The smed method

THE SMED METHOD J O Ã O PA U L O P I N TO , C LT VA L U E B A S E D S E R V I C E S

Third Edition, 2015 February ©

“The secret of getting ahead is getting started.

The secret of getting started is breaking your

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complex overwhelming tasks into small manageable tasks, and starting on the first one.” by Mark Twain.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY • Day one (19) – 4 hours – training session – the SMED method; • Day two (24) – 2 hours of training (SMED) and two hours to characterize the challenge/problem in order to fill the A3PS form with a visit to the shop floor; • Day three (25) and day four (26) workshop in the shop floor with small meetings in the training room; • Day five (02) 4 hours session to make adjustments and corrections, evaluate the final results and fill the After Action Report.

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WHAT IS ALL ABOUT MACHINE SETUP? • The setup time is one component of the product’s lead time; • Lead time components can be divided in value-added and non-value added components (normally > 95%); • “One of the most noteworthy accomplishments in keeping the price of Ford products low is the gradual shortening of the production cycle.

The longer an article is in the process of manufacture and the more it is moved about, the greater is its ultimate cost.” Henry Ford, 1926.

• Every setup activity is a non-added value activity, so it needs to be reduced or eliminated (whenever possible); • Take a look at this short film: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRy_73ivcms#t=17

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MAIN CAUSES OF DOWNTIME • Changeover (aka setup); • Breakdown; • Maintenance; • Lack of personnel; • Lack of materials and/or components.

These are listed in roughly the order of importance in lost hours, although this order may vary from plant to plant; My focus in this training course is on reducing downtime due to changeover; In addition to reducing changeover downtime, it will help reduce the other causes of downtime as well.

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THE 3UPs’ OF CHANGEOVER • Cleanup: is the removal of all materials from the previous lot. (removing remaining parts or materials, sweeping floors and general tidying up); • Setup: it is a key part of changeover, but only a part… Setup consists of the physical conversion of the machinery to run the next product. In some cases, this is done by adjustment. In other cases, it is replacing product-specific parts of the machinery, such as dies. Or a combination of both.

It also include a number of operational tasks such as preparation of documentation, material movement from warehouse to production, quality inspection; • Startup: sometimes called run-up or ramp-up. It is that period of time before it has settled down into normal operation. Startup is characterized by frequent jams, stoppages for adjustment, defective or marginal product, and anything else that prevents it from reaching normal speed and efficiency.

For the sake of this course, CHANGEOVER and SETUP will be synonymous

DEFINITION OF SETUP TIME

“The time between the last good CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

piece off the current run and the first good piece off the next run.”

Setup Time

Mold Change Colour Change 0

Mold change

Last good part

Inspect/Adjust 1st Piece Time (good or bad)

EQUIPMENT TIME

1st Good Piece Time THE 6 BIG LOSSES Breakdowns

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CHANGEOVER TIME: DEFINITION The time elapsed between when the last good piece of product A comes off and the first good piece of product B starts.

AVAILABLE TIME AVAILABLE OPERATING TIME ACTUAL OPERATING TIME EFFECTIVE OPERATING TIME

Setup/ adjustment Idling/minor stoppages Less Speed Defects in process rework

Start-up losses

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THE SIX “TRADITIONAL” SETUP STEPS Preparation

Ensures that all the tools are working properly and are in the right location.

Extraction

The removal of the tooling, raw material, and support equipment after the production lot is completed.

Mounting

The placement of the new tool, support equipment, and raw material before the next production lot.

Establishing Control Settings

Setting all the process control settings prior to the production run.

First Run Capability

This includes the necessary adjustments required after the first trial pieces are produced.

Setup Improvement

The time after processing during which the tooling, machinery is cleaned, identified, and tested for functionality prior to storage.

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WASTE IN SETUP ACTIVITIES        

Defects Overproduction Waiting Non-utilized people Transportation Inventory Motion excess Extra processing 10 de 88

TRADITIONAL ASSUMPTIONS • Long runs (lots) are necessary to amortize the cost of setups; • Managing production using economic order quantities (EOQ)

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balances setup costs and inventory carrying costs;

• The EOQ is a model from the last century! 1950’s…

• It does not improve processes or reduces costs!

DO THESE ASSUMPTIONS MAKE SENSE IF SETUP TIME CAN BE SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED?

Setup Cost + Inventory Carrying Cost

Inventory Carrying Cost

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Variable Cost

Setup Cost

Fixed Cost EOQ

Lot/Batch Size

WHAT IS “WORLD-CLASS” IN QUICK CHANGEOVERS? SMED: SINGLE MINUTE EXCHANGE OF DIE

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Concept that says all setups should and can take less than 10 minutes OTED: ONE TOUCH EXCHANGE OF DIE Concept that says all setups should and can take less than 100 seconds!

TECHNIQUES TO QUICK CHANGEOVER 1. Separate internal from external setup operations; 2. Convert internal to external setup; 3. Standardize function, not shape;

4. Use functional clamps or eliminate fasteners altogether; CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES Š 2015

5. Use intermediate jigs;

6. Adopt parallel operations; 7. Eliminate adjustments; 8. Mechanization.

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Internal setup

Defined as the elements or work that must be carried out while the machine or equipment is shut down

External setup

Defined as setup elements which can take place while the machine is in operation or after the operation is completed

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THE INTERNAL SETUP

Operations that can only be executed when the machine is stopped Eg.: Assembly/disassembly of die and/or adjustments.

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THE EXTERNAL SETUP

Operations can be executed when the machine is working Eg.: transport of tools and dies.

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       

Reduce inventory Reduce batch sizes Reduce changeover time Reduce impact on equipment utilization Improve quality after changeover Improve repeatability Improve throughput Improve flexibility Observe and record

Separate internal and external activities.

Convert internal activities to external activities

Streamline all activities

Document internal and external procedures

What is SMED? • SINGLE MINUTE EXCHANGE OF DIES

• Developed by Shigeo Shingo; • “A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System” • Toyota, using his techniques, reduced setup time from CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

days to three minutes

• A system designed to radically reduce the amount of time to perform a changeover or setup.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jW-pl4HBxWM

1909-1990

REDUCE SETUP TIMES INITIAL SETUP TIME

Step 1

Separate setup into preparation (external) and actual setup (internal), doing as much as possible while the machine/process is operating (you can save 30 minutes)

Move material closer and improve material handling (you save 20 minutes)

Step 2

Standardize and improve tooling (save 15 minutes)

Step 3 CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

90 min —

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Use one-touch system to eliminate adjustments (save 10 minutes) Training operators and standardizing work procedures (save another 2 minutes) Repeat cycle until sub-minute setup is achieved

60 min —

45 min —

25 min — 15 min — 13 min — —

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FOCUS ON THE PROCESS, NOT THE TECHNOLOGY

1. SMED should be inexpensive; 2. Well planned;

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3. Well practiced/executed;

4. Without Standard Work, there is no continuous improvement.

SEVEN STEPS TO IMPLEMENTING SMED

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1. Observe the current methodology •

Watch a full changeover at least once;

•

Videotape is best.

2. Separate the INTERNAL and EXTERNAL activities. (internal activities are those that can only be performed when the process is stopped). For example, go and get the required tools for the job BEFORE the machine stops.

3. Convert (where possible) Internal activities into External ones (pre-heating of tools is a good example of this); 4. Streamline the remaining Internal activities, by simplifying them.

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Focus on fixings - Shigeo Shingo rightly observed that it's only the last turn of a bolt that tightens it, the rest is just movement.

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Only the final turn on a bolt adds value; The interrupted screw (or interrupted thread) provides one means of clamping and unclamping something quickly. Artillery breeches have been sealed in this manner since the nineteenth century.

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EXAMPLES OF QUICK FASTENERS Usually a bolt is the most popular fastening tool. But because a bolt fastens at the final turning of the nut can loosen at the first turn, a convenient fastening tool that would allow only a single turning of the nut should be devised.

5. Streamline the External activities, so that they are of a similar scale to the Internal ones;

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6. Document the new procedure and the actions that are yet to be completed;

7. Do it all again: For each iteration of the above process, a 45% improvement in setup times should be expected, so it may take several iterations to cross the ten-minute line.

