Player centered coaching enhancing player game

Strategies A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators

ISSN: 0892-4562 (Print) 2168-3778 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ustr20

Player-Centered Coaching: Enhancing Player Game Sense Nigel Davies To cite this article: Nigel Davies (2010) Player-Centered Coaching: Enhancing Player Game Sense, Strategies, 24:2, 24-28, DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2010.10590920 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2010.10590920

Published online: 16 Jan 2013.

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Date: 23 October 2016, At: 18:52

''A coach needs to provide player-centered experiences which promote positive interaction with a variety of tasks and environments I I

Player-Centered Coaching: Enhancing Player Game Sense

By Nigel Davies

Consider your clothing closet.

When you first moved into your current house or room you organized that closet in a certain way. The way it is organized was different from your previous closet, even if only slightly. The shape and size of your closet, and the items you placed inside are variables which influenced your organizational decisions. As a result, where certain items are located and how they are accessed will be different from your previous closet. Every time you remove or add clothing items to the closet, the structure and organization of the closet changes. Clothes used infrequently, slowly move to the back or bottom of the closet and become less accessible.

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New items are added and others may be removed, lost or re-located.

Therefore, the closet is in a continuous state of change.

This analogy can be used to describe how a player's brain functions and memories (learning) are stored and accessed. The closet size, shape and clothes contained within would represent previous memories and learning. How the closet is organized and clothes are accessed would represent how the player currently analyzes and processes these memories and learning. Every time the player interacts with a task or his/her environment (e.g. , the new closet; selection, addition or relocation of clothing items; dress requirements for work; etc.),

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a change will occur in the organization and accessibility of his/ her memories.

The way each player 's brain organizes his/her memories wi ll be different based upon previous learning and memories and the current task and environmental constraints. Therefore each player will be interpreting and processing the information in a different way. In soccer, for examp le, as the players interact with the give and go task, they are constructing their own knowledge (organizing their own closet) in their own individual way. As a resu lt of his/her previous learning and the current task experiences, each player on the team will have a different grasp of a give-and-go and its applications.

The speed at which each player processes and assimi lates this information wi ll depend on how regu larly the pertinent memories are utilized or accessed.

This leads to the question: What is learning? Learning has been defined in many ways as having a certain degree of overlap with both intelligence and development. From a movement point of view, " learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in a person's capability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience," (Coker, 2004, p 3). So learning is a result of an individua l interacting with a task (specific activity/goal) and the environment (context).

The quality and appropriateness of these interactions for each individual player will determine whether learning will result in progression or regression. If the players are developing progressively, the coach will observe greater differentiation between and integration of the strategies and concepts by the players (Werner, 1957). Differentiation implies the ab ility to discern key factors which will impact a strategy or concept whi le ignoring unimportant factors. Integration refers to the ability to utilize multiple memories/learning, such as similarities from one situation to another, to meaningfully interact with the task and environment.

Learning is also indicative of intelligence. Piaget (1963) defined intell igence as the ability for a person to adapt to the current situation. Adaptation implies a functional change in the way a person perceives, interacts with, or fee ls about a particular situation. Such changes may cause further adaptations in the way a person functions. For example, a rule change in basketball, such as allowing the offense to move the ball back and forth across the center line, may cause a coach to restructure his/her team's tactical approach to offense. This tactical adjustment may lead to further changes in how the team aligns and functions. The re-alignment may lead to tactical alterations based upon court position with these adjustments leading to changes in the player qualities needed to fulfill a particular position and so on. Therefore, learning will cause reorganization in how each player perceives, processes and synthesizes memories. Successful reorganization would be a demonstration of intelligence.

