Interiors Construction Manual

Interiors Construction Manual INTEGRATED PLANNING FINISHINGS AND FITTING-OUT TECHNICAL SERVICES

Edition ∂

HAUSLADEN TICHELMANN

Authors Gerhard Hausladen Prof. Dr.-Ing. Chair for Building Climate & Building Services, Munich University of Technology Karsten Tichelmann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Institute for Dry & Lightweight Construction (ITL) Institute for Timber & Dry Lining Materials Testing (VHT), Darmstadt

Specialist contribution (introduction): Wolfgang Brune, Dipl.-Ing., architect and urban planner Brune Architekten, Munich Assistants, specialist contributions: Bernhard Friedsam, Dr. med., specialist for acupuncture (comfort), practice of Dr. med. Bernhard Friedsam, Munich Christoph Matthias, Dipl.-Ing. Designer (light) Lichtlauf – Planung.Design.Produkt, Munich

Project management: Ulla Feinweber, Dipl.-Ing. Architect (space and form, integrated planning, technical services); Katrin Rohr, Dipl.-Ing. (space and form, integrated planning, technical services); Bastian Ziegler, Dipl.-Ing. (finishings and fittings-out)

Thomas Rühle, Dipl.-Ing. (materials) Intep – Integrale Planung GmbH, Munich

Assistants: Cécile Bonnet, Dipl.-Ing. (energy supplies); Philipp Dreher, Dr.-Ing. (light); Julia Drittenpreis, Dipl.-Ing. (concepts and building typologies); Martin Ehlers, Dipl.-Ing. (planning the sanitary installations); Elisabeth Endres, Dipl.-Ing. (comfort, energy requirements); Michael Fischer, Dipl.-Ing. Architect (building standards); Johanne Alesia Friederich, BA, MSc (planning the electrical installation); Robert Fröhler, MEng (space requirements for technical services); Zuzana Giertlová, Dr. (fire protection in: materials, heating/cooling/ventilation, planning the electrical installation, space requirements for technical services); Christian Huber, Dipl.-Ing. (space requirements for technical services); Friedemann Jung, Dipl.-Ing. (location and climate, energy requirements, heating/cooling/ ventilation); Hana Riemer, Dipl.-Ing. (concepts and building typologies); Timm Rössel, Dipl.-Ing., MSc (heating/cooling/ventilation); Judith Schinabeck, Dipl.-Ing. (materials); Uta Steinwallner, Dipl.-Ing. (heating/cooling/ ventilation); Tobias Wagner, Dipl.-Ing. (energy supplies, planning the sanitary installations); Sebastian Wissel, Dipl.-Ing. (building automation)

Lars Klemm, Dipl.-Rest. (concepts and building typologies – museums) Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics, Valley

Undergraduate assistants (Chair for Building Climate & Building Services): Christine Sittenauer, Philipp Vohlidka

Thomas Roggenkamp, Dipl.-Ing., MEng Trane – Klima- und Kältetechnisches Büro GmbH, Krailling

Editorial services

Bibliographic information published by the German National Library.

The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Project Manager: Steffi Lenzen, Dipl.-Ing. Architect Editor: Cornelia Hellstern, Dipl.-Ing. Editorial assistants: Carola Jacob-Ritz, MA; Sandra Leitte, Dipl.-Ing.; Julia Liese, Dipl.-Ing.; Peter Popp, Dipl.-Ing.; Eva Schönbrunner, Dipl.-Ing. Drawings: Dejanira Ornella Bitterer, Dipl.-Ing.; Melanie Denys, Dipl.-Ing.; Ralph Donhauser, Dipl.-Ing.; Daniel Hajduk, Dipl.-Ing.; Martin Hämmel, Dipl.-Ing.; Emese Köszegi, Dipl.-Ing.; Nicola Kollmann, Dipl.-Ing. Architect; Simon Kramer, Dipl.-Ing.; Elisabeth Krammer, Dipl.-Ing. Translation into English: Gerd H. Söffker, Philip Thrift, Hannover Proofreading: Raymond D. Peat, Alford, UK Production & layout: Roswitha Siegler, Simone Soesters Reproduction: Martin Härtl OHG, Martinsried Printing & binding: Kösel GmbH & Co. KG, Altusried-Krugzell

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Peter Springl, Dipl.-Ing. (sanitary installations) Springl – Ingenieurbüro für Haustechnik, Ingolstadt

Consultancy services: Robert Busch-Maass, Dipl.-Ing., MAS Lumen3 Lichtplanungsbüro, Munich Fabian Ghazai, Dipl.-Ing. (building automation) Chair for Building Climate & Building Services, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Hausladen, Munich University of Technology Ingenieurbüro Hausladen GmbH, Kirchheim Josef Bauer; Florian Hausladen, Dipl.-Ing., MEng; Cornelia Jacobsen, Dipl.-Ing. Christoph Meyer, Dr.-Ing. Ingenieurbüro für Bauklimatik – Hausladen+Meyer GbR, Kassel

This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.

This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-0346-0134-4) Publisher: Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich www.detail.de © 2010 English translation of the 1st German edition Birkhäuser GmbH PO Box 133, 4010 Basel, Switzerland Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp.

TCF∞ ISBN: 978-3-0346-0282-2 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-3-0346-0284-6 (softcover) 987654321

www.birkhauser-architecture.com

Contents

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Preface

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Part A Space and form Gerhard Hausladen 1 Comfort Elisabeth Endres, Ulla Feinweber, Bernhard Friedsam 2 Light Philipp Dreher, Christoph Matthias, Katrin Rohr 3 Materials Ulla Feinweber, Thomas Rühle, Judith Schinabeck

Gerhard Hausladen Heating, cooling, ventilation Friedemann Jung, Timm Rössel, Uta Steinwallner 2 Planning the electrical installation Johanne Friederich, Sebastian Wissel 3 Planning the sanitary installation Martin Ehlers, Peter Springl, Tobias Wagner 4 Space requirements for technical services Robert Fröhler, Christian Huber

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Introduction On the idea of the interior Wolfgang Brune

Part D Technical services

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186 196

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46 Part E 60

Case studies

Project examples 1 to 20

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Part F Appendix Part B

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2 3

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Integrated planning

Gerhard Hausladen Concepts and building typologies Julia Drittenpreis, Hana Riemer, Lars Klemm Location factors Friedemann Jung Energy and buildings Elisabeth Endres, Michael Fischer, Friedemann Jung Energy supplies Cécile Bonnet, Tobias Wagner

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Statutory instruments, directives, standards Bibliography Authors Picture credits Index of names Subject index

274 277 279 280 283 284

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Part C Finishings and fitting-out

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Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler Wall systems Ceiling systems Flooring systems Fire-resistant casing systems

120 140 156 168

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Preface

Normally, when we think about architecture we do not immediately think of the interior. Instead, it is primarily the outsides of buildings that attract our attention and the attention of the critics.

The built environment – in the best cases we can speak of architecture – represents not only the client, but much more the society in which it is erected, from which it has evolved. There are good reasons why the expression “culture of building” has kindled ambitious discussions surrounding the existence or non-existence of architecture.

And perhaps quite rightly so. For the building envelope does indeed shape its immediate environment and not infrequently exercises a considerable influence on a locality. At best, we see the insides of only a fraction of the buildings we encounter. When it comes to the interior of a building, it seems that this matter is, at first glance, very much more private, subjective and, primarily, ephemeral, changeable.

When we do consider the interior, it is mostly from the functional viewpoint, the requirements that living, learning, working, sports, the arts or leisure activities place on the building. Accordingly, the architect normally draws up plans for rooms – within the overall context of the whole building, of course – according to the interior layout requirements defined beforehand in his brief. Here, besides economic aspects, it is frequently functionality and flexibility that are the main criteria. At the same time, however, the interior means much more than just the enclosed areas within a building. It is the place for people to live, relax and develop, and the yardstick by which they measure those things. The use of an interior space should be reflected in its design.

The dimensions and proportions of the rooms, their zoning, degree of openness, lighting and navigation create differentiated areas, enable us to experience the interior. The interior fittingout, with its choice of shapes, materials and lighting, becomes a crucial aspect with respect to atmosphere and well-being. Intangible qualities such as interior climate, acoustics, odours, lighting conditions and colours exercise a subtle influence on users and their perception of the interior which is impossible to ignore. Appropriate knowledge, appreciation and consideration at

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an early stage of the design is therefore the foundation for successful planning.

However, the architectural, haptic and intangible qualities of interior spaces can never be considered in isolation. They are always directly related to each other and to the exterior conditions, e.g. climate, location, traffic, regional materials and energy supplies. Good architecture is therefore quite rightly defined as a successful exterior AND interior.

Many planning and design tasks these days are linked with all the components of the interiors of the building stock. The building stock frequently brings with it – in addition to the boundary conditions already mentioned above – diverse geometrical, functional and, usually, technical characteristics or preconditions. What we need here, much more than with new-build projects, is interdisciplinary thinking at the design stage plus adequate knowledge of the possibilities and systems. In doing so, the flexibility of the interior, especially when considering old buildings, turns out to be not only a desirable sideeffect, but rather the critical prerequisite for developing buildings fit for the future.

In principle, the development of sustainable architecture (inside and outside) has to be understood as a multi-dimensional, integrative process that takes place on many different levels of the planning and calls for an approach appropriate to the location, the users and the brief. In other words, a holistic view of all matters and the building within a total system. This therefore combines ambitious architecture with an optimised loadbearing structure, intelligent use of building services and suitable choice of materials at the detail level. That in turn presumes integrated planning and cooperation right from the start. This demand applies to the interior to the same extent, to its surfaces, the design of visible and/or invisible details and aesthetically integrated building services that function optimally and seem to be a natural part of the whole.

The elements of the interior fitting-out that create the interior spaces themselves – like those of the entire building – not only have to satisfy requirements such as sound and thermal insu-

lation, moisture control and fire protection, but in addition room acoustics, hygiene and interior climate functions. Successful planning therefore calls for extensive specialist knowledge.

The integration of highly functional technical services elements represents only one of the many challenges.

The Interiors Construction Manual not only adds yet another theme to the series of Construction Manuals from DETAIL, but also presents a multifaceted, interdisciplinary work that implies an integrated planning process. What we are dealing with here is not so much one type or form of construction, not one building material, not one or several construction elements. Instead, the focus is the “total concept” planning approach, an alliance between engineering (sciences), research and architecture. The Interiors Construction Manual provides fundamental and in-depth specialist knowledge for all phases of the design process. It will serve architects, engineers and students as a sound work of reference and an aid for making and explaining their decisions.

Preserving the tried-and-tested layout of the Construction Manuals from DETAIL, the Interiors Construction Manual is divided into five main parts complemented by a thematic introduction and a comprehensive appendix.