SEPARATE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ACTIVITIES All Setup

E

I

E

Externals

I

Run

Activities

E

I

E

Internals

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Post-setup externals

I

Run

Run Externals

INTERNAL ELEMENTS:

Operations that must be performed while the machine/process is stopped EXTERNAL ELEMENTS:

Operations that can be performed while the machine/process is running

CONVERT INTERNALS TO EXTERNALS ACTIVITIES Externals

Internals

Run

Externals

Internals

Run

Externals

Internals

Run

Internals

Run

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Eliminate adjustment Externals Externals

Intern

Run

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HOW TO CONVERT EXTERNALS TO INTERNALS ?

      

Eliminate search-and-find work; Arrange tools & materials beforehand; Complete preparation work before starting changeover; Standardize settings; Make visual marks vs. trial and error adjustments; Eliminate trial runs; Postpone “put away” work…

STREAMLINE ALL ACTIVITIES Last good piece of product A Machine running

First good piece of product B Machine running

Internal and external elements

BEFORE

Total setup Last good piece of product A

First good piece of product B

External elements

External elements

Internal elements

Machine running

Machine running

AFTER CHANGE OVER

Total setup

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Last good piece of product A Streamlined External elements

Machine running

First good piece of product B

STREAM LINE

Streamlined External elements Streamlined internal elements

Machine running

Total setup

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STREAMLINE INTERNAL PROCESS  Create parallel steps – completed at the same time  Reduce complexity and eliminate waste 

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



Use functional fixtures and jigs  One motion fasteners  Levered or one-turn fasteners  Interlocking wedge or slot Eliminate adjustments  Use angle and flat  Use preset pins, guides, notches etc.

Eliminate need to leave the machine  Use POUS and Mizu…

STREAMLINE EXTERNAL PROCESS  Adopt functional standards  Visual factory locations for tools  Color coding  Standard set ups  Checklists

DOCUMENT INTERNAL & EXTERNAL PROCEDURES

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CREATE NEW PROCESS •Document who will do what and when •Practice quick changeover (QCO) before doing it

TEST NEW PROCESS Run pilot of new process: • document steps of new process •Make adjustments, as needed • time steps of new process •Re-test, if necessary • document improvement opportunities • videotape and look for additional opportunities

DOCUMENT NEW PROCESSES • • • •

Create new work sheets that include all the steps of the new process Get all needed approvals Train all workers Post the standardized work sheets (STW)

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SOME IDEAS

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SOME IDEAS

SOME IDEAS For example: • A slide clamp reduced the time required to load and unload parts to fixture.

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• 2 hold-down clamps eliminated the need to tape parts during a glue-up operation.

MANUFACTURING SMED EXAMPLES

SOME IDEAS

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Modified bolts, tighten in few turns

Reduce options, improve standards (less time, less errors, less tools!)

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SOME IDEAS

SOME IDEAS CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES Š 2015

BEFORE

If the mountain will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet must go to the mountain.

AFTER

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SOME IDEAS

MAGNETIC PLATE

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SOME IDEAS

CONNECTIONS

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SOME IDEAS

RAPID CENTRING

SOME IDEAS

Before Mold

Stopper

After TOGGLE LOCK DOWN CLAMP Eliminate bolts

QUICK RELEASE CAM LOCK CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

Cam lock

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SOME IDEAS

PARALLEL OPERATIONS

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Eg.: two operators performing operations in the front and rear of the machine

LOOK FOR… 1. Look for opportunities to eliminate waste in your changeovers, then go after them – use the A3 template provided

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2. Shortages, mistakes, inadequate placement of needed equipment. Can be avoided by using check tables, especially visual ones, and setup on an intermediary jig; 3. Inadequate or incomplete repairs to equipment; 4. Optimization for least work as opposed to least delay;

5. Unheated molds which require several wasted 'tests' before they will be at the temperature to work; 6. Equipment using slow, precise adjustments for the large coarse part of adjustment;

