LIMINA
LIMINA
UNM NONFICTION REVIEW
Published by the Student Publications Board at the University of New Mexico. All rights revert to contributors upon publication.
Limina: UNM Nonfiction Review publishes nonfiction work from undergraduate and graduate students attending the University of New Mexico.
Email: limina@unm.edu
Website: limina.unm.edu
Instagram: @limina_unm
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Cover Design: Mikaela Johnson & Marcela Johnson
Magazine Design: Marcela Johnson, Mikaela Johnson Fonts: Ibarra Real Nova, Alegreya Sans
Land Acknowledgement
Founded in 1889, the University of New Mexico sits on the traditional homelands of the Pueblo of Sandia. The original peoples of New Mexico – Pueblo, Navajo, and Apache – since time immemorial, have deep connections to the land and have made significant contributions to the broader community statewide. We honor the land itself and those who remain stewards of this land throughout the generations and also acknowledge our committed relationship to Indigenous peoples.
We gratefully recognize our history.
MASTHEAD
Limina: UNM Nonfiction Review is made by students for students. Our staff is comprised of undergraduate and graduate volunteers who solicit submissions, select works for publication, copyedit, design, and market the magazine on campus.
Editor in Chief: Marcela Johnson
Managing Editor: Mikaela Johnson
Copy Chief: Isabella Young
Staff Editors
Madison Hogans
Beckett Glass
Jen Apodaca
Dakota Denton
Jesús Eduardo Sánchez Flores
Orion Lee
Jazlynn Martinez
Editor in Training
Sophia Young
Meet the Editors
Marcela Johnson studies journalism and technical theatre and will run away with her degree in May 2025. A proud southwest New Mexican, she hopes to practice law and serve her state but in the meantime will speak truth to power as a journalist. When not reading, she enjoys music of all flavors, makeup, and sewing. She has worked on Limina for four years and is grateful for all the people she has met along the way.
Mikaela Johnson is a third-year student majoring in Journalism with a minor in History. After completing her undergraduate degree she plans on attending law school, to eventually become an immigration attorney. This is her second year being a part of the Limina team, and hopes to be a member again next year.
Isabella Young is an English major with a still undecided minor, poet, mother to the world’s best baby, and occasional dabbler in ceramics and various fabric crafts. Her goals in life are strewn about haphazardly according to fancy and chance with the hope being that she leaves this world a little better than she found it.
Madison Hogans is a fourth-year student earning dual degrees in Honors Interdisciplinary Liberal Arts and English at UNM. Things she loves include her family, friends, the educational opportunities of the world, good tea, and the passion of creatives everywhere that inspire her own writing pursuits.
Beckett Glass is a second-year student doing a double major in Political Science and Economics. He loves doing Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. In his free time he also likes to read and play video games. He loves working with Limina because of the great people and the variety of things he gets to read.
Meet the Editors
Jen Apodaca is a second-year undergraduate student majoring in Journalism and minoring in Chinese. She enjoys watching movies and shows, and reading books. In her free time, she loves to pet her cats and dogs, and spend time with her family.
Dakota Denton is a first year editor at Limina .
Jesús Eduardo Sánchez Flores is a second-year master’s student studying Political Science with a concentration in research methodologies. He loves to collect and play board games, write poetry, and travel. He enjoys Limina because it gives him an outlet to express his creativity.
Orion Lee is a graduating English major with a minor in Communications specializing in publishing and technical writing. When not diving head first into an ambitious creative project, Orion likes to play games, start new hobbies, and build community.
Jazlynn Martinez is from San Ildefonso Pueblo. She is a fourth-year student majoring in English with a minor in Film History & Criticism. She enjoys watching movies with her friends and family. She loves reading and aspires to be a novelist.
Sophia Young is Limina ’s first editor-in-training. She enjoys lullabies, naps, and the sweet sound of vacuum cleaners.
Zoe Sloan Callan
Perpetuating Abuse: Why Many Victims Do Not Report
West U’Ren
The Mind and the Body: How Fascination with Killers Eclipses the Identities of Their Victims
Taya Demianova
Controlled Chaos
Sydney Hopkins
Gender Expression, Masculinity, and Serial Murder: How The Silence of the Lambs Discusses Gender Nonconformity and Morality
Sadie Sheets
The Gender of Christ in Late Antique and Byzantine Representation
MJ Robertson-Yi
Raychel Kool
The Hypocrisy of Southern Christianity in the 1800s and the Nature of Faith
Mason Parrish
Hell Waiting for an Angel
Theresa Anderson
Democratic?
Elizabeth Kent
Sachi Barnaby
An analysis of the reasons why Broadway's biggest flop was doomed from the very beginning
Brook Duffy
Foreword
When I started with Limina as a freshman at UNM, I did not think I would be in charge of it for two years. Yet here we are, gearing up for my second foreword. The process of making the magazine you hold in your hands is one of the most stressful yet rewarding things I have ever done (twice). It would not have been possible without this year’s amazing staff. From returning staff to new faces, they worked hard to get this magazine to you on an abbreviated timeline. They are brilliant.
As for the content contained in this magazine, it is a brave thing to submit your work for review by a room of unknown (or known in some cases) people. Although I do not get a vote on what we publish (barring extreme circumstances), I am extremely pleased with what my staff has chosen. We as a staff thank our contributors for trusting us to do right by them. We hope that they feel proud seeing and holding their work in this bound form.
I would be remiss not to personally thank my family and friends, with a special shoutout to my sister and my roommates. Specifically, Reyes Reynaga, who listened to my many panicked questions and answered them with great wisdom for my past two years as EIC. Without these kind and patient people, I would not be able to write this calmly to you on the Monday before the magazine is due to start the print process. I am so blessed to have such wonderful people in my life, and I hope they know how much I love and appreciate them.
This year, our design is inspired by the ocean and Talavera poblana pottery, which originated in Puebla, Mexico. I am a proud Mexican-American and now more than ever, it is important to be proud of where you come from, and fight for what it means to be yourself. I believe, unintentionally, the pieces in this year’s edition reflect this.
As one last ask, enjoy.
Marcela Johnson Editor in Chief
Einn Eftir í Klúbbnum
YZoe Sloan Callan
English Department Award Winner
ou enter the crowded club with your friends. They are drunk and dancing, and you are trying. You wish you were back at the gay bar you left your friends at only half an hour ago to drive another friend back to the Airbnb you all have been staying at. Your passenger apologizes profusely, but you don’t mind. You are the designated driver, and you prefer it that way. Besides, now you will only have to take one trip home instead of two at the end of the night, as you don’t all fit in one rental car.
“ Your friends are a lot more excited than you. To be fair, they are also a lot drunker than you. ”
You didn’t expect your friends to move on so quickly without you. You didn’t expect them to go to one or two other bars (including one that doubled as a bookstore which you had really wanted to see) while you were gone, getting much drunker than when you left them. You weren’t even gone for very long.
Your friends are a lot more excited than you. To be fair, they are also a lot drunker than you. It is your second-to-last night here in Iceland. You came with four of your friends and your ex for Spring Break. It is his birthday. Tickets were bought before you broke up. You wish he wasn’t here; it’s been months since you’ve really spoken, and now he has a whole new friend
group. You don’t think the others would be all that sad if he hadn’t come, you aren’t the only one he isn’t on perfect terms with. But aside from a few moments of awkwardness, the trip has been fine so far, as long as the two of you don’t really talk directly. You are grateful that the group rented two cars, he drives one and you drive the other. But this trip was technically his idea, and the rest of the trip has been fun so far.
One of your friends spots an open table along the edge of the room. The whole club is a small rectangle; at least, you think it is. There’s a bar at the back. The side and front walls are one big bench seat with small tables along it on a raised platform that frames the room.
You crowd into a table. Everyone starts piling their jackets next to you in the booth. They ask you to watch the jackets and then immediately re-join the fray. “What was the point of grabbing the table?” you wonder, suddenly alone in this place that reeks of neon pink.
You smile tightly at the people you make eye contact with as they shuffle through the throng. You see one man put something in his lips that your friends swear they thought was cocaine,
but you recognize as chewing tobacco, which your uncle uses quite regularly.
A man approaches and offers to buy you a drink. You are grateful for this break in being alone, but you already have one. You asked your friend a few minutes ago to get you a Mango Tango 2.0 from the bar shortly after you sat down because you wanted to say you bought one drink at a bar while you were abroad and were able to drink. You aren’t quite old enough to drink legally back home, not that you really want to. You probably wouldn’t let him buy you one even if you didn’t have a drink, but you don’t tell him that. He nevertheless clinks his glass with yours. Cheers.
He isn’t too tall, with brown skin and hair (maybe it is slightly graying, but despite the color he seems like he is around your age). He wears a light olive-green jacket, your favorite color, but an odd choice for the cold in Iceland. Maybe he has a friend watching his larger coat? Maybe he left his coat somewhere, confident that it wouldn’t be stolen? Maybe he just has a high cold tolerance, like you do most of the time?
He keeps talking to you, saying you’re pretty and such. He holds his glass out to you again. Cheers. You take another sip.
He asks to sit on the bench with you. You don’t stop him. Your puffy black jacket acts as a barrier between the two of you. He asks if you like kissing. Cheers. What kind of question is that?
He asks if he can kiss you. Cheers. And you have to think about it for a second. You’ve never liked the idea of kissing strangers, and until recently (just over a year ago), you identified as fully asexual. You decide that maybe you’ll try it. Kissing a stranger in a club. Just one kiss, a brief one to try it.
Your friends have kissed strangers at parties
before, made out with strangers at parties even. One of them found a girlfriend that way. What’s the old adage, “Don’t knock it till you try it,” or whatever.
You kiss him quickly and smile awkwardly. Not for you, you decide. You’ll stick to your demisexual ways.
You look around for your friends. They had been dancing almost right in front of the table just minutes before. They are a bit further out but still within eyesight. Why did they leave you alone again?
He chats with you more. You don’t really know how to tell him to leave. Cheers.
“Would you like to kiss again? Please?”
“Fine,” you agree. “Just one more kiss, just one.” You kiss him again, short and quick. He is closer to you now.
He asks for your name. You laugh and turn away; you need a second to think. For some reason, you don’t feel comfortable giving it to him, so you say the first name that comes to your mind. The name of a completely random girl from your dorm.
He tells you his name, which you have long forgotten. He says he is from Britain or London or something, somewhere predominantly white and European. He asks where you’re from. You tell him the state your college is in; this is not the state you call home. Cheers.
He is even closer to you now. He asks if he can kiss you one more time. He is persistent.
“Fine. One more kiss,” you agree, “last one. Last one. ”
You pull away and look for your friends again. They aren’t where you saw them last.
You hear him say something, but you can’t make it out.
“What?” You ask. You lean in, ear first, to hear him better.
Suddenly, his lips are on yours for much
longer than you had previously let them be. His hand is at the back of your head, holding you in place, despite the fact that you are actively trying to pull away. You can feel his tongue, which you refuse to let past your closed teeth and pressed lips.
Can he not fe el your resistance? Your stillness?
His eyes are closed but yours are open. You are waving your hand out behind you, hoping desperately to signal to one of your friends.
He releases you and smiles. He is suddenly right next to you. His leg brushing up against yours. He is holding your hand. Help.
You look around for your friends and they are off, dancing, not a care in the world. You are desperate. You try calling some of them discreetly. You text them for help, when your calls are sent straight to voicemail or unanswered.
You are trapped and he is smiling again.
Though she is on the opposite side of you from him, with her body language she is between you, her arms reaching in front of you, pulling you towards her, shielding you.
“She’s not interested,” she tells him. “Goodbye. She’s not interested.”
She is persistent, stopping just short of pushing the man away from you.
You are relieved.
She asks if you are okay. You say you are fine and thank her. You are not fine.
“ She asks if you are okay. You say you are fine and thank her. You are not fine. ”
You always thought you would be so confident in this situation. You thought you would fight, push him back, maybe even yell at him. But here you are frozen, trapped, stuck. Somebody help me, please.
Suddenly she catches your eye. The friend who bought you the drink.
She comes over to your table. You lean in and whisper that this man is making you uncomfortable and you need help.
She hears none of this, it is too loud.
But she saw it in your face. The fear, and discomfort, and desperation.
You say you need to pee and will be right back. You give your friend the rest of your drink. You have no desire to even touch it again.
The bathroom is downstairs. The opposite wall leads to a small hall space with a large set of stairs leading down to where there are other rooms that you are too preoccupied to worry about. You make it to the bathroom; it is quite dirty.
You can feel your breath overwhelm you in the stall. You push down the panic attack you feel coming.
It was fine. You are fine. It was nothing. It was just a kiss. It’s fine. You’re fine. It wasn’t that big of a deal. You're fine. Don’t cry. you're fine.
The bathroom is out of toilet paper. Shit. You have tissues in your purse.
You pause in front of the mirror. You don’t look like you’ve been crying.
You exit the bathroom, climb the stairs, and freeze.
You stare out at the throng of drunken
dancers. You are so worried that he will see you and stop you on the way to your friends. You don’t see him as you make your way back to the table, where the rest of your friends have now gathered.
You find out later from one of your friends that the man is still watching you, waiting.
Your friends ask you if you are okay. You are fine, you tell them.
They ask if you want to stay or leave. You don’t want to ruin their night.
They decided to take you out for air and then come back in.
They’re drunk. Once you are outside you can breathe again.
Your friends start bragging. They may be drunk, but as soon as they saw you in distress, they came over. It may have taken them a little bit, but at least they stopped it before anything bad happened. Someone mentions that they saw the guy watching you as you walked back to the group from the bathroom and as you were leaving.
It is then that your ex speaks up. He says that he saw that guy approach you and talk to you in the beginning, but he thought it was a “good thing.”
He used to know you so intimately. You told him all of your fears and insecurities, he knew how terrified you were of exactly this. And somehow, he, of all people, saw this and thought it was a good thing? Even if you weren’t on the best of terms anymore, you cannot comprehend how he could have thought that or not even at least checked in about it. If he felt awkward about it he could have asked another one of your friends to step in. But instead, he let it all happen. This thought will keep you up at night, and you probably won’t ever get a satisfactory answer.
They get ready to go back in, but the doors
are closed. While the club is still going to be open for the next couple of hours, they aren’t letting anyone else in.
You are so relieved to not have to go back in there.
But your friends are not quite done partying. You numbly follow them to another pub and a halal cart.
Your friends try to check on you in their own drunk way, but you are not assertive enough, you guess. You don’t want to ruin the mood or something.
The friend who saw your face and saved you keeps an eye on you throughout the rest of the night, not letting anyone else get close to you. Shutting down even the people who ask if you are okay. You are grateful for her help. But you are tired, sad, and a little anxious, and all you want to do is go back to the Airbnb.
The bathroom at the pub is just as dirty as the one at the club. But the bartender is nice when you ask for a glass of water, and the music is better here.
Aside from a strange lady who kinda sorta ran her hands over you, maybe she was trying to get you to dance, the pub was a much better experience than the club. But still, you aren’t a fan of clubbing or bar hopping or whatever this is.
Finally, your friends are ready to leave. Stumbling they follow you back to the garage where you parked the rental car.
Back at the Airbnb, you gather in the kitchen. They start their drunken bragging again, and you start to cry.
You apologize and tell them you don’t know why you are crying.
After a few hugs and a glass of water, everyone decides to go to bed.
Everyone goes downstairs to go to bed except for your ex, who is sleeping on the couch
upstairs.
After getting ready for bed, everyone but him gathers in your room. They ask you to tell them what happened back at the club. You do, and you cry again.
They tell you that you are more important than their jackets and next time you can just leave them.
They are trying to comfort you, but all you feel is guilt as if you let this happen to yourself. You let him kiss you in the first place, more than once! You didn’t leave.
To this day, you have no idea if your ex knows what really happened. One of them said he does, told by one of the others, but you’re sure the alcohol affected the memory because that same friend will someday remind you that they stopped it before anything bad happened.
You are still grateful to the one who stopped him, who saved you, who got him to leave.
You are grateful for the friends back home who didn’t minimize it when you told them what happened, who let you feel big feelings.
You still feel guilty.
Your sense of trust and safety have been shattered.
Such a small thing it seems, that kiss.
Such an awful thing how much it affects you still.
You have not been to a party since.
You have to tell your next partner not to touch the back of your head when they kiss you because it makes you feel trapped.
A year later, two of your friends who you told about the experience once you returned home take you out to a gay bar. You know that they will not leave you behind. One gives you her phone to play with and you feel like a small child being distracted by their mother. But you are grateful. The three of you drink only nonalcoholic drinks, and they never leave your side,
dancing with and beside you. They could just as easily leave you behind to dance with each other, they are dating after all. But they make you feel safe. And you love them for it.
Perpetuating Abuse: Why Many Victims Do Not Report
West U’Ren
Throughout history, women have consistently been silenced. Female passivity was highly valued, categorically treasured. Women were expected to cater to their fathers, husbands, and to the expectations of society, even when they were poorly treated. It was even expected that they should excuse violent or otherwise threatening or unpleasant behavior directed at them; allowance was simply part of being a good, modest, pious, gentle woman. For victims of abuse, this expectation could culminate in extensive physical and emotional damage, and, in the most distressing of circumstances, a loss of life. Abuse victims, particularly female victims, are systematically blamed, ridiculed, discredited, and discarded by people and systems that are supposed to protect them. This leads victims to resist or delay reporting. In many cases, they are overtly muzzled: silenced either by the abuser or the damaged and often insufficient justice systems.
“ For victims of abuse, this expectation could culminate in extensive physical and emotional damage. ”
When it comes to physical and sexual violence, particularly when children are involved, teachers are often the first point of the system victims come into contact with. Therefore, they must be properly trained to effectively handle such serious scenarios. Despite being mandated reporters— that is, required by law to report suspected or
confirmed child abuse, including sexual abuse, to the proper authorities—teachers fail to report many stories, especially when young children are involved. All that must be present to file a report is reasonable suspicion, not obvious proof. Despite this, 71% of stories shared with teachers or other school personnel were not reported to the proper authorities simply because the children were not believed (Kamke et. al., 2024). Many teachers disregarded children’s stories as highly fantastical, exaggerative, or downright untrue. This statistic reinforces the heartbreakingly common belief that abuse victims will not be taken seriously, which discourages many from speaking up. Furthermore, if 71% percent of incidents go unreported, abusers are receiving the message that they will not be held accountable in any way for their exceedingly damaging actions. Corroborating this theory is a study that was conducted in Ontario, which followed a situation regarding sexual abuse at St. Michael’s College in Toronto, Canada. The incident involved video recordings of sexual abuse taking place. It was uncovered that school officials knew of this activity and let it continue. In addition, many individuals who hoped to obtain teaching positions or who already held them expressed
“deep disappointment” in the teacher education program in Ontario, saying that no such training centered around reporting abuse was provided (Almanssori 2022). The candidates were only told that they were mandated reporters, but they were not necessarily walked through the complicated steps of reporting abuse. The result at St. Michael’s College was that the welldocumented sexual abuse was downgraded to a “toxic culture of bullying” present in the school (Almanssori 2022). This reinforces the painful and silencing belief that abuse victims will not receive the support they deserve, support that could be as simple as hearing the phrase “I believe you.” Why would one choose to go through the horror of disclosure if they know nothing will come from it?
A highly dangerous (and rapidly increasing) form of abuse that targets children and teenagers is online grooming. Online grooming is described as “a process whereby an adult uses internet technologies to initiate a dynamic of sexual persuasion and victimization through online contact” (Reneses et. al., 2024). The practice does not always end with in-person abuse, but most of the meetings between victims and abusers end in abusive physical sexual contact (Reneses etc. al., 2024). As is the case with most instances of abuse, abusers look for vulnerable individuals, often individuals who are already isolated in some way from their peers or families (Dunham & Senn, 2000). Isolation was cited in multiple studies as both increasing the likelihood of abuse and the likelihood of keeping such abuse secret. It has also been discovered that “more girls were victims… than boys” (Reneses et. al., 2024). In a study done in Ontario, many offenders— those who enacted the abuse—cited that they purposefully searched for individuals who appeared to be more innocent than their peers or for individuals who appeared to be insecure
in some way. Abusers, especially online abusers, “exploit these vulnerabilities” to get what they want, whether that is explicit photographs or actual sexual contact (Reneses et. al., 2024). Such a standard also applies to romantic relationships in which physical, sexual, or emotional abuse occurs. Abusive partners isolate their victims and essentially condition them to believe that what is happening to them is normal. Many individuals do not report online grooming out of fear of getting in trouble, feelings of shame, or because they do not recognize the behavior as grooming. They may feel flattered and appreciated (Reneses et. al., 2024). Online abuse in the form of grooming is steadily becoming more apparent as the use of technology for connection becomes more and more normalized. However, it is important to note that this type of grooming occurs all too often in person as well.
Reporting partner abuse is riddled with emotional, social, and structural potholes of a vehicle-destroying caliber. Victims minimize their own experiences out of fear of further abuse, fear of being discredited, or simply as a common and understandable response to trauma (Dunham & Senn, 2000). Unfortunately, there is also a high degree of shame present within victims of abuse, particularly if that abuse occurred at the hands of someone the victim is very close to, as would be the case with a romantic partner. Women are disproportionately affected by partner abuse, and heavily perpetuated gender expectations undoubtedly play a role in keeping victims from speaking up. Women are expected to stay silent and serve their husbands and the other men in their lives. They are encouraged not to stand up to or criticize their partners, however rightful such criticism may be. Husbands could, and often still can, get away with multitudes of abusive behaviors. In fact, prior to the 1970’s, marital rape was not subject to the same punishment as
other forms of rape, essentially rendering marital rape legal.
Sexual assault, in general, is often grossly mishandled; this miscarriage of justice occurs even more commonly in cases of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse involving a romantic partnership. Following a tweet from President Donald Trump on Christine Blasey Ford’s allegation of abuse leveled at Judge Brett Kavanaugh, the hashtag #WhyIDidn’tReport exploded across the social media platform X, then known as Twitter (Fortin 2018). The hashtag was filled with individual stories of choosing not to report abuse, many of which detailed experiences of being met with accusations of mendacity. One very bleak entry from one individual reads “I did, it didn’t matter, I was dismissed, disparaged, [and] I still get blamed” (Daryl Hannah via Twitter, 2018). Most unfortunately, this story is not an isolated one. The words blamed, dismissed, and liar are featured in hundreds of posts under the hashtag. The thread features hundreds of stories that are far too similar to be instances of mere coincidence, posts that read “because I was scared. I didn’t think I’d be believed. I thought “nothing had happened” (messages via Twitter 2018). Patterns of silencing continuously occur in social circles, and a great deal of these patterns spill over into the world of reporting to police or other authorities. Unfortunately, such patterns continue to influence the various forces of courtrooms, as well. The world at large
“The words blamed, dismissed, and liar are featured in hundreds of posts under the hashtag.”
repeatedly tells victims of abuse that their voices do not matter, that they are fabricated, attentionseeking, and inappropriate. Cases are frequently mishandled by police and other institutions whose missions are to protect and serve. Arne Duncan, United States Secretary of Education circa 2011, called the mishandling of sexual assault cases on a local and federal level “staggering” (Favot, 2011). So many victims are forced to live without justice, which again does not encourage other victims to speak up. Cases that consistently disappear or are mishandled perpetuate the idea that reporting abuse is pointless. Such a horrific experience as disclosing abuse feels worthless and unnecessary. On the whole, abuse victims are not treated well. When abuse is disclosed, it is habitually diminished. Instead of protecting abuse victims, legal systems often perpetuate the abuse by refusing to convict, causing retraumatization, or ignoring or burying accusations entirely. Lawrence Nassar, former doctor for USA Gymnastics, was accused and convicted of multiple counts of sexual abuse of a minor. Maggie Nichols, an American gymnast, was the first to report the abuse to the organization under the name “Athlete A” (Cohen & Shenk, 2020). She alleges that USAG blatantly ignored it. They buried the file containing the report and did nothing to stop Nassar from continuing to abuse hundreds of young gymnasts. USAG argued that they “did not have a reasonable suspicion that abuse occurred” (Connor & Fitzpatrick, 2018). The abuse was not
reported to the Federal Bureau of Investigation until after a third victim came forward. Once again, these victims were treated terribly by an organization that they trusted, one that was supposed to protect them from such horror. While it is true that Nassar is now serving 60 years in prison, his victims endured life-altering trauma, both from the abuse itself and the way it was handled (U.S. Attorney’s Office, Western District of Michigan, 2017). The mishandling of abuse allegations has just as much capacity to traumatize and retraumatize as the abuse itself, and often discourages individuals from disclosing or reporting abuse.
One of the first things individuals hear when they approach someone with their story is, “why didn’t you scream?” (Swift, T. 2020, Miss Americana , [Film], Netflix). They are asked what they did to initiate the abuse. The most common phrase with instances of sexual abuse is “what were you wearing?” which is a blatant example of victim-blaming that occurs all too frequently. Instances of this question are very publicly documented in numerous exhibits around the world. These exhibits show the clothes that individuals were wearing when the abuse occurred. The largest of such exhibits is at the DOVE Center in Utah. Such a locution is often employed in courtrooms, as well as by friends and family of victims. Perpetual victimblaming tells victims that what they have to say is invalid and unimportant. Many phrases are an insistence of falsehood and exaggeration, when in fact many victims, especially women, frequently minimize their own abuse for a variety of reasons (Dunham & Senn, 2000). It is also worth noting that perpetration of sexual abuse is committed by males in 94.7% percent of female cases and 84.4% of male cases (O’Leary & Barber, 2008). When reporting abuse enacted by a male, many victims experience hearing the words, “it will ruin his
life,’ suggesting that an accusation of abuse will destroy one’s career or personal life. Responses like this can have an equally damaging impact on the victim as the abuse itself and can discourage many from sharing their stories (Adams, 2017). Furthermore, this allegation has been proven false time and time again; the only purpose it serves is further silencing and invalidating victims. An incredibly visible example of this inherent falsity is President Donald Trump. Trump has been accused of sexual assault by dozens of women and was found liable of sexually abusing E. Jean Carroll in 1996 (Colvin et. al., 2024). Despite these numerous accusations, Donald Trump has once again been elected president of the United States. This re-election substantially impacts both elements in the equation of abuse: offenders are being told that they can repeatedly abuse individuals, particularly women, and still have incredibly successful careers. Victims (again, particularly women) are being told that their voices will not have an impact, no matter how loud they are, no matter how horrific the abuse was. What, then, is the point of disclosure? There is an endless list of men who have had successful careers despite allegations or convictions regarding abuse, and an even more infinite list of victims who have been categorically destroyed, irrevocably altered by such abuse.
Overall, the dismissal and silencing of abuse victims, especially women, is an incredibly widespread issue. The response to abuse has just as much capacity to traumatize or retraumatize as the abuse itself. If an accusation is mishandled in any way, the consequences can be catastrophic for the victim or victims involved in the case and for victims worldwide. When one case is dismissed, victims receive the message that telling their own story is hopeless. To victims, speaking up seems only to invite more suffering. Mismanaged accusations—from failure to report to failure to
convict—have the ability to cause irrevocable damage to one’s psyche. Systems silence victims. Friends silence victims. Abusers silence victims. Whether it is intentional or not, it is always harmful and has far-reaching repercussions. The best way to handle stories of abuse is to listen, to honor the story, and to believe it. Support can be as simple as a single phrase: “I believe you.”
References
Adams, C. A. (2017). Rape, society and leadership . Towards sustainable business. https://drcaroladams.net/rape-society-andleadership/.
Almanssori, S. (2022). Sexual violence prevention is missing in teacher education: Perspectives of teacher candidates on Prevention Education. Sex Education, 23 (6), 662–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2022.210 8391.
Cohen, B. & Shenk J. (2020). Athlete A . [Video]. Netflix.
Colvin, J., Price, M. L., & Weissert, W. (2024, September 6). Watch: Trump talks about string of past allegations after arguing for appeal in sex abuse case . PBS. https://www. pbs.org/newshour/politics/watch-live-trumpholds-news-conference-after-arguing-for-sexabuse-case-appeal.
Connor , T., & Fitzpatrick, S. (2018, January 9). Gymnast Maggie Nichols was first to report abuse by Larry Nassar . NBCNews.com. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/ gymnast-maggie-nichols-was-first-reportabuse-larry-nassar-n836046.
Dunham , K., & Senn, C. Y. (2000). Minimizing negative experiences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 15(3), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1
177/088626000015003002.
Favot, S. (2011, April 29). Impact: Official calls mishandling of sexual assault cases “staggering.” Center for Public Integrity. https://publicintegrity.org/education/ impact-official-calls-mishandling-of-sexualassault-cases-staggering/.
Fortin, J. (2018, September 23). #WhyIDidntReport: Survivors of sexual assault share their stories after Trump tweet . The New York Times. https://www.nytimes. com/2018/09/23/us/why-i-didnt-reportassault-stories.html.
Hannah, D. (2018). #WhyIDidn’tReport. X . 2024, https://x.com/?lang=en.
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Lawrence Nassar Sentenced To 60 years In Federal Prison (2017, December 8). Western District of Michigan. https://www.justice. gov/usao-wdmi/pr/2017_1207_Nassar. Swift, T. (2020). Miss Americana. Miss Americana. [Video]. Netflix.
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Reneses, M., Riberas-Gutiérrez, M., & BuenoGuerra, N. (2024). “he flattered me”. A comprehensive look into online grooming risk factors: Merging voices of victims, offenders and experts through in-depth interviews. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace , 18(4). https://doi. org/10.5817/cp2024-4-3.
The Mind and the Body: How Fascination with Killers Eclipses the Identities of Their Victims
Taya Demianova
In serial killing, as in an impressionist landscape, there is a focal point that commands attention and a background that often goes unnoticed. Just as one’s eye is drawn to the intense glow of a fiery sun, a lone rogue wave, or a vivid green tree, the focus in serial killing tends to be on the enigmatic figure of the killer—their unfathomable psyche and desires that captivate the viewer with morbid fascination. Scholar Alexandra Warwick’s perspective aligns with this abstract interpretation of the cultural construction of serial killing. Warwick, a prominent voice on the topic, argues that in cases of serial murder, society often conceptualizes killers as the ‘mind’ and victims as the ‘body’. Consequently, the victims fade as individuals and instead become part of the crime scene’s background. This societal fixation on the killer mirrors the focal point in a work of art—a figure whose enigmatic allure captivates viewers and traps them in a web of intrigue. Meanwhile, the victims, like the hazy clouds on the horizon, the blades of grass in the foreground, or faded birds against a blue sky, are relegated to the background. Warwick suggests that this cultural construction causes society to
“ The chilling allure of serial killing often overshadows the lives of the victims... ”
overlook the humanity of the victims, focusing instead on the killer as the primary subject of interest, while the victims fade into the periphery of the crime scene, barely noticed and tragically overshadowed by the more ‘captivating’ figure of the killer. The chilling allure of serial killing often overshadows the lives of the victims, turning them into mere components of a gruesome narrative. Warwick’s argument that victims of serial murder are marginalized and reduced to mere ‘bodies’ is powerfully demonstrated in the narratives surrounding Jack the Ripper’s crimes in the 19th century; in which the victims frequently disappear as individuals, becoming mere aspects of the crime scene after their deaths. More importantly, they are often viewed as direct reflections of the killer’s psyche, desire, and motivation rather than as human beings with their own stories and struggles. The emphasis on the killer’s psychological profile and the sensationalism surrounding Jack the Ripper’s crimes not only diminishes the victims’ identities but also highlights a broader societal tendency to prioritize intrigue over compassion, thereby reinforcing a narrative that strips victims
of their individuality and humanity. Warwick’s argument that serial killers are perceived as ‘minds’ while victims are reduced to ‘bodies’ is vividly confirmed through a critical examination of media portrayals, medical discourse, societal views, and artistic representations of the Whitechapel murders; all of which collectively demonstrate how the narratives surrounding serial killing systematically dehumanize victims and erase their individual identities.
Before examining the Ripper victims as mere ‘bodies’ and the killer as the ‘mind,’ it is crucial to recognize how the media frenzy surrounding the Whitechapel murders laid the groundwork for the victims’ gradual disappearance in the public eye, overshadowed by an intense fixation on the killer’s identity. The portrayal of crime in the media shapes public perception and influences which narratives gain prominence. This dynamic is vital to understanding the representation of Whitechapel during and after the Ripper’s reign of terror in London. In the media frenzy surrounding the murders, the focus of the public was primarily directed and manipulated to fixate on the psyche of the killer rather than the identities and stories of the victims. In her book, City of Dreadful Delight , Judith Walkowitz comments on the nature of fascination and intrigue surrounding Whitechapel in the late 19th century: “At the height of the crisis, cultural fantasies ran rampant in speculations about the murderer’s identity and the social and political significance of the crimes” (196). In the minds of the public, the personal narratives of the women whose lives were taken by Jack the Ripper faded into the background, freeing up space for a deep-seeded cultural desire to conjure up a psychological profile for the killer. Walkowitz further notes that “[n]either did the editors nor the journalists covering this story deem it necessary, worthy, or
interesting to delve into the biographical details of the victims” (287). This marginalization of victims was not solely personal, but it manifested itself in having a direct effect on the literature of Jack the Ripper’s crimes and subsequently, his legacy. This recurring theme in serial killings, particularly evident during the peak of terror in Whitechapel, highlights the loss of individual victim identities and instead fosters a fascination with the distorted psyches of the monstrous killers.
Jack the Ripper’s supposedly advanced anatomical knowledge of the female body and his use of evisceration contribute to the idea that the bodies of the women left behind were grotesque canvases representing the 'art' of serial killing, furthering the narrative that the murdered body is a direct representation of the killer’s psyche, innermost desires, and motivations. According to this logic, the victim’s body is important only as a tool to gain a deeper understanding of the killer’s mind. In the case of Jack the Ripper, the cold language of medical reports illustrates this notion and strips the victims of their humanity, reducing them to mere clinical subjects. In City of Dreadful Delight , Walkowitz comments on the narrative surrounding the possibility of Jack the Ripper representing a Mad Doctor, either a medical student or professional who has the expertise needed to commit the brutal crimes on these women, specifically the eviscerations of numerous of their organs. Walkowitz asserts that in the wake of Annie Chapman’s murder— the second canonical victim of Jack the Ripper—the cold language used in her autopsy report had a stripping effect on her personhood and identity.
The ‘frenzy’ of the crowd at the prospect of a ‘woman cut to pieces’ stood in stark contrast to the medical language of Chapman’s autopsy report, whose Latinate terms
(‘mesenteric attachments’) and detached clinical picture of a body dispossessed of any personal identity (including sexual identity) were rhetorical effects to sanitize medical engagement with a ‘grotesque’ female body. (211)
This excerpt emphasizes that at the crime scene, Chapman’s humanity was reduced to the physical brutality she endured at the hands of Jack the Ripper. In the morgue, her identity appeared as a disembodied figure, stripped of any personal significance. In the eyes of both the public and the medical community, Chapman—and arguably the other victims of Jack the Ripper— were viewed as nothing more than mere bodies. The deeper meaning attributed to them, and their identities after their deaths, were not of their own creation but that of Jack the Ripper. Looking at these women’s bodies was a portal into the mind of the killer, striking out the importance of investigating their personhood and unique identities.
In addition to the traditional literature, art responding to cultural events often reveals society’s morbid fascination with killers, frequently overshadowing the narratives of victims and showcasing unique interpretations. Warwick, in her article “The Scene of the Crime: Inventing the Serial Killer,” notes that “[m]ore usually though, during the 20th century the gaze increasingly turned inwards…” (562).
George Grosz’s piece, John the Lady Killer (1918), a watercolor, ink, and brush painting created three decades after Jack the Ripper’s terror in Whitechapel, echoes this shift towards a psychoanalytic perspective, reinforcing Warwick’s idea that killers are often perceived as the ‘mind’ while victims are reduced to the ‘body.’ The artwork can be interpreted in various ways but several elements highlight the societal shift in focus. Framed from an external
viewpoint, what appears to be a glowing yellow eye with a dark pupil surrounded by a saturated red limbal ring suggests a glimpse into the killer’s psyche. The grotesque figure of the mutilated victim, positioned in the upper right, leads the viewer’s eye along a diagonal progression down her sexualized body. This line directs attention toward the killer figure shrouded in darkness at the bottom left, perhaps symbolizing society’s macabre fascination with the killer’s inner psyche. The viewer’s eye is initially drawn to the woman’s body, but it’s almost compelled to move downward toward the bottom left of the piece. This visual flow reflects a shift from an initial fascination with a crime’s brutality to a deeper curiosity about the mystery of the killer, pushing the victim’s identity into the background. Notably, the killer—represented by the shadowed figure—heads toward the bottom left, as if moving beyond the piece’s edge toward their next act, leaving the victim’s physical presence and symbolic identity behind, back at the scene of the crime.
While agreeing with Warwick that victims often fade from the main narratives of serial killing and are portrayed as ‘bodies’ while the killer represents the ‘mind,’ it can be argued that in the 19th century, when Jack the Ripper was actively killing, victims did not entirely disappear as individuals. It would be more accurate to clarify that instead, they were grouped into a large category of miscreants at the bottom layer of civilized social stratification. This collective grouping not only indicates a lack of interest in their unique stories but also highlights a troubling societal tendency to prioritize sensationalism over empathy. An examination of the lives of women like Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly reveals a stark reality: their struggles and
humanity are frequently overlooked, reduced to footnotes in a narrative that glorifies the male perpetrator while rendering the victims invisible. It was not necessarily their murders that stripped them of their identity in the eyes of society, but more so the circumstances of their births that gave them little room to ascend the stereotypes that were already placed upon them. Hallie Rubenhold’s The Five revisits the lives and stories of the canonical five women largely believed to have been killed by Jack the Ripper, and emphasizes how these women were forced to deal with inequity as soon as they came out of the womb: “The cards were stacked against Polly, Annie, Elisabeth, Kate, and Mary Jane from birth. They began their lives in deficit… Before they had even spoken their first words or taken their first steps, they were regarded as less important than their brothers…” (288). While the victims of these crimes, especially the working-class women, essentially disappeared as people and were interpreted as part of the crime scene, it can be argued that women in the 19th century were largely marginalized in society, with their identities often overshadowed by the maledominated narratives that took center stage. Rubenhold holds her readers accountable as well, stating that as modern-day onlookers fascinated by the Whitechapel murders, we fall victim to perceiving the five canonical victims as mere ‘bodies’ even to this day, and this mindset needs to be reconstructed.
“
A troubling societal tendency to prioritize sensationalism over empathy...
Rubenhold powerfully reminds her readers that “[i]n order to gawp at and examine this miracle of malevolence we have figuratively stepped over the bodies of those [Jack the Ripper] murdered, and in some cases, stopped to kick them as we walked past. The larger his profile grows, the more those of his victims seem to fade” (293). Although contemporary society may not be directly fabricating cultural myths around such crimes, speculating about victims’ culpability, or attempting to unmask Jack the Ripper themselves—a mystery likely to remain unsolved—by prioritizing an understanding of the killer’s psyche and motives over the humanity of the victims, society perpetuates the dehumanization of these women and erases their individual identities. Without intentional efforts to preserve their stories, these victims risk slipping into the overlooked corners of history.
”
The perception of killers as 'mind' and victims as pure 'body' is not isolated to the streets of Whitechapel at the height of the Ripper killings in 1888. Instead, this ideology that lifts serial killers into the realm of dangerous intrigue and obsession persists well into the 21st century. This mindset is evident in everyday gossip, as people talk about the brutality of the Whitechapel murders without bothering to learn the identities of the victims. It is reflected in pop culture’s portrayal of serial killers as genius figures, often focusing on their stories while providing only
fleeting insights into the lives of their victims, usually limited to graphic depictions of their deaths. It even appears in the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s classification of high and low-risk victims and their stigmatization and stereotyping of sex workers who died at the hands of a killer. Ultimately, by framing victims as mere reflections of a killer’s psyche, society perpetuates a fascination with monstrosity that sidelines the humanity of those lost, sustaining an unsettling legacy of erasure that began well before Jack the Ripper and still lingers in the modern world.
Works Cited
Grosz, George. John the Lady Killer . 1918, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rubenhold, Hallie. The Five: The Untold Lives of the Women Killed by Jack the Ripper. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019.
Walkowitz, Judith. City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in LateVictorian London . University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Warwick, Alexandra. “The Scene of the Crime: Inventing the Serial Killer.” Social & Legal Studies , vol. 15, no. 4, Dec. 2006, pp. 552–69. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=edshol&AN=edshol. hein.journals.solestu15.42&site=edslive&scope=site.
Controlled Chaos Sydney Hopkins
Controlled Chaos is an urban design project centered around the profound transition from the sensation of ‘everything’ to the embrace of ‘nothing.’ The shift from the hotel to the bathhouse marks the transition in chaos. The architectural elements in this design are purposefully chosen to facilitate this change. The rooftop of the hotel is strategically designed to evoke sensations of exposure and uneasiness, synonymous with high-energy environments. Contrastingly, the bathhouse emerges as a sanctuary, intentionally crafted to provide a sense of comfort and protection. Upon arrival, you approach the hotel from the west side to enter through the front. The deliberate scale and placement of the hotel serves to completely cloak the bathhouse from view. This intentional positioning keeps the bathhouse concealed, strategically saving its revelation for a later stage in your journey. When you finally lay eyes on the bathhouse, it piques your interest and draws you in, fulfilling its intended effect.
“Exposed” The sense of exp osure emanates from both the rooftop and the bridge, where individuals find themselves open to the elements, noises, and scents of the city. The glass flooring, strategically positioned on the overhang, is designed to heighten one's energy, creating an edgy and uneasy feeling. All these elements are integral parts of the overall journey.
“Protected” The shift from the glass overhang to the bathhouse aims to create the sensation that the architecture is metaphorically “reaching up and enveloping you,” gently securing and wrapping you within its structure as you progress further into the bathhouse. This newfound protection is intentionally designed to foster a profound sense of calm and security. Exiting the bathhouse, the walls of the surrounding park are raised, continuing to foster that notion of protection. As you make your way towards the city, the walls gradually lower, allowing you to ease your way into the city after the journey you just experienced.
Initial Masking
Upon arrival, you approach the hotel from the west side to enter through the front. The deliberate scale and placement of the hotel serve to completely cloak the bathhouse from view. This intentional positioning keeps the bathhouse concealed, strategically saving its revelation for a later stage in your journey. When you finally lay eyes on the bathhouse, it piques your interest and draws you in, fulfilling its intended effect.
Preliminary Sketches
Isometric Key
Match the letters to the corresponding renders to view the space at that location.
“Exposed”
The sense of exposure emanates from both the rooftop and the bridge, where individuals find themselves open to the elements, noises, and scents of the city. The glass flooring, strategically positioned on the overhang, is designed to heighten one's energy, creating an edgy and uneasy feeling. All these elements are integral parts of the overall journey.
Gender Expression, Masculinity, and Serial Murder:
How The Silence of the Lambs Discusses Gender
Nonconformity and Morality
Sadie Sheets
The Silence of the Lambs is arguably one of the most well-known and influential pieces of serial killer-focused media in Western culture. One of the more notable aspects of the novel is its portrayal of gender identity and gender expression. Gender identity and gender expression are difficult terms to define, especially in relation to The Silence of the Lambs. Though the novel does not treat gender identity and biological sex as the same thing, it also does not treat gender identity as something that is exclusively defined by one’s intrinsic idea of self. This is especially true in the case of antagonist Jame Gumb, who the narrative asserts is a cisgender man who mistakenly believes himself to be a transsexual woman. The complexity of the portrayal of gender throughout the novel is only made more complicated by the ties developed between gender expression and morality. In The Silence of the Lambs , Thomas Harris creates a contrariety between the members of law enforcement and the serial killers to represent a dichotomy between the good and normal and the evil and abnormal, and further contrasts the gender expressions of the characters on each side of that dichotomy
to demonstrate the apparent alignment of masculine expression with goodness and normality, and non-masculine expression with evilness and abnormality.
“ They are representations of chaos, destructiveness, and anarchy ”
The Silence of the Lambs creates a fascinating set of dichotomies between normal and abnormal, good and evil, and masculine and non-masculine. The members of the FBI, as representatives of law and order, occupy the space of good, normal, and masculine in this dynamic. Jack Crawford in particular becomes Harris’s platonic ideal of masculinity and maleness—stoic, levelheaded, and a good leader.
Clarice Starling also becomes a masculine icon in this dynamic—not as an ideal of simple masculinity, but as the acceptable feminine expression of masculinity. On the opposite side of this dichotomy are the serial killers. They are representations of chaos, destructiveness, and anarchy, and they occupy the space of evil, abnormal, and non-masculine in this dynamic. Hannibal Lecter acts as a narrative foil to Clarice, and his gender expression contrasts with Clarice’s every time they interact by becoming a largely androgynous entity, expressing very
little in the way of traditionally masculine or feminine traits. Lecter’s gender expression also serves as an effective foil to Crawford’s total masculinity through his lack of interest in any sort of gendered expression. Jame Gumb’s total rejection of masculinity and embracement of femininity, meanwhile, becomes a foil to Clarice’s more acceptable gender queerness of the masculine woman. Both Lecter and Gumb’s gender expression represent a disruption of the norm, and their status as serial killers and deviants cements these disruptions as not only abnormal but immoral, clearly aligning that which is unusual with that which is evil.
Crawford’s gender expression is the most typical of the characters. He may not be described as the physical masculine ideal, but Crawford is certainly a very masculine figure: he is assertive, collected, and confident, and he is described as such throughout the novel—Lecter even calls him “Crawford the Stoic” (Harris 10). His leadership skills are highlighted as well, even if his leadership is more manipulative than expected. Clarice thinks of him as “a leader, with a leader’s frank-and-open bullshit,” and that is certainly how he behaves (Harris 39). Crawford manipulates Clarice to keep her attention on the case, but he does so in such an obvious manner that Clarice notes it nearly every time he does it—though she does also note that it is no less effective for its noticeability. His behavior can be reminiscent of the modern perception of knights—honorable, intelligent, and calm— and knights are often treated as an ideal form of masculinity in Western culture. Crawford’s gender expression is meant to demonstrate what normative looks like for men; his character’s presence illustrates the contrast between the serial killers’ gender expression and that which is normal. He also, however, serves to give Clarice an ideal to reach for—not only is he an
FBI agent, he is the section chief of the branch Clarice is interested in. Clarice is encouraged to echo his behavior however she can, and as she does, she becomes both more successful and more masculine—a pairing that begins to demonstrate the tie Harris creates between masculine expression and goodness.
Clarice’s gender expression is a bit more complicated than Crawford’s. Rather than embodying traditional femininity, Clarice Starling displays masculine traits regularly to suit her needs—but never enough masculinity to imply that she does not fit with, or even disagrees with, the societal expectations of femininity. She obeys feminine beauty standards as much as possible (though with little apparent effort; she appears to effortlessly conform, rather than work towards femininity), wears perfume, and follows along with trends like the add-a-beads (Harris 13). But she also displays a number of more masculine traits, and Lecter notes she is ambitious and tough during their first conversation. Clarice also maneuvers Lecter into continuing to talk to her for his pride’s sake by implying that he should not let anyone else decide who is and is not qualified to discuss psychology with him, a manipulation that Lecter acknowledges as smart, and one that puts her on nearly even footing with him. Clarice’s interactions with masculine expression are not an act of gender rebellion, or even of experimentation—they are entirely transactional in nature. The result is a gender performance that seems to be entirely based on its usefulness—a usefulness that is evaluated on the assumption that the masculine is inherently superior to the feminine, both in utility and morality. Clarice utilizes masculine expression as a tool to gain respect and command authority, but is always careful to never overshoot the social boundary of the acceptable amount of masculine expression a
woman can perform. She embodies the idea of an appropriately masculine woman who is allowed access to all the perks of masculinity while still embodying her own inherent femininity—the implication being that her access to masculinity and its apparent advantages is dependent on her performance of femininity as is demanded of her. Clarice illustrates acceptable gender queerness—specifically, that of the masculine woman, whose unusual gender expression makes sense because it prioritizes the masculine over the feminine. Clarice’s gender expression as a masculine woman is regularly given precedence over her gender identity, which highlights the agency she displays within her own gender—both in her internal experience and in its outward expression.
“ She embodies the idea of an appropriately masculine woman ”
Lecter’s gender expression, much like Clarice’s, is one born of practicality, but unlike Clarice, masculinity is not of any particular importance to him. Most of the outward gender expression he participates in is simply in conformation to societal norms regarding grooming, and he is never described with any particularly gendered terms, either masculine or feminine. Lecter’s portrayal throughout the novel is as something wholly abnormal, bordering on inhuman, and the descriptions of his appearance and behavior highlight this abnormality. Some of the only details of Lecter’s physical appearance the audience is given are that his eyes are maroon, that he has six fingers on his right hand in the “rarest form
of polydactyly” (Harris 13), and is mentioned to have a widow’s peak (Harris 73), a trait he shares with Gumb (Harris 70)—details that are neither gendered nor at all typical, and both distance Lecter further from the normal. The most notable description of Lecter’s appearance is of his “wiry strength”—a characteristic that is explicitly noted to mirror Clarice within the narration, and a parallel that further obfuscates Lecter’s gender expression (Harris 9). Lecter’s behavior does the same: the audience’s first four pieces of information on Lecter are that he is a psychiatric doctor, that he assaulted and severely injured an FBI agent, that he brutally attacked a nurse after his arrest, and that he is a cannibal. This information invites the audience to imagine Lecter as a stereotypical serial killer, an unrestrained maniac with neither elegance nor control—a set-up that makes the reveal of Lecter’s apparent cultured and refined personality all the more shocking. But once one looks past the initial facade, Lecter’s abnormality is made all the more glaring. The audience is told that, when he mauled the nurse at the facility, his heart rate never surpassed 85, “even when he swallowed [her tongue]” (Harris 7). He guesses Clarice’s perfume and skin cream by the scent of her purse, and Clarice notes that he “could smell everything” (Harris 14). And when he escapes captivity in Memphis, he attacks Pembry “like a rat-killing dog” (Harris 122). At every turn, Harris works to emphasize Lecter’s
total inhumanity—but he notably does not portray Lecter as sub-human. Lecter is shown as a psychology genius 1, with an unquestionable intellect and immense reserves of knowledge— qualities that serve to further distance him from normality. Clarice also notes his odd personal code—he states that discourtesy is “unspeakably ugly”to him, implying that killing and eating one’s own patients is perfectly reasonable if they are rude or irritating (Harris 14). If Crawford parallels a knight, then Lecter’s genius parallels the Shakespearian fae: notably non-human with significant advantages over others in knowledge and intellect—but whose desire to flaunt that knowledge is often the cause of their downfall—governed by social norms and strict laws that disallow impoliteness but allow murder, so long as it is justifiable, and, most relevantly, not bound by or even interested in the typical ideas of gender. Lecter’s disinterest in masculinity becomes more understandable from this angle—a genius does not need to please others with his gender expression, so Lecter has no reason to bother with the apparent frivolity of gender expression. Where Clarice considers her gender presentation a necessary tool to gain power in difficult situations, Lecter largely disregards explicit gender expression of any sort unless it is actively beneficial to him because he has surpassed the need to accrue power through masculinity. This passive disregard for masculinity and its apparent inherent power is one of the many qualities Harris portrays as abnormal about Lecter, and his purposeful abandonment of his natural masculinity is shown to be a monstrous quality—though it is painted as less extreme than embracing the
feminine as a replacement. His rejection of the masculine despite ample opportunity to maintain a masculine presentation illustrates the connection Harris builds between nonmasculine expression and abnormality—but it also begins to question the inherence of masculine superiority over either femininity or non-gendered expression.
Jame Gumb’s gender identity and expression are portrayed as the most abnormal of all the characters in the novel. Gumb identifies as a transsexual woman, but the narrative itself does not treat Gumb as such—throughout the text, Gumb is referred to using exclusively masculine pronouns and terms 2, except for when he refers to himself. His identity is repeatedly invalidated by outside parties with no insight into his lived experience, and actively ridiculed as a foolish idea—Lecter explicitly states that “[Gumb]’s not a transsexual… but he thinks he is, he tries to be,” an idea that is corroborated by apparent experts in transsexuality and by the narrative itself when this idea is what leads directly to Gumb’s name becoming known to the FBI (Harris 85). He is discussed by multiple characters in the context of transsexuality, but is always purposefully removed from that context. His gender expression, however, is a bit more straightforward and largely feminine—Gumb used multiple different hormones and cosmetic treatments like electrolysis to eliminate his more masculine physical features. He dotes on his poodle, a stereotypical girl’s dog, and he sews, a hobby strongly associated with femininity. Despite Gumb’s gender expression, however, his experience of his gender identity is ignored entirely, with the narration going out of its way
1 Lecter’s apparent genius prompts Harris to regularly use Lecter as a vessel of narrative truth within the novel—unless the audience told by the narration that he is lying, when he states something, it can generally be assumed to be not only what he believes to be the truth but the empirical truth, which Harris often uses to give the audience and Clarice information at the same time.
2 For the sake of clarity, I will also be using he/him pronouns in reference to Jame Gumb.
to contradict and invalidate Gumb’s gender expression. The audience is informed, in no uncertain terms, that Jame Gumb is simply a very strange man. His gender expression is thus treated as abnormal and inherently wrong by the narrative. The depths of abnormality that this is meant to demonstrate is entirely predicated on one notion: that femininity and all of its associated traits are inherently inferior to masculinity, and subsequently that for any normal member of society, feminine expression is not a voluntary action, but an act of necessity forced by a lack of options— specifically, the option of masculine presentation. This notion implies that masculine expression is superior not only because it holds more weight in society, but because it is, in fact, the only genuine or valuable form of gender expression. This further implies that all feminine expression is a forced gender performance rather than one born of any actual intrinsic desire to express femininity. Gumb’s desire to perform the feminine when he has every option to express masculinity indicates that there could be some possible reason to choose femininity over masculinity. His refusal to perform masculinity in favor of feminine gender expression implies that femininity might not be inherently inferior to masculinity, an idea that challenges the foundation of every gender role ever established. This is likely why Gumb’s gender expression and preferences are not only rejected, but entirely invalidated and ignored both by characters in
the novel and by the text itself—to acknowledge any legitimacy in Gumb’s gender expression is to acknowledge the possibility that the inherent superiority of masculinity is not all that inherent, and acknowledging even the possibility of that being a lie challenges the very foundations of patriarchal society.
“ ...femininity and all of its associated traits are inherently inferior to masculinity ”
Gumb’s gender expression is in direct conflict with Clarice’s. Where Clarice’s gender expression is unusual but logical in the face of the apparent inferiority of femininity, Gumb’s preference for feminine gender expression is shown as incomprehensible because of the assumption of masculine superiority. Gumb’s gender expression directly questions the position of the feminine as inferior and presents it as a potentially equal challenger to masculinity. There is also a cognitive dissonance between how Clarice’s and Gumb’s gender identity and expression are treated in the narrative—where Clarice’s gender identity is generally treated as secondary or less important than her gender expression, which is treated as an active choice, the narrative’s stance on Gumb’s gender is given precedence over both his gender identity and expression, despite his gender expression being an active choice. The narrative strips Gumb of his agency in this matter—no matter how he presents, it tells the audience he will never be a transsexual woman. Additionally, the incongruity between the narrative response to Clarice and Gumb’s gender expression challenges the idea that
the narrative is prioritizing Clarice’s gender expression because it demonstrates her agency. Instead, the narrative may prioritize her gender expression over her gender identity because it is more masculine, and masculinity, as the superior gender role, will always take precedence over the feminine. This could be why Gumb’s gender identity is prioritized over his gender expression; according to the narrative, Gumb’s gender identity is masculine, and his gender expression, being feminine, is thus less important.
All the main characters in The Silence of the Lambs defy gender roles in some way, and Harris’s depiction of the heroes as masculine and the antagonists as distinctly non-masculine establishes a connection between masculinity and morality. This connection demonstrates Harris’s bias against feminine gender expression (as well as non-normativity of any variety), especially when considered in the context of the conclusion of the novel. The conclusion of the novel demonstrates a triumph of good over evil—and, consequently, of masculinity over femininity, ultimately cementing the apparent inferiority of femininity and feminine expression within the text.
Works Cited Harris, Thomas. Silence of the Lambs . Arrow Books, 2009.
The Gender of Christ in Late Antique and Byzantine Representation
Savannah Phelps
In our modern world, there is hardly a face more recognizable than that of Jesus Christ. His standard set of features—long, brown hair parted down the middle, a thin beard, white skin, a straight, long nose, and blue eyes—goes almost unchanged across various denominations. Yet, this depiction was not always so universal. Trying to preserve the likeness of someone who lived during the end of the Roman Empire and was not an emperor or aristocrat, was a fraught undertaking. This was further complicated by successive waves of iconoclasm in the fledgling church, which resulted in a strong aversion, even among iconophiles, to depicting Christ’s likeness , rather than his much more innocuous image . Because of this, in the centuries following his death, multiple alternate versions of Christ’s image were formulated and distributed simultaneously. It was only around the seventh century CE that a standard type began to emerge, and then, only in Byzantium, the eastern inheritor of the Roman Empire. But why did a certain type stand the test of time better than all others? What was it about that specific time that facilitated the standardization? What does
the image that was finally chosen for Christ say about the people who chose it and about their perception of Christ?
“ [I]mages of Jesus Christ are attempts to convey, among other things, the masculinity of Christ ”
Many scholars have searched for answers to these questions by tracing the development and popularity of Christ’s image types across the Late Antiquity period. Key among these types are the two most prominent from the beginning of Christian iconography: the young, beardless, short-haired Christ; and the older, bearded, long-haired Christ. In this essay, I will first summarize this scholarship by describing the two types and outline the research available on them. Then, I will propose an alternate theory as to why the latter type came to dominate the former based within an area of study I am surprised to see has not been utilized by art historians studying iconography—that is, gender studies. Ultimately, I will argue that the images of Jesus Christ are attempts to convey, among other things, the masculinity of Christ, and therefore, that the popularity of a certain type of representation over another is indicative of the societal beliefs about masculinity at that time.
Some of the earliest known images we have
of Christ are from Roman catacombs, where Christian iconography was used to decorate the tombs and sarcophagi of wealthy Christian converts. These depictions present Jesus Christ in a type that would have been instantly recognizable to Romans: young; beardless; short, curly hair; and the dress of a contemporary citizen (fig. 1). This type recalls Greco-Roman deities and heroes, like Apollo or Orpheus, and was a certain departure from Christ’s actual appearance as a Palestinian Jew. 1 Idealized depictions like this were common in non-Christian funerary art as well, as a way to associate the glory and perfection of mythology with wealthy, high-ranking Roman individuals.
This was especially the case for emperors, who were believed to become deified after their deaths. The choice to represent Christ in this type, rather than attempt to preserve his actual likeness, is very telling, both of the importance early Christians put (or did not put) on historical accuracy and of what Hellenized Christians believed about Christ’s societal position. Scholars place heavy emphasis on the ability of written texts of the period to tell us about early Christian beliefs, but we should not discount the valuable evidence that visual
text, so to speak, can also provide. By the third century CE, when the earliest known image of Christ was made, it was much more likely that Christians would have been familiar with visual iconography and an oral gospel than any written texts. 2 Therefore, we can comfortably assume that the way Christ was depicted is reflective of the way he was conceptualized, and so placing Christ in the type associated with youthful gods and heroic leaders also places him within the idealized, hegemonic masculinity that these figures shared. Before continuing, it is important to address exactly what this hegemonic masculinity was, and why it is such a crucial, inherent part of the visualization of Christ as an Apollo-type. Performing an appropriately masculine gender was a major preoccupation of the Ancient Mediterranean world. Especially in the Greco-Roman tradition, significant thought and effort were put toward defining an ideal masculinity. Even though it was not possible for the vast majority of people, the possession of certain manly traits (such as impenetrability, dominance, self-control, education, and avoidance of femininity) was a given for the gods, and absolutely crucial for achieving power and influence in the male-dominated public sphere. 3 Hegemonic
1 S. G. F. Brandon, “Christ in Verbal and Depicted Imagery: A Problem of Early Christian Iconography,” in Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults , ed. Jacob Neusner (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1975): 166. 2 Ibid 172.
3Eric C. Stewart, “Masculinity in the New Testament and Early Christianity,” Biblical Theology Bulletin: Journal of Bible and Culture 46, no. 2 (2016): 93-4.
Fig. 1. Good Shepherd from the Catacomb of Priscilla , 250–300 CE, Rome.
masculinity “disseminate[s] the views of a political elite intent on justifying and protecting the existing political order.” 4 Knowing this, it is a small wonder that Gentile Christian converts had a vested interest in imagining Christ as having this masculinity and, therefore, depicting him according to the hegemonic masculine type. In the writings of the apostle Mark, he highlights Christ’s similarity to Greco-Roman masculine ideals, while downplaying the unseemly, emasculating crucifixion. 5 However, this hegemonic masculinity is not the only masculinity to be found in Greco-Roman society. Indeed, in any society, “hegemonic masculinities are neither self-reproducing nor are they static and fixed,” rather, they are frequently reshaped as societies change and come into contact with one another. 6 Alternate masculinities may exist concurrently with hegemonic masculinities in a constant flux state. One such alternate masculinity in this context is the masculinity of the aged philosopher. This masculinity, characterized by the legendary pagan philosophers and Jupiter, possesses many
of the same traits as the hegemonic masculinity: power, knowledge, dignity, etc. But it is differentiated by the philosopher’s advanced age, and in some cases, his unexpected rebellions from behavioral norms (such as asceticism, like Diogenes, or accepting a death sentence, like Socrates). As a physical type, this masculinity could be identified by an older man, always with a beard, and frequently with a bald head. 7
As it happens, this physical type was also associated with Jesus Christ, going almost as far back as the Apollotype (fig. 2). 8 Jesus Christ as a philosopher is certainly an understandable association to make based on his teachings, knowing the importance of masculine characterization, it likely held some appeal for its indication of alterity—as Jesus was indeed not welcomed warmly into Roman culture. 9 Again, this type was in no way intended to reference Christ’s real, historical appearance, even if it sometimes appears less idealized than the Apollo-type.
For several centuries, these types seemed to exist untroubled by one another, and even sometimes appeared in the same decorative
4Michael Edward Stewart, “Some Disputes Surrounding Masculinity as a Legitimate Category of Historical Inquiry in the Study of Late Antiquity,” Masculinities: A Journal of Identity and Culture , no. 1 (2016): 88.
5Colleen Conway, “The Markan Jesus as Manly Martyr?,” in Behold the Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008): 95.
6Eric C. Stewart, “Masculinity in the New Testament and Early Christianity,” 93.
7Herbert L. Kessler, “Christ’s Fluid Face,” Theologisches Wissen und Die Kunst. Festschrift für Martin Büchsel (2015): 223.
8Claudine A. Chavannes-Mazel, “Popular Belief and the Image of the Beardless Christ,” Visual Resources 19, no. 1 (2003): 28.
9See Conway, “The Markan Jesus as Manly Martyr?” for further discussion of the ways Christ is described as both fitting into hegemonic Greco-Roman masculinity, and also defying it and exhibiting an alternate masculinity.
Fig. 2. Christ and the Apostles, Catacombs of Domitilla, fourth century CE, Rome.
scheme simultaneously. Various scholars have proposed hypotheses about the theological significance of these types (for example, the bearded Christ as reflective of his physical incarnation and the clean-shaven Christ representing his spiritual, eternal nature), but this explanation does not fully account for all the transitions in use and meaning these types experienced. 10 Instead, I propose an alternate theory based on these iconographical types’ associations with masculinity.
When, starting around the sixth century, the bearded Christ (fig. 3) began to outstrip the beardless type in popularity within the Byzantine Empire, there was a parallel shift in the societal construction of masculinity. If we understand that the beardless Christ represents a certain Roman, hegemonic masculinity, and the older, bearded Christ represents an alternative masculinity, then the predominance of the latter over the former reflects the expansion of this alternative masculinity as a reaction against the hegemonic.
a civilization. Rather, the rise of Christianity and the powerful Byzantine Empire facilitated the transition into what we now think of as the Middle (not dark!) Ages. 11 Around the fourth century CE, following its legalization and promotion by Emperor Constantine, Christianity began to pose a strong challenge to the formerly entrenched pagan Roman religion. This was not just a battle of belief, but a struggle between a crumbling fantasy of Roman civic life and a blossoming new society of Christian life. 12
To understand this better, we will need some social and historical background for the period in question. The fall of the Roman Empire, contrary to the belief of many scholars of the 20th century, was far from the end of
These two poles—pagan on one side, Christian on the other—were never neatly separated from one another, but rather coexisted in various states of tension throughout this period. The process of transition was slow, but was ultimately accomplished when a Christian identity was developed that was distinct enough from the pagan, Roman one. This new identity, of course, needed to include a differentiated definition of ideal masculinity. As Eric C. Steward explains, “Attempts to define manhood … are usually undertaken in relation to other (sometimes prior and sometimes contemporaneous) efforts to construct it differently.” 13 This means that for a new Christianized masculinity to be developed, it had to be through alternate
10Chavannes-Mazel, “Popular Belief and the Image of the Beardless Christ,” 31. 11Michael E. Stewart, “Some Disputes Surrounding Masculinity,” 86. 12Eric C. Stewart, “Masculinity in the New Testament and Early Christianity,” 93. 13Ibid, 93.
Fig. 3. Christ Pantocrato r, Saint Catherine's Monastery, sixth century CE, Sinai.
masculine expressions in response to the already dominant, pagan masculinity.
This may recall the alternate masculinity discussed earlier, encapsulated by the philosopher type, and used to represent Christ. Indeed, the process of creating/redefining notions of masculinity is represented well by the gradual adoption of the bearded, philosopher type as the preferred image of Christ. 14 The type itself still has its roots in a pagan iconographic tradition, but the role of the philosopher was co-opted for Christian purposes, 15 and the key difference between the two types in question, the presence of a beard, became, similarly, a defining marker of Christian rebellion. Following several hundred years of beardlessness being the fashion of Rome—following after Alexander the Great (another Apollo-type figure)—Christians, as well as other non-Roman ethnic groups, began to use a rejection of this as both a support for their beliefs, and an injunction against pagan/ Roman ones. Clement of Alexandria, perhaps the most notable and outspoken of the Christian beard-supporters, used both biblical evidence and the Classical learning tradition to make an argument about hairiness and its relation to masculinity. 16 This implies not only a logical but also a moral argument for idealized, Christian masculinity to be represented by the wearing of a beard. This thinking was so widespread that by the seventh century, beards were a ubiquitous,
distinctive marker of Byzantine Christians. 17
Now, the question of why the image of an older, bearded man came to be the recognizable face of Christ seems to be answered. For Byzantine Christians, whose worship hinged upon the viewing of figurative icons, depicting Christ in a way that corresponded to believers’ idea of perfect masculinity was of utmost importance. But indeed, his followers have always had the desire to see him as possessing an ideal masculinity. Even in those early instances of Christ depicted as an ageless, imperial Apollo figure, the intent was always to communicate to viewers a sense of the noble, virile—and therefore masculine—character of Christ. It was not until later that this pagan association was determined to be inappropriate, and an opposing physical type was championed. There can be no doubt that Christ’s masculinity was not the only influence on the ultimate development of his appearance, 18 but the importance of gender construction to the development of Christian iconography should not be underestimated.
Works Cited
Bacci, Michele. The Many Faces of Christ: Portraying the Holy in the East and West , 300 to 1300. London: Reaktion Books,
14Note that I am only referring to this process as it occurred in the Byzantine Empire– the eastern half of the former Roman Empire. The western, Latin kingdoms developed an identity quite distinct from their eastern neighbors, which is reflected in their retention of the beardless Christ for far longer.
15Paul Zanker, The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995): 289-90.
16Shaun Tougher, “Bearding Byzantium: Masculinity, Eunuchs and the Byzantine Life Course,” in Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society , ed. Bronwen Neil and Lynda Garland (Farnham Burlington: Ashgate, 2013): 156-7.
17Tougher, “Bearding Byzantium,” 161. Tougher actually suggests, in a footnote, the possibility of this relating to the adoption of the bearded Christ over the beardless Christ, though he does not explore this further.
18See Michele Bacci, The Many Faces of Christ: Portraying the Holy in the East and West, 300 to 1300 , ++(London: Reaktion Books, 2014) for a remarkably comprehensive analysis of the development of all of Christ’s features.
2014.
Brandon, S. G. F. “Christ in Verbal and Depicted Imagery: A Problem of Early Christian Iconography.” in Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults , edited by Jacob Neusner, 164-72. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975.
Chavannes-Mazel, Claudine A. “Popular Belief and the Image of the Beardless Christ.” Visual Resources 19, no. 1 (2003): 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973760310000 78549.
Conway, Colleen. “The Markan Jesus as Manly Martyr?” in Behold the Man , 89–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Kessler, Herbert L. “Christ’s Fluid Face.” Theologisches Wissen und Die Kunst. Festschrift für Martin Büchsel (2015): 221–34.
Tougher, Shaun. “Bearding Byzantium: Masculinity, Eunuchs and the Byzantine Life Course.” in Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society , edited by Bronwen Neil and Lynda Garland, 153-166. Farnham Burlington: Ashgate, 2013.
Stewart, Eric C. “Masculinity in the New Testament and Early Christianity.” Biblical Theology Bulletin: Journal of Bible and Culture 46, no. 2 (2016): 91–102. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639211.
Stewart, Michael Edward. “Some Disputes Surrounding Masculinity as a Legitimate Category of Historical Inquiry in the Study of Late Antiquity.” Masculinities: A Journal of Identity and Culture , no. 1 (2016): 77–91.
Zanker, Paul. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
The Food Game
MJ Robertson-Yi
M
om keeps the lights off in the rest of the house during dinner. It makes it feel like I am under a spotlight, on a game show television set. Everyone is waiting for me. I brace my hands on the curved edge of the table and push to sit up on my knees. I need to get a good bird’s-eye view to inspect the plate set before me.
Steak, mashed potatoes, and peas. I already know I won’t eat it.
“I had every intention of eating before I saw what was on the panda-shaped plate.”
My younger brother sits across from me, chubby hands clumsily scooping slop into his mouth. Mostly. Some on the table. He’s already three, but still eats like a baby. I think about calling him a baby. It will make him cry, and then I’ll be sent to put my nose in a corner. Then I won’t have to eat dinner.
“Are you going to eat?”
My head swings up at my father. He’s eyeing me expectantly while cutting through his steak with the speed of a chainsaw. When he’s done, he picks up a slice of dripping rare meat with his fingers and plops it right into his mouth. Now my head swings to my mother to catch her pucker-face. She hates when he does that.
“I’m trying,” I whine, looking back down at the plate. It’s not a total lie. I had every
intention of eating before I saw what was on the panda-shaped plate. The peas are in the left ear, sitting in a pool of melted butter and water, and yet they look so dry. Shriveled and spiked. Like goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Goatheads. Other ear—mashed potatoes. Something I would normally eat. But Mom left the skin on this time, and it feels like eating construction paper. I don’t even bother with the cubes of steak in the center of the plate, right over the panda’s big black nose. I used to chew them to make Dad and Mom happy, but they would get angry when I spit them out as soon as the flavor was gone.
“Eat,” my mom commands.
“Umma,” I whine longer, bouncing on my seat so hard my head rattles. It makes me feel better. Mom doesn’t like it. She reaches over with her spoon and hastily transfers my peas into the potatoes. She mixes it up, and it’s like I can feel my stomach being mixed as well. When she brings it up to my mouth, I clamp my lips shut.
I am definitely not eating that.
I think the same thing a decade later as I
stare at a blue paper plate filled with scrambled eggs, blueberries, strawberries, and pancakes— burnt so badly they resemble hockey pucks. No food is touching the other. It’s the same table, but Mom’s new spot is across from me. She has a plate of the same, plus some maple sausages. My brother is at school and the entirety of her attention is on me. Kids who faint at school don’t get to go to school anymore.
“A word game?” she asks.
I want to say no. Tell her she got me one too many blueberries and the count is off, so everything is ruined and now it’s inedible. I want to tell her I’m tired of eating. It’s too hard. It’s too much.
“Sure,” I say instead.
She nods and picks up her fork, waiting for me to mimic the action, before cutting into her sausages. She chews slowly while looking up at nothing in thought. Her work cell chimes in the kitchen. Three times. It’s strange; she doesn’t move.
“Butterfly,” she finally says.
“Only insects or animals too?” We’ve played it both ways. I cut into my pancakes. A triangle the size of my pinkie nail.
“Insects,” she challenges.
Struggling to think of an insect that starts with Y is distracting enough to eat the first bite. I chew as fast as I can, looking out of the big dining room window. It’s a different house than when my parents were married, but it still feels like I’m in the limelight.
Just outside, a bald man with bright orange shoes and a mismatched tracksuit walks his golden retriever past our house. He doesn’t turn to look, but his dog does. I count the man’s steps until he walks out of view. Twelve steps. Twelve. Twelve.
I swallow.
“Yellowjacket.”
“Tick.”
Tick, tick, tick.
The clock on the wall behind my mom seems to agree with her answer. Tick, tick, tick. I look up. Twenty more minutes. Tick, tick, tick.
“You have to let me do an animal,” I say, cutting another piece of pancake. This one is slightly bigger than the last. I’m not in the mood for a Boost. I either finish my food or drink the too-sweet, too-thick nutritional milk.
My mom laughs. None of her laughs are ever quiet or small. They fill a room and bounce around until finally, there is only the smallest of echoes. I can only offer her a sad grimace-smile. It’s hard to find anything funny right now.
“You just want me to go easy on you,” she teases.
“Yes, I do.” I fork more pancake into my mouth, chewing fast. I try and fail to resist the compulsory urge to count my chews. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve. Swallow again. Twelve, twelve, twelve.
“Fine,” she concedes. Something new she did, ever since I almost died.
“Kangaroo.”
“Octopus.”
“Siamese rat.”
“Turtle.”
The game doesn’t stop until my plate is empty. Thanks to the distraction, I managed to eat my breakfast in the allotted thirty minutes. Mom is nicer than the nurses at residential treatment, who would have forced a Boost on me for the few sad, squishy blueberries left behind and the half-drunk glass of orange juice. Mom just looks at me with a raised eyebrow and finishes it off herself.
I lost the breakfast game.
I’ve lost the breakfast game many times throughout the last decade. I lost the spotlight
as well, when I moved out and away and no longer ate with my family. I won’t even bother buying a table for my apartment: It’s too much of a stage. Instead, I bought a foldable lap table, not even a foot tall. The legs get stuck, and it often ends up being a plate for my plate, legs stubbornly folded up in my lap.
It’s a way to isolate. Me and my eating disorder, kneeling on the carpeted floor of my living room. The carpet is rough and digs into my knees in a way that is entirely too much to handle at six in the morning. A frozen low-sugar strawberry Uncrustable waits on a red gingham ceramic plate in front of me.
The peanut butter will be sticky, and the jam will still be too sweet, and I need to take a bite, and make this food safe. Nancy, my dietician, tells me I can’t live off saltines anymore, and I need to expand my nutritional choices.
There are no games. Just me and this impossible task and the voice in my head telling me that this food is poison. A vinyl plays at a low volume from the corner—my sad attempt at a distraction now that I control the game.
Today, I can’t do it. I get up and stretch my legs, rub the sore skin where I knelt, and clean up. My head spins as I get ready for the day.
My head spins and spins and spins for months afterward, a horrible long-term side effect of refusing to eat, even as I start to feed my body again. Some days I think I find my footing, only for it to be pulled out from under me when I’m challenged to a new food.
I still eat on the floor, except in the evenings, when I go to the treatment center, and sit at the table with others who feel just as anxious to perform ‘Dinner’—We sit packed around a table, waiting for a dietician to come around and approve our plates . And then we eat, trying not to look too hard at one another.
There’s comfort in the way Kate’s teeth clench
when I look too long at the chicken she brought for dinner. And the way Kara can’t make eye contact across the table, even while she talks about her upcoming Disneyland trip. It makes me feel less alone in this fear.
It takes a while for the table to feel less like a stage. It still feels like a game. But when my head finally stops spinning, I’m still sitting on the living room floor, face to face with the terrifying task of food-ing. I have to keep playing; I can’t lose anymore.
IAfghan Raychel Kool
created this zine in response to an assignment that asked us to tell a story about an object that was meaningful to us. I chose an afghan that my grandma crocheted for me using the scraps from other afghans she made for my relatives. I chose to draw this comic in black and white, except for the afghan itself and the yarn that went into it; these features are drawn in color to focus the reader’s attention on this precious object.
The physical form of this zine involves spreads of different lengths, and certain spreads open up to reveal new ones. For example, the spread in photo 2 opens up to reveal the spread in photo 3. Certain pages are placed intentionally in the interior spreads, such that they are hidden when the reader first picks up the zine. For example, I placed the pages about femme labor in one of these hidden spreads, since this labor is often overlooked and underappreciated. The zine has only one four-page spread, which is filled almost entirely by the afghan. I use this largest, most central spread to showcase my object in its entirety. I took care to draw each stripe of my real afghan on this spread.
The Hypocrisy of Southern Christianity in the 1800s and the Nature of Faith
FMason Parrish
rom the formative years of the United States of America, Christianity was front and center in the development of the nation— both in British colonial times, with many of the first colonists seeking religious freedom to practice their Puritan faith, and in regard to the establishment of the actual States, with founding documents influenced by ideas like God-given rights. However, this was, to say the least, at odds with the practice of chattel slavery in America, which stripped an entire people of human rights in favor of forcing them to partake in grueling slave labor. And instead of Christianity’s influence rendering the United States incompatible with slavery, the South twisted the religion into a mockery of itself to help justify their inhumane, racist practices, going so far as to try and conceal the worst of their offenses so that slavery would be upheld. Despite this state of affairs, though, many slaves developed a strong faith in God, in large part because they recognized that Christianity did not truly support their oppression and that it had been warped into a tool to try and legitimize keeping them down. The writers Olaudah Equiano, Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Jacobs all documented their faith in their slave narratives
“ And instead of Christianity’s influence rendering the United States incompatible with slavery, the South twisted the religion into a mockery of itself... ”
while fiercely condemning the hypocritical Christian practices tied to slavery. Douglass and Jacobs also disclosed numerous anecdotes of the antithetical practices they endured, witnessed, or heard of secondhand. In preCivil War America, Christian slaveholders, against the fiendish and perversive backdrop of slavery, contorted their faith into a deeply hypocritical and wicked institution; however, slave writings not only reveal this corruption but also reference and develop a firm, more traditional Christian faith that counters their worldview. The cruelty of Christian slaveholders cannot be understated— Frederick Douglass outright proclaimed that the religious masters were the “meanest and basest, the most cruel and cowardly, of all others” (1043). Both he and Harriet Jacobs took notice of the fact that after their masters had their faith revitalized, their interactions with them only worsened, despite their initial assumptions that religion would serve to make them more humane (or, in Douglass’s case, even bring about emancipation). Rather than renouncing the devil and all his works as one would expect, they only crept closer to embodying his nature. Douglass affirmed that the religion of the South
was a “dark shelter under which the darkest, foulest, grossest, and most infernal deeds of slaveholders find the strongest protection,” (1043), arguing that it was designed to keep masters in power and to let them have free rein in committing whatever abuses they desired. It was not lost on him that when he decided to conduct and teach doctrine at a Sabbath school, he and his congregants had to keep it a secret from their religious masters because they expected slaves to spend their Sundays engaging in activities considered brutish, like drinking and wrestling, instead of learning of the will of God and acting in a civilized manner. Jacobs would even forge a link between becoming more civilized and more Christianized when claiming that slave men more willing to stand up against their masters—particularly on behalf of their wives and daughters— must have gone through greater exposure to the Word of God to be galvanized into acting. Together, the experiences of Douglass and Jacobs suggest slave owners wanted to keep slaves in the dark about the full scope of Christianity because it would lead them to recognize the deeply bastardized nature of the society they lived in and inspire them to escape, knowing for themselves they had merit and rights they were being deprived of. Douglass and Jacobs acknowledged that this form of Christianity was largely systemic to the South and specified that they did not reserve their judgment for more true-to-the-text Christianity. Jacobs, in her life account Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , also recurrently likened Southern Christianity, tied up as it was with slavery, to the devil and Satanic symbols—when citing a secondhand account of an exceptionally cruel slaveholder, she punctuated the section by ending with the note that he “was highly educated, and styled a perfect gentleman. He also boasted the name
and standing of a Christian, though Satan never had a truer follower” (Jacobs 45). Later, she metaphorically stated, “O, the serpent of Slavery has many and poisonous fangs!” (Jacobs 56) — the serpent being a symbol heavily attributed to Satan in Christianity. Douglass, too, lambasted Southern Christianity, characterizing it as having “devils dressed in angels’ robes, and hell presenting the semblance of paradise” (1063). In drawing these comparisons, both writers affirmed that Southern Christianity had been twisted so much that it effectively was a religion fueled by the devil and detached from God, except with its constituents seeking to maintain the appearance of being good Christians. Because of the wicked nature of Southern practitioners, Jacobs often sarcastically referred to particularly brash deeds or statements as “Christian” in nature throughout her account to drive the point home that they were not proper followers of Christ. On top of all this, Southern slave owners would bend or ignore scriptures to claim that the Bible justified slavery and all the crimes they committed under it and that God created the Africans to operate as slaves under them. Jacobs cited one verse in particular as completely debunking the idea that God would make an entire, unequal race of human beings, which states, “[God] hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth,”( Authorized King James Version , Acts 17:26). In one distinctly revealing incident Jacobs witnessed, she watched a young slave girl suffering as she died bearing an illegitimate, implied to be stillborn child, pleading for the Lord to take her up into heaven—all while her mistress mocked her and boasted that she deserved her suffering, and as the youth’s mother looked on. She responded by expressing the hope that her daughter would join the baby in heaven. Jacobs relates that the mistress scoffed
at this and stated, “There is no such place for the like of her and her bastard” (16). Jacobs, in her account, later touches upon the idea of slavery’s corrupting influence leading to intense jealousy among the wives of slave owners, who watched their husbands have liaisons with slave women; the key phrase setting this incident apart is the mistress’s use of “the like.” This phrase signals that the mistress in question is not disparaging the girl and her child over feelings of envy, but rather that she does not believe African slaves can go to heaven —a view that, given the other distortions of religious belief documented among slaveholders, was presumably somewhat widespread among the White people in the South. As made clear in this example, Southern Christianity grossly distorted the true nature of the faith to frame it as justifying slavery and racism, thus rooting itself in pharisaical beliefs.
Much of the hypocrisy stemming from Christianity as practiced under slavery was rooted in discrimination. For example, adultery was only frowned upon when a man committed it with a white woman, but it was considered fair game with enslaved Black women rather than accurately being considered a sin universally. Additionally, slavery’s immorality contradicted Christian tenets in a multitude of ways. Olaudah Equiano, for instance, called out the practice of the slave trade and of separating slaves from their loved ones:
“O, ye nominal Christians! Might not an African ask you—learned you this from your God, who says unto you, do unto all men as you would men should do unto you? Is it not enough that we are torn from our country and friends, to toil for your luxury and lust of gain? Must every tender feeling be likewise sacrificed to your avarice? Are the dearest friends and relations, now rendered more dear by their separation from the
kindred, still to be parted from each other, and thus prevented from cheering the gloom of slavery, with the small comfort of being together, and mingling their sufferings and sorrows?” (383).
Equiano understood the hypocrisy inherent in the system of slavery, with Africans torn not only from their homes but often their loved ones—which held true even for US-born slaves sold to other plantations or owners— something that simply was not reflective of the courteousness that Christianity is supposed to exemplify. Douglass corroborated this idea in his account, pointing out the audacity of “the warm defender[s] of the sacredness of the family relation” (1062) breaking apart bonds in such a cruel manner. Jacobs echoed the same biblical precept that Equiano mentioned about treating all men as one wishes to be treated, taken from Matthew 7:12, but in a different context. While her first mistress was kind and humane enough to teach her how to read at a young age and instilled religious teachings within her, when she passed away, her will did not free Jacobs and instead let her fall into the hands of her niece. Jacobs quoted Matthew not only to demonstrate what her mistress taught her, but also how she ultimately failed to treat her as an equal in the end, despite overall reminiscing on her fondly, noting “I was her slave, and I suppose she did not recognize me as her neighbor. I would give much to blot out from my memory that one great wrong” (11-12).
Another instance of Christian hypocrisy factoring into Jacobs’s childhood concerned how her father taught her and her siblings of their worth as human beings. This is something Christianity is commonly associated with, given its idea that, as we are created in the image of God, all humans have inherent worth. However, because of this, Jacobs states that slaveholders
decried him as teaching “blasphemous doctrine” (13)—the religious connotation of “blasphemous” further emphasizes that Southern Christianity was often not concerned with actually upholding concepts affirmed in the Bible, especially when it came to the way slaves were regarded. Douglass mentioned several other examples of hypocrisy as well, like how marriage was advocated for on a religious basis and yet was largely denied to slaves, at least in a ceremonial and formal capacity. Yet arguably the most egregious example of Christian hypocrisy Jacobs presents is tied to her master’s sexual advances on her and her desperate bid to escape them through engaging in a sexual relationship with another white man, named Samuel Tredwell Sawyer. While Jacobs completely understood the morally dubious nature of this decision, especially under a Christian lens, she believed the evils of slavery and its bending of morals had forced her hand. When evaluating her circumstances within Incidents , John Ernest puts it this way: “She presents American Christianity not as the system that enables her to see her wrongs, but rather as the system that forces her to commit her wrongs” (243). Traditionally, Christianity incorporates the idea of recognizing, confessing, and repenting of one’s sins for the sake of absolution. But corrupted by slavery, Jacobs was driven to choose sin over letting herself be violated by her master. And White people were generally
“Jacobs testifies that they would deliberately conceal the extent of their cruelty to outsiders...”
cognizant of their hypocrisy, too. While alluding to Reverend Nehemiah Adams’s A South-Side View of Slavery in particular, Jacobs testifies that they would deliberately conceal the extent of their cruelty to outsiders so that they would perceive slavery more positively and thus dampen enthusiasm for the abolitionist movement. Their implementation of Christianity was not something that just sprung up from the circumstances of slaveholding America; it was calculated to bestow power upon them. Even beyond that, though, Jacobs also rallied against other American (largely Northern) Christians who stood idly by without seeking to end slavery. In an anonymous letter, she reflected on how they were willing to selflessly help the oppressed of all nations, yet ignored millions of slaves in their own country. Ultimately, Jacobs defined true Christians as the ones willing to actually do good to Black people, enslaved or free, and promote their welfare, regardless of factors like where they came from. They were few and far between, especially in the South, but even humane slave owners like a slave-owning mistress who nevertheless was kind enough to conceal Jacobs for a time as she hid from her master were still deemed to be more true to Christianity, even though they were involved with the institution. Despite how destructive Christian slave culture was, Equiano, Douglass, and Jacobs all had strong faith in God and Christianity, and it featured heavily in their accounts of their lives.
All three believed that, throughout their trials and tribulations, God was guiding them and they would eventually be blessed with freedom. Equiano went so far as to say that he firmly believed God’s hand was in his life before he was even knowledgeable of Christianity and that God was responsible for delivering him into the hands of Michael Henry Pascal, his fairly humane British master. Douglass wrote similarly regarding being sent to live in Baltimore with Hugh and Sophia Auld, seeing it as the first of many favors God bestowed upon him because it opened the door to him becoming literate and set him on the path to eventual escape—Douglass also attributed the conviction he’d held from very early in his life that he would one day escape bondage to God. As mentioned earlier, Douglass also assumed the role of teaching other slaves how to read scripture, and he thoroughly loved being able to educate them and do something genuinely positive for his fellow African Americans. In Jacobs’s case, while she labored to get Incidents published, she wrote to her friend Amy Post regarding the text that she had “Striven faithfully to give a true and just account of my own life in slavry [ sic ]” and that “God knows I have tried to do it in a Christian spirit” (200). Thus, her faith was integral to the conception and creation of her account detailing the abuses she had suffered; additionally, she was taking up her defined role of a true Christian, holding hypocritical dissenters accountable within the text itself. Within Incidents, too, Jacobs related the displays of faith and Christian charity she witnessed during a ten-month stay in Britain, which led her to retrospectively realize just how horridly and incorrectly Christianity was practiced back in the South. Her faith promptly grew in strength and intensity as she learned firsthand that some practitioners of the religion were
morally upright and loyal to doctrine and held no ill will towards her for her race. However, in their accounts, Douglass and Jacobs didn’t shy away from documenting the fact that their faith was not unshakable and that, at times, they questioned it and God because of the continued proliferation of slavery. Douglass noted doing so when thinking of all the men and women he helped to teach, struggling with the fact they were still subjugated under slaveholders. Jacobs confessed that at times, “it seemed to me that there was no justice or mercy in the divine government. I asked why the curse of slavery was permitted to exist, and why I had been so persecuted and wronged from youth upward” (104). Despite this wavering of faith, though, they ultimately held firm to it throughout their lives, presumably bolstered by post-Civil War abolition as well. Even more striking, though, is that while Equiano, Douglass, and Jacobs all had the privilege of receiving a more formal education that let them more fully engage with the Bible and Christian principles, many pious slaves did not. The men and women who took the risk of coming to Douglass to learn to read the Bible, Jacobs’s hardworking grandmother, and even the poor slave girl who died in childbirth, who believed in a just and merciful God in the face of her mistress’s derision—they all demonstrated strong faith in Christianity, recognizing its purifying nature even with how tainted it was under slavery. Many slaves were perfectly willing to worship as Christians, despite their exposure to such a despicable form of it.
Christianity, as with numerous other faiths, is characterized by uplifting the spirits of practitioners, and remarkably, this trait was not lost amidst the errant form of it practiced in the Southern US. Despite Southern Christianity being used to justify all manner of
discriminatory, sinful behavior against slaves, exposing a great deal of hypocrisy in the process, many slaves discerned that it ran contrary to actual Christian values and still cultivated faith of their own, in line with proper Christianity. Notably, this was regardless of whether or not they were literate and could read the Bible for themselves. Because of this understanding, slaves generally abhorred their masters for their harsh practices and efforts to bar them from learning more about Christianity, with Equiano, Douglass, and Jacobs all decrying their practices as an affront to God. Faced with a draconian existence, slaves found small mercies and blessings to stick it out all the more. The experiences of Douglass, Jacobs, and Equiano suggest that these were often interpreted as the aid of God. For slaveholders, Christianity was a tool of oppression, twisted to the extent of being in league with Satan, but for their slaves, it was enlightening and could spur them towards trying to escape slavery in the hopes of being able to make something of themselves and embrace the God-given rights they had been so cruelly deprived of. Prior to abolition, Christian slaveholders, in line with slavery’s corruptive nature, distorted their faith into an unrecognizable, flawed, and malicious creed that targeted Black people, but slave writings not only exposed their false doctrine and its hypocritical nature for what it was, but testified of a more true and proper Christian faith in spite of, and countering, the one their tormentors adhered to.
Works Cited Douglass, Frederick. “ From Narrative of the
Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself ,” The Norton Anthology of American Literature , edited by Robert S. Levine, 9th ed., vol. 1,, WW Norton & Company, 2017, pp. 1000-1066.
Ernest, John. “Reading the Fragments in the Fields of History: Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl .” Resistance and Reformation in Nineteenth-Century African-American Literature . Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1995, pp. 81-108.
Equiano, Olaudah. “From The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself .” The Norton Anthology of American Literature , edited by Robert S. Levine, 9th ed., vol. 1, , WW Norton & Company, 2017, pp. 372-405.
Jacobs, Harriet Ann. Incidents In the Life of A Slave Girl , edited by Frances Smith Foster and Richard Yarborough, 2nd ed., W.W. Norton & Company, 2019.
———. “Letter from a Fugitive Slave.” Letter. New York Daily Tribune , 21 June 1853, p.6. ———. “Speaking of Incidents.” Amy Post , 21 June 1857.
The Bible . Authorized King James Version, Intellectual Reserve, Inc., 1979.
It’s Hell Waiting for an Angel
Theresa Anderson
Fluorescent lights line the ceiling of an operating room like an episode of The X Files, being poked and prodded by invaders.
Me: lying on the operating table.
Them: slicing through seven layers of tissue in an effort to remove my future daughter.
Her: heart rate dropping.
My body had betrayed me. I was already failing as a parent and my child wasn’t even born yet.
Cesarean section: not the birth plan I had hoped for.
I never had a birth plan. I was already deep into a complicated pregnancy and had experienced multiple emergency room visits. The cesarean section was the result of a ten-day hospital stay and a failed induction.
Hospital stay: the result of a high heart rate— tachycardia.
Understatement.
The hospital stay: the result of my heart rate sustaining 240 beats per minute for 15 minutes.
Two hundred forty. While pregnant.
Complicated by anemia.
Made worse by an aspirin regimen as a precaution for preeclampsia.
My body: a vessel on a roller coaster.
Me: an involuntary passenger.
Eight hellish months of waiting for an angel. Four of those months were spent wondering, suffering with a high heart rate upon any movement. Lying on the operating table, I was simultaneously the calmest and most terrified I had ever been in my life.
Anesthesiologist: talking me through the process.
Me: losing feeling in my body.
A floating head lying in a cold, sterile room.
Beeps and doctor-speak filtered through the blue curtain, obstructing my vision. Tugging and pulling my insides, the surgeons injected me with medication after medication, keeping my blood pressure up, heart rate down, and preventing hemorrhage.
Time: nonexistent.
Time: of the essence.
If I ever had to imagine what floating through space felt like, this was it. I was completely lucid, and yet completely devoid of myself. All my thoughts were on the child that was soon to breathe life.
A cry: the happiest sound a new mother could hope for.
My daughter: whisked away.
I caught a glimpse of her red, pudgy, swollen face. Tears welled up in my eyes, but my emotions were restrained. The spinal block given to me had completely numbed my chest, causing a heaviness in my lungs.
My breaths: small, shallow, refrained. Like a song.
A bittersweet song. I could not hold my child. I could not move my body, save for my head. A floating head attached to a lifeless body. The only movement I could muster was the blinking of my eyes to clear the salty liquid that revisited me like an old friend.
Blue curtain: taken down.
Me: all sewn up.
Husband: with baby.
Baby: my child.
When Were We Democratic?
TIntroduction
Elizabeth Kent
he United States claims to be a “beacon of democracy” to the rest of the world: a place of moral and political enlightenment. However, over the years, the US has continually subverted democratic principles at home and abroad. Democracy is equality, representation, and accountability. The Federalist Papers, ancient Greek philosophies, and other international norms outline these classic democratic principles. Has the US truly upheld these ideals throughout its history? Despite its proclaimed democratic ideals, the US has systemically undermined democracy through foreign interventions, domestic political repression, systemic racism, and structural flaws. This contradiction becomes particularly visible when we explore the United States’ actions abroad and at home (Williamson, 2023).
Undemocratic Foreign Interventions
Much of the United States’ foreign policy is that it must spread democracy worldwide as the superior democratic power. However, many countries never benefit from this democracy and are, in many ways, exploited for resources and power. If the US wanted to spread democracy, there would not be as many failed operations as there are, and the people in those countries would be grateful that the US ‘saved’ them. This dichotomy is evident through Operation Condor and the United State’s support for Latin and South American dictatorships. Operation Condor was a cooperative effort led
by the United States from November 1975 to approximately 1989, enacted throughout Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil for counter-terrorism and subversion, through which they supported authoritarian right-wing dictatorships, installed puppet leaders, and orchestrated coups (Tremlett, 2020). Effectively undermining democracy, many of these countries were expanding before this point. It is estimated that from Operation Condor alone, there were 60,000–80,000 deaths and a total of 400,000 political prisoners captured. Under this operation, the US enacted kidnappings, assassinations, torture, separation of families, and used state-sanctioned terrorism to further their own goals (Pearl, 2021). The US claims to support political freedom and free speech, which means they should not be looking for ways to censor or even kill their opponents. However, Operation Condor represents just how far the US is willing to go to make sure it stays in a superior spot of power, in the name of democracy, but without caring what the actual repercussions on these cultures and communities are.
There are many modern parallels to these past foreign abuses, such as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Palestine, and through prioritization of US interests above all else (Telhami, 2007). Looking specifically at Iraq and the war in the Middle East, the outcome of these situations was destined to fail — not because the Middle East is incompatible with democracy, but because the whole premise and execution of these initiatives
were based on contradictions and assumptions. In Iraq, where multiple administrations wanted reform first in their elections, their efforts turned to something more unfounded, with democracy becoming more of an objective rather than something obtainable, forcing the public in Iraq to submit to US policies they did not want, thus limiting the people’s democracy as a result of US action. Furthermore, in Palestine, the United States repeatedly failed to come to their aid against the anti-democratic policies and torture being enacted by the Israeli government, leading to some of the worst human rights abuses on record. Through 2024, the US had a year of “smokescreen” policy, which allowed Israel to get away with and continue the horrors in Gaza. In one example of many, on May 28, 2024, at least 21 civilians were killed in an Israeli shelling of a refugee tent encampment outside Rafah that was supposed to be in a safe zone (Murphy, 2025). For this violation, Israel received no heavy burden, backlash, or sanctions from the American government. In addition, the State Department censored its officials and experts to avoid enforcing the consequences of going against their warning. Many experts have said that the US’s lack of follow-through has led to widespread human rights abuses, including but not limited to the blocking of aid deliveries, the killing of political prisoners, and the rape of many women and children.
Additionally, the US’s nearly unwavering support for Israel has made it unfavorable to the Arab public. This creates a lack of support for American policies in other countries—such as Afghanistan and Iraq—and leads to a political crackdown in those areas as the citizens try to express their disinterest in foreign involvement in their systems (Al Talei, 2021).
The prioritization of the US’ interests is exceptionally evident when examining their
selective intervention, support for authoritarian regimes, economic interests over people, and military over diplomacy approach. US involvement often focuses on regions with strategic resources like oil in Iraq, precious minerals, or other geopolitical advantages; this strategic focus undermines America’s claims of promoting democracy because they stand to gain from these conflicts (Mueller, 2017). Then, there is the history of the US supporting undemocratic regimes when it aligns with their interests, particularly shown through Mubarak’s Egypt or Saudi Arabia. Then, the US foreign policy prioritizes US economic benefits, such as control of resources over local populations’ democratic hopes or welfare. Furthermore, the heavy reliance on military interventions— rather than fostering democratic institutions or reforms focusing on human rights protections— destabilizes the region, leading it further into chaos and more at risk of authoritarian leadership. US foreign policies are failing these countries time and time again, pushing them further away from democracy. They support coups and interventions that install pro-US governments that contradict the democratic principles of self-determination seen in Iran in 1953 and Chile in 1973 (Wu 2019). The policies continually erode the sovereignty of other nations by imposing conditions on aid and military support, taking away key components of democracy in favor of something more similar to US-controlled imperialism.
Political Repression at Home
The United States deems itself a beacon of democracy for its people and abroad. However, its history of political repression, suppression of dissent, corporate influence, and the hidden influence of ideological elites reveals a straddling contradiction between its proclaimed
democratic ideals and actual practices. Mass suppression of dissent and restriction of free speech were most notably displayed through the first Red Scare, the second Red Scare, and McCarthyism. The first Red Scare from 19171920 was sparked by the Russian Revolution and fears of “communist” influence spreading to the US and leading to a similar uprising, particularly after a string of labor strikes and anarchist bombings (Hamilton). During this time, there was a widespread fear of anarchism and communism brought through US propaganda and crackdown; there was a mass clampdown and oppression of immigrants, labor activists, and suspected radicals. The Second Red Scare from 1947–1955 was fueled by the early Cold War, the rise of the Soviet Union as a world superpower, and the fear of communist infiltration in the US government and society. This period had many “loyalty programs” for federal employees to discern that there were no communist sympathizers, mass blacklisting in industries like Hollywood and academics, and some highprofile cases like the trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Some key features of this period within the Second Red Scare were public hearings and accusations with little to no evidence and long-term damage to the reputations and careers of countless individuals (Miller Center). This suppression of dissent, political freedom, and free speech lasted approximately thirteen years between the two Red Scares.
“ Committees like the House Un-American Activities Committee were used to intimidate and silence individuals, further contradicting democratic ideas of fairness and justice. ”
The persecution of individuals associated with socialism, communism, and other left ideologies during the Red Scare undermined the democratic principle of ideological pluralism. Committees like the House Un-American Activities Committee were used to intimidate and silence individuals, further contradicting democratic ideals of fairness and justice. In addition to these authoritarian policies and repression from the U.S. government, they also targeted marginalized groups like labor leaders, civil rights activists, queer people, people of color, religious minorities, lowincome individuals, and academics. These groups were disproportionately targeted, showing a bias against those advocating for systemic change. These tactics still exist. As recently as this December, the House passed a bill to educate youth about the dangers of communism (Elvira, 2023). In addition, the Communist Control Act of 1954 has not been dissolved. This bill puts people at risk of staying silent for fear of retribution since many leftist ideologies are illegal to represent and spread.
This democracy is further eroded through the role of ideological elites and corporate influence in politics. The organization called The Family is one of these ideological elites. This secretive, religiously-driven, far-right Evangelical nationalist network exerts influence over US politics, undermining democratic transparency and going so far as to be allowed to host the National Prayer breakfast and meet
with influential foreign and national leaders, even helping staff many US political offices (Sharlet, 2009). Organizations like The Family undermine secular democracy through the blending of religion and politics through covert networks, which challenges the secular, inclusive ideals that democracy promotes in favor of a more elite network that prioritizes some groups’ interests over others. In addition, almost all politicians at a national scale are paid thousands, if not millions, by various corporations through lobbying to do what is in the best interest of these companies and help sponsor or create bill ideas. These corporations and other organizations are unelected power brokers. The existence of these powerful ideological elites with the ability to shape domestic and foreign policy reveals an oligarchic structure within the government that is outside of the people’s hands, making it not truly representative. These hidden influences, from covert networks to lobbying, operate without hardly any public oversight, going against the democratic principle of government accountability to its citizens. As exemplified through ideological elites, corporate influence, and the Red Scare, the US shows itself to be a facade of democracy.
Systemic Racism, Inequality, and Structural Flaws
The systemic racism, voter suppression, and structural flaws that are embedded in the fabric of America reveal enduring inequalities that undermine democracy and its very overtly straying from the democratic ideals of equality, representation, and justice for all citizens. Racism and inequality—presently and historically—demonstrate this stray from values, mainly through slavery’s legacy, Jim Crow laws, Native American displacement, and systemic racism. The enslavement of African Americans
laid the foundation for systemic racial inequality in wealth, education, and political power (Gutierrez, 2018). After slavery ended, Jim Crow laws furthered this inequality through legalized segregation and voter suppression, which reinforced racial hierarchies and continue to disenfranchise Black Americans to this day (Heideman, 2020). Furthermore, this inequality and these systemic flaws do not only extend to Black Americans but to all people of color and other marginalized groups like transgender and gay individuals. This is exemplified through the forced removal and land theft that disrupted and eroded Indigenous communities, stripping them of their sovereignty and economic stability and undermining their political rights, in addition to trapping them in poverty and genociding their communities (Cote, 2024).
This oppression is not only in the past, as many people would make it out to be. Through modern voter suppression in gerrymandering, voter ID laws, and felon disenfranchisement, many people are systemically having their rights to representation and equality stripped away. Through the manipulation of district boundaries and gerrymandering, it dilutes the voting power of marginalized communities, undermining fair representation. Furthermore, low-income and minority voters are disproportionately affected by voter ID laws, creating barriers to participation in elections. Then, the targeting of people of color and low-income individuals by the US prison system has stripped millions of individuals of their voting rights even after they have served their felony sentences (Fellner, 2019). This suppression of equality and systemic disenfranchisement for marginalized individuals ensures that the US has not lived up to its democratic ideals for centuries and only supports any semblance of democratic values for those in power—namely, rich, white, straight,
cisgender men.
These structural flaws demonstrate that current and past systems that the US has tried to institute have only further strayed from democracy and divided the people in favor of a small group. These structural flaws are exhibited through the Electoral College, unequal representation, and impact on policy. The Electoral College allows presidents to be elected without winning the popular vote, disproportionately amplifying the influence of smaller, often less diverse states (West, 2019). Furthermore, the Senate’s structure gives disproportionate power to less populous states, thus undermining democratic equality. If the people are to be truly represented, it can not be under the current system that disproportionately favors a few groups of people instead of all. These structural flaws continually reinforce systemic inequality, ensuring that the voices of marginalized communities, specifically people of color, remain underrepresented—if not silenced—in federal or other government decision-making.
Modern-Day Reflections: Closer to Democracy or Fascism?
Modern-day America exhibits troubling trends that raise questions about whether the nation resembles democracy while moving closer to a fascist ideology. These questions are, in particular, portrayed through the suppression of free speech and dissent, economic inequality, wealth-driven politics, the United States’ global reputation and democratic credibility, and the general resemblance to fascism.
In the past and present, the United States continues to demonstrate that it does not prioritize democratic values of free speech and dissent and that it will repress them to stay in control. Many laws targeting protests and
activism unequally affect marginalized groups and stifle dissent; this criminalization of protest destroys free speech and creates a culture of oppression (Article 19, 2022). Furthermore, government surveillance of civil rights groups and political protests creates fear, danger, and imprisonment, which undermines freedom of expression—another key trait of democracy. In addition to this surveillance and clampdown, specifically seen through the Black Lives Matter movement, Palestine, and ICE protests, the cultural and institutional silencing of dissenting or “un-American” opinions erodes the open exchange of ideas that are central to democracy.
The increasing economic inequality and evident wealth-driven politics further pull away from democracy (Pathe, 2015). Growing economic disparity enables the most wealthy to influence policies and elections while advancing themselves and making necessities unaffordable, thus marginalizing most people. Super PACs and dark money in politics prioritize corporate interests over the people’s will (Kennedy, 2017). The United States is known as a world superpower because of its economic, military, and production strength, but it is not known for its democracy. Furthermore, many of the people who talk about freedom in America only do so because many of the places they came from had many of their freedoms and resources stripped by American companies or foreign intervention. The US’s support for authoritarian regimes undermines its credibility as a global advocate for democracy, nationally and abroad. Domestic issues like voter suppression and wealth inequality, in addition, weaken its standing as a model of democracy. Global surveys back this, showing declining confidence in seeing the US as a modern leader that promotes democratic values (Levine, 2021).
The world no longer sees America as a
key shareholder of democracy but as a place of inequality and suppression. The highly concerning aspect, however, is not necessarily the reputation of the US but how the US is backsliding into fascism (Perlstein, 2024). The United States very clearly did not learn from the fascist examples of the past from Nazi Germany and has instead continually ignored the erosion of democracy in favor of fear, control, economic might, and power. The increasing centralization of power, attacks on the media, and the demonization of political opponents reflect authoritative traits. Furthermore, American police forces being equipped with military-grade weapons, such as tanks and rocket launchers, instill fear in the local populations and unequally target protests, especially from marginalized communities. In addition, the extreme political polarization in America fosters an environment ripe for fascist control.
“ The world no longer sees America as a key shareholder of democracy but as a place of inequality and suppression. ”
The key indicators of fascism are the suppression of dissent, extreme nationalism, xenophobia, economic control favoring elites, erosion of democratic norms, militarization, violence, and the manipulation of information (Soucy, 2019). The US scarily meets all of these criteria, indicating that the US has become fascist even if America still calls itself a democracy.
Nevertheless, Nazi Germany did not label itself fascist either, and neither will the American government. The suppression of dissent is shown through protest laws, government
surveillance of activists, and the militarized response to movements like Black Lives Matter, thus reflecting fascist tendencies to stifle dissent and control public expression. Furthermore, policies and rhetoric targeting immigrants, such as family separations at the border or the Muslim travel ban, promote ethnocentric and exclusionary ideals. The concentration of wealth and influence among corporations and the wealthiest individuals, combined with limited labor protections and anti-union and antiworker sentiments, echoes fascist tendencies of corporatism and economic inequality. The erosion of democratic norms is further seen through gerrymandering, voter suppression laws, and the Electoral College. All of these factors undermine fair representation and weaken democratic processes. Furthermore, police forces having militarygrade equipment and using excessive force against civilians during protests, such as gassing them, burning them, and beating them, create an environment of fear, control, and dictatorship (Mchangama, 2023).
In addition, disinformation campaigns, book bannings, media polarization, and selective censorship—specifically of dissent—contribute to public mistrust. These actions hinder informed democratic participation and general education of the populace, lending the US right into the hand of fascism (Nichols, 2018). The United States has gotten comfortable with this decline of democracy, inequality, and descent
into fascism that Elon Musk, the Administrator of the Department of Government Efficiency appointed under Trump, felt comfortable enough to do a Nazi salute at Donald Trump’s Inauguration ceremony (Pengelly, 2025).
Conclusion
Time and time again, the United States has shown that it has not ever been the democracy it claims to be. It remains riddled with contradictions between its professed ideals and historical and modern realities. It is necessary to examine the historical and present cycles of inequality, the dangers of suppression, the lack of global credibility and accountability, and how that endangers American civilians and communities abroad. Fascism is the opposite of democracy, and the US meeting all of the key indicators of fascism should be worrisome for the general American public and the rest of the world. The statement “those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it” has never been as evident as it is now. Everyone needs to be wary of how the US has continually strayed from its principles and has plummeted to the opposite of American values. There is almost no possible solution under the current system that could prevent this continuing decline into fascism or help achieve something closer to true democracy. Stopping the potential destruction of the US from fascism or achieving true democracy will not only require confronting its past and present failures, but also systemic reform and complete change that prioritizes democratic principles of equity, justice, and genuine representation for all United States residents. If there is to be any foreign intervention, it must be out of pure intention and not out of a lust for greed, power, and control. All of this evidence begs the question of when America was ever ‘democratic.’
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Telhami, Shibley. “How to Not Spread Democracy.” Brookings , 17 Sept. 2007. “The Impact of Voter Suppression on Communities of Color.” Brennan Center for Justice , 10 Jan. 2022.
Tremlett, Giles. “Operation Condor: The Cold War Conspiracy That Terrorised South America.” The Guardian , 3 Sept. 2020.
West, Darrell M. “It’s Time to Abolish the Electoral College.” Brookings , 15 Oct. 2019, www.brookings.edu/articles/its-time-toabolish-the-electoral-college/.
Williamson, Vanessa. “Understanding Democratic Decline in the United States.” Brookings , 17 Oct. 2023.
Wu, Lawrence, and Michelle Lanz. “How the CIA Overthrew Iran’s Democracy in 4 Days.” NPR , 7 Feb. 2019, www.npr. org/2019/01/31/690363402/how-the-ciaoverthrew-irans-democracy-in-four-days.
“USA: Lives at Risk as Right to Protest Crushed.” ARTICLE 19 , 26 Oct. 2022, www.article19.org/resources/usa-right-toprotest/.
Noticing in the New Year
ASachi Barnaby
fter six years away, I returned to Japan over winter break. I was there for the start of the new year, and I brought my camera along. I wanted to take photos of beautiful things. I also wanted to capture what I noticed around me. In these photos, I found that I had noticed what differed on this side of the world compared to New Year’s Day at home.
In America, the New Year feels like a shedding of the past. The fireworks, resolutions, and a kiss at midnight are romantic ways to bring in another January and start the new year off right. We want to be our best selves and try again to accomplish everything we couldn’t in the last 365 days. In Japan, there was a tethered connection to the past. I spent day one of 2025 with my family, walking to the train station to pick up a friend and then off to the nearby Buddhist temple. There was still an air of celebration (particularly for the schoolchildren on holiday). Still, we had rituals to attend to: entering the gate, washing hands, and waiting patiently in line for a turn to throw in coins for prayer. Each of these practices was both familiar and weighted. You could read your fortunes and take caution if your fortune was not as favorable. There was something for everyone at the shrine and temple, from sake to sweets. Throughout the cold, bright day, people streamed in with their own thoughts, worries, hopes, and dreams.
What we notice shapes what we remember. What we remember shapes what we reflect on as one year ends and another begins. This year, these photos help me notice and hopefully remember the first day of a new year in Japan, long into the future.
“Goodbye, Year of the Dragon”
“Lanterns to the Shrine”
“Stacks of Sake”
“Incense Before Prayer”
“And Snacks After”
“The Temple and its People”
Shedding Light on Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark
An
analysis of the reasons why Broadway's biggest flop was doomed from the very beginning
Brook Duffy
Introduction
In May of 2002, Marvel, in association with Sony Pictures, released the first SpiderMan film. The film, which had been stuck in the works for around 25 1 years by the time of its release, was a smash hit from the first week. Spider-Man was the first film to beat the $100 million mark in a single weekend, 2 and it became the highest-grossing superhero film of its time, raking in a profit of over $407 million. 3 With a production budget of $139 million, the film had nearly tripled its investment, cementing its status as a Hollywood hit.
In the eyes of Marvel, the most obvious next step would be to capitalize off of the newfound popularity of Spider-Man . The same year of the movie’s release, Marvel contacted theatre producer Tony Adams, asking him if his new production company, Hello Entertainment, would be interested in bidding for the stage rights to the film. Hello Entertainment was created around the year 2000 by Adams and his business partner David Garfinkle (an entertainment lawyer).4 Prior to the company’s creation, Garfinkle had had no experience in producing anything, much less a theatre
production. Nonetheless, the two had hit it off, and Garfinkle had taken the role of a producerin-training within their company, under Adams' wing. After much negotiation with Marvel, and a period of little contact from them, Hello Entertainment eventually bought the stage rights to Spider-Man in August of 2002.
Adams immediately jumped into action, seemingly with a grand vision. In September of 2002, the Dublin native 5 flew out to Ireland to speak with U2’s lead vocalist and lead guitarist, Bono (Paul David Hewson) and The Edge (David Howell Evans) about having them write for his new Spider-Man musical. The two musicians were more than willing to get onboard and had apparently been “batting around” the idea of Broadway for years. 6 Bono in turn recruited a friend of his, Julie Taymor, critically acclaimed director of the smash Broadway hit The Lion King , to direct for the new show.7 With three big names now attached to the Spider-Man musical, the initial projected budget for the show was a whopping $25 million.
The Spider-Man musical appeared to have all of the necessary pieces required to succeed: a franchise name that was white-hot in the
1 Adrienne Tyler, “Why Spider-Man 2002 Took So Long To Happen,” ScreenRant, July 3, 2022, https://screenrant.com/why-spiderman-2002movie-took-so-long/.
2 “Domestic 2002 Weekend 18,” Box Office Mojo, ad: 4/17/2023.
3 “Domestic Box Office For 2002,” Box Office Mojo, May 3, 2001, https://www.boxofficemojo.com/year/2002/.
4 David Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story,” Chicago Magazine, November 8, 2010, https://www.chicagomag.com/ChicagoMagazine/December-2010/Broadways-Spider-Man-The-Full-Story/
5 Army Archerd, “Tony Adams - Entertainment News, Obituary, Media - Variety,” Variety, October 24, 2005, https://web.archive.org/ web/20110124023127/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117931506?refCatId=25.
6 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story.”
7 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story.”
press, two famous musicians as composers, and a critically acclaimed Broadway director to take the wheel for production. So what went wrong? Why is Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark perhaps the biggest flop in Broadway history? The sad truth is that it was doomed from the very beginning.
The Vision
The Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark story begins as is typical for the retelling of the SpiderMan origin story. Turn Off the Dark loosely follows the comic book series and the 2002 film, but with the addition of sung music and choreography and a mythical spider goddess named Arachne.8 Arachne, a new villainess, was based on the figure from Greek myth. The mythology says that Arachne was such a skilled weaver that she challenged the goddess Athena (considered by many to be her tutor from which she had learnt to weave) 9 to a weaving contest. When Arachne’s work surpassed that of Athena’s, Athena tore it to shreds, and Arachne hanged herself. Athena then transformed Arachne into a spider, dooming her to spin and weave for eternity. 10
do with the web-slinging superhero.
“ The show also planned to feature a Geek Chorus acting as a play on a Greek Chorus, narrating the events of the show. ”
In the original plot of Turn Off the Dark , Arachne was intended to be the main villain of the story. In the first act of the show, she would serve as a mentor to Peter Parker (Spider-Man), gifting him the iconic red and blue SpiderMan suit. In the second act, Arachne would then begin to visit his dreams, changing and bending them in an attempt to get him to fall for her and be spiderly alongside her for eternity. Arachne’s ultimate goal was to get Peter to be hers forever, but only as Spider-Man, not as Peter Parker. 11 There is a notable line in the first version of the book where Arachne says to Peter, “You know how spiders chase their mates? By attacking.” 12 This dialogue very neatly sums up her role in the story. Fully fleshed out, it proved to be an interesting (bad), and particularly angsty choice for the generally family-friendly Spider-Man hero.
The story of Arachne is a story of hubris, which, frankly, aside from the spiders, has very little to
The show also planned to feature a Geek Chorus acting as a play on a Greek Chorus, narrating the events of the show. Additionally, the staging was intended to be packed with stunts, including 27 aerial sequences of characters flying and engaging in combat. 13
8 “Spider-ManTurnOfftheDark,” https://www.broadway.com/shows/spider-man-turn-off-the-dark/.
9 Oliver Tearle, “A Summary and Analysis of the Myth of Arachne,” Interesting Literature, July 25, 2021, https://interestingliterature. com/2021/07/myth-of-arachne-spider-summary-analysis/.
10 Tearle, “A Summary and Analysis of the Myth of Arachne.”
11 Zinoman, Jason. “Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark: Is a Wild, Sexed-up, Greek Mythologized Train Wreck.” Slate Magazine, February 8, 2011. https://slate.com/culture/2011/02/spider-man-turn-off-the-dark-is-a-wild-sexed-up-greek-mythologized-train-wreck.html.
12 Zinoman, “Turn Off the Dark: Wild, Sexed-Up.”
13 Patrick Healy, “Concussion Sidelines ‘Spider-Man’ Actress.” ArtsBeat, December 3, 2010, https://archive.nytimes.com/artsbeat.blogs. nytimes.com/2010/12/03/concussion-sidelines-spider-man-actress/.
These were features that were common on the big screen, but not so much on Broadway shows.
Understanding Broadway
To understand what makes a Broadway flop, one must first, understand how Broadway functions. Creating a show on Broadway is a famously tumultuous financial investment, with only about 25% of shows turning a profit. 14 Additionally, unlike in the movie industry, where you can screen the same movie on thousands of screens across the world, multiple times a day for several months, Broadway shows operate to where there are generally two performances of any given show in one day, taking place at a singular venue. This way of operation significantly decreases the opportunity to turn a profit when compared to Hollywood productions.
Furthermore, a typical Broadway show has a budget of somewhere between $8 and $12 million for production. 15 This, too, functions drastically differently than Hollywood budgets, where the average production budget for a movie in 2002 was around $59 million. 16 A budget of this size clocks in around five times the budget of the average Broadway play. As mentioned, the Spider-Man film had a production budget of $139 million. This was well above the average Broadway budget, at around 11 times the upper average.
And it makes sense— Spider-Man is riddled with action packed stunts, a score composed by Danny Elfman, and well-known names such as Willem Dafoe and James Franco. Considering
the stunts alone, it was not a movie that could have been made with a conservative budget. This helps to illustrate that while a $25 million initial budget for Turn Off the Dark was absolutely ludicrous for a Broadway production, whether or not it would be enough for an action-packed production involving the aerial superhero comes into question.
Stunts are another important aspect to understand. Though physical stunts do exist in the theatre scene—and have actually made themselves at home in shows such as the Cirque Du Soleil—these types of stunts are not especially popular on the Broadway scene. Some of the most popular musicals of both the past and present—including Oklahoma! , West Side Story , Les Miserables , and Hamilton —are rather light on the stunts, with a heavier staging focus on choreography. In a musical, there is already a lot of multitasking going on for the actors, as they have to sing, dance, and act in front of a live audience. Despite the wellchoreographed appearance of stunts, they are still very dangerous and physically taxing. 17 When one combines stunts of a Spider-Man caliber with the multitasking that already takes place on a Broadway stage, the likelihood of mistakes and accidents taking place skyrockets. This is especially true when the stunts are predominately aerial, with no reasonable support netting, as well as when the stunts involve audience interaction (which had been intended for some of the Turn Off the Dark stunts). That’s not even mentioning the sheer amount of money it would take to create the
14 Heather Long, “Investing in Broadway: How We Actually Made Money.” CNNMoney, June 12, 2016, https://money.cnn.com/2016/06/11/ investing/fun-home-broadway-investors/index.html.
15 Olivia Rubino-Finn, “Broadway Budgets 101: Breaking Down the Production Budget.” NewMusicalTheatre, January 22, 2016.
16 Lorenza Munoz, “Movie Production Costs Soared in 2002,” Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2003. https://www.latimes.com/archives/ la-xpm-2003-mar-05-et-munoz5-story.html.
17 Gene Scott Freese, Hollywood Stunt Performers, 1910s-1970s: A Biographical Dictionary. (Jefferson: McFarland, 2014).
proper infrastructure to attempt these stunts in the first place.
With Broadway stunts, one must also consider casting availability. With film, actors can be replaced by stunt doubles and video can be dubbed over. In Hollywood, an actor needs only to act, a singer needs only to sing, and a stunt double needs only to know how to survive being hurdled, drowned, and exploded. Inversely, Broadway needs its actors to be able to do all of these things at once, in person, and with no cuts. While it is reasonable in the industry to expect a Broadway actor to be able to sing, dance, and act, it is less reasonable to expect them to sing, dance, and act all while pulling off high-risk aerial stunts. Thus, if the production values the safety of their cast, there will more than likely be some compromise during casting, picking the best stuntmen rather than the best singers or dancers. Clearly, however, there is something to be said about compromising on the musical aspect of a Broadway musical. With all of these points established, it comes into question whether Spider-Man is a realistic story to tell on Broadway in the first place. Perhaps it would have been better as a cirque.
Bono and The Edge
Another large aspect of the show that foreshadowed the potential for a ginormous flop was that Bono and The Edge, though both thrilled to be composing for Broadway, had absolutely zero background in Broadway music. According to the book “Song of Spider-Man,” written by Glen Berger, who was enlisted to write the book/libretto for Turn Off the Dark , both of the U2 members were so unfamiliar with Broadway music that a producer had to burn
them an educational four-CD compilation of “60 songs from the last sixty years of musical theatre.” 18 Berger continued to say that the two of them eventually dismissed nearly all the songs as mawkish, dopey, or just “pants”. 19 This is a rather troubling sentiment to have come from two musicians who intended to compose a musical.
Broadway music, while not necessarily the coolest style of music, is written with a distinctive narrative style for a very important reason. Every show needs its earworm, as Les Miserables has “Do You Hear the People Sing,” The Great Comet of 1812 has “Letters,” and Oklahoma! has “Oh What a Beautiful Mornin’.” Memorability is an important factor for the score, especially for marketing purposes, but it is far from the most important part of the music. Broadway music, in its best form, is meant to tell a story, and hopefully in a way that easily incorporates interesting choreography and interesting staging. Even Hamilton —which heavily utilizes rap in its soundtrack (unconventional for musicals)— has the key narrative elements of stereotypical Broadway music.
If you’ve ever listened to a U2 song, you will find it unsurprising to hear that when the two composers stuck to what they knew, the songs for the musical were described as “vaguely angst-ridden, minor-key U2 B-sides.” 20 Danny Elfman, the composer for the 2002 movie, with his wacky vocals in his band Oingo Boingo, would have perhaps done a much better job at adapting his original score to a musical format. Interestingly, there is also a rumor that Imagine Dragons originally produced “Radioactive” and a couple of other songs from their first album for a Turn Off the Dark demo, but there are no
18 Barber, Nicholas. “How a Spider-Man Musical Became a Theatrical Disaster.” BBC Culture, November 25, 2020,https://www.bbc.com/ culture/article/20201125-how-a-spider-man-musical-became-a-theatrical-disaster.
19 Barber, “How Spider-Man Became a Theatrical Disaster.”
20 Barber, “How Spider-Man Became a Theatrical Disaster.”
credible references for this rumor.
Ultimately, when the two musicians decided to disregard the musical form native to, well, musicals, Turn Off the Dark became less of a musical at all and began transforming into the “Rock and Roll Circus Drama” 21 that it is now known as.
Julie Taymor
Opposite of the show’s composers, Julie Taymor, the director, knew plenty about Broadway. Taymor had worked as a director on a plethora of shows, including, but not limited to, The Tempest , Oedipus Rex , and her most successful show, The Lion King . 22 If one has seen the puppet-costumes that roam the set of The Lion King , perhaps they would have their faith restored in the idea of pulling off the ambitious Spider-Man musical. After all, if anyone could do it, surely it would be Taymor, right? Despite her extensive theatre knowledge, one of Taymor’s biggest drawbacks was that she had very little knowledge of Spider-Man . The inclusion of the villainess Arachne was entirely Taymor’s idea, and the Geek Chorus was her and Bono’s idea. Taymor was huge on Greek Mythology and even bigger on artistic freedom. She had said she would not do the show unless she “could find a narrative ‘something’ to spark her imagination.” 23 She and the writer of the book for the show, Glen Berger, did not want any heavy editing done on
the book by Marvel, 24 which is perhaps why the initial version was the “wild, sexed-up, Greek mythologized train wreck” that journalist Jason Zinoman describes it to be.
At one point, Avi Arad, Marvel’s chief creative officer, had objected to the inclusion of Arachne, as she had nothing to do with Spider-Man or its themes. Taymor stood her ground, stating that “if Arachne is out, then I’m out.” 25 As the production went on, Taymor’s rigid inability to compromise became more and more pronounced, until eventually, it led to her being fired from the show. Glen Berger said in an interview with AVClub.com that not a single song was cut from the first preview until Taymor was fired from the show. 26
Producer Troubles and The Issue of Money
Despite all of this, perhaps they could have pulled it off if not for the unfortunate passing of the show’s original producer, Tony Adams. In 2005, on contract signing day for the show with Bono and The Edge, Adams collapsed in a fatal stroke right after giving The Edge a thumbs up to sign his contract. 27 Not only was his passing a tragic occurrence, but it also served as a terrible omen for the show.
With Adams dead, Garfinkle, who had zero experience, was left to hold the reins for the multimillion-dollar show. Knowing he was out of his depth, Garfinkle ceded all artistic decisions to Taymor, 28 which was perhaps the worst
21 Marc Bernadin, “The ‘Spider-Man’ Musical: A ‘Circus Rock-n-Roll Drama’? Really?,”Entertainment Weekly, March 27, 2009, https:// ew.com/article/2009/03/27/spider-man-musi/.
22 Julie Taymor, interview by Rebecca Gross, National Endowment for the Arts, 2011, https://www.arts.gov/stories/magazine/2011/4/ what-innovation/julie-taymor.
23 Barber, “How Spider-Man Became a Theatrical Disaster.”
24 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story,”
25 Barber, “How Spider-Man Became a Theatrical Disaster.”
26 Caseen Gaines, “Playwright Glen Berger on Why the Surefire Spider-Man Musical Failed,” The A.V. Club, August 15, 2016. https:// www.avclub.com/playwright-glen-berger-on-why-the-surefire-spider-man-m-1798250603.
27 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story,”
28 Patrick Healy and Kevin Flynn, “A Broadway Superlative for All the Wrong Reasons.” New York Times, March 13, 2011, https://www. nytimes.com/2011/03/14/theater/spider-man-a-superlative-for-all-the-wrong-reasons.html
decision he could have possibly made. Along with her rigidity and lack of knowledge of the Spider-Man franchise, Taymor was infamous for her ability to blow through budgets, as well as for the fact that her artistic genius flourished best under careful supervision. 29 With Adams dead, Garfinkle taking a hands-off approach, and Bono and The Edge juggling their U2 careers with the production of the show, there was effectively no one to keep Taymor from getting carried away. The already grand budget of $25 million would eventually balloon, with the show going $25 million into debt by early 2009. 30
explanation attached to a couple of the more interesting ones: 33
• $4,373,375 to rent the Foxwoods Theatre for two years before performances began. The theatre had to be refitted with new equipment to accommodate the stunts that would be done in the show. 34 The production had to pay the rent to the theater and make up for lost profits to the theater for the two years in which they were remodeling.
“ ...a sad and barren reminder of what could have been. ”
Around this time, Garfinkle left the project entirely, 31 effectively ending the existence of Hello Entertainment. The website for the production company is still live today—a sad and barren reminder of what could have been. With Bono enlisting the help of Micheal Cohl, 32 who took over the role of producer in light of Garfinkle’s exit, the musical would eventually raise enough money to continue production. As production went on, the budget continued to grow, eventually reaching an unprecedented amount of $75 million. Highlights of the final budget breakdown were as follows, with an
• $2,215,047 for flying rigs and harnesses
• $1,157,108 in legal fees. One of the key matters that brought such notoriety to Turn Off the Dark was the frequency of injuries taking place during its long-running previews. A total of six people were injured while working on the show, including Christopher Tirney, the Spider-Man stunt performer, who took the cake for the show’s worst injury incident. In a preview on December 20th, 2010, Tierney fell 21 feet off a piece of scenery when his harness was not connected to the safety cord, leaving him to fall through the stage and into the orchestra pit. 35
29 Healy and Flynn, “A Broadway Superlative”
30 Michael Riedel, “Broadway Bombshell,” New York Post, May 30, 2010, https://nypost.com/2010/05/30/broadway-bombshell/.
31 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story,”
32 Bernstein, “Broadway’s ‘Spider-Man’: The Full Story,”
33 “A Monetary Autopsy of Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark,” November 25, 2013, https://www.vulture.com/2013/11/spider-man-leavesbehind-broadways-biggest-bill.html.
34 Barber, “How Spider-Man Became a Theatrical Disaster.”
35 Jordana Ossad, “Injured ‘Spider-Man’ Actor to Attend Friday Show,” CNN, 2011, http://www.cnn.com/2011/SHOWBIZ/01/07/new. york.spider.man.show/.
• $1.3 million weekly production budget
The production, which was once a confusing, angsty, overly pretentious Broadway show with dreary music and overambitious stunts, was now a confusing, angsty, overly pretentious broadway show with dreary music and overambitious stunts that also cost $75 million to make. The worst part about this sky-high budget was that a large sum of the money, as seen in the production budget, had no clear explanation as to where exactly it was going. It is expensive to run a show, but when it costs over a million dollars weekly , something has gone terribly wrong.
A Culmination of Troubles
Even without discussing the full extent of troubles, it is clear to see that the production began to fall apart right after it started. Its story choices, issues of stage practicality, ill-equipped composers, and grandiose director all paint a clear picture that the show was unlikely to end in anything but failure when faced with the death of Tony Adams.
Perhaps Adams would have been the driving force the production needed to keep Taymor in check. Perhaps, with a story that adhered to the feel of Spider-Man as we know him, Bono and The Edge would have been able to compose the “soaring anthems” that Adams desired for the show. Perhaps, even, the budget could have stayed low, resulting in the show only losing $10 million instead of its whopping $60 million. Perhaps the stunts could have been performed fully and properly—though even the most optimistic of people would have a hard time believing that.
As the saying goes, “coulda, woulda, shoulda.” We are gifted with hindsight in the event of tragic failures like Turn Off the Dark ; it is easy to say after the fact what was done wrong, what could have been prevented, and what should
have simply never been attempted in the first place. Taymor, despite her flaws during this production, is an artist. All artists seek to reach a perfection in their work that is unobtainable at some point in their career. However, it is when we reach beyond our scope that we improve. Taymor, perhaps, knew this and thought that it would be her chance to improve—that the prize was just within her reach. But Taymor, much like her dear Arachne, was blinded by her hubris.
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Meet the Contributors
Zoe Sloan Callan is a mixed-race, Navajo, Irish, Italian writer. She is an English major and TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) minor here at UNM who plans to graduate in May. While she is from New Mexico she is a transfer student and spent her first 2 years of college in Amherst, Massachusetts. She has written a variety of non-fiction essays, short stories, plays, and poetry pieces some of which have been published in her high school's literary magazine, Limina, and in other small competitions or publications. She is currently working on her first full length novel and a memoir project. She loves reading, writing, crocheting and playing Dungeons and Dragons (and other boardgames).
West U'Ren is a first year Criminology student here at the University of New Mexico. They are also considering a possible second major, and hoping to eventually work as a victim advocate, either in New Mexico, or in California. They write poetry, short stories, and music, as well as various nonfiction pieces.
Taya Demianova is a sophomore at the University of New Mexico, where she is pursuing degrees in Political Science, International Studies, Spanish, and French. With aspirations to serve as a foreign service officer or study international law in Washington D.C., Taya is deeply committed to advocacy and public service. Currently, she is involved in efforts to pass a bill in the New Mexico legislature that would allocate funding for free menstrual products in campus bathrooms at all state higher education institutions. In addition to her academic and advocacy work, Taya is passionate about reading contemporary fiction and classic novels. However, her greatest interest lies in traveling, as she loves exploring new countries, cultures, and adventures. Taya is eager at the possibility of broadening her academic experience and plans to study abroad at Oxford University in the Spring of 2026.
Sydney Hopkins earned her Bachelor of Arts in Architecture from the University of New Mexico and is now continuing her education there, pursuing a Master’s in Architecture. She is passionate about exploring the limits of design, creating innovative concepts that inspire and challenge conventional thinking. Currently, Sydney works at a local architectural design firm in Albuquerque, gaining valuable experience as she develops her craft. Her ultimate goal is to establish her own architectural firm specializing in property development while also designing bold, unconventional furniture that blends creativity and functionality.
Meet the Contributors
Sadie Sheets is a second-year Architecture student, as well as a member of the Honors College and a Regents Scholar. She is fascinated by the way societal expectations are formed, and how beliefs and biases can shape one’s perception of reality. She is pursuing an architecture license, and intends to focus on sustainable and equitable building practices.
Savannah Phelps is a senior undergraduate dual majoring in Art History and English with a minor in Religious Studies. She helped to found the Art History Mentorship Initiative at UNM last fall and is currently finishing up her art history honors thesis. She also volunteers as a docent at the Albuquerque Museum. After graduation, Savannah hopes to attend graduate school to study Renaissance and Baroque art and ultimately become an art history professor.
MJ Robertson-Yi is a student and author, pursuing a BA in English and Psychology at the University of New Mexico. Within non-fiction, they write poetry and memoir. With a strong interest in psychology and mental health, MJ aims to share their own experience to widen perceptions of what mental illness can look like and bring light to just how non-linear recovery can be.
Raychel Kool is a creative from Adena, Hopewell, Myaamia, Osage, Shawnee, and Cherokee lands in the hills of rural Kentucky. They currently live on Tiwa lands in Albuquerque, New Mexico. They’re the managing editor for Conceptions Southwest, and they’re a big fan of zines, sun tea, and porch sittin’.
Mason Parrish is a senior year student majoring in English studies at UNM's main campus in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Diagnosed with Asperger's at a young age, he took to writing over the course of his education, eventually being named Manzano High School's 2022 English Student of the Year. A salutatorian of his graduating class and National Merit Scholarship Finalist, Mason enjoys the writing process in all of its forms and cares greatly about the quality of his work. He also enjoys playing video games, eating a wide variety of food, cracking jokes, taking pictures, tinkering with aesthetic design, listening to music, swimming, engaging with his faith, and spending time with his family.
Meet the Contributors
Theresa Anderson is an aspiring writer, sometimes musician, and a full time mother to a spirited toddler. In 2023, she was awarded the University of New Mexico Honors Night Certificate for Outstanding Creative Work for her short story, "Paradoxa". Theresa hopes to one day utilize writing as a way to educate others on a condition she developed during pregnancy, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS).
Elizabeth Kent is a sophomore at the Anderson School of Business, majoring in Business Administration with a concentration in Management Information Systems and minoring in Spanish. She is also a Regents Scholar and part of the honors college. She founded The "Work Smarter, Not Harder" Project, which educates marginalized communities and students on labor rights and has completed research in multiple areas. Elizabeth is also the Competition Director for the UNM Professional Sales Club and a member of the UNM sales team. Born in Santa Fe and raised in Minnesota and Colorado, she combines her academic focus with creative pursuits to address systemic inequalities and foster positive change.
Sachi Barnaby is a senior at UNM. Though she normally writes about technology and feminism, she also enjoys taking photos and listening to music. She hopes the new year (though this won’t be seen until April) has brought everyone opportunities to notice the beautiful, the unexpected, and the mundane all around us. She is grateful that Limina has provided space to share her thoughts over the last four years.
Brook Duffy is a third-year History major at the University of New Mexico, who is inordinately interested by the inane. If asked about a dream job, they'd probably give a different answer every time.
Special Thanks
Our Fellow Student Publications
Conceptions Southwest
The New Mexico Daily Lobo
Scribendi
UNM Student Publications Board
Seyi Adekoya
Jaelyn deMaria
Marcela Johnson
Hilary Lipka
Lisa Chavez
Nora Wendl
Lily Alexander
Amaris Feland Ketcham
Kelsa Mendoza
Daven Quelle
Nominators
Amaris Feland Ketcham
Maria Szasz
Renee Faubion
Lisa Chavez Verity Gray
Makayla Otero
Justin Bendell
Nicholas Schwartz
Shatam Ray
A special thank you to Professor Jonatha Kottler for sponsoring our release party. We appreciate you!