The introduction, “On the idea of the interior”, focuses on the key aspects of this subject. It explores the history and besides describing the general development of interior works also establishes the principal relationships between interior and exterior design.

Part A, “Space and form”, discusses intangible influences and qualities such as comfort, light and materials. The principal theme here is perception and atmosphere, seemingly “soft” factors that, however, are far less subjective than is often supposed and in most cases can be readily planned and controlled. Critical for our well-being, in addition to quantifiable comfort and optimum lighting design, is the choice of materials, which implies direct tactile experiences and at the same time has to take into account all the technical demands regarding durability and life cycles. The aim of this section of the book is not to describe all the materials available,

but rather to provide the basis for reaching decisions regarding the specific use of this or that material for a particular interior detail.

Part B, “Integrated planning”, presents the theory of how it can and should work in practice. All the framework conditions are reflected in this part of the book and demonstrate the wide range of influences. As the qualities of the interior can only function in the context of the exterior and all the other overriding requirements, this section of the book in particular is guided by the notion of interdisciplinary thinking at the interface between building envelope and space. The interior design can follow the form of the building and its envelope, but can also be designed to contrast with them. What is essential here, though, is the holistic consideration of the building as a complete system: outside – inside, urban space – interior space, general – detailed. From the master urban planning documents and concepts for energy supplies to communities right down to detailed issues of the building’s construction and services, networked thinking and an interdisciplinary working process are always in the forefront of successful planning.

Part C, “Finishings and fitting-out”, discusses the current standards and designs for wall, ceiling and floor systems and devotes considerable attention to the use of lightweight and dry materials for interior works. Just as in the past, the form of the enclosing elements in conjunction with the technical elements is still unfortunately mainly additive instead of integrative, and this means that the options available are by no means fully exploited. The flexibility and integration of building services requirements in conjunction with unrestricted forms and an almost unrestricted choice of materials deserve particular attention here. The transition between the individual subjects is often indistinct – exactly like the transitions between the individual interior spaces. The contours between wall, ceiling and floor systems plus space-forming furniture are becoming increasingly vague.

The desire to make building services aspects “invisible” increases the demands, increases the complexity. Junctions, connections and details are therefore given special attention in this section.

Part D, “Technical services”, investigates the

building services options in depth without, however, becoming bogged down in technical details. The communication of relevant knowledge for the successful planning of interior works is the focus of the treatment here. Themes such as HVAC (heating, ventilating & air conditioning), planning of electrical and plumbing installations or the space requirements of building services concentrate on presenting the vital specialist knowledge needed to underpin decisions.

Potential solutions for all designers involved with interior works are provided, which at the same time promotes mutual understanding – a fundamental prerequisite for successful integrated cooperation.

The projects shown in Part E, “Case studies”, were mainly selected in order to illustrate the relationship between the demands placed on the interior design, the quality of the construction and, in some circumstances, also conservation and building services requirements. The projects show the broad spectrum of interior works with all its interdisciplinary approaches on an exemplary architectural level. Keywords at the end of each project description provide a brief guide to the particular features and selection criteria of the respective project. Nevertheless, these projects remain merely examples of the almost infinite possibilities and recent rapid technological developments and should be used and understood as such.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to all those institutions and persons whose competent and dedicated contributions have helped to make this book possible. Our thanks also go to our families and friends who cleared the decks in order that we could complete this publication.

The authors and publishers August 2009

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Introduction

On the idea of the interior Interiors are life-worlds Genesis Interiors for cultural identification Built aspiration The new spirit and the unconfined space The living space experiment The “plan libre�

The industrialisation of the life-world Light and space Personalisation and tradition The demand for clarity Fitting-out and room concepts

Fig. 1

10 10 11 13 15 16 19 20 23 23 24 26 29

Humayun Mausoleum, c. 1570, Delhi (IND)

9

Introduction

secular conversion and the refurbishment work completed in 2003. We therefore have a timeline that stretches from the building’s first construction to the interpretation of today. We must begin with a journey: King Ludwig I of Bavaria spent the Christmas of 1823 in Palermo and celebrated midnight mass in the Palatine Chapel.

His enthusiasm for this church dating from the 12th century knew no bounds. He was especially fascinated by the mosaics on their gold background and he appointed Klenze to design a chapel for his palace in Munich. Byzantine style was totally alien to Klenze, partly because it was the province of Cornelius and Gärtner.

His classical Greek design won no favour with Ludwig I and was ridiculed by Gärtner. In the end, Klenze bowed to Ludwig’s request, at least for the outside. But for the inside he devised an extraordinarily legible internal structure with elaborate decoration in the form of marble floors, colourful paintings on a gold background and wall linings of stucco (Fig. 9).

The lighting is interesting. Whereas the decoration to the surfaces below the gallery tends to be dark, the upper half of the interior shines due to the radiance of the paintings illuminated by the light from the side windows. Ludwig’s place is of course in the gallery, which is connected to the palace itself. The king and his entourage therefore enter from behind, illuminated in the radiance of the golden surfaces and on the level of the biblical images. His entrance becomes a ritual in which the divine and historical legitimacy of his sovereignty are united.

The refurbishment has completely altered the lighting. The church, destroyed in the war, left with makeshift repairs for a long time and disfigured by an extension on the east side, had lost its significance. The secularised interior is now used for events all kinds. The masonry is now visible on the inside, i.e. there are no reflective surfaces, and luminous ceilings have been installed below the gallery that illuminate the main part of the interior from the sides. The impression of the interior has therefore been reversed, perhaps a treatment of the historical substance appropriate to secularisation.

9 Court Church of All Saints, Munich (D), 1837, Leo von Klenze; interior painting by Heinrich von Hes 10 Moller House, Vienna (A), 1928, Adolf Loos a – d Plans of ground floor to roof terrace The route through all floors and the respective viewpoints are shown. e Garden facade There is nothing here to reveal the compositional boldness that determines the interior or the road facade. f Road facade A free composition, put together like an abstract painting, which despite its autonomy reveals a critical element of Loos’ Raumplan: the “oriel room”, which cantilevers from the middle of the facade, allows an overview of the spatial relationship of the entire main floor. g Oriel room in 1930 h Oriel room today 9

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The new spirit and the unconfined space At the turning point from monarchical to postmonarchical societies, a design freedom appeared that put the individual view of life to the test. Only in this way can we understand the positions and work of the individual architects of that period. The architect Adolf Loos, born in Brno in Moravia, plays a special role in our new understanding of interior space.

The architecture critic Julius Posener places Loos in a line with Andrea Palladio, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, and regards these architects as “the true classical school”.

These very different architects can be assigned to one category – and a classical one at that – “because they granted ornamentation no or only a very minor role and tried to unveil the essence of architecture” [3]. Why is Adolf Loos granted this honour? Loos’ rejection of ornamentation is not a rejection of designed form. On the contrary, it is a rejection of insubstantial design, of meaningless form, of the repetition of the traditional. We can add nothing new to that today. We can only appreciate Adolf Loos’ position if we understand just how demanding was his struggle to achieve the essential in architecture. And that at a time when the visual tradition did not pay homage to the essence of spatial relationships or the precision in sequences of spaces and uses. Instead, this was a time when artistic, historically based design was endorsed. Very much a problem of the present day!

Posener describes the essence of architecture using Le Corbusier’s three favourite terms: scale, proportion and geometry. Loos based every design on a principle that in turn was based on the relationship of the dimensions, the spaces and their respective relationship to function. Of course, he also had a purpose in this, namely a calculated effect, generating a state of mind in the people, to touch them: “The task of the architect is therefore to specify this state of mind exactly. The room must be cosy, the house appear homely. The courthouse must look like a threatening gesture to the secret vice. The bank must say to us: ‘Your money is secure among honest people.’” [4] Loos transfers the purposefulness of the ornamentation in historicism to the interior space.

So here it becomes clear that Loos – and this is the only possible interpretation of his writings – felt himself chosen to educate his society, to show it his position, a position opposing the artistic, the decorative, a position in favour of the simple, the essential, developed out of materials and ideas based on utilisation. This self-assuredness and self-image of the planner, who wishes to guide a society towards a new way of thinking, motivated Loos in his vitriolic writings against the Vienna Secession. Apart from this very polemic criticism, we have to thank him for one idea that became crucial to the 20th century: the Raumplan (Frampton: “plan of volumes”).

Following his training in Dresden, Loos spent three years in the USA, where he was introduced

Introduction

to the positions of the sculptor Horatio Greenough and the architects John Wellborn Root and Louis Sullivan. All three were in favour of simplicity, clarity and austerity in architecture and gave priority to practical value. After his return, Loos settled in Vienna, a city that was receptive to the ideas coming from England at an early date, on the one hand in the form of exhibitions on the Arts and Crafts movement, which in the end manifested itself in the foundation of the Wiener Werkstätte, and, on the other, with the examination of Palladianism, primarily through the book Das englische Haus (the English house)

by Muthesius.

Loos, encouraged by his experiences in the USA, tried to unite practical value, homeliness and spatial and formal clarity in his work. For him, the Raumplan was the portrayal of the hierarchies of the individual living and ancillary rooms within an overall structure. In the Raumplan traditional hierarchies, such as those of entrance, living and sleeping quarters, dissolve into a flow of volumes. Loos did not design on plan, he composed in space. He himself never spoke of a Raumplan, but in retrospect, after the rejection of his contribution to the Weisenhof Estate in Stuttgart, described his programme thus: “I would have had something to show, namely the resolution of the arrangement of the living room in space, not on one plane, storey by storey, as was always the case hitherto. With this invention I would have saved mankind much time and effort in its evolution. For that is the great revolution in architecture: resolving the plan in space.

Prior to Immanuel Kant, mankind could not think in space and architects were forced to make the toilet as high as the hall.” [5] The design in space described in this way led Loos to staggered but nevertheless related levels with different room heights. Two examples from his later works demonstrate the import and topicality of his invention. And it is perhaps worthwhile to remind the reader that both of these examples were created 80 years ago. Their bold clarity is still impressive today.