7. Lack of visual lines or benchmarks for part placement on the equipment;

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8. Forcing a changeover between different raw materials when a continuous feed, or near equivalent, is possible; 9. Lack of functional standardization, that is standardization of only the parts necessary for setup, eg. all bolts use same size spanner, die grip points are in the same place on all dies;

10. Much operator movement around the equipment during setup; 11. More attachment points than actually required for the forces to be constrained; 12. Attachment points that take more than one turn to fasten;

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13. Any adjustments after initial setup;

14. Any use of experts during setup; 15. Any adjustments of assisting tools such as guides or switches.

THE VISUAL WORKPLACE

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Visual utensil holder encourages housekeeping

A “3-minute service” clock reminds employees of the goal

THE VISUAL WORKPLACE Visual signals at each room notify support personnel

Patient/machine waiting

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Doctor/maintenance in room

Room Clear Machine working properly Andon

USING COLOUR CODES

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Different colours for different family parts…

Different colors marked on the dies as well as on their storage locations.

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part mounting fixtures that are all standardized and colour coded for a family of parts to be machined The fixtures are so designed that all the same tools are used and their zero positions are also same for the entire family of parts. And, these fixtures are held by a hydraulic chuck.

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This picture shows the chuck, the fixture and a part in it.

Todas as ferramentas de corte e as posições finais de corte também estão padronizadas

THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATION

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TELL ME WHAT DO YOU WANT?

and An anexample organized tool drawer of unorganized tool drawer

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BEFORE AFTER

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You may also talk about “shadow boards” where the outlines or the shapes of the tools are painted on the board, which makes sure that after a tools is used it is replaced in the same location.

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This assembly bench has colour coordinated bins, and power tools.

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An example of gages placed in an organized manner.

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ANALYSE THE ENVIRONMENT • Improve access to tools and fixtures; • Consider the use of 5S methodology to reduce time to identify, find and storage materials, components, tools and fixtures; • Consider the establishment of a Setup Team (involving operators from quality, maintenance and production); • Consider involving process engineering dept to change machines…

• Create some “pressure” on the setup team using a countdown timer (define a target setup time and reword improvements as long quality and safety are not compromised); • There many free apps related with countdown timers… http://www.online-stopwatch.com/countdown-timer/

IDEAS FOR IMPROVEMENT

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Setup sheet Prints Special instructions

Gauges Set blocks Stop gauges

Special tools

SETUP TOOL CARTS 60 de 88

IDEAS FOR IMPROVEMENT SETUP DIE CARTS Rollers

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T urntable

T ools

Documentation

IDEAS FOR IMPROVEMENT

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Slot address

ORGANIZE AND STORE IN PROXIMITY

Cover Slot address labels

Model

Part

Line #

Slide value

Block gauge #

THE SETUP OF YOUR WORKING PLACE

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IMPROVEMENTS IN SETUP TIME REDUCTION

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WHEN SHOULD WE AUTOMATE?  Criterion 1: The operation has already been dramatically simplified;

 Criterion 2: CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

Begin with semi automation to achieve 80% benefit at 20% cost;

 Criterion 3: The automation is cost-effective.

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COST OF CHANGEOVER Consider this example: • A project proposes to reduce changeover time by 10 minutes/day by purchasing an additional set of change parts at a cost of €50k.

• This will allow externalization of parts cleaning; • Management is likely to look at this, think “It’s only 10 minutes!?,” and disallow the expenditure; CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES © 2015

• Ten minutes does not seem very significant…

• But, If the cost of changeover downtime has been established as €12k/hour, this means that the additional set of parts will produce a savings of €2k/day (or €500k/year, based on 250 days/year); • Management will likely be thrilled at the one-month payback.

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• 10 min/day may not seam an impressive figure, but you express it in annual terms and it becomes quite impressive!

• It is more than on shift week of lost production per year (10 min × 250 days/60 minutes/hour = 41.6 hours).

• Is gaining an additional week of production capacity worth €50k?

• This is an easier decision for management to make than deciding whether 10 minutes is worth €50k.

• Changeover costs take two forms: Tangible and Intangible.

• Examples of tangible costs: The cost of labour involved in changeover, materials, energy, etc…

• Intangible costs are difficult or impossible to calculate. That does not mean they are less important than tangible costs. In some cases they may be even more important in terms of amount and impact on the business.

