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EconomicGrowthandEmploymentin Vietnam Vietnamhasenjoyedsignificanteconomicsuccesssincetheimplementationofits doimoi reforms,includingrapidgrowthinGDP,exportsandforeignanddomesticinvestment,andasheddingofpoorlyperformingstate-ownedenterprises. Despitethis,however,theeconomicsituationformanyordinarypeoplein Vietnamisfragile,withincomeonlyjustabovethepovertyline,andhighunemployment,especiallyamongtheyoung.Inaddition,inflationishigh,andthe state-ownedsectorisstilllarge,muchofitstillperformingbadly.Thisbook providesacomprehensiveoverviewofthecurrenteconomicsituationinVietnam. Itoutlinesthestateoftheeconomy,payingspecialattentiontoemployment; discussesgovernmentpoliciesincludingontradeandintegrationwiththeglobal economy;andconcludesbyassessingthekeychallengesfacingVietnam’seconomygoingforward.
DavidLim isProfessorEmeritusofEconomicsatGriffithUniversityand PresidentoftheTechnologicalandHigherEducationInstituteoftheVocational TrainingCouncilofHongKong.
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EconomicGrowthand EmploymentinVietnam DavidLim Firstpublished2014 byRoutledge
2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,Oxon,OX144RN
andbyRoutledge
711ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10017
RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness
©2014DavidLim
TherightofDavidLimtobeidentifiedasauthorofthisworkhasbeen assertedbyhiminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentAct 1988.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedor utilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,now knownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orinany informationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfrom thepublishers.
Trademarknotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksor registeredtrademarks,andareusedonlyforidentificationandexplanation withoutintenttoinfringe.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Lim,David,author. EconomicgrowthandemploymentinVietnam/DavidLim. pagescm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-415-51944-1(hardback)—ISBN978-1-315-81901-3(ebook) 1.Jobcreation—Vietnam.2.Laborsupply—Effectofeducationon— Vietnam.3.Economicdevelopment—Vietnam.4.Vietnam—Economic conditions.I.Title. HD5822.5.A6L562014 331.1209597—dc23 2013038177
ISBN:978-0-415-51944-1(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-315-81901-3(ebk)
TypesetinTimesNewRoman byFiSHBooksLtd,Enfield
ToDee
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Illustrations Figures
4.1Non-linearrelationshipbetweeneconomicgrowthandinflation45
10.1ThenationaleducationsystemofVietnam 128
10.2Alog-frameforthehighereducationsector 139
Tables
1.1AnnualgrowthratesofrealGDPandrealGDPpercapitaofselected Asianeconomies,1990–2010 6
1.2Annualgrowthratesofrealvalueaddedinagriculture,industryand services,1990–2010 8
1.3Grossdomesticsavingratio,grossdomesticinvestmentratioand inflationrateforselectedAsianeconomies,1990–2010 9
1.4Annualexportandimportgrowthrates,1990–2010 10
1.5Foreigndirectinvestment:levelandasshareofGDP,1990–201011
1.6Centralgovernmentexpenditureandrevenue,andcentralgovernment’s fiscalbalanceratioforselectedAsianeconomies,1990–201013
2.1HDI:World,EastAsiaandthePacific,medianandVietnamfor selectedyears 15
2.2HDI:Vietnam’sHDIranksandrelativepositions,1990–201116
2.3MillenniumDevelopmentGoalsandtargetsfor2015 18
2.4Countrieson-trackandoff-trackