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ChinaandtheMiddleEast TherearecurrentlyfewsourcesofreferencefromaMiddleEasternstandpointonthe rolethatthePeople’sRepublicofChinaiscurrentlyplayingintheMiddleEastand NorthAfricaregion.Inthisbook,DrMuhamadOlimataimstoanalysedifferent perspectivesinordertodeepentheunderstandingofscholarsandstrategicplanners alike,inordertoofferacompleteeconomicandpoliticaloverviewofthesituation. ChinaandMiddleEasternrelationsdatebackfromtheSilkRoadandstretchtothe current ‘ArabSpring’.China’srelationswiththeMiddleEastarehighlightedinterms ofenergy,trade,armssales,cultureandpoliticaltieswithkeycountriesintheregion: SaudiArabia,Iran,Israel,AlgeriaandtheUnitedArabEmirates.China’sbilateral relationswitheachofthesecountriesarebasedonaparticularlycriticalaspectthat determinesitsinterestintheregion.ThecoreofChina’srelationswithIsrael,for instance,isweaponssalesandadvancedtechnology,whilerelationswithSaudiArabia arebasedonoil.IranandChinaaretiedwithdeephistorical,civilizational,cultural andpoliticalbonds,althoughoilisalsotheprimaryfocusofChina’scurrentinterest inIran.China’snationalinterestsinandrelationsandstrategicpartnershipswiththe MiddleEastareonlyincreasing;thisbookaimstoanalyzeandinterprettheserelationsinthistimeofmajorchangeintheMiddleEast.
Thebookincludesdiscussionofandcommenton:
China’sdeepinvolvementintheMiddleEastsincetheSilkRoad
ThenewSilkRoadoftrade,oil,armssales,politicalandculturalrelations
China’soilinvestmentsintheMiddleEast
China’sreactiontotheArabSpring
MuhamadS.Olimat,isanAssistantProfessorofinternationalrelationsatKhalifa UniversityofScience,TechnologyandResearch(KUSTAR)inAbuDhabi,United ArabEmirates.PriortojoiningKUSTAR,DrOlimattaughtandconductedresearch attheUniversityofSouthFloridainStPetersburg,MissouriStateUniversityand severalotherUShighereducationalinstitutions.HisareaofexpertiseisMiddleEast politics,andhisresearchfocusesonChinaandtheMiddleEast,socio-politicaland economicdevelopmentintheMiddleEast,andUSforeignpolicytowardstheregion. HehaspublishedseveralarticlesandbookchaptersonChinaandtheMiddleEast, theArabSpring,transitiontodemocracy,womenandpoliticsintheMiddleEast,and theroleofIslaminthepoliticsoftheMiddleEast.
Firsteditionpublished2013 byRoutledge
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Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedor utilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,now knownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orin anyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwriting fromthepublishers.
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AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Olimat,Muhamad.
ChinaandtheMiddleEast:fromSilkRoadtoArabSpring/Muhamad Olimat. – Firstedition. pagescm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
1.China–Foreigneconomicrelations–MiddleEast.2.MiddleEast–Foreigneconomicrelations–China.3.SilkRoad.4.ArabSpring,2010-I. Title.
HF1604.Z4M6282012
382.0951'056–dc23
ISBN:978-1-85743-631-0(hbk)
2012028085
ISBN:978-0-203-07312-4(ebk)
TypesetinTimesNewRoman byTaylor&FrancisBooks
EuropaCommissioningEditor:CathyHartley
Illustrations Figures
2.1IncreasingoilconsumptioninChinafrom1965to2020inmbd37
2.2Toptenoilimportersin2012
2.3China’soilproductionandconsumptionfrom1990to201241
2.4China’soilimportsfromtheMiddleEastasapercentageofits totalimportsfortheperiodfrom1993to2012 43
2.5Crudeoilpricesfrom1869to2010
2.6China’scrudeoilimportsbysourceinbd(000)in2010
2.7China’sarmsexportstotheMiddleEastandNorthAfricain millionsofUSdollarsfrom1987to2011
6.1China’scrudeoilimportsin2010(000bd)
9.1Algeria’stotaloilproductionandconsumptionfrom1992 to2011
Tables
2.1China’soilconsumptioninthousandbarrelsperday(000bd) from1965to2015
2.2Growthrates,oilproduction,consumption,netimportsandoil importpercentagesfromtheMiddleEast
2.3China–MiddleEasttradevolumeinmillionsofdollarsfrom 2001to2010
2.6ChinaarmsexportstotheMiddleEastandNorthAfricafor theyears1987–2011inmillionsofdollars
2.7ChinaandtheMiddleEast:country,dateofdiplomatic recognition,GDP,GNIPandGDPgrowthrate
4.1NumberofpeoplekilledintheSyrianRevolutionfromMarch 2011to5July2012
4.2NumberofprisonersoftheSyrianRevolutionfromMarch2011 to5July2012 93