Moller House at Starkfriedgasse 19 in Vienna, completed in 1928, brings together all the design elements typical of Loos’ last period of creativity (Fig. 10). The facade facing the road is an inward-looking, abstract composition based on the square. For the Viennese this was a radical demonstration of the autonomy of the new way of building, but in essence it still remained true to the loadbearing fenestrate facade and the grand gesture of the sequence of spaces within. Loos was unable to overcome this balancing act between the tried-and-tested of the historically established and its reinterpretation. However, it is precisely this combination of traditional and modern that makes his accomplishments so relevant today. The facade facing the garden is again very simple and takes its points of reference from the interior and its grid-lines. In order to be able to realise the theory of the different room heights for rooms with different uses, a loadbearing facade and an internal column, which at the same time houses

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Introduction

“It is essential for a style to arise out of the difficulties of modern living conditions. The growth of the awareness and fulfilment of all the needs resulting from the shortcomings resulted in a compression compared to the reduction of the pseudo-modern style. The small number of mostly cramped spaces does not allow them to be withdrawn from constant use to serve a single purpose. A living room is at the same time a dining room, often a room for guests; the bedroom is at the same time the study, and all rooms have to be used for daily purposes, have to be adaptable. The demand for furniture to be mobile is quite right here, but this does not mean that, like divans, desks, benches, etc., it should be positioned askew within the room or alter its place every day. But this characteristic should not create more work through handling difficulties or the need to clear away bedding (e.g. in the case of a divan), nor should the ventilation options suffer, nor should the furniture be uncomfortable, ugly or expensive.

“The shortcomings therefore became the governing principle. This gave rise to another, major advantage in addition to being able to avoid the superfluous and burdensome. We had recognised how we can do justice to the needs of the most necessary comforts in the smallest space and would now be able to design a pleasant interior to a house that is rational in use and therefore economical. And that for the workers, too, not just the bosses. But it is not

enough to create a house with many small cells, as if for bees, and then leave the occupants to their fate, allow them to move in with their excessive quantities of old-fashioned, space-consuming, irrational-in-every-direction furniture. Instead, the house should be designed from the start so that all needs are met, and the occupants should be provided with purposeful furniture and instructed in how to organise it.

Only that would be true residential culture. The furniture shown here by Franz Singer, Vienna 9, Wasserburggasse 2, is patented. German representative: Margit Téry, Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Laubenheimerstrasse 1.” [6] A good example of this manifest can be seen in the design for a guesthouse in the garden of Countess Heriot. Every room lives from change.

For example, the bed can be rotated out of the landing, the lamp folded against the wall. All loose furniture is designed for several different situations (Fig. 14).

Shortly after this design, the pair separated.

Friedl Dicker’s social and political commitments led to her arrest and later to her emigration to Prague. She turned more and more to painting.

In late 1944 she was deported to Auschwitz and murdered. The growing political pressure forced Franz Singer to flee to London, where he began afresh with the development of a prefabricated system for the interior fitting-out of old apartments. Their joint works were almost completely destroyed and are only scantily documented.

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The “plan libre” “Architecture is not the object of clever speculation and should in reality be understood merely as an everyday procedure, an expression of how mankind asserts itself with respect to its environment and how mankind tries to master it.” [7] Mies van der Rohe, the author of this concise but irresistibly precise formulation, was – for a long time – one of the two most important architects of the 20th century. He and Le Corbusier shaped architecture from the 1920s onwards like no others. All the themes of current productions in the culture of building relate in some way or other to the positions of these geniuses. With their work they defined what the avant-garde was and still is today. The brief spotlight that will be cast on examples of their creativity here cannot do justice to their positions in the history of architecture, but does allow the reader to surmise the reach of their work.

The abstract form plays a prominent role in the architectural language in which these two exceptional planners reformulated living spaces and life-worlds. In Le Corbusier we encounter the rare example of an architect who could establish the theoretical approach before the built examples.

His Dom-Ino system dating from 1914, a prefabricated framework of reinforced concrete members reduced to floor slabs, columns and stairs, proved to be the starting point for the unconfined plan layout, the unrestricted facade design. The columns are set back and therefore allow the design of the facade to be independent of the loadbearing external wall and hence the tectonic debate. The floor slabs span between the columns and therefore transfer the vertical planning freedom to the horizontal plane.

Le Corbusier developed these freedoms in his Five Points Towards a New Architecture (1926) and explored their inherent potential further.

The use of the “pilotis”, i.e. the stilts raising the building clear of the ground, avoids interrupting the landscape and relieves the structure of all its references to its surroundings. The house on stilts hardly touches the ground, merely “docks” onto it. The association with shipping is certainly intended here. An imposing entrance is no longer common in this notion. The column as a stilt relieves the planner of all contextual references and frees the design from all demands for integration. We can see here the utopian dimension of modern architecture, which rejects any concessions to the towns and cities of the late 19th century. The rooftop garden, as the fifth facade, only becomes conceivable when we understand the building as a cube. It is this that provides the crucial added value of the design once built – whether Villa Savoye or Unite d’Habitation. It is a contrived buildingrelated social space that returns the developed area of the building to the city in the form of a garden. The long horizontal window (fenêtre en longeur) and the uninterrupted facade need each other and are only possible because the structure is set back from the facade. The over-

Introduction

riding idea is certainly the “plan libre”, the free plan, in which the freedom from all the ties of the building work of the past reaches its climax.

Le Corbusier did not regard the room as a more or less enclosed unit, but rather as part of a pervasive, flowing composition. His “five points” provided an opportunity for every formal gesture at every point. And his “Le Modulor”, a system of proportions that Le Corbusier first began developing in 1942, placed all his designs in relation to a human scale. The free spirit and the human scale constitute the theoretical structure in the work of Le Corbusier (Fig. 15).

Villa Savoye near Paris is an excellent example of how he united all these principles in his architecture. The building does not have a principal facade and stands in the centre of a park overlooking the Seine valley, surrounded by deciduous woods and meadows. The villa opens out equally in all directions. The living quarters with terraces and rooftop garden are raised clear of the ground and therefore enables its occupants to enjoy the views. The ground floor is arranged around the entrance below the house, which is unpretentious and incidental. The “gradual ascent”, i.e. the access to the upper floors by means of a long ramp, and also the stroll through the interior space, begins on the ground floor. Le Corbusier exploited the frame construction, with the loadbearing structure being separated from the interior fitting-out, to allow himself every freedom in the interior layout, e.g. a bathroom with rounded alcoves for toilet and wash-basin. These motifs permeate the entire building and are also visible on the exterior. Rounded walls on the roof shield users against the wind and lend the building its sculptural character (Fig. 16a).

The relationship between loadbearing structure and interior fitting-out enters a new dimension in the thinking of Le Corbusier because here the loadbearing structure underpins the freedom in the layout of the rooms, which the fittingout then serves. The architecture of Le Corbusier pays homage to the colour white. White plaster and render on the surfaces disclose his programme in the most undisguised way imaginable.

In later years, Le Corbusier contrasted this with fair-face concrete in a masterly way. This is where his artistic talent is expressed most powerfully because the concrete illustrates the sculptural dimension of his work. Furthermore, Le Corbusier had developed his own colour spectrum that creates particular relationships. The colours intonate, they guide, they permit recognition, etc.

Le Corbusier’s buildings are walk-in sculptures, artistic conceptions and compositions on every level (Fig. 16b).

It was around the same time that Mies van der Rohe produced a design for a pavilion that used very similar principles to those of Le Corbusier’s “five points”, but led to different results. Both Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe worked in the practice of Peter Behrens; Walter Gropius, the man who brought Mies van der Rohe to the Bauhaus, had also worked there. Mies van der Rohe turned the Bauhaus into a school of architecture when he was in charge from 1930 to 1933.

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Living room, guesthouse for Countess Heriot, Vienna (A), 1933, Friedl Dicker, Franz Singer a During the day b At night “Le Modulor”, Le Corbusier, 1942 After Albert Einstein had met Le Corbusier in Princetown, he wrote about “Le Modulor”: “[It is] a scale of proportions which makes the bad difficult and the good easy.” The publication describing “Le Modulor” spread surprisingly quickly throughout the entire world without the need for any advertising.

Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine (F), 1931, Le Corbusier a Elevation b The “gradual ascent” – the internal ramps

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Fre

sh

Room and air to DIN 1946 and document “AMEV RLT-Anlagen-Bau-93” Air quality and CO2 concentration in a room with different air change rates (after Pettenkofer) Determination of flow rate of outside air according to type of room to DIN 1946-2 Airborne and structure-borne sound Recommended values for sound pressure level and reverberation time in rooms according to room categories

air

Outside air

Contamination of the air

Air quality Air contamination air aust

Exh

CO 2 content (%)

A 1.20

0.5

Max. workplace concentration d) Specific room volume: 30 m3/person ale CO 2 production 18 l/h e s ( 0.4 on rs pe 3 /h m 0 0.3 rson 3 h pe / 5m Limit value after Pettenkoffer 0.2 3 rson 15 m /h pe 25 m3 /h person

0.1

50 m3/h person

0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Time (h) A 1.21

Flow rate of outside air Person-related m3/h

Area-related m3/(m2 · h)

Single office

40

4

Open-plan office

60

6

Place of assembly

20

10 to 2

Classroom

30

15

Reading room

20

12

Retail premises

20

2 to 6

Restaurant

40

8

Type of room

The air change rate required in a room is also considerably influenced by the pollution in the air in the room in addition to the fresh air requirement of the occupants and the quality of the incoming fresh air. The air change rate necessary, depending on the volume and use of the room, can be calculated from the number of persons in the room, the length of time they spend in the room and the nature of their activities. For example, rooms in which a large number of people remain for a long time carrying out concentrated tasks requires a high ventilation level.

Contamination caused by activities, objects and building materials in the room must also be taken into account (see “Product selection strategies”, pp. 73 – 77). So the exhaust air also has to remove emissions from building components, room furnishings and fittings, furniture and technical equipment, in addition to exhaled air, moisture and bodily odours, and also reduce the level of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, solvents, dust, radon and unhealthy microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, viruses, mites, mould and yeast fungi) (Fig. A 1.22).

The air change rates required are calculated based on the volume of the room. In residential buildings with normal ceiling heights, this results in an hourly air change rate requirement of 0.4 to 0.8 times the volume of the room. This rate climbs to 1.5 for offices and places of assembly because of the higher occupancy.

Intensity of odours

A 1.22

38

Fresh air consists of approx. 21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen (N2); at 0.03 % the carbon dioxide content is relatively low. An oxygen content below 15 % and a carbon dioxide content above 0.07 % in the interior air lead to fatigue, a drop in productivity and headaches – and a carbon dioxide content of 2.4 % or higher is a health risk. Ventilation is therefore essential in order to guarantee an adequate supply of fresh air. It must ensure a supply of oxygen and the quality of the air introduced must be that of uncontaminated exterior air.

Depending on activity, a human being requires an average of 20 – 30 m3 of fresh air every hour.

In rooms with a high humidity, e.g. bathrooms, this requirement climbs to approx. 60 m3/h.

Taking an average value of 25 m3/h, in a room without any particular contamination of the air the Pettenkofer limit for the maximum carbon dioxide content in the interior air can be complied with. In housing this is 0.10 % by vol. and in offices and places of assembly 0.15 % by vol.

(Fig. A 1.21).

When determining ventilation requirements, the intensity and quality of an odour must also be considered as well as the measurable quality of the air. In order to be able to stipulate limit values and hence enable the comparison of odours as perceived, so-called sniff tests are carried out with trained testers, who assess the intensity of an odour by comparing it with standardised

odour sources. Derived from olfactus the Latin word for smell, the intensity of an odour source is specified using the unit of measurement “olf”: 1 olf corresponds to the odour emissions from an adult with normally functioning glands and an average standard of hygiene during light sedentary work. This allows the contamination of the air in a room to be related to the number of users, the room materials and exterior air.

Contamination per unit area for offices is specified as 0.1 olf/m2 per person and 0.3 olf/m2 for materials and incoming fresh air. The intensities of all sources of contamination in the interior air are simply added together. Generalising, we can assume a value of 0.2 olf/m2 for the contamination load in buildings with minimal contamination.

Quality of odours

More important than the intensity of an odour, however, is whether it is perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. And here the perception of the intensity of an odour is heavily influenced by social and psychological factors: a poor working atmosphere, a badly equipped workplace or inadequate HVAC systems – i.e. factors, over which the user has no control – can hardly be compensated for by a better air change rate or pleasant fragrances.

The humidity of the air also has a considerable influence on our perception of odours: as the humidity or temperature of the air increases, so we perceive the quality of the air to decrease – kitchen and tobacco smells are, however, then not noticed so intensely.

The quality of the interior air as perceived by a person entering a room is measured in decipols (dp). The moment of entry has been chosen because our sense of smell adapts very quickly.

The ventilation flow rate is taken into account in this unit of measurement. A value of 1 dp corresponds to the perceived contamination of the interior air when 36 m3 per hour (or 10 l of fresh air per second) is contaminated by 1 olf: 1 dp =

1 olf 10 l/s

According to DIN 1946-2, values between 0.7 and 2.5 dp are regarded as agreeable.

Only by considering measurable air quality (CO2 concentration), intensity of air contamination (olf) and perceived air quality (dp) together is it possible to work out HVAC concepts for a comfortable interior air quality.

Comfort

Acoustic comfort

Sound

Acoustic comfort is hard to define, whereas acoustic discomfort is usually rather more easy to determine accurately. For human beings, acoustic discomfort is any type of noise, both continuous and brief sound events, that is connected with a high sound level. But every person perceives noise differently depending on the information content of a sound and the attitude towards the sound events. A rock concert, for example, might be pure noise to one person, but pure enjoyment to another!

Physiology: sense of hearing

The human ear converts sound waves into nerve pulses that are fed to the brain. We hear sounds with a frequency of 16 to approx. 20 000 Hz. The frequency describes the pitch of a sound, the amplitude its loudness. With age, the upper limit can drop as low as 5000 Hz. How loud a person perceives a sound depends on its frequency and intensity; pitches with a medium frequency seem to be louder than those with a lower or higher frequency.

These days, silence has become a rare event.

A constant noise level, generated by machines and media, accompanies our daily lives. As a result of an increase in traffic volumes, the noise exposure now doubles roughly every 10 years.

This is not without consequences for our sensitive sense of hearing and in some circumstances even affects the whole body. This is because our sense of hearing is the only sense that cannot be consciously “switched off”. Well-known stress-related symptoms such as concentration problems and disrupted sleep are the outcome.

Timber, metal, glass – every material has its own unmistakable sound. This fact helps us to perceive objects and our orientation in space.

The room acoustics provide a clue to the form and size of a room, also fittings and furnishings and other occupants. The echo of our footsteps allows us to recognise the material or construction of a floor.

Sound is the result of the vibrations of a body that are transmitted to another medium (mostly air) and propagate in all directions. The sound waves are reflected, absorbed, diffracted or refracted at obstacles and the boundaries of a room.

The sound pressure level (dB) is a logarithmic scale for describing the magnitude of a sound event and is used to evaluate interior spaces.

The discomfort threshold depends very much on the nature and origin of the sound – the threshold of pain lies between 120 and 140 dB depending on the combination of frequencies.

If our sense of hearing is exposed to sound pressure levels close to the threshold of pain, permanent damage to our ears is to be expected even after only a brief period of exposure.

Sound propagation

Sound can be conducted through air or solid bodies (Fig. A 1.23). The propagation of sound from room to room through walls, ceilings and floors is especially critical where different users or uses meet. Also critical for sound insulation are the flanking paths for sound transmission at junctions, built-in elements, cable ducts and technical services.

Structure-borne sound ensues through the direct physical contact with or the application of a force to a material, e.g. by means of footsteps, moving furniture or vibrating machinery on the floor. The sound is transmitted through the material to the fabric of the building and in this way can propagate over great distances within the building. Decoupling or the provision of layers of elastic materials with a low dynamic stiffness, e.g. impact sound insulation, ensure sound insulation in such instances (see “Insulating materials”, pp. 67 – 68).

In the case of airborne sound, a surface is caused to vibrate by the changing air pressures of the sound waves perpendicular to and incident on that surface. A material’s resistance to sound propagation increases with its weight and density. Sound is broken up and reflected at hard,

Type of room

α

Airborne sound

Degree of absorption

Structure-borne sound

A 1.23

smooth surfaces, which leads to disagreeable reverberations. Porous building materials and rough surfaces absorb the sound and attenuate the reverberation (Fig. A 1.28, p. 40). Doubling the sound absorption achieves a three-fold reduction in the sound level (see “Sound insulation”, pp. 129 – 130).

Room acoustics

Acoustic comfort is also dependent on the use of the room. Weighted sound pressure levels have been specified for certain room categories, which are normally in the region of approx. 25 to about 55 dB(A). Rooms for concentrated work and communication should not exceed a sound pressure level of approx. 35 dB(A) – depending on size and occupancy.

The reverberation time T (s) is the most important variable for describing the acoustic character of a room. It specifies the duration of an echo and is influenced by the volume of the room, the sound-absorbing surfaces of all the materials in the room and the number of people in the room. As good speech intelligibility is especially important in working areas, the reverberation time in offices should not exceed 0.5 s, and 0.6 to 1 s in rooms for meetings and presentations.

Recommended values for the sound pressure level and reverberation time for various uses are given in Fig. A 1.24.

Sound pressure level (dB)

Reverberation time (s)

Living room, bedroom

35 /30

0.5

Hospital: ward, day/night Examination room, hall, corridor Operating theatre

35 /30 40 40

1 2 3

Auditoria: radio/television studio Theatre, opera house Concert hall Cinema, lecture theatre, reading room Church

10 /25 30 /25 25 35 35

1/1.5 1/1.5 2 1 3

Office, meeting room Small office Open-plan office

35 40 45

1 0.5 0.5

Restaurant Museum Reading room, classroom Gymnasium, indoor swimming pool

40 – 55 40 35 /40 45 /50

1 1.5 1 1.5/2 A 1.24

39

Materials

Constituents and possible effects

Both the chemical composition of fitting-out materials and also their chemical reactions during processing or even during use can be the cause of health disorders, unpleasant odours or discomfort. Like in other industries, in the building sector the manufacture and use of products involving a potential health hazard is not actually impossible or prohibited. There are stipulations and regulations that apply to the quality of the interior air and these recommend the use of low-emissions materials. Compliance with the valid recommended values for certain substances in the interior air can only be achieved

when products that emit such substances are minimised or avoided completely.

Legal stipulations, regulations, standards

The assessment of the quality of the interior air is currently regulated in Germany by a Federal Environment Agency document released in June 2007. This specifies reference and recommended values for assessing contamination in the interior air. [14] The aim is to achieve a uniform evaluation of the interior air quality and the emphasis is on assessing the volatile organic compounds (VOC), which are among the main causes of health disorders and discomfort.

Requirements

Housing

Schools

Aesthetics

Rented: only consider as far as necessary for comfort Owner-occupied: very user-specific

Health aspects, freedom from dangerous substances

Offices

In order to assess the air quality, recommended values for a few substances have been derived from toxicological studies. We distinguish here between recommended values RW I (a concentration of a substance at which no health disorders are to be expected even after a lifetime of exposure) and RW II (the concentration at which health disorders cannot be ruled out).

In the case of values between RW I sand RW II, more ventilation is suggested as an immediate corrective measure. When concentrations exceed the RW II value, immediate action is required – which usually means that the rooms can no longer be used.

Sports halls

Museums

Hospitals

Only consider as far as necessary for comfort.

Not a priority

Priority

Only consider as far as necessary for comfort; must be weighed against the life cycle costs.

Currently only important for sensitive clients; should be given priority owing to long occupancy times of users.

In some cases minimum requirements for public-sector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Currently only important for sensitive clients; should be given priority owing to long occupancy times of users.

In some cases minimum requirements for publicsector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Not a priority

In some cases minimum requirements for public-sector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Investment costs

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Life cycle costs

Is currently not a priority, but should be seen as an important decision-making criterion.

Ease of cleaning

Very user-specific

Priority

Currently very userspecific; should be considered.

Priority

Very user-specific; must be weighed against the aesthetics, for example.

Priority

Durability

Rented: consider durability only as part of the life cycle cost optimisation Owner-occupied: very user-specific

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Relatively short renewal cycles ∫ adaptation to these cycles

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Depends on usage: adapt durability to the planned renewal cycles.

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Safety

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Ease of maintenance

Very user-specific; life cycle costs can be considerably reduced.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Priority in the case of frequent changes of user.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Very user-specific; life cycle costs can be considerably reduced.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Recyclability

Is currently only important for sensitive clients, but should be considered for reasons of environmental compatibility.

A 3.35 A 3.35 A 3.36

74

The different requirements that materials have to satisfy, classified according to type of building Emissions behaviour of materials with respect to VOC and formaldehyde

Materials

As the interior air contains a multitude of different substances, its quality can be assessed with the help of the total concentration of volatile organic compounds (TVOC). Owing to the different compositions of the mixtures of substances that occur, the TVOC value merely serves as a parameter for characterising the exposure and indicates the need to search for the sources. In addition to these recommended values, the German Commission for the Federation & the Federal States (BLK) specifies further reference values for assessing the quality of the interior air based on a research project carried out by the Working Group for Ecological Material Stone

Gypsum Mortar, plaster/ mineral basis render synthetic resin basis Screed/submineral basis floor mastic asphalt Masonry Glass Ceramics Metal Timber

Plastics

Insulating materials Floor coverings

plywood glued laminated timber particleboards OSB wood fibreboards wood-wool lightweight boards synthetic resins PUR silicone

wooden floors

carpet cork linoleum

Sealants

The strategy for choosing products according to toxicological criteria should follow the minimisation principle. This means that zero- or low-emissions materials and products should be employed for all applications as far as possible. Only a few tools are availa-

Check preparation of substrate.

Constituents of jointing materials must be considered.

Corrosion protection, coatings: chromium compounds must be avoided.

Use of wood preservatives: check need for loadbearing components, never use for interior fittings.

Formaldehyde, wood preservatives and other inherent contamination, etc. in the case of scrap wood of unclear origin; check emissions class (E1 = low-formaldehyde) when using new board materials.

Can release solvents.

Check constituents despite this classification.

laminated floors

Coatings

Product selection

Remarks – critical or must be checked for the individual case Stone is not critical, but sundries such as coatings, laying materials, adhesives, etc. and radon, are, depending on origins.

Avoid concrete additives/admixtures where possible (because accurate information is unavailable).

Concrete

Wood-based products

Research Projects (AGOF). In the light of the fact that in addition to health disorders, unpleasant odours are the most frequent cause behind interior air investigations, this work places more emphasis on odour thresholds (see “Intensity of odours”, p. 38).

PUR PVC dispersion paints dispersion lacquers lime paints solvent-based paints oils waxes polyacrylate

Significant emissions are possible depending on the type of surface treatment and adhesives.

VOC emissions are possible (increased by underfloor heating); significant emissions may occur depending on the type of adhesive.

Foam backing and type of adhesive lead to significant emissions; biocides in the case of natural fibres.

Cork itself does not lead to any significant emissions, but the type of adhesive is critical.

No significant emissions in the case of high-quality products, but otherwise emissions are possible; the type of adhesive is critical.

Significant emissions are possible depending on the type of surface treatment and adhesives.

Solvent-free products are available; otherwise VOC and formaldehyde are released.

Contain solvents in very different quantities; check constituents.

Avoid solvents, sensitising substances, carcinogenic substances, etc.

PUR silicone rubber butyl rubber Classification with respect to emissions of dangerous substances (VOC, formaldehyde) Harmless Check composition Harmful

ble to planners and clients which help specifically with the avoidance of dangerous substances.

Measurements of the interior air can only reveal the success or otherwise of the minimisation measures afterwards. During design and construction, the tight timetables of the modern building industry do not usually include allowances for interim measurements.

At best, the emissions behaviour of individual products or selected forms of construction can be investigated under laboratory conditions.

Experts for ecology and health issues in the construction industry can be consulted by clients, architects and other members of the design team to help with the selection of materials during the earlier phases of a project. Such experts can also advise on the exact wording necessary in the tender documents regarding the requirements to be satisfied by building products.

The European chemicals regulation REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation & Restriction of Chemicals), which came into force on 1 July 2007, means that both manufacturers and processors must now provide comprehensive information about the chemicals they use. This requirement also includes information on the emissions behaviour of building products. A basis for predicting possible contamination of interiors has thus been established.

There are some substances that represent critical constituents in construction products in toxicological terms. One example of this is solvents, which can be found in a whole variety of building materials (Fig. A 3.36). In order to achieve an optimum interior air quality, the following qualitative targets should be specified: • All materials and products for interior fittingout must be free from biocides, i.e. free from fungicides, insecticides and bactericides that by legislation must be labelled as dangerous products.

• No chemical wood preservatives may be used indoors. Exceptions are only permitted within the scope of very specific, prescribed circumstances. Instead, passive measures should be preferred.

• Only zero- or low-formaldehyde materials and products may be used in interiors.

This fact must be considered for adhesives, paints and wood-based products in particular.

• Only coatings and adhesives that do not represent any health hazards may be used in internal applications. Products labelled “zerosolvents” or “low-solvents” are to be preferred.

When choosing adhesives, paints and other building chemicals, the emissions of solvents should be reduced to a minimum.

• When using mineral fibres, measures must be taken to prevent fibres being released into the interior air.

A 3.36

75

Part B

Integrated planning

1 Concepts and building typologies Intelligent simplicity Sustainable planning Building typologies Usage typologies User adaptiveness and comfort in buildings to DIN EN 15 251 Flexibility Residential buildings Schools Sports halls Office buildings Museums

Fig. B

80 80 80 81 82 82 84 85 88 92 94 98

2 Location factors Solar radiation Outside temperature Humidity of the air Wind Geology Sound Urban climate

100 100 102 102 102 103 103 103

3 Energy and buildings Energy balance Transmission QT Ventilation heat losses QL Solar gains QS Internal heat sources QI Heating requirement QH Cooling energy requirement QC Building standards Political targets Statutory instruments and certification

104 104 104 104 105 105 105 105 106 106 106

4 Energy supplies Energy sources Solar energy Biomass Ambient heat Energy conversion Furnaces Solar energy systems Heat pumps and refrigeration units Energy storage Hot-water storage Latent heat storage media Thermochemical storage Energy infrastructures Heating networks Co-generation plants Heating plants Overriding energy concepts

108 109 109 109 111 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 116 116 117 117 117

Ground coupling, Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, DĂźbendorf (CH), 2006; Bob Gysin + Partner

79

Concepts and building typologies

a

b

c

active floor slabs and underfloor heating can also be used for cooling in summer and counteract the overheating effect due to the high occupancy rates. Environmental energy, e.g. in the form of groundwater, in conjunction with the potential of the location, can be used for heating and cooling. Another advantage of concealed systems is that they are less vulnerable to vandalism.

Fire protection Schools are classed as special buildings according to cl. 2 para. 4 No. 11 of the Model Building Code. The principal technical fire safety requirements for general and vocational schools are included in the Muster-Schulbau-Richtlinie (Model School Buildings Directive).

It should be assumed that in the event of danger a large number of persons must be evacuated simultaneously. It must be possible to escape from every classroom via one of two independent routes to exits that lead directly to the outside or to protected staircases. One of the two escape routes may lead to the outside via external stairs without shafts, escape balconies, terraces and accessible roofs provided this route is not endangered in the event of a fire. It is also possible for one of the two escape routes to pass through a hall when this is equipped with smoke vents. The length of the escape route, measured as the distance of travel, may not exceed 35 m. As a distance of 60 m between internal fire walls is permitted (this deviates from the requirements of the building regulations), the plans should allow for about 12 classrooms each measuring 60 – 70 m2 and containing 30 pupils in one fire compartment.

protection concepts specific to the building plus measures to match the individual situation are necessary so that the level of safety necessary can be guaranteed.

School buildings mostly belong to central or local government, which means that costeffectiveness is especially important. Stringent requirements are necessary for the organisation of the construction procedures and the execution of technical and building measures when the refurbishment work is carried out while the school is still in use. The primary aims are conservation of the existing fabric, comfort in the building and reducing the cost of upkeep, with one focus being the optimisation of the thermal building envelope. The level of technical services in existing schools is generally very low, i.e. increasing the level of services by adding a ventilation system, for example, may well require accompanying building measures because of the low ceiling heights and the lack of adequately sized zones for services. The integration of decentralised solutions or routing services in the external walls represent just two options.

It is not generally possible to use low-temperature systems such as thermoactive floor slabs or underfloor heating in existing buildings, at least not at a reasonable cost. One option is to install wall and ceiling heating systems that can be mounted beneath the plaster. It is usually best to leave existing heat output systems, e.g. radiators, in place.

Acoustics Besides disturbances caused by noise from outside, the acoustic conditions within a room also play an important role. If the teacher’s words during a lesson are difficult to understand because of a high noise level, both staff and pupils quickly lose concentration. Rooms with lightweight, resonant components, e.g. made from wood, frequently do not require any additional acoustic measures. The materials of floors and chairs must be compatible with each other in order to prevent high noise levels caused by shifting chairs, for instance. Additional measures to improve the room acoustics may be necessary when a large amount of thermal mass needs to be activated in the classrooms for thermal reasons.

Good room acoustics within the classrooms is very important, but just as significant is sound insulation between adjoining classrooms and between classrooms and corridors. It is also vital to limit noise from outside or from technical services, e.g. fans.

B 1.25

90

Various room plan layouts for educational establishments a Small classrooms in nursery and primary schools, differentiated usage structure Persons: 20 Room size: 40 m2 Average int. loads: 45 W/m2 Air requirement: 20 ≈ 20 m3/h = 400 m3/h b Seminar rooms, standard classrooms for all types of school, standard and specialist subjects, less specialised rooms Persons: 30 Room size: 70 m2 Average int. loads: 55 W/m2 Air requirement: 30 ≈ 25 m3/h = 750 m3/h c Lecture theatres for tertiary education,

Refurbishment Many existing schools are currently undergoing refurbishment and modernisation. Owing to the often difficult technical fire safety situation, fire

B 1.26

B 1.27

universities lectures and specialist tuition Persons: 100 Room size: 115 m2 Average int. loads: 110 W/m2 Air requirement: 100 ≈ 25 m3/h = 2500 m3/h Aschheim Secondary School a View of exterior b Integration of acoustic panels and technical services in built-in wall cupboards; the internal walls are solid (activation of thermal mass) c Interior climate concept (schematic) for classroom Refurbishment of a primary school a Extract from plan showing building refurbishment concept b Interior climate concept (schematic)

B 1.25

Concepts and building typologies

Secondary school Aschheim, 2006 Architects: Bar Stadelmann Stöcker Architekten, Nuremberg Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

a

b

‡ Heating concept: Groundwater heat pump (basic load) Gas-fired low-temperature boiler (peak load) Underfloor heating with individual room controls for heating and cooling ‡ Cooling concept: Temperature of underfloor heating controlled in summer by groundwater

2 3

1 2 3

1

‡ Ventilation concept: Natural ventilation to classrooms Supply and extract system with heat recovery for toilets, kitchen, physics room, etc.