In summary, learning is: • a change or adaptation • an active process for the learner (learner-centered) • a continuous process • the resu lt of a person's interaction with tasks and the

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Table 1. An experiential learning practice model

environment (an experience) • always in a state of either progression or regression depending upon the quality of specific interactions • different for each person (individual) • progressive and leads to increased differentiation and integration So as a coach/teacher w hat can you do to enhance learning for your players? Based upon what has been identified above, a coach needs to provide player-centered experiences which promote positive and appropriate interactions with a variety of tasks and environments. These interactions should cause the players to adapt, refine or change the way they process information (differentiate and integrate) to more successfu lly interact in different situations. As Bernstein (1967) suggested, practice is an investigative process which leads to the change and refinement of performance as the players interact with the task. Player-centered experiences are activities wh ich are player driven, enable player empowennent in the decision-making process, foster player ownership of the learning, are inclusive, promote player creativity and experimentation, and are matched to the players ' needs and abilities.

Experiential learning models are designed to empower players to construct their own ways of knowing and perfonning.

They are designed to place the players into "situations where they have to take control and make decisions. It empowers them and makes them responsible for their actions in training and in games," (Light, 2005 , p 173). Numerous experiential learning models (e.g., Kolb, 1984; Juch, 1983) have been identified for faci litating player-centered experiences. The majority of these models are cyclical in nature, providing a continuous sequence for enhancing player learning. To generalize, these continuous learning cycles typically consist of: I) concrete or shared experience; 2) reflection and conceptualization, 3) active experimentation; and 4) reflection and analysis. See Table I.

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Table 2. Example soccer assessment sheet

Rating Guide: 1 = Rarely; 2

= Somewhat;

3

Name

Identifies

Identifies 'best'

Runs to

passing

spaces to receive

Explains qualities of an effective

passing options

=Mostly

option

pass

open

pass

Passes ball to teammate

Passes ball in front of receiver

in an open space

Jasmine Susan Allie Jessica Chelsea Lashica

These learning cycles offer players four different ways to perceive and process (Kolb, 1984) tasks and environmental constraints. Providing multiple ways for your players to learn (as each player 's closet is different) will enhance strategic and conceptual clarity, and lead to more effective communication and coordination between the players.

Using the cycle model each practice session segment ( 10-20 minutes), start with a common experience such as an activity, a specific situation from the previous match or observation/ demonstration of a game-like situation. This enables all players to have a common point of reference and a degree of ownership in the learning cycle. Therefore, all players can be involved in the subsequent discussions and collaborations in meaningful ways.

Your role as coach is to identifY and develop an activity that will allow the players to quickly interact with and perceive the focal concept or strategy. The activity should be meaningful and purposeful so that all players can be actively engaged in the activity in some way. "Playing the games gives meaning to their performance and actively involves them in the learning process" (Griffin & Patten, 2005 , p 1). Players should be organized into small groups to maximize participation. Groupings and responsibilities within each group should vary so all players have the opportunity to learn and explore different roles within the sport. A clear and simple goal should be stated to provide direction for the players. Some examples include: • Focal Concept: running to open spaces to receive a pass (soccer) - Score a goal using at least two passes- three consecutive 5 v 1 situations (simulation) • Focal Concept: herding toward the sidelines (basketball) - IdentifY three strategies to defend a 3 v 2 situation (discussion) • Focal Concept: low and drive up (rugby)

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- How can a smaller player drive a larger opponent back in a ruck (discussion and/or simulation) Once the players have been involved in a concrete experience, they regroup to discuss and reflect upon their perceptions of that experience. The coach's role now becomes that of a discussion facilitator. This is where the coach needs to be skillful in structuring and sequencing questions that help the players process the activity to clarifY their thoughts, identifY cause and effect relationships, and compare skill or strategic behavior patterns. The coach 's initial questions will be broad to ensure they can embrace a wide spectrum of perceptions.

Building upon the previous activity examples above, some broad questions could be: • "What worked well to enable you to score a goal?"

• "What strategies did you pinpoint?"

• "What were the important factors suggested by your group?"

It is important to emphasize that the coach isn't offering his/ her own opinion but seeking the thoughts and perspectives of the players. All players should be welcomed into the discussion so they begin to process the information being shared and organize their own meaningful ideas. The coach should provide opportunities for small group discussions as well as individual responses so that all players have an opportunity to reflect upon the questions. Players "are encouraged to listen, explore, discuss, and create ideas .... assumptions are challenged, and their decisions are negotiated" (Butler & McCahan, 2005, p 40). The coach allows several perspectives to be shared and then begins to explore these suggestions with more specific questions to clarifY these ideas. Building upon the first question above, the questioning sequence might be: (note: the responses may be from multiple players) Player: "We used short passes."

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Table 3. Coach's role in experiential learning cycle

Coach: "How did short passes help you score a goal?"

Player: "Our passes were more accurate."

Player: "We were able to keep moving forward with the ball."

Coach: "What were the receivers of the passes doing?"

Player: "Running onto the ball."

Player: "Running to open spaces."

Coach: "Why is running to open spaces important?"

Player: 'To force the defense to make a decision and commit."

Other ideas raised by the players would be explored in a similar way. The purpose of these discussions is not to necessarily identifY a final conclusion or ' best' strategy, but provide the players with a peer analysis of experiences from which to construct, clarifY and refine their own perspectives.

Once the topic has been explored, the players (either in the same groups or new ones) refine and explore other ways to complete the original task. The players share ideas and conceptually experiment with these in different ways. Skills, strategies and concepts learned previously will be integrated into the process making new learning more meaningful. For examp le, a player may suggest utilizing a cut-out pass. The group may discuss the pros and cons of using this strategy, pondering the task and environmental factors which would impact its effectiveness. The result will be that the players who have a greater appreciation of the cut-out pass and its potential applications. Additionally the players may identifY authentic game situations to support their perspective which will further their game knowledge and application. Again, the coach's role is as a facilitator and may ask the occasional question to prompt further group investigation of a player 's suggestion.

Once the players have explored, analyzed and synthesized multiple ideas and strategies, the coach presents a series of scenarios similar to the initial task. The players now apply,

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adapt and refine the ideas and strategies discussed in ways deemed appropriate to meet the desired goal. It is important that all players rotate roles within the practice activities as they experiment with their ideas. This will enable a more global perspective of each idea being tested and result in greater clarity during analysis and reflection.

While the players practice, the coach moves around to each group to monitor and assess the efforts of the groups based upon the focal concept. Assessment should focus primarily on the process skills. It is important for the coach to further modify the tasks and the environment when needed, and appropriately challenge the groups as they practice. For example, this may include such adjustments as changing the shape and/or size of the space, altering the role of the defender(s), modifYing the activity goal, varying the number of offensive versus defensive players, and altering the starting positions of the players. Subsequently, although all groups may be working on a similar concept or strategy, the tasks may be modified to better challenge the players within each group. Such adjustments are designed to enhance each player 's synthesis of the focal concept(s).

After the experimentation phase the groups come together to share their analyses with the rest of the players.

If there are large numbers of players , pair groups in the reflection and analysis phase to allow each group time to interact and share their thoughts and ideas with others.

Typically, the focal questions would address what worked well for them and why. Conversely, they are asked what didn ' t work so well and why. This is an opportunity for the players to offer and receive feedback. Alternative ideas and strategies may be proposed and discussed at this time. Each group is invited to offer their perspectives and share similar experiences.

The coach's role again is that of a facilitator and assessor. The initial questions will be broad to allow differing perspectives to be shared. The players, becoming familiar with the review process, may then more specifically explore these ideas to seek greater clarity. Summary questions will be utilized to differentiate and integrate the ideas and strategies discussed and tested. Using the soccer focal concept (running to open spaces to receive a pass), example summary questions could be: • "Which open spaces were the most effective for receiving a pass?"

• "To where should the pass be directed?"

• "What things can the ball carrier do to be more consistent in successfully passing the ball to a teammate?"

• "What things can the receiver do to increase the quality of the pass?"

• "What other things need to be considered when passing the ball?"

Assessment data would be collected during both activity and discussion phases of the experiential cycle. Activity assessment would focus upon player decision-making, ingame adjustments, player intentions within the context of the

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situation, positioning and effectiveness of communication between players. Discussion assessment would concentrate upon identification of key factors , impact of contextual variables on idea or strategy, differentiation of concepts, and integration of concepts. Assessment data would be used to identify how and what components of the focal concept will be addressed in future practice segments. The assessment data will also assist the coach in determining what the players were able to generate and whether they need to continue exploring and refining the same concept or move to another for the subsequent practice segment.