5.1NationalsharesofarmssalesfortheSIPRItop100armsproducingcompaniesin2008and2009,indollars(000million)118
5.2China–Israel:valueofbilateraltradeinUSdollars(000million)122
6.1Saudi–Chinesevolumeoftradeinmillionsofdollarsfrom2001 to2010 144
6.2SaudiArabia’smilitaryexpendituresfrom2001to2010in dollars(000million) 146
6.3Regionalarmstransferagreements,bysupplier,2003–10in millionsofcurrentUSdollars 147
7.1IranianarmsimportsfromChinainmillionsofdollarsfrom 1987to2011 155
7.2Bilateraltraderelationsinmillionsofdollarsfortheperiod from2001to2010 160
8.1ValueofbilateraltradebetweenChinaandtheUAEinmillions ofdollars 165
8.2Bilateraltradeinmillionsofdollarsfortheyears2008–10165
8.3Armstransferagreementswithdevelopingnations,2003–10: agreementsbytheleadingrecipientsincurrentUSdollars (000million) 171
8.4UAE’smilitaryspendingandarmamentsfrom2001to2011in millionsofcurrentUSdollars 172
9.1Algeria’srealGDPandunemploymentrates 177
9.2Sino–Algerianbilateraltradeinmillionsofdollarsforthe periodfrom2000to2010 182
9.3Algeria’smilitaryexpenditureinconstantUSmillionsofdollars for2001–10 188
Acknowledgements Iwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportandencouragementofmyfamily, especiallymybrothersAhmedandHmoud.Specialthankstomygoodfriend andeditorEmiliaGarofalo.Yourencouragement,editingskillsandsupport madeallthedifferenceinthecompletionofthebook.Iwouldalsoliketo thankmycolleaguesandfriendsattheInstituteforCivilandInternational SecurityatKhalifaUniversity,especiallyMichelineIshayforherencouragementandsupport,aswellasDavidGold fischerandMohamadZieneddin. ThankstocolleaguesatKUSTAR’slibraryespeciallyPatriciaandDorothy. ManythanksalsotoGregMoore,KenRutherford,FrankBiafora, ThomasSmith,HughLaFollette,BeatKernenandMargieBuechnerfortheir supportandencouragement.IamgratefultoDiWang,SangeetaSinha, HamidAliandRyadYemanyfortheirassistanceindatacollection.Finally, thanksalsotoCathyHartleyatRoutledgeforherenthusiasmfortheproject andhersupportthroughouttheprocessofsubmittingtheproposalandonto publication.
Abbreviations ADNOCAbuDhabiNationalOilCompany
AEWAirborneEARLYWARNING
AUAfricanUnion
AWACSAirborneearlywarningandcontrolsystem
CCPChineseCommunistParty
CIACentralIntelligenceAgency
CNOOCChinaNationalOffshoreOilCorporation
CNPCChinaNationalPetroleumCorporation
CSCEChinaStateConstructionEngineeringCorpnLtd.
DRDongfengorEastWindMissilesCSS-2
EIAEnergyInformationAdministration,USA
FDIForeigndirectinvestment
FLNNationalLiberationFront
FOCACForumonChina–AfricaCooperation
FTZFreetradezone
GAGeneralAssembly
GCCGulfCooperationCouncil
GNPOCGreaterNilePetroleumOperatingCompany
IAEAInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency
IAIIsraelAerospaceIndustries
ICBCIndustrialandCommercialBankofChina
ICIIsrael–ChinaInstitute
IEAInternationalEnergyAgency
IMFInternationalMonetaryFund
IntifadaUprising
KPCKuwaitPetroleumCorporation
MENAMiddleEastandNorthAfrica
MTCRMissileTechnologyControlRegime
NPTNuclearNon-proliferationtreaty
OFFPOil-for-foodProgramme
OICOrganizationofIslamicCooperation
PFLPPopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine
PFOAGPopularFrontfortheLiberationofOccupiedArabianGulf
xii Abbreviations
PLOPalestinianLiberationOrganization
PNAPalestinianNationalAuthority
PRCPeople’sRepublicofChina
R&DResearchandDevelopment
ROCRepublicofChina(Taiwan)
SABICSaudiBasicIndustriesCorpn
SAVAKSazema - n-eEttela - ’ a - tvaAmniyat-eKeshvar,orOrganizationof IntelligenceandNationalSecurity(Iran)
SC SecurityCouncil
SCFStrategicCooperationForum
SinopecChinaPetrochemicalCorporation
SIPRIStockholmInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute
TheP5+1PermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncilandGermany
UAEUnitedArabEmirates
UAVUnmannedaerialvehicle
US(A)UnitedStates(ofAmerica)
emergedtriumphantbutchosenottopursueanall-outconquestofChina, preferringtraderelationsandpeace.TheAbbasids,anenlightenedcivilization ledbyopen-mindedcaliphs,emphasizedmodernadministration,science, craftsmanship,agriculture,irrigationsystems,watercanalsandhighways,and developedanefficientpostalserviceinahugeempire.Theyweregreatly interestedinChina’sknowledgeofastronomyandagriculture,andfascinated byitscultureinparticular.Thereforetrade,culturalcontactsandthe exchangeofknowledgeweresourcesofmajorinteractionbetweenthetwo sides.
TheTangdynastywasalsoanenlightened,multiculturalcivilizationthat promotedsimilarvaluesoftraderelationsandculturalandscientificinteractionwiththeIslamicEmpireandotherneighbouringcivilizations.During China’syearsofturbulence,Muslimarmiescametoitsassistancetomaintain itsterritorialintegrityandunity.MuslimmerchantsandwarriorsfromPersia, ArabiaandCentralAsiawhoresidedinChinacametobeknownasHui,a referencetotheirMuslimreligiousaffiliation.Althoughtheylivedsidebyside withtheHanmajority,HuiMuslimspreservedtheirculturaldistinctiveness, buthavebeensubjectedtosomemajorepisodesofviolenceeversincethe ninthcentury.Sino–MiddleEasterncontactsweakenedbetweenthesixteenth andmid-twentiethcenturiesasboththeIslamicandtheChinesecivilizations declined.However,sinceWWII,China’sengagementwiththeMiddleEast hasintensi fiedtotheextentthatChinahasbecomeanintegralpartofMiddle Easterninternationalrelations.Currently,ChinaisheavilyinvolvedinMiddle EasternpoliticsdealingwithmajorissuessuchastheArabSpringandits subsequentrevolutions,theIraniannuclearstandoff andtheArab–Israeli conflict.
Bookorganization ThisbookisdividedintoninechapterscoveringSino–MiddleEasternrelationsfromtheSilkRoadtotheArabSpring.The firstfourchaptersdiscuss Sino-multilateralrelationswiththeMiddleEastregion,whiletheremaining fivechaptersdealwithbilateralrelationswithkeyMiddleEasterncountries, eachofwhichischosenforstrategicelementsinitsbilateralrelationswith China.
InChapter1,IprovideanoverviewofSino–MiddleEasternrelations highlightingthemostsignificanteventsthathaveoccurredbetweenChina andtheMiddleEastfromtheemergenceoftheSilkRoadtothecurrentArab Spring.InChapter2,Ihavedevelopeda five-dimensionalapproachor five pillars:China’srelationswiththeregionareexaminedbylookingatenergy, armssales,trade,politicalco-operationandculturalties.Infact,inorderfor Chinatomaintainitscurrentgrowthratesandindustrialmomentum,the essenceofitsinvolvementintheMiddleEasthastodealwithitsquestfor energysecuritydefinedintermsofsecuringaccesstoMiddleEasternoil resources.China’sbilateraltraderelationswiththeregionarealsogrowing
providesChinawithwhatothercountriesintheregionlack:advancedweaponssystemsdevelopedbyIsraelicorporationsthathaveaccesstoUSmilitary technology,andITknowhowespeciallyintheareaofagro-technology.Israel wasthe firstMiddleEasterncountrytorecognizethePeople’sRepublicof China(PRC)inearlyJanuary1950andthelastMiddleEasterncountryto establishdiplomaticrelationswithChinain1992.
Chapter6looksatSino–Saudirelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateraltiesis energyco-operation.SaudiArabiaisthemajorsourceofoilcurrentlysustainingChina’sindustrialenterprise,andisalsoheavilyinvolvedininvesting inChina.Fortheirpart,Chinesecorporationsaredevelopingsomeofthe mostambitiousexpansionprojectsinthekingdom,suchashighwaysand railways.Saudi–Chinesebilateraltiesshiftedfromextremeanimositybetween 1949and1980tocautiousrapprochementbetween1980and1990,toastrategicpartnershipin2006representedbythemilestonevisitmadebythecurrent Saudimonarch,KingAbdullah,toChinain2006.
Chapter7investigatesSino–Iranianrelations.Inadditiontooilasthecore oftheirbilateralties,thisliaisonischaracterizedbyhistoricallinksthatgo backtotheearlydaysoftheSilkRoad.PersiainfluencedChinaandmaintainedfamilial,culturalandtradetiesthroughouthistory.Thescopeofbilateralrelations,however,extendstoother fieldssuchmilitaryco-operation, naturalgasexploration,goodsandservicesandconstruction.Chinaisalso activeinresolvingthecurrentIraniannuclearprogrammecrisis,astandoff betweenIranandtheinternationalcommunitythatissoundinganalarm worldwide.Chapter8examinesSino–UAErelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateralrelationsistrade.TheUAEservesasaprimaryhubforChinesecorporationsnotonlyfortheGulforMiddleEastregions,butalsoforAfrica andtheworld.TheUAEisthehomeoftheDragonMart,thelargestChinese businesscomplexoutsidemainlandChina;UAE’srealestatecorporations andportmanagement firmsaremakingheadwayinChinesemarketsaswell.
Chapter9analysesChinese –Algerianrelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateral tiesispoliticalsupportandgenuinefriendshipandadmiration.ChinasupportedtheAlgerianNationalLiberationmovementduringitsWarofIndependencefrom1950to1964,andbecamethe firstnon-Arabcountryto recognizeAlgeria’sindependenceandtoestablishfulldiplomaticrelationsin 1958,fouryearsbeforeAlgeria’ sofficialindependence.Inreturn,in1971, Algeriaco-sponsoredtheresolutiontoreadmitChinatotheUnitedNations. Algerialobbiedbeforetheinternationalcommunityandheadedaglobalshift ofsupportfromtheRepublicofChina(Taiwan)tothePRC.Chinaisheavily involvedinAlgerianeconomicdevelopment.Infact,Chinesecorporations arebuildinghighways,airports,housing,bridges,roadsandeventheGrand MosqueofAlgeria.
ChinaisdeterminedtoenhanceitstieswiththeMiddleEast,butWestern countriesarealarmedbythemagnitudeofitsinvolvement.Chinaissimply followinginAmericanfootstepsandtheUS’sgradualinvolvementinthe MiddleEastintheaftermathoftheBritishdeparturefromtheregionbefore
1Sino–MiddleEastrelations Anoverview TheaimofthischapteristoexaminethedepthofChinese–MiddleEastern relationsandtohighlightsomeofthemajoreventsthathavetakenplacein thehistoryofthetworegionsoverthepastthreemillennia.Thereareseveral periodsthatcanbeidenti fied:theSilkRoad,theIslamic,theColonial,the post-WorldWarIIandthepost-Maoperiods.
TheSilkRoadperiod Around300 BC,ChinahadstrongtraderelationswiththeMiddleEast throughanetworkofAsianmerchants.Themaintraderouteextendedfor 4,000milesfromthecityofXianinChinatoConstantinopleinTurkey.It wasknownastheSilkRoadandthecoreoftheexchangewassilk,aprecious Chinesecommoditythatplayedaleadingroleinthepromotionoftrade betweenChinaandtherestoftheworld.Silkwasinhighdemandespecially amongwealthymerchantsandrulingelitesfromCentralAsiatotheMiddle EasttoEurope.Inadditiontotradinginothercommoditiessuchasspices, amber,porcelainandivory,manycountriestookadvantageoftheSilkRoad: Indiaintroduceduniquespicestotheworld;Persiaexportedpreciousrugsin highdemand;andArabiatradeditshorsesandcamels,prizedfortheir strength,patience,abilitytotravellongjourneysandenduretheharshnessof theworld’smainthoroughfare.
RatherthanlookingattheSilkRoadasjustanothereconomicroute, Chinasawitasacorridorforspeedandmovementtoboostitsmilitarycapabilities.Forinstance,CentralAsiannations,especiallyKazakhstan,werethe very firsttodomesticatehorses.Foritsdefenceandexpansionwestward, Chinaneededthelightweight,swiftandstrongArabianhorsesthatfar exceededotherbreedsintheirspeedandendurance.Theywereingreat demandthroughouthistory,andcontinuetobe.Thesearethehorsesthat carriedArabsasfareastasChina,andasfarwestastheheartofEurope. ThepeakoftheSilkRoadperiodoccurredduringIslamicrule,inwhich MuslimsextendedtheirdomainfromWesternChinatoSouthernandWesternEurope.TheChineseTangDynasty,inparticular,strengthenedmutual traderelationswiththeIslamicempire.