Technical services integration: Vertical routing of electrical, heating, water and waste-water services (wash-basins) in the built-in wall cupboards, also horizontal along the classrooms

4 5 4

Classroom Acoustic element Built-in wall cupboard for technical services Gas-fired low-temperature boiler Groundwater heat pump

5 c

B 1.26

Refurbishment of a primary school Waldmünchen, 2009 7 Architects: Hans Schranner and Matthias Reichenbach-Klinke, Adlkofen (concept) Schneider & Partner, Waldmünchen (realisation) Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

6 7 8

7

7

9

9 10

7

Heated zone Unheated buffer zone External thermal insulation Internal masonry Buffer zone in the form of a double-leaf facade

10 6

6

6

8

6

6

9

10

a ‡ Heating concept: Gas-fired group heating network Heating in walls between rooms and corridors

14

15

‡ Ventilation concept: Centralised mechanical ventilation with heat recovery for classrooms and leakage-air grilles to corridors Pretreated fresh air from ground coupling Natural ventilation to classrooms via facade cavity or penetrating ventilation elements without connection to double-leaf facade for surge ventilation Night-time ventilation via facade cavity protected from the weather

11

12 13 11

12

13

14 15 16

Technical services integration: Use of existing ducts and shafts

17

Double-leaf facade with penetrating ventilation elements Classroom Corridor acting as unheated buffer zone Expelled air Heat recovery Gas-fired group heating network Ground coupling

b 16

17 B 1.27

91

Part C

Fig. C

Ibere Camargo Foundation, Porto Alegre (BR), 1998; Alvaro Siza Architects

Finishing and fitting-out

1 Wall systems Design principles Stud wall systems Wall elements made from preformed parts Demountable partitions Glass partition systems Building materials Materials for the supporting framework Materials for boarding and surfaces Insulating materials Building physics requirements for internal walls Fire protection Sound insulation Moisture control Thermal performance Junctions and details Movement joints Free-standing wall ends and corners Junctions with adjoining components Junctions with shadowline joints Reduced junctions Sliding junctions Integrating columns and beams Doors Glass in partitions Integrating technical services Coil heating

120 121 121

2 Ceiling systems Design principles Components Seamless ceiling systems Systems with a grid-type ceiling surface Self-supporting ceilings Ceiling systems with open soffit Materials Materials for the framing Materials for the ceiling surface Building physics requirements for ceilings Fire protection Acoustics Junctions and details Movement joints Junctions with walls Change in level Stepped corner detail with indirect lighting

140 141 141 141 142 146 146 147 147 147

122 123 123 123 123 124 127 127 129 129 130 131 131 131 132 132 134 135 136 137 137 138 139 139

Attaching loads to the ceiling surface Installing services in the ceiling void Access hatches

154 154 155

3 Flooring systems 156 Dry subfloors 156 Dry loose fill (levelling layer) 157 Materials for dry subfloors 158 Building physics requirements for floors 158 Dry subfloor junction details 159 Integrating underfloor heating into dry subfloors 160 Proprietary flooring systems 160 Hollow floor systems 161 Raised access floors systems 161 Materials for raised access floors 163 Building physics requirements for proprietary flooring systems 163 Junctions and details for raised access floors 166 Integrating HVAC items into raised access floors 166 4 Fire-resistant casing systems Beam and column casings Beam casings Column casings Ventilation, cable and service ducts I-class cable ducts E-class cable ducts L-class ducts (separate ventilation ducts)

168 168 169 169 169 170 170 170

149 149 149 152 152 152 154 154

119

Ceiling systems

Grooved and chamfered, concealed framing

effect, which means that sheet metal must be combined with a layer of mineral boarding or mineral wool insulation (fitted into metal trays) to improve the fire resistance.

It is possible to optimise the room acoustics by perforating the metal ceiling elements, which increases the sound absorption coefficient.

Groove plus lap joint for demountable ceilings

Mineral-fibre boards Mineral-fibre boards are available with a diverse range of surface finishes. Forms and types range from plain surfaces to embossed finishes, textures and perforations. These boards are also available in various colours and with facings of metal foils, plastic films, glass-fibre fleeces or fabrics. The edges of mineral-fibre tiles include grooves or rebates depending on the appearance required (Fig. 2.34).

Grooved, rebated and chamfered for shadowline joint

Grooved and rebated for shadowline joint

Untreated, sharp square edge for exposed framing

Shallow rebate to enable framing to be installed flush with ceiling surface

Inclined rebate for shadowline joint

Rebated for shadowline joint

Tongue and groove tiles

Chamfered tongue and groove tiles

Wood-based products Wood-based products can be used for ceilings in the form of planks or boards. If the materials are to be left exposed, their moisture content upon installation must be checked if deformations and fissures caused by shrinkage or swelling are to be kept within accepted limits once the building is in use.

When wood-based board products are used as a ceiling material supported by framing, perforated products in conjunction with an attenuated ceiling void are preferred; the perforated surface helps to achieve a good sound absorption coefficient.

When using loose fill or insulating materials above wood-based products, a layer of plastic sheeting or paper is required to prevent dust or fibres leaking from the ceiling void.

C 2.34

C 2.34 C 2.35 C 2.36 C 2.37 C 2.38

C 2.39

C 2.40

C 2.35

148

Edge and arris forms for mineral-fibre tiles Cooling ceiling system with integral copper coil Ceiling void protected by a fire-resistant selfsupporting ceiling Fire-resistant self-supporting ceiling protecting the room below from a fire in the ceiling void Example of a luminaire built into a suspended ceiling to comply with fire protection requirements 1 Threaded bar as hanger 2 CD section, cut and bent to suit 3 Angle section Detail of ventilation opening around luminaire 1 Sheet metal angle 2 Threaded bar 3 Polystyrene block Wall-ceiling junction with shadowline joint complying with fire protection requirements 1 Seal (optional) 2 Perimeter section 3 Edge bead or similar (optional) 4 Strip of gypsum-based board 5 Gypsum-based board 6 Metal framing

Ceiling systems

Building physics requirements for ceilings Ceiling systems provide a chance to improve the fire resistance and sound insulation properties of structural floors. It should be remembered, however, that the ensuing voids can have disadvantages, e.g. where a ceiling continues across a partition. For this reason, ceilings and their junctions with walls must be designed and constructed in such a way that the building physics specification for the ceiling system is also guaranteed at the junctions.

Fire protection

When assessing the fire protection afforded by a ceiling, we must distinguish between two cases: ceilings that must be considered in conjunction with the structural floor in order to be awarded a fire resistance rating, and ceilings that can provide a certain degree of fire resistance alone. The fire resistance in the former case depends on the form of construction of the structural floor and is covered by DIN 4102.

This could be, for example, a timber joist floor with a plasterboard ceiling. With ceilings that provide a certain degree of fire resistance alone, the duration of fire resistance has been proved by the manufacturer within the scope of a national test certificate (AbP). These are independent components from the fire protection viewpoint. They also protect technical services in the ceiling void in the event of a fire in the room below (Fig. C 2.36).

A ceiling that can be awarded a fire resistance rating for exposure to fire from above protects the room below against a fire in the ceiling void (Fig. C 2.37).

Items (e.g. lights, HVAC equipment, etc.) built into ceilings and soffit linings that have to satisfy fire protection requirements are not permitted

by DIN 4102-4. If such items must nevertheless be incorporated in a ceiling, then the construction must be assessed by way of tests. One example of this is the housing to a luminaire, which must be in the form of a fire-resistant casing built from the same material (in the same thickness) as the ceiling (Fig. C 2.38).

If the luminaires require vents to help dissipate heat, the back of the fire-resistant casing must be suspended separately from the sides in order to create a ventilation opening between the two parts. The back part of the casing is supported on a material that melts when the temperature rises (e.g. polystyrene blocks) and therefore closes off the vent during a fire (Fig. C 2.39).

The details at junctions with adjacent components must exhibit the same fire resistance as the surface of the ceiling itself. To do this, perimeter members, rock wool or strips of boarding must be fitted behind the ceiling at the junction with the adjoining component (e.g. wall). Shadowline joints must have a backing of material in the same thickness as the ceiling so that the total thickness of material is guaranteed at the junction (Fig. C 2.40).

The fire resistance at the junction between a

C 2.36

1

C 2.37

2 3

C 2.38

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

5

6

C 2.39

C 2.40

fire-resistant ceiling and a prefabricated partition must be verified.

cases considerably, by adding a ceiling underneath (in addition to sound insulation measures on the top of the floor, e.g. a floating screed).

As floors employing lightweight forms of construction (timber joist floors, trapezoidal profile sheet metal floors) usually exhibit only low sound insulation values, in most cases ceilings are included to bring about improvements.

Seamless, dense ceiling surfaces with a double layer of thin gypsum-based boards plus a layer of insulation and suspended on resilient fixings are particularly effective here (see “Insulating materials�, pp. 67 – 68). Fixings can be in the form of special acoustic hangers in the case of the suspended ceilings, or resilient rails for a soffit lining.

Acoustics

Ceiling systems must satisfy two basic requirements with respect to noise control. On the one hand, they must increase the sound insulation of a suspended floor in order to reduce the transmission of sound to the next storey. On the other hand they must improve the room acoustics by increasing the equivalent sound absorption area.

Sound insulation The airborne and impact sound insulation of a suspended floor can be enhanced, in some

149

Fire-resistant casing systems

Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler

C 4.1

Fire-resistant casing systems in dry construction are primarily used for the following: • Loadbearing and bracing constructions (e.g. columns, beams) • Cable and service ducts • Ventilation ducts • Pipes

Beam and column casings Preventive fire protection measures for steel beams and columns, possibly also timber, are required in order to guarantee escape routes for as long as possible in the event of a fire. Steel loses its load-carrying capacity above a temperature of about 500 °C (critical steel temperature).

So depending on the fire load, the dimensions of the steel component, the constructional details, the structural system and the reserves of strength in the steel component, uncased steel components retain their load-carrying ability for only 8 – 15 minutes on average. If steel components are to attain the necessary F 30 to F180 fire resistance ratings, appropriate measures must be taken to guarantee that the loadbearing capacity of the steel is maintained for the required length of time. Besides applying coats of plaster or intumescent paint, steel components can also be encased in fire-resistant dry materials.

Steel components generally also require a protective casing even if they are already partly shielded from fire because they are behind a suspended ceiling or built into a wall.

The following criteria must be considered when determining the fire-resistant casing required: C 4.1 C 4.2

C 4.3

168

Establishing the duration of fire resistance by means of a fire test Minimum casing thickness d a for steel beams b for steel columns Box-type casing for exposure to fire... a on one side b on two sides c on three sides d on four sides

• Type of component to be encased • Fire resistance required • Exposure to fire load (one, two, three or four sides, Fig. C 4.3) • Type and thickness of boards for casing • Timber: species, cross-section, h/b ratio • Steel: section factor (U/A ratio) • Fire protection verification (DIN 4102-4 or test certificate)

DIN 4102-4 contains overviews of beams and columns encased in gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF). In addition, there are many proprietary fire-resistant casing systems available that have been tested and are more economic or offer a better performance than the standardised solutions. The following board types are widely used for fire-resistant casing systems: • • • •

Special gypsum boards Cement-bonded fire-resistant boards Calcium silicate boards Mineral-fibre boards

The strength of some of these boards means that their edges are stable enough to accept mechanical fasteners (screws or staples) directly without the need for any internal framework (Fig. C 4.3). Other boards are fixed to a supporting framework, which is usually made from steel sections (Figs. C 4.8 and C 4.9, p. 171).

Stocky steel sections with thick webs and flanges behave better in fire – and thus require thinner casings – than slender, thin-walled sections. This physical law has resulted in the development of a design method that is based on the ratio of the perimeter (U) of the casing (box-like when using boards) to the cross-sectional area (A) of the steel section.

The required casing thickness – depending on the U/A value – for standard steel sections can be found in tables provided by the board manufacturers. The U/A value is limited to ≤ 300 m-1 for such steel sections. If steel sections with U/A values > 300 m-1 have to be assessed, tests according to DIN 4102-2 will be necessary in order to classify the components.

Where loadbearing or non-loadbearing steel components requiring a certain fire resistance are connected to steel components that do not require fire protection, then both the connections and these latter steel components must be encased. The length of this additional encasement depends on the fire resistance rating and the U/A value of the adjoining steel components:

Fire-resistant casing systems

Minimum casing thickness d (in mm) for steel beams with U/A ≤ 300 m-1 with a casing of gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 with closed surface d

Fire resistance rating

d

d

F 30-A

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

12.5

12.5 + 9.5

2≈ 15

2≈ 15 + 9.51

1

The outer layer of 9.5 mm thick boards may be replaced by plasterboard (GKB) to DIN 18180.

d a Minimum casing thickness d (in mm) for steel columns with U/A ≤ 300 m-1 with a casing of gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 with closed surface Fire resistance rating

d

b

F 30-A

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

F 180-A

12.51

12.5 + 9.5

3≈ 15

4≈ 15

5≈ 15

1

May be replaced by ≥ 18 mm thick plasterboard (GKB) to DIN 18180.

C 4.2

• at least 300 mm for fire resistance ratings F 30 to F 90, and • at least 600 mm for F120 to F180.

Beam casings

A beam is exposed to fire on three sides when, for example, the top flange of the beam is protected because it is in contact with the soffit of a concrete floor slab. Such a floor beam requires a casing on three sides that must continue right up to the underside of the floor slab (Fig. C 4.7, p. 171).

Casings made from gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) and classified according to DIN 4102-4, and gypsum fibreboard established as equivalent to GKF board for fire protection purposes by means of tests, must satisfy the following conditions with respect to the constructional details: • The maximum permissible span (i.e. spacing of supporting members) for fixing the casing to the internal framework is 400 mm.

• When using a single layer of casing material, strips of gypsum fire-resistant board or gypsum fibreboard must be fitted behind the joints.

• When using more than one layer of casing material, every layer must be fixed separately, all joints in each layer must be filled and the joints between layers offset by min. 400 mm.

Column casings

Casings to columns must extend over the full height of the column on all sides – from the top of the floor finishes (top of structural floor when using class B flooring materials) to the underside of the structural floor above. The conditions listed above for beam casings also apply to columns (Fig. C 4.7, p. 171).

Gypsum-based boards may also be connected directly to a column instead of an internal framework. In such situations, every layer of casing material must be fastened in place by steel straps or wires every max. 400 mm.

Ventilation, cable and service ducts Fire loads due to, for example, electric cable insulation and pipe lagging, are not permitted in escape routes, generally accessible corridors or stair shafts (including their exits to the open air).

Consequently, such fire loads must be encased in dry materials in order to guarantee smokefree escape routes. Fire risks due to technical services can be encased in one of three ways: • Fire-resistant ceilings • Flooring systems • Service shafts and ducts The basic construction principles are similar for ventilation, cable and service ducts. Escape routes, corridors and adjoining rooms are protected against fire by encasing the fire loads to suit the duration of fire resistance required.

Casings consist of one or more layers of boards in various thicknesses depending on the fire resistance rating required. The fire resistance is established by fire tests.

> _ 50 mm a

b

c

d C 4.3

169

Part D

Fig. D

Technical services

1 Heating, cooling, ventilation Ventilation Natural ventilation Extract systems Supply and extract systems Mixing ventilation Displacement ventilation (low-level) Displacement ventilation (high-level) Heating Convection, radiation Heat output systems Cooling Cooling energy output systems Sunshading Passive cooling Techniques and technologies Decentralised ventilation systems Central ventilation systems Heat recovery Solar cooling PCMs

174 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 176 176 176 178 178 178 178 180 180 180 181 181 181

2 Planning the electrical installation Electricity requirements and supplies Primary electricity supply system Electricity consumption Electrical load categories Fittings and installation Number of fittings Installation zones in residential buildings Installation zones in non-residential buildings Interdisciplinary planning Installation systems Requirements for fitting-out flexibility Building automation The tasks of building automation The structure of automation systems Room automation Controlling lighting, sunshades and anti-glare screens Ventilation, heating and cooling systems Bus systems Data transmission methods Standardised systems and communication protocols

186 186 186 186 187 187 187 188 189 189 190

3 Planning the sanitary installation Sanitary spaces Room typology and uses Users Interior climate and comfort Sanitary appliances and space requirements Room surfaces, waterproofing and junctions Routing services in the interior Optimisation at the design stage Sound insulation Fire protection Protection against frost Drinking water supplies Ensuring hygienic drinking water Pipe lagging Sizing pipework Drainage of waste water Laying of pipes Gravity drainage and backflow level Venting the waste-water system Shaft sizes Fire extinguishing systems 4 Space requirements for technical services Central ventilation plant Central refrigeration plant Central heating plant Central sanitary and sprinkler plants Central electrical and data installations Integration of services Vertical service shafts

196 196 196 197 198 199 201 202 203 203 203 203 204 204 204 204 205 205 206 206 206 206

208 208 209 209 209 210 210 211

191 192 192 192 193 193 194 194 194 194

Services in a commercial/office building

173

m²

Space requirements for building services

200

Central electrical and data installations

Central electrical installation

150 100 50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

a

200

Sprinklers, building height > 45 m

150 100

Sprinklers, building height < 45 m

50

Central sanitary installation

0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51

m²

b

Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

200 Central heating plant

150 100 50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

c

200

Central refrigeration plant

150

Electrical installations are divided into the main distribution and the subdistribution areas. The main distribution is the connection to the public grid, which is always located at basement level, plus the cables to the individual occupancies or usage zones. Those cables can be at basement or roof level. The advantage of distribution in the roof space or over the roof is that the cables, which represent a fire load, are not routed through occupied areas or escape routes in the basement and therefore do not require any special fire protection measures. The subdistribution networks supply electricity within the individual occupancies or usage zones and include the consumer units with fuses and meters.

Each area therefore requires space for this (see “Electricity requirements and supplies”, pp. 186 – 187).

A similar division into main distribution and subdistribution is also common in central data installations. Data and telephone line connections are usually found at basement level.

These cables are then distributed to the individual occupancies or usage zones, and it is vital to ensure adequate clearance between these cables and electric cables in order to prevent the latter causing interference in the former. Appropriate server rooms are then provided in the individual occupancies or usage zones. Server rooms generally result in high heat loads which usually have to be dissipated through a cooling system (see “Building automation”, pp. 192 – 195).

100 Integration of services

50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

d

800 750 700 650 600 550 Central ventilation plant 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 3

e

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000) D 4.6

210

Besides providing enough space for centralised installations, it is also important to consider how other services components, e.g. pipes, cables, ducts, are integrated into the building. Services should be routed through vertical shafts and along horizontal installation zones within the building. In office buildings the integration of technical services components must also remain highly flexible because the constantly evolving working environment results in frequent changes of use and changing internal layouts.

When planning internal layouts, it must be remembered that offsets in vertical shafts are not always possible or desirable and should be kept within one storey; they also consume more space. The size of a vertical shaft should allow for additional space for the installation and maintenance of fire stops. Heating, cooling, water, waste-water, electricity and data services routed vertically in shafts must be readily accessible at the connection points on each floor of the building. The horizontal distribution of services across the building should be restricted to certain zones leading to and from the vertical shafts.

The individual rooms on each floor are usually served by distribution zones in the corridors.

Adequate storey heights should be ensured so that services can be installed overhead or below the floor. The space required for horizontal distribution increases with the number of rooms to

Space requirements for building services

be connected to the systems. Additional vertical shafts can lead to savings in the storey height (see “Installing services in the ceiling void”, pp. 154 –155, Fig. C 3.4, p. 157, and “Proprietary flooring systems”, pp. 160 –167).

Vertical service shafts

New findings and changes to working procedures are leading to new forms of organisation in office buildings which are placing new demands on the interior climate. One essential prerequisite for erecting long-lasting buildings is therefore their variability with respect to architectural and technology needs. So the routing of services must also be planned with this in mind (see “Office buildings”, pp. 94 – 97).

Vertical service shafts are vital to the infrastructure of a building because they connect all areas to the supply and disposal services. In Germany the building regulations of the federal states stipulate that where services pass through enclosing components with a specified fire resistance (in this case suspended floors), precautions must be taken to prevent the spread of fire.

Suspended floors in buildings belonging to building classes 1 (e.g. detached family home) and 2 (e.g. semi-detached house) are excluded from this requirement, also the suspended floors within apartments and within one occupancy with less than 400 m2 floor area on one or two floors. Exact stipulations with respect to the design of service installations of any kind (electric cables and pipes with their associated components) can be found in the appropriate directive (M-LAR) and must be taken into account during all planning work.

Sanitary Cooling

Heating Ventilation

Electrics Sprinklers

Data D 4.7

D 4.6

D 4.7

D 4.8

Diagrams for the rough calculation of areas required for central plant rooms in office buildings.

The x-axis denotes the gross floor area of the building. The floor area for the corresponding central plant room can then be read off on the y-axis. The grey area between the curves shows the spread of the floor area that may be necessary.

Basically, the upper curve represents plant rooms with a high level of equipment, the lower curve plant rooms with minimal equipment. a Central electrical installation b Central sprinkler installation c Central heating plant d Central refrigeration plant e Central ventilation plant Potential plant room locations within the building a Standard positions of central plant rooms b Possible alternatives Central sanitary installation D 4.8

211

Part E

Case studies

01

sam architekten, art gallery in Zurich (CH)

02

Tony Fretton Architects, museum in Lolland (DK)

03

C 18 Architekten, church in Herbrechtingen (D)

04

Wandel Hoefer Lorch, synagogue in Munich (D)

05

UNStudio, theatre in Lelystad (NL)

06

Busmann + Haberer, concert hall in Köthenn (D)

07

Jesús Marino Pascual y asociados, winery in Logrono (ES)

08

office dA, restaurant in Boston (USA)

09

Regula Harder and Jürg Spreryermann, guest-house in Ittingen (CH)

10

Gassmann Architekten, roof space conversion in Munich (D)

11

lynx architecture, private house in Munich (D)

12

Kohlmayer Oberst Architekten, university in Brixen (I)

13

Eichstätt Diocesan Building Dept, sports hall in Ingolstadt (D)

14

Frankfurt am Main Building Dept, university library in Frankfurt am Main (D)

15

Lichtblau Architekten, workshops in Lindenberg (D)

16

Paul de Ruiter, office building in Middelburg (NL)

17

Staab Architekten, plenary hall in Munich (D)

18

Florian Hausladen, offices in Heimstetten (D)

19

Koeberl Architekten, medical centre in Altötting (D)

20

Landau + Kindelbacher, orthodontic practice in Mindelheim (D)

For the key to the colour coding used in the schematic drawings, see p. 282.