TANGIBLE COSTS LOST PRODUCTION (this is the most obvious cost, anyone can see it) • Assume a per-unit contribution (margin) of €1 at the end of the line. If the line speed is 200 parts/min, the lost contribution will be €200/min or €12k/hour; • This is a bit simplistic and assumes that a plant is running at full capacity…

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• A plant that is running at significantly less than full capacity may not even have enough work to fill the normal work day. In this case, lost production time from changeover has essentially no production direct cost...

• Even so, it is still not totally free. If lines are being underutilized, freeing up the teammates with reduced changeover will allow them to perform other tasks such as cleaning, maintenance, training, and particularly developing and implementing improvements.

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LOST CAPACITY • It is the other side of the coin. If a plant is running at 100% capacity, when the marketplace demands more product, the only way to supply it is by purchasing additional production equipment, hiring additional people, and possibly constructing additional manufacturing space...

Assume a plant that is operating 24/7/365 and is its capacity is completely taken. Line speed is 200 PPM with 30% downtime for setup.

• Total annual production is 200 × 60 × 24 × 365 × .70 = 73,584,000 products/year • If changeover downtime can be cut in half (usually a reasonable goal); • The total output increases to (60 × 24 × 365 × .85) 89,352,000 PPY; • This is an increased output of 15,768,000 PPY… 70 de 88

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IMPACT ON INVENTORIES • One popular way to reduce total changeover cost is to reduce the number of setups by increasing lot size. But this is not good…

• Inventory is very expensive…

• One way to think of it is as an interest charge, typically around 30%, based on the average value of the inventory.

• A plant holding €5M worth of inventory will pay about €1,5M/year in carrying or holding costs; • Reducing average inventory levels will reduce those annual inventory carrying costs.

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Consider this: • One company needs to produce 200k/week units of one product; • It can produce a single large lot. If shipped uniformly over 5 days, it will result in an average inventory level of 100k units; • If the value of each unit is €2, the total annual inventory carrying cost will be €60k.

• The second option is to produce five production lots of 40k units each; • The total production is the same. All units are shipped uniformly over 5 days.

• Average inventory is 20k units and annual inventory cost is €12k.

• This represents an annual savings of €48k/year. Multiple products will multiply the savings…

• Savings from reduced inventory is offset by the increased costs of more frequent changeover.

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LABOUR COSTS • After measuring the total time spent by direct and indirect labour, and establishing their rates, it is easy to determine the labour cost of changeover time.

Example: • Assume that 2 mechanics at €30/hour plus 2 operators at €20/hour spend 2 hours on the floor working on the changeover.

• They are supported by a clerk who spends 30 min on documentation at €20/hour, 1 washroom person who spends 1 hour at €20/hour, a warehouse worker who spends 1 hour at €20/hour, and a quality inspector who spends 15 minutes at €20/hour approving the line for production.

• Total labour cost of the changeover is as follows: €120 + €80 + €10 + €20 + €20 + €5 = €255

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PRODUCT AND MATERIAL LOSSES • Product and material is lost at all stages of changeover.

• At the end of the run, product will remain on the line that may need to be discarded as part of cleanup; • During setup, it is frequently necessary to use product and materials for testing or setting. In most cases this is discarded; • Once the process is restarted, there is the setup period where there will be higher-than-normal rejects; • The cost of materials used in changeover can be significant.

• One of the focuses of lean changeover must be to reduce these losses.

INTANGIBLE COSTS

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• Intangible costs can be hard to see and even more difficult to measure; • That does not mean that they are not significant. They are, and must be recognized and addressed.

Examples of intangible costs: • Response to the customer; • Capacity utilization; • Quality; • Stress on People, Machines, and Systems; • Reduced Innovation.

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THE STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

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THE STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE • Imagine an orchestra with no conductor and no musical score… it would be pure cacophony…

• The SOP is the score by which all participants know what they are to do, how, and when. The supervisor is the conductor who keeps them on task; • A well-trained changeover team may not need much instruction and supervision. They always need some. It is only by this means that proper and efficient changeovers can be performed; • SOP’s can be presented in a variety of formats: textual, pictorial, schematic, flow charts, or a combination.