Sino–Islamicrelations TheadventofIslamontheArabianscenemarkedanewphaseintherelationshipbetweenChinaandtheMiddleEast.ProphetMuhammadoncesaid, ‘Seekknowledge,evenifit’sinChina’ withreferencetotheimportanceof seekingknowledgedespitethegeographicaldistance,andinreferencetoChina asasourceofenlightenmentandwisdom.RealizingChina’sstrategicimportance,hisfollowerstookdrasticstepstoestablishsoliddiplomaticandeconomic relationswithChineseemperorsandpeople.Intheseventhcentury,theswift triumphofIslambroughtthereligiontothebordersofChinainrecordtime, andattimesintoitsheartland.Infact,aconsiderablenumberofMuslims weretobefoundin ‘ChineseTurkistanabout AD 630’,thatisduringthelifetime oftheProphet(570–632).1 Clearly,IslamreachedChinabeforeitreached somepartsofArabiaandNorthAfricapreciselythroughMuslimmerchants ontheSilkRoad.TheArabconquestofthePersianEmpirespeededupthe arrivalofIslaminChinainamoresystematicwayand,sincethen,theconquestofCentralAsiahashadadramaticimpactonSino–Islamicrelations. WhenmilitaryclashesbetweenMuslimarmiesandPersiabeganinthe thirddecadeoftheseventhcentury, ‘PersianKingYazdegerdsentadelegationtoChinaseekingmilitaryassistanceinhisconflictwithMuslims,butthe replywasthatPersiawassofaraway,andChinacouldnotgivemilitary assistance.’2 ThePersianenvoyalarmedChineseemperorsabouttherising powerofIslamandpiquedtheircuriosity.Tai-tsung(Gaozong),thepowerful TangDynastyemperor,sentadiplomaticmissiontoMedinaintheyear651 tomeetwithCaliphOthman.Thegoalofthe ‘missionwastopresentthe causeofthePersians.’3 SomesourcesstatethatCaliphOthmansentareturn missioninthesameyear651ledbySa’adibnAbı - Waqqa - s,areveredmilitary generalandaskilleddiplomat,which ‘wasreceivedwitheverydistinction.’4 TheobjectiveoftheWaqqa - smissionwastoconveythemessageofIslamto Chinaandtotheemperorpersonally,andtoextendahandoffriendship. AlthoughEmperorGaozongdidnotconverttoIslam,heshowedunprecedentedadmirationtowardsthereligionandtowardsMuslims.Infact,to commemoratetheenvoyandtoexpresshisfriendship,heorderedthebuilding ofthe firstmosqueinthecapitalcityofChang’an,whichbecamethecentre ofIslamicpresenceintheempire.ChineseMuslimcommunitiesmaintainthat CommanderSa’adresidedanddiedinChina,buttheofficialannalsofthe TangDynastyandprominentMuslimhistorianssuchasIbnAlAthirhaveno recordsofthisnarrative.Atanyrate,theTangDynastywasanenlightened civilizationthatcelebrateddiversityandmulticulturalism;foreignerswere warmlywelcomed.Itscapitalanditsothermaincity,Luoyang,becameculturalandeconomiccentreswhosecitizensconsumedthefamedproductsof CentralAsia,ArabiaandPersia.ArabandMuslimmerchantstradedwith China,andsomeevenresidedinthecountrytoformthe firstMuslimcommunityinXian.Fromthatpointon,IslamhadastrongfollowinginChina thatalsospreadtoEastAsia.
Intheperiodbetween651and714,MuslimarmiesledbyKutibabin MuslimpushedtoconquerthehinterlandofCentralAsia,buildingonthe totalconquestandabsorptionofthePersianEmpire.CrownPrinceFiruz, sonofYazdegerd,thelastPersianking, fledtoChinawherehewaswell received;heresidedinXianin671.Kutiba’ssoldiersdefeatedCentralAsian armiesandmarchedintoKashgar,inChineseEastTurkistan,orwhatis currentlyXinjiang.Sincethen,anallianceformedbetweenMuslims,Uyghur andTibetans.AlthoughMuslimsconsideredCentralAsiaanextensionofthe Islamicworld,giventhatthepeoplehadacceptedIslamandbecamepartof theIslamic Ummah,Chinacontinuedtoconsidertheregiontobeunderits sphereofinfluenceandclashedwithMuslimsparticularlyatitsbordersata laterstage.
TheepicencounterbetweenChinaandtheUmayyadDynastyoccurredin 714 AD,96 Hijrah (Muslimcalendar),whenKutibabinMuslimmarched towardsKashgar,orShiinEastTurkistan(Xinjiang),whichwasunderChineseruleatthattime,andbegantheconquestofChina.Gaozongasked Kutibatohalthisadvanceandsenthimsomeofhisadviserstonegotiatefor peace.Kutibaagreedtothenegotiationsand,insodoing,hewasadheringto Islam’stheoryofwarandpeace:Muslimarmiesshouldgiveawarning,invite enemiestoacceptIslam,payatributeinexchangeforpeaceandprotectionor gotowar.EmperorGaozongoptedforthesecondoption:atributeanda peacetreaty.IbnAlAthir,thefamousMuslimhistorian,narratesthestoryin hisbook, AlKamil (TheCompleteHistory).Upontheemperor’srequest, Kutibasenttenofhismilitarycommandersandadvisersledbyaskilled diplomat,HubiraBenMushamrajAlKelaabie.Onthe firstday,theseten membersoftheMuslimdelegationworesoft,whiteattire.Theyalsosprayed themselveswithcologneandsatattheimperialcourtforseveralhours,but theemperordidnotspeaktothem,sotheyexcusedthemselvesandleft.The emperoraskedhisadviserswhattheysaw.Theyrepliedthattheysawmenas softaswomen.Thenextday,theMuslimdelegationhadasemi-rough appearanceandworesemi-roughattire.Theyworesilkturbansandcovered theirfacesexcepttheeyes,thenwalkedintothecourt,sat,againdidnot exchangeconversationandthenleft.Theemperorthenaskedhisadvisers whattheysaw,andtheyrepliedthattheysaw ‘sortofmen.’ Onthethirdday, theMuslimdelegationmarchedtowardsthecourtonhorseback,withfull battleuniform,swords,shieldsandarrows.Theemperoraskedthemtoleave buttosendhimbackHubira,theheadofthediplomaticmission.Inthe meantime,theemperoraskedhisadviserswhattheysaw.Theyrepliedthat theysawwarriorssuchastheyhadneverseenbefore.Theemperorasked Hubiratoexplaintohimthemeaningoftheattire.Hecompliedbyexplainingthatonthe firstdaytheyworesoftclothasifamongfamilyandfriends. Onthesecondday,theyworesemi-roughclothingaswhentheyfeelsafe amongtheirleaders,andonthethirdday,theydressedasiftheywerefacing theenemy.Theemperorlikedwhatheheard.Hetoldthediplomattoinform Kutibatoleaveorheandhisarmywouldbedestroyed.Hubirarepliedthat
KutibasworebyAlmightyGodthathewouldsteponChina’ssoil,forceitto payatributeandstamponitskings.InIslam,anoathlikethisis firmand mustbecarriedout.Thewiseemperorreplied: ‘AsforsteppingonChina’ s soil,Iwillsendhimsoilandhecanwalkonit:thiswillfulfilhisoath.Asfor atribute,wewillpayit;andI’llsendwithyoufourprincesforKutibato stampon,andhedidjustthat.’5 Therefore,thewiseemperoravoidedimminentdefeatatthehandsoftheMuslimarmy,whichwithdrewtoitsbasesin SamarkandandBukharainCentralAsia.
Between714and751,Muslimarmiescontinuedtheirexpansionandconquestinalldirections,exceptinChina.Evenwithinternaldevelopmentsand conflictssuchastheassassinationofKutibabinMusliminapowerstruggle, MuslimshonouredtheagreementbetweenKutibaandEmperorGaozong, andtradeprosperedonbothsides.Takingadvantageofdissentand fighting withintheMuslimEmpire,ChinaattemptedtopursueitsinterestsinCentral Asia,especiallyintherichFerghanaValley,awealthymulti-ethniclandshared byUzbekistan,KyrgyzstanandTajikistan.EversincetheHanDynasty, Chinahadsoughtcontrolofthisland.Developmentsonthepoliticalandmilitaryscenesonbothsidesbroughtthemintocollisionin751neartheTalas River,inwhatiscurrentlyKyrgyzstan.Earlier,Arabarmieshaddeposed KingIkhshidoftheFerghanaValleyandinstalledKingAlutarinhisplace. Inturn,IkhshidaskedforChina’shelp.Thiswasastrokeofluckforthe Chinesewhonotonlywereinapositiontosupporthimmilitarily,butwantedto correctwhattheythoughthadbeenamistakeinallowingArabstoadvance intoCentralAsiaandoccupyEastTurkistantointimidateChina.Chinesesources estimatedtheChinesecontingentthatmetneartheTalasRiverat10,000 soldiers,butIbnAlAthirestimateditataround100,000soldiersanddidnot mentiona figureforthesizeoftheMuslimmilitary.AbuMuslimAlKhurasani, therulerofKhurasan(Iran,Afghanistan,CentralAsia),mobilizedanarmyestimatedbyChinesesourcesat100,000soldiers.TheMuslimarmywastriumphant:itkilledabout50,000Chineseandalliesandtook20,000captivewhile therest fledtoChina.Thismakesthe fleeingarmyanestimated30,000.6
Afterthebattle,theAbbasidsconsolidatedtheirdominanceinCentral Asia,andIslamspreadamongtheTurkicpeople,andinEastTurkistan,or Xinjiang.AccordingtoArabsources,theTalasBattleputanendtoChinese expansioninCentralAsia.Infact,hadtheMuslimarmiesbeenwillingto invadeChina,thelattercouldhavefallenunderAbbasiddominancelike otherpartsofAsia,SouthernEuropeandWestAfrica.However,theMuslim armiesmaintainedcontroloverXinjiang,theborderwiththeChineseempire, andpursuedaco-operativerelationshipwithChina.AsKeayputit, ‘thevictoriousArabandTibetanforcesfailedtofollowuptheirtriumph,and defeatedChinesehadalreadywrittenoff Ferghana.Worldhistorywasthe onlyloser.’7 XinjiangbecamepartoftheIslamicdominionand ‘theChinese retreated … itwasnotuntiltheQianlongEmperor’sconquest,onethousand yearslater,thattheChineseintervenedsuccessfullyagaininTurkistan,and theyhaven’tleftsince.’8
HouseofWisdomin1257.Theinvasionwasthe firstandmostshattering attackonIslam.Itisnotanexaggerationtosaythatitsdevastatingconsequenceshadrepercussionsformanycenturiesandwillcontinueformany centuriestocome,astheIslamiccivilizationneverfullyrecoveredfromit. TheChinesecivilizationsufferedasimilarfatein1212:ittookChinaover threecenturiestopartiallyrecoverfromit.
BoththeTangandtheAbbasiddynastiesweremulticulturalandtrade oriented;diversitywaswelcomed,celebratedandembraced.Tangrulers foundMuslimstobeavibrantmerchantclass,andprovidedArabMuslim merchantswithallthesupporttheyneeded.TheyalsofoundMuslimstobe disciplinedandlaw-abidingpeople,asinstructedbyIslam’sprinciples,andfor thistheyadmiredthem.TheMuslimcommunityconcentratedontradeasits maingoal,butatthesametimereflectedapositiveimageofIslamasareligionandofMuslimsasapeople.TheyandtheTanghadidenticalgoals; therefore,tradebetweenChinaandtheIslamicworld flourished.Asearly MuslimsinChinaobservedthepillarsoffaith,theyinfluencedtheirneighbours,butthespreadofIslamwasinadequatewiththemissionarynatureof IslamitselforthestrengthoftheMuslimcommunityinChina.Nevertheless, Muslims’ approachtothepropagationofIslaminChinaprovedtobepractical.Forexample,whenotherreligions,especiallyBuddhism,wereunder stateoppression,Muslimswereleftalonetopractisetheirfaithastheyhad notarticulatedaplanofconversionfortheChinesepeopleoradvocated Islamasareligion.
OneofthetragiceventsthatoccurredtotheprosperousMuslimcommunities inChinaduringtheTangDynastyhappenedin878 AD.TheHanmajority protestedagainstthesuccessfulMuslimcommunitybecausetheywerejealous oftheeconomicprosperityofArabimmigrants.Theprotestsledtothemassacreofover100,000Muslims. ‘ThetragedyledArabimmigrantstomigrate toSouthEastAsiaandsettleinthatregion.Therefore,thespreadofIslamto MalaysiaandSouthEastAsiacomes firstfromChina(East),notfromIndia andtheArabianregion(West).’10 Islamestablishedafootholdtotheextent thatIndonesiabecamethelargestIslamiccountrywithapopulationthat exceeds200million.TheremainingMuslimcommunityinChinarebuiltitself andonceagainbecamemoreinfluentialunderMongolruleinthethirteenth century.KarlLudvigreportsthatemigrationtoChinacontinued ‘underthe YuanDynasty,theportsandprovincesofChinawerelegallyopenedtoArabs andPersians,andanextensivemigrationresulted.’11 Othermajorwavesof violenceagainstMuslimswerealsoreportedintheeighteenthandnineteenth centuries.Ludvigmaintainsthat:
followingarebellionamong[Muslims]in1785anumberofsevere decreeswereissuedaffectingallMohammadans.PilgrimagestoMecca wereforbidden,andalsothebuildingofmosques.Theircondition becamepracticallythatofserfs.Theywereunderthisrepressiverestraint till1863.ThentherewereuprisingsofthewholeMohammadan
populationinnorthandwestChina.Millionswerekilledintheterrible fighting.PeacecameonlywhentheadventurousChieftainYakoobBeg hadgainedsupremepowerandformedMohammadanskingdomupin EastTurkistan.Unfortunatelyhewasremovedbydeathasearlyas1877. Athisdeathallcrumbledandafteranincredibleamountofbloodshed cameundertheruleofChinaoncemore.12
TheSilkRoadcontinueditsprimaryroleinworldtradeuntilsearoutesgraduallybegantoshifttradepracticesfromtheeighthcenturyonward.The advantagesofoceanrouteswerespeed,reducedtaxes,safetyandsecurityand bypassingtheharshweatherconditionsacrossCentralAsiainparticular. Arabdominanceacrosstheseaslasteduntilthethirteenthcenturywhen EuropebeganitsriseandMiddleEasternpowerandinfluencewaned.China pursuednavaldominanceforover300years,betweenthethirteenthandsixteenthcenturies,butChineseemperorsconcludedthatitwasintheirbest intereststoconcentrateontheirinternalaffairsanddefendtheempire’sbordersfromtheescalatingattacksofrisingregionalpowers.Inaddition,China determinedthattherewasnotthatmuchtolearnfromtheexistingworldat thetime,asthecountrywasfarmoreadvancedthantherisingEuropean powersintermsofship-building,navalstrength,agricultureandpapermaking.Thispolicyofisolationismlasteduntilthe1840swhenitwasbroken byBritishforces.