So what was the role of the coach? The role of the coach during that learning segment was: I) planner (the concrete/shared experience, associated variations of the activity, and key questions to initiate player discussions) and 2) discussion facilitator (activity initiator, assessor and discussion facilitator, and discussion facilitator and assessor).

Before practice, it was that of a planner. This would focus upon developing activities that will promote player interaction with the focal strategy or concept. Additionally, the coach will need to identify variations of these activities to further challenge the players and clarify the strategy or concept being addressed. The coach would be focused upon enhancing each player 's learning. Key questions to initiate discussions would need to be identified to maintain discussion flow and redirect discussions when necessary. ln a practice session the players would experience approximately four to six of these experiential learning cycles.

During the practice session, the coach 's role becomes that of a discussion facilitator, observer and assessor. This is usually the most difficult role for most coaches and players initially, as the traditional coaching model is to lead the practice by explaining or demonstrating the appropriate or desired response and correcting any errors observed.

With this player-centered approach, the players interact and explore possibilities and through discussion, analysis and reflection determine what is the " best" approach for them . As a result, the practice will be more appropriately matched to the players ' knowledge, skill and capabilities.

"Expert teachers try to meet the needs of every one of their students because students have different needs and abilities.

Subsequently, expert teachers set strategies in motion that are tailored to meet the needs of students at each ability level" (Manross & Templeton, 1997, p 31.)

Returning to the closet analogy, after experiencing this cyclical learning process your players will all have vastly different ways for organizing their closets. The way each player 's closet is organized will be meaningful to them .

They will have interacted with the specific group of clothes (concept) in multiple ways and be more familiar with which clothes work best with other clothes for certain situations (related concepts). Subsequently, each player will be able to access the appropriate clothing quickly to adapt to and meet the demands of the immediate task because he/she will be very familiar with each item's location.

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Conclusion In summary, player-centered learning decentralizes the control of what is learned and responsibility for how learning occurs. This responsibility shifts to both the individual players and the groups within which they interact and practice. The coach plans broad structures and activities for the players to analyze, experiment/practice, synthesize and refine their capabilities to recognize and apply skills and strategies appropriately. The coach becomes an activity facilitator, guide and assessor. Information gathered from the assessment will be utilized to direct subsequent practice planning. This approach empowers the players to learn and take ownership of the learning process. The players will interact with the key concepts in a variety of meaningful ways and subsequently be able to access this information more readily during game situations.

References Bernstein, N. ( 1967). The coordination and regulation of movement. Oxford, NY: Pergamon Press.

Butler, J. & McCahan, B. (2005) Teaching games for understanding as a curriculum model. In L. Griffin and J. Butler, (Eds. ), Teaching games for understanding - Theory, research and practice. (pp. 1-18) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Coker, C. 2004. Motor learning and control for practitioners. NY: McGraw-Hill Griffin, L. & Patten, K. (2005). Two decades of teaching games for understanding: Looking at the past, present, and future. In L. Griffin and J. Butler, (Eds.), Teaching games for understanding - Theory, research and practice. (pp. 1-18) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics J uch, A. ( 1983) Personal development- Theory and practice in management training. Shell International, Wiley Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. Light, R. (2005). Making sense of chaos: Australian coaches talk about game sense. In L. Griffin and J. Butler, (Eds. ), Teaching games for understanding- Th eory, research and practice. (pp. 169-182) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Manross, D., & Templeton, C. ( 1997) . Expertise in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 68(3) 29-35 Piaget, J. (1963, 2001). The psychology of intelligence.

NY: Routledge Werner, H. (195 7). The concept of development from a comparative and organismic point of view. In D. Harris (Ed.), The concept of development. (pp. 125-148) University of Minnesota Press, MN.

Nigel Davies is an instructor in the General Education Program at Appalachian State University in Boone, NC, and works with both the USA Rugby & International Rugby Board's Coaching Education Programs.

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