• The goal of any SOP is to properly guide operators through the changeover; • SOPs are sometimes confused with checklists, but they are two different things…

THE SOP TEMPLATE 1. PURPOSE 2. GENERAL INFORMATION 2.1 Scope 2.2 Safety 2.3 Responsibility

3. MATERIALS 4. TOOLS 5. DEFINITIONS 6. PROCEDURE

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6.1 6.1.1 6.1.1.1

7. DOCUMENTATION 8. ATTACHMENTS 8.1 Machine settings 8.2 Machine layout drawings

9. REFERENCES 10. CHECKLIST

STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE FOR LEAN CHANGEOVER Title Written by: Approved by:

SOP No Revi. No Date

Structure of this SOP 1. PURPOSE 2. GENERAL INFORMATION 3. MATERIALS 4. TOOLS 5. DEFINITIONS 6. PROCEDURE 7. DOCUMENTATION

CHALLENGE: Let’s do the SOP for our machine, this template is just a suggestion, it can be improved…

8. ATTACHMENTS 9. REFERENCES 10. CHECKLIST João Paulo Pinto ©, 2015

THE SMED FORMS

S E T U P - M O T I O N D I A G R A M (aka the "SPAGHETTI DIAGRAM")

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EQUIPMENT

DEPARTMENT

TOTAL DISTANCE TRAVELLED

Record each step using a camera…

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OBSERVATION FORM -ANALYSIS OF SETUP TASKS Equip No

Process Description of the Setup Task (including necessary tools)



Classification of Tasks   D

Date s

Duration Internal External

Notes and Analysis

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Sum

Suggestion: determine the key racios CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES 2015 ©

A3 REPORT Company Name Here

1. PROBLEM/OPPORTUNITY DEFINITION

Theme Team members

Date

1

10/2/2015

2 3

5

4

6

4. PLANNING AND ACTIONS

2. OBJECTIVE - TARGET CONDICTION 5. RESULTS

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3. CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS

6. CHECK AND FOLLOW-UP

7. REWARD AND SHARE THE RESULTS

João Paulo Pinto ©, 2015

A3. 3W PLANNING SHEET 3W Theme

Sponsor

Team Leader

Date

10/02/2015

Observations PLANNING HORIZON (up to 10 hours /da ys /weeks or months )

No

What

When

Who

Objective or Target

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Team members:

Notes:

Your Company Name here

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Setup skills

SETUP SKILLS MATRIZ

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Operator Name

Key: CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES 2015 ©

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS Team members

Project identification

Copies to:

Product, service or process

Description

Date

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NPR

Detection

Contra-m edidas a im plem entar

Severity

Cause

Occurence

Effect

NPR

Failure m ode

Detection

Description

Severity

Op

Occurence

Issued by:

1

0

0

2

0

0

3

0

0

4

0

0

5

0

0

6

0

0

7

0

0

8

0

0

9

0

0

10

0

0

11

0

0

12

0

0

13

0

0

14

0

0

15

0

0

16

0

0

Use a scale from 1 to 10

Use a scale from 1 to 10

Your Company Name here

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A3. A F T E R A C T I O N Theme

Code

Leader

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REPORT Date

10/02/2015

Observations PROJECT'S SUMMARY

ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL TASKS

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND LESSONS LEARNT

RECOMENDATIONS

Company Name here

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SOME KEY REFERENCES… Development Team PP, 1996. Quick changeover for operators: the SMED System. Productivity Press.

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HENRY JH, 2013. Achieving lean changeover - putting SMED to work. CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group).

PINTO JP, 2009. Pensamento Lean – a filosofia das organizações vencedoras. Edições Lídel.

SHINGO S, 1985. A revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System. Productivity Press.

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João Paulo Pinto, Eng CLT VALUEBASED SERVICES Lda www.cltservices.net mgt@cltservices.net

Av da República, 2491 – 4º piso, sala 41 VN de Gaia – PORTUGAL Telf. (+351) 936.000.079 Fax. (+351) 220.162.407