Fig. E

Wooden slats in a restaurant in Boston (USA), 2008; office dA (see pp. 234 – 236)

213

Example 08

Restaurant Boston, USA, 2008 Architects: office dA, Boston Nader Tehrani, Monica Ponce de Leon Project team: Dan Gallagher, Catie Newell, Brandon Clifford, Harry Lowd, Richard Lee, Lisa Huang, Remon Alberts, Janghwan Cheon, Jumanah Jamal, Aishah Al Sager

aa

Sections • Plan Scale 1:400 1 2 3 4

An exciting game of hide and seek characterises this restaurant in Boston. Housed in a former bank building dating from 1917, there is nothing left in the interior to remind us of the building’s past. It seems as though a wooden capsule has been inserted into the banking hall. The bar and the lounge face the road, the large dining area is further back. Guests are seated amid a “landscape of birch wood”.

Across the whole interior, veneer plywood slats are suspended below the existing loadbearing structure, which has been given a coat of black intumescent paint and is therefore hardly visible.

Depending on the viewing angle, the view of the soffit varies from completely closed to completely open, with the lighting and services above then becoming visible.

In the middle of the restaurant there is a room that can be used for both the storage and presentation of wine bottles. Here and around all the columns it seems as though the undulating slats of the suspended ceiling reach down to the floor like stalactites, always creating fluid transitions to the other building components and built-in items. The shapes of the slats, curving downwards or upwards, depend on what is above them at that particular point. Like a puzzle, every slat has a unique shape and therefore fits at one place only. Indirect lighting is incorporated between the individual slats around the columns.

The floor, benches and tables are finished with the same bamboo wood and this reinforces the homogeneous impression of the interior. Near the bar, the backs to the benches include cupboards as additional storage place for wine bottles. Concealed radiators are located beneath some of the benches.

• Wooden slats as a space-forming element • Multi-purpose benches

234

Restaurant Wine store Bar Lounge

bb

b

2 d a

1 e A

b

d 3 e

a 4

Restaurant

Horizontal section • Vertical section Multi-purpose bench Horizontal sections • Vertical sections Details of wooden slats Scale 1:20 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14

Reflective stainless steel sheet on 19 mm plywood backing Timber battens, 89 ≈ 38 mm Low-iron safety glass with opaque foil for privacy, 12.7 mm Bamboo board, 19 mm Upholstered seat on 19 mm plywood Solid bamboo floorboards, 15 mm screed (existing)

15 16 17 18

LED strip lighting Translucent acrylic sheet, 9.5 mm Light fitting “Main beam”, 152.4 ≈ 19 mm plywood painted matt black “Secondary beam”, 152.4 ≈ 19 mm birch veneer plywood Wood-based panel product, 19 mm Fluorescent tube lighting Beech veneer plywood, 19 mm

5

5

6 14

15

ff f cc

7

5

14

8

11 c

c

c

5

12

13

c

15

f

16 17 hh 9

h

15

16 18 10 dd

ee

A h

235

Example 11

Private house Munich, D, 2008 Architects: lynx architecture, Munich Susanne Muhr, Volker Petereit Assistant: Dirk Härle Technical services: Ingenieurbüro Haff-Lyssoudis, Munich Kitchen design: Wiedemann Werkstätten, Munich

This detached family home situated in the centre of a large garden plays with the alternation between introverted and extroverted appearances. The cladding made from pre-weathered larch battens can be almost completely opened and closed with the help of large, motorised folding shutters. It is therefore possible to control the amount of incoming solar radiation individually on all the sides of the building exposed to the sun. Spacious terraces around the house enable the family’s lifestyle to spread outdoors.

The U-shaped ground floor contains common areas such as living room, kitchen and dining area, the L-shaped upper floor the bedrooms and bathrooms for the parents and their children.

A large opening in the floor links the two storeys and allows daylight from the rooflight above to reach the kitchen. An extractor hood fitted flush with the ceiling prevents unpleasant cooking smells from spreading to the bedrooms.

A low-level, gently sloping courtyard facing eastwards ensures that plenty of light and air reach the guest room and wellness area in the semi-basement.

This private house with a heating load of 27 kW is heated by a groundwater-coupled heat pump system. In addition, 17 m2 of solar panels on the roof heat the swimming pool in the garden.

Before use, water is softened in the basement plant room. Underfloor heating, with individual room controls, ensures comfortable conditions throughout the house. The exposed thermoactive concrete floor slabs contain the ducts for the controlled ventilation of the living areas, a system that also includes heat recovery.

A pollen filter removes particles likely to cause allergies before the supply air is fed to the rooms.

A bus system controls all the services in the building.

• • • • •

Groundwater-coupled heat pump Thermoactive floor slabs Underfloor heating Controlled ventilation with heat recovery Solar collectors

242

1 2

3

4

aa

bb

Sections Schematic diagram of ventilation (bb) Schematic diagram of heating/cooling (cc) Plans Scale 1:400 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Supply air Expelled air Pollen filter Ventilation system with heat recovery Production well Heat pump Cold exchanger Re-injection well

6

7

5

8 cc

a

14 d c

c 13

9 d

b

b 12

11

10

a

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Kitchen/dining Living room Media room Child’s room Office Garage Guest room Fitness studio Sauna Pool plant room Hobbies room Plant room Utility room

15

20

21

16 A

19

17 18

Private house

22

23

24

25

26

27

Vertical section • Scale 1:20 22

23

Battens, 20 ≈ 60 mm, rough-sawn Siberian larch, impregnated 35 ≈ 80 mm larch counter battens, rhombic form, painted black vapour-permeable airtight membrane 140 mm wood-fibre thermal insulation 150 mm reinforced concrete 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed

24 25 26 27 28

28 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 250 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab Flat cable trunking, 8 ≈ 75 mm Filter element Stainless steel plate elastically supported on Z-sections Slit for extract air MDF, 19 mm, oak veneer finish

23

dd

243

Example 11

Vertical sections Horizontal section Scale 1:20

1

2

1

2

3 4 5 3

6 7 8 9

10 4

11 12

13

14 5

15

16 6 7

ee

244

Plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm flue blocks 150 mm reinforced concrete 20 mm ground basalt stone in 5 mm mortar bed 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 250 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab Lining to chimney, 12.5 mm plasterboard Transparent glass ceramic, 4 mm 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 200 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab 12.5 mm suspended moisture-resistant plasterboard Slit for extract air Service duct, 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard Insulating glass, 20 mm Ground basalt stone, 20 mm, in 5 mm mortar bed 150 mm reinforced concrete 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard service duct 20 mm ground basalt stone in 5 mm mortar bed Removable basalt stone panel, 20 mm, held in place by magnets Hatch for cleaning Plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm 50 mm elastically supported insulating material 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterbd., 50 mm ventilation cavity Sauna panel 15 mm multi-layer chipboard 70 mm mineral wool in wooden frame aluminium foil vapour barrier, 15 mm fir wall lining Basalt stone tiles, 20 mm, in 5 mm mortar bed 60 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 10 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 50 mm thermal insulation, waterproofing 300 mm reinforced concrete Electrically heated bench skim plaster coat, heating mat filling compound for levelling lightweight concrete blocks Wood-block flooring, 12 mm 60 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 50 mm thermal insulation, waterproofing 300 mm reinforced concrete

Private house

f

e

9

8

10 11

f

e

f

e

A

12 8

13

15

14

16

ff

245

Example 17

Plenary hall Munich, D, 2005 Architects: Staab Architekten, Berlin Volker Staab, Alfred Nieuwenhuizen Project team: Thomas Schmidt, Jens Achtermann, Ulf Theenhausen, Dirk Brändlin, Jurgen Rustler Technical services: Karl Pitscheider Ingenieurbüro, Munich Glass consultants: R + R Fuchs, Munich Acoustics consultants: Müller BBM, Planegg More space, more light, more colour and more flexibility – that’s how we could sum up the new plenary hall for the Bavarian State Parliament following its refurbishment. The totally different, now barrier-free, interior with its electrical installations and the latest media technology – all complying with the current fire safety regulations – satisfies the contemporary and functional demands placed on a modern plenary hall. A new central gallery on the western side provides seating for 133 visitors. The seats and desks for the members of parliament are arranged in concentric rows. There have been many changes behind the scenes as well. Partial air conditioning has been installed in the gently sloping raised access floor, which consists of a system of prefabricated steel sections and incombustible gypsum fibreboard panels. Supply air flows into the room via the front panels of the MPs’ desks. The partial vacuum above the glass ceiling enables the waste air to be extracted through the joints between the panels. The light-coloured oak veneer to the desks and the wall lining and the red leather upholstery reproduce the original colour scheme. The lighting design played a special role in the refurbishment work. The plenary hall is conceived as an interior illuminated by daylight from the fully glazed roof. Prismatic panels in the cavity between the panes of the 470 m2 glass roof reflect direct sunlight and therefore prevent glare problems as well as excessive solar gains. They redirect the intensive overhead light and diffuse daylight into the interior. Infinitely adjustable artificial lighting can be switched on to ensure optimum interior lighting conditions depending on the intensity of the daylight. More than 400 asymmetric-beam lamps have been installed between the glass roof and the suspended translucent ceiling below. Two independently dimmable lamps in each unit enable the interior to be illuminated with different light colours and brightness levels. The satin-finish glass still enables the colours of the sky to be perceived but the equipment and fittings in the roof space are only seen as blurred outlines.

B

aa

b

1

a

2

4

• Luminous ceiling (daylight/artificial lighting) • Ventilation system in raised access floor º

6

a

5 3

Baumeister 03/2006 b

262

1

6

Plenary hall

Sections • Plan Scale 1:400 Vertical section • Horizontal section Seating rows for MPs Scale 1:5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A

9

Cabinet Presidium MPs Radio studio (Bayerischer Rundfunk) Media and electrical equipment Access to gallery Desktop, veneered MDF, 39 mm Storage compartment, anodised aluminium, 3 mm, bronze colour Perforated MDF panel, 7 mm, oak veneer 0.2 mm glass-fibre fleece 20 ≈ 60 mm top-hat profile cable trunking 19 mm veneered MDF

10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17

Fold-away footrest Steel hollow section, 60 ≈ 60 ≈ 4 mm, curved Prefabricated floor: 20 mm wood-block flooring on backing panel 25 + 30 mm gypsum hard-surface board 60 ≈ 40 ≈ 4 mm steel channel supporting raised access floor Chair guide track Desk frame, 40 ≈ 40 ≈ 3 mm steel hollow sections Connection to and fixing for supply air duct Airtight ventilation connection box Slider for regulating amount of air

bb

14

7

8

10

9

12

13

d

d 17 11

15 16 cc

16

17

15 dd

263