TherisingWestandthedecliningEast BoththeIslamicempireandChinawentthroughepisodesofcivilizational riseanddecline. ‘Duringthechaoticcenturyfrom860to960followingthe disintegrationoftheTangdynasty,politicalandmilitarypowersdevolvedto thelocallevel. … theeffectsoffragmentationwerelessbenigninthenorth. ManyoftheregionalwarlordstherewerenotChinesebutTurksfromthe garrisonarmies.’13 Fragmentationcontinued,andChinafellunderthecontrol ofMongols,TibetansandJurchens,TangutsandKhitans.Asmentioned earlier,theMongolinvasionwasmostdevastatingtobothChineseandIslamic civilizations. ‘Mongolarmies firstsweptacrossthenorthChinaplainin1212–13, theyleftninety-oddcitiesinrubble.WhentheysackedtheJurchen’snorthern capitalatBeijingin1215,itburnedformorethanamonth.’14 TheMongol waveofdestructioncontinuedwestward,anditswrathreachedBukharaand SamarkandinCentralAsiain1219,withadestructiveforceofover200,000 troopswholevelledcitiesintheirpath.ThedevastationextendedtoBaghdad in1257,theseatoftheAbbasidsandofIslam,andcontinuedtoRussiaand CentralEurope.
Beyondthebrutalityandviolenceexercisedagainstconquerednations,the Mongolslackedtheskillstomanagethelandandthepeopleundertheirrule. Theylearnedhowtorecruitandrewardloyalsubjectsandarmies.They recruitedtheTurkicarmiesto fightontheirside,especiallyagainstRussia
weretheoverseasvoyagesof1405to1433ledbyoneofhismosttrusted servants,aMuslimadmiralnamedZhengHe,whosailedtoArabia,Africa andEastAsia.18 Chinawasunsurpassedbyanyexistingpowerintermsof ship-buildingandmaritimeknowledge.Chinesenavaldominanceonthehigh seaswasatestamenttoChina’ssuperiorship-buildingskills,navigational knowledgeandscienti ficadvancement.However,Chinadecidedtoisolate itselffromtheworldandfocusonitsinternalaffairsuntiltheadventofthe Britishencroachmentinthe1840s.HadChinapursuedthenavalexploration voyages,itcouldhavebeenaglobal–imperialpowerwithterritorialpossessionsintheAmericas,inAfrica,intheMiddleEastandinAsia.Chinacould havebeenricherthanEngland,Spain,France,theNetherlandsorPortugal. Instead,itwassubjugatedbyrisingWesternnavalpowersforoveracentury, thecenturyofhumiliation.
MartinJacquesattributestheMingpolicyofisolationism,China’sfailure tocontinueZhengHe’svoyagesorpursueitsnavalcapabilitiestoseveral factors.Hehighlightsthefactthat,becauseofsensitivitiesaboutthenorthern borders,theMingDynastymovedtheimperialcapitalfromNanjingtoBeijing,whichreducedinterestinoceanicvoyages.Thecostofthesevoyageswas aconcern,whiletheprioritywastoprotectChina’sterritoryandassimilate thenewlyannexedlandsafterthedefeatoftheMongols.Inaddition,China believedinitscivilizationalsuperiorityandfeltithadnothingtolearnfrom theoutsideworld.AllthesefactorsencouragedChinatoshrinkitsnaval ambitions.19
DuringtheManchu-controlledQingDynasty,Chinaembarkedonthe mostambitiousprocessofexpansionwestward, ‘from1644tolate18thcentury,whentheterritoryunderChineserulemorethandoubled.Thisinvolved theconquestoflandstothenorth,notablythoseoccupiedbytheMongols, andtothenorth-west,thehomelandofdiverseMuslimpopulationsofTurkistan.Manyoftheconqueredpeople,particularlyinCentralAsiaandTibet, hadlittleornothingincommonwiththeHanChinese.’20 Jacquesaffirmsthat ‘theselandsbecamecolonialpossessionsofChina,andChinausedacombinationofmilitaryandculturalmeanstoassimilatenewlyannexedlands, especiallyinCentralandsouthernChinaandthesteppeland.’21 However,he notesthat ‘theQingconquestofthenorth-westandthewestwasdifferent, beingachievedbytheuseofparticularforceandbrutality.MostoftheZungharsforexample,aMuslimpeoplewhooccupiedmuchofwhatweknow nowasXinjiang,wereexterminated.’22 Theviolentincorporationoftheborderinglandsandthesubjugationofthepeoplecameasareactiontothe Hans’ humiliationbytheMongols.Chinaalsoconsolidateditscontrolover theterritoryandthenewlyannexedlands,andshieldeditselffrompotential ‘barbarian’ invasions.ThesemeasuresneverrelievedChinafromthe encroachmentoftherisingWesternthreat,whichhumiliatedChinaasmuch ifnotworsethanthesavageryoftheMongolinvasion.
Inthepost-Mongolera,tradewithCentralAsiaandTurkiclandscontinuedasChinafranticallyembarkedonaprocessofexploitingitsimperial
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