut
C. Massachusetts
D. New Jersey
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
8. What alternative to large-scale correctional facilities did the "child saver" Charles Loring Brace propose in the early 19th century?
A. enlisting offenders in the Merchant Marines
B. forcing juvenile offenders to live in a self-sustaining commune in the Northeast
C. banning juvenile offenders from appearing in public
D. placing urban youngsters with farm families in the Midwest
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
9. Which of the following accounts ignited a national discussion about the destructive nature of juvenile corrections and the need for reforms?
A. Orphan Trains
B. Cottage Six
C. Weeping in the Playtime of Others
D. The Jungle Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
10. What was the result of the Supreme Court ruling in In re Gault?
A. Juveniles were granted most of the due process and protection guarantees available to adults.
B. Corrections officers were protected against lawsuits from juvenile inmates who had been abused.
C. Juvenile corrections facilities were declared illegal.
D. All statewide juvenile facilities were placed under federal control. Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: IN THE COURTS: In re Gault
Difficulty Level: Medium
11. The conservative approach to crime policy dominated through all the following presidencies except that of ______.
A. George H. W. Bush
B. Bill Clinton
C. George W. Bush
D. Barack Obama Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Medium
12. During the 1980s and 1990s, the average amount of time that youth in California facilities were isolated in their cells was ______ hr a day.
A. 10
B. 16
C. 21
D. 24
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Easy
13. What is the most common type of juvenile facility in 2017?
A. maximum security institutions with more than 500 beds
B. small facilities with fewer than 300 beds
C. boot camps
D. unsupervised group homes
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
14. Which of the following facility types is most likely to restrict the movement of juvenile detainees?
A. environmental conservation camps
B. halfway houses
C. maximum-security institutions
D. camps
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
15. Which facility type is most likely to allow youth to attend school or work, spend time in the community, and visit with family?
A. maximum-security institutions
B. group homes
C. boot camps
D. detention centers
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
16. Which type of youth facility is most likely to be run by the state?
A. detention centers
B. group homes
C. long-term secure facilities
D. nature conservation camps
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
17. Which of the following is an example of a facility that is most often run by a private enterprise?
A. long-term secure facilities
B. detention centers
C. group homes
D. Tough Love programs
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
18. Detention centers are mostly run by ______ governments.
A. local
B. state
C. federal
D. private Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Easy
19. Which of the following states operates all of its juvenile corrections programs through state agencies?
A. California
B. Colorado
C. Ohio
D. Pennsylvania
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
20. Which of the following is true about the juvenile justice system in states like Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and West Virginia?
A. More than half of committed youth are sent to privately owned facilities.
B. All committed youth are sent to maximum-security institutions.
C. Less than one-third of committed youth are sent to group homes.
D. Privately owned juvenile facilities have been abolished.
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
21. Unlike adult facilities, juvenile institutions are required to provide ______ services.
A. entertainment
B. mental health
C. education
D. prenatal Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
22. Why are many juvenile detention facilities more than 30 years old?
A. The youth offender population is declining.
B. Boot camps have proven to be more successful.
C. They were built so well that they are still usable.
D. Officials would rather invest in adult facilities.
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
23. Compared to adult correctional facilities, juvenile facilities cost about ______ as much to operate on a per capita basis.
A. twice
B. four times
C. six times
D. 10 times
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Easy
24. What is the most important reason for the increased cost of juvenile corrections programs in comparison with programs for adults?
A. higher nutritional standards
B. larger entertainment budgets
C. laws requiring state-of-the art equipment
D. higher ratios of staff to residents
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Medium
25. Compared to adult correctional facilities, stays in juvenile facilities tend to be ______.
A. shorter
B. about the same
C. slightly longer
D. permanent Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Characteristics of Juveniles in Custody
Difficulty Level: Easy
26. What was the purpose of programs such as "Tough Love" and "Scared Straight”?
A. to put juvenile offenders to work in their communities
B. to punish parents along with juvenile offenders
C. to deter youth offenders by exposing them to adult correctional facilities
D. to keep juvenile offenders incarcerated for as long as possible
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Medium
27. As of 2013, African American youth were approximately ______ as likely to be referred to juvenile court as White youth.
A. one-third
B. half
C. twice
D. three times
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Overrepresentation of Youth of Color
Difficulty Level: Medium
28. Hispanic youth are ______ more likely than White youth to be placed out of home once their cases have been adjudicated.
A. 10%
B. 20%
C. 30%
D. 50%
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Overrepresentation of Youth of Color
Difficulty Level: Medium
29. Youth of color are less likely than White youth to receive ______.
A. out-of-home placement
B. diversion or probation
C. incarceration
D. referral to juvenile court
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Overrepresentation of Youth of Color
Difficulty Level: Medium
30. Sentencing practices for youth of color are ______.
A. more strict
B. more fair
C. less defined
D. less punitive
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Overrepresentation of Youth of Color
Difficulty Level: Medium
31. Which of the following crimes is more likely to lead to incarceration for females than for males?
A. theft
B. truancy
C. assault
D. arson
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Young Women and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
32. What is the most likely cause of the different institutionalization patterns for boys and girls?
A. statistical differences in the types of crimes committed
B. different socioeconomic classes for male and female offenders
C. societal biases toward "protecting" girls
D. a predominance of male lawyers and judges
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Young Women and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
33. Which of the following vocations is most likely to be taught to female juvenile offenders?
A. engineering
B. finance
C. mechanics
D. childcare
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Young Women and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
34. Tracking recidivism rates for juvenile offenders is more difficult than tracking rates for adults because ______.
A. the data must include information on adult offenses later in life
B. federal law prohibits tracking the activities of youth offenders
C. privately owned facilities are unwilling to share information with the government
D. juvenile offenses are completely wiped from public records at age 18
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
35. Which of the following statements about the evaluation of youth corrections programs is correct?
A. The federal government is better at tracking data than state governments.
B. State governments are better at tracking data than the federal government.
C. Both federal and state governments keep extensive data on youth recidivism.
D. There is little reliable data on either the federal or the state level.
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
36. Research from Florida and Pennsylvania shows that youth who were ______ were more likely to be arrested again within 1 year.
A. placed in diversion programs
B. granted parole
C. placed in group homes
D. incarcerated early or repeatedly
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
37. Which of the following is associated with a decreased risk of repeat criminal activity in juvenile offenders?
A. longer incarcerations
B. high-quality programming in custody
C. isolation from other offenders
D. being waived to adult court
Ans: B
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
38. According to a 2013 study in Canada, any involvement in the juvenile corrections system makes a person ______ as likely to commit violent or nonviolent offenses later in life.
A. one-third
B. half
C. twice
D. five times
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
39. When did the idea of boot camps as inexpensive deterrents for youth offenders gain traction in the U.S. Congress?
A. late 1960s
B. mid-1970s
C. late 1980s
D. early 2000s
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Easy
40. What is the primary purpose of boot camps in the context of juvenile corrections?
A. to help youth offenders connect with a community of their peers
B. to instill youth offenders with leadership abilities
C. to give youth offenders an appreciation of the natural world
D. to serve as a deterrent to further offenses
Ans: D
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Medium
41. Research conducted by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention found that boot camps produced results that were ______ other programs.
A. far better than
B. slightly better than
C. about the same as
D. far worse than
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Medium
42. Which of the following was a major problem associated with boot camps?
A. widespread physical abuse
B. frequent escapes by participants
C. isolation of participants
D. lack of federal and state government support
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Medium
43. What percentage of youth in residential placement were assigned to boot camps as of 2011?
A. less than 1%
B. 5%
C. 10%
D. 25%
Ans: A
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Easy
44. Which program encouraged parents to have their children incarcerated in adult jails?
A. boot camp
B. training schools
C. Tough Love
D. Scared Straight
Ans: C
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Medium
Multiple Response
1. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. Which of the following factors drove the early efforts to improve society's response to youth crime?
A. fear
B. social control
C. humanitarian concerns
D. desire for cheap labor
Ans: A, B, D
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
2. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. Which of the following were the core ideas of the New York House of Refuge?
A. independent study
B. forced work
C. rigid discipline
D. religious indoctrination
Ans: B, C, D
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Medium
3. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. Which of the following were consequences of the increase in juvenile arrests during the 1980s and 1990s?
A. Facilities became crowded.
B. Treatment resources increased.
C. Education resources declined.
D. Abuse claims declined.
Ans: A, C
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Medium
4. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. During the 1980s and 1990s, California state institutions were found to have violated federal laws covering ______.
A. education
B. nutrition
C. mental health services
D. health care
Ans: A, C, D
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Medium
5. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. According to recent national surveys, which of the following crimes were reported to have been committed against juvenile offenders by staff?
A. sexual assault
B. robberies by threat or force
C. premeditated murder
D. identity theft
Ans: A, B
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level:
6. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. Juvenile inmates are predominately ______.
A. White
B. racial and ethnic minorities
C. males
D. females
Ans: B, C
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Characteristics of Juveniles in Custody
Difficulty Level: Easy
True/False
1. The first juvenile corrections facility was called the House of Refuge.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
2. Most inmates at the first juvenile corrections facility were sent there voluntarily by their parents.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
3. Labor unions were opposed to work programs for juvenile inmates.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
4. In the 1970s, Jerome Miller reformed the Massachusetts juvenile corrections system by consolidating all existing facilities into one large, maximum-security prison.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
5. There have been many high-profile cases that have detailed sexual assault and violence against juveniles in corrections facilities.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Easy
6. Beginning in 1974, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention promoted an approach to juvenile corrections that emphasized smaller facilities and community-based programs.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Easy
7. The number of youth in detention or out-of-home placement declined significantly after 1997.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Medium
8. Governments are more willing to invest in new juvenile facilities than in new adult facilities.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Easy
9. There is strong evidence on both the state and federal level to show that juvenile corrections programs are effective.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Recidivism Rates and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Medium
10. The use of boot camps has declined significantly in the 21st century.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: 8-8: To be able to discuss programs such as boot camps and how their effectiveness should be determined.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Easy
Short Answer
1. List the motivations of the founders of the first juvenile corrections programs.
Ans: Early juvenile corrections reformers were primarily concerned with removing poor immigrant children from the streets to prevent a possible class uprising and maintain social control.
Learning Objective: 8-1: To understand the origins of the juvenile justice system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Hard
2. Identify some of the problems that plagued the Houses of Refuge. Ans: The facilities were plagued with riots, violence, and fires, and approximately 40% of inmates ran away.
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Hard
3. What was the purpose of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act?
Ans: The act established the federal Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. The office promoted the Massachusetts approach toward juvenile corrections, advocating for smaller facilities and community-based placements and programs.
Learning Objective: 8-3: To understand the impetus for the passage of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Hard
4. List the major differences between adult and juvenile corrections programs and facilities.
Ans: Unlike adult facilities, juvenile facilities are required to provide educational services to inmates. Juvenile facilities also have a higher ratio of staff to residents, which leads to much higher operating costs. These higher costs mean there is less money to invest in building new facilities, meaning juvenile facilities are typically older and in worse shape than adult facilities.
Learning Objective: 8-6: To name several important ways that juvenile and adult facilities are different.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Hard
5. Which types of programs have been shown to reduce recidivism rates among juvenile offenders?
Ans: The best results tend to be associated with intensive home- or community-based services. Among locked facilities, those that are smaller and less prisonlike have better rates of success.
Learning Objective: 8-7: To grasp the basics of the measurement of youth program effectiveness.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Structure of the Juvenile Justice System
Difficulty Level: Hard
Essay
1. What types of reforms were enacted in the Massachusetts juvenile corrections system in the 1960s and 1970s, and what were some of the factors that influenced them?
Ans: In the 1960s, the state of Massachusetts recruited mental health professional Dr. Jerome Miller to oversee a reform of the state juvenile corrections system. The reforms were motivated by public outcry over a series of reports describing widespread physical and sexual abuse of youth in custody. Miller initially attempted to transform the existing training schools into less restrictive therapeutic communities, but he faced significant opposition. Ultimately, he closed down all of the state training schools and replaced them with small, community-based residential and nonresidential programs that substantially reduced recidivism rates.
Learning Objective: 8-2: To be able to discuss the factors that led to the juvenile justice system reforms in Massachusetts.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: A Brief History
Difficulty Level: Hard
2. What changes occurred in the U.S. juvenile corrections system in the 1990s? What were the causes and effects of these changes?
Ans: The juvenile corrections system took a more conservative turn during the 1990s. The national discourse on crime policy was influenced by a number of criminologists warning of an impending wave of juvenile "superpredators," and as a result, a succession of presidential administrations took increasingly tough stances on childhood crime. This resulted in a sharp increase in juvenile offenders being placed in locked residential facilities and new laws intended to protect the operators of these institutions such as the 1995 Prison Litigation Reform Act. Facilities quickly became overcrowded and allegations of abuse and mistreatment skyrocketed. By the end of the 1990s, many states began to turn away from this more conservative approach and enacted reforms similar to those implemented in Massachusetts in the 1970s.
Learning Objective: 8-4: To gain an overview of the current juvenile system.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Past 30 Years: More Cycles of Scandal and Reform
Difficulty Level: Hard
3. What role does race or ethnicity play in the treatment of juvenile offenders? What are some theories for the causes of these disparities?
Ans: Race and ethnicity have been shown to be a significant factor in determining the treatment of juvenile offenders. African American and Latino youth are disproportionately represented among the population of youth in custody. African American youth are nearly 5 times as likely as White youth to be placed in a locked residential facility or waived to adult court, and youth of color are much less likely to be offered less severe forms of punishment, such as probation or in-home placement. There are several theories as to why such disparities exist. Many believe that prejudices against youth of color, informed by the "superpredator" claims of the 1990s, are to blame, while others suggest that a lack of adequate legal representation and community-based alternatives to incarceration place youth of color at a disadvantage.
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Overrepresentation of Youth of Color
Difficulty Level: Hard
4. How are female juvenile offenders treated differently than their male counterparts?
Ans: Although girls make up just 14% of all residents in juvenile corrections facilities, they are often at a disadvantage in the juvenile justice system. Females are often incarcerated for less serious crimes, such as truancy or curfew violations, due to paternalistic attitudes regarding the need to "protect" young women from exploitation. Once young women are placed in residential facilities, they face higher rates of sexual abuse and fewer educational opportunities, with vocational training often limited to stereotypically feminine occupations, such as cosmetology or childcare. Staff are often not trained to provide gender-responsive health care.
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Young Women and Juvenile Corrections
Difficulty Level: Hard
5. Discuss the rise of boot camps as a corrections option and how attitudes toward these programs have changed over time.
Ans: Boot camps are programs that place juvenile offenders in military-style settings that emphasize physical discipline and exercise. They emerged as an alternative to traditional residential facilities in the 1980s and 1990s, as attitudes toward juvenile crime took a more conservative turn. Proponents of boot camps suggested that the harsh environment of boot camps would serve as a deterrent to youthful offenders and result in lower rates of recidivism. However, studies showed that the camps were not successful in lowering the rate of recidivism. Worse, the camps were prone to abuse, resulting in a number of lawsuits for wrongful deaths and injuries. By the early 21st century, many states had significantly reduced their funding for such programs.
Learning Objective: 8-5: To discuss differential treatment based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Juvenile Corrections Fads
Difficulty Level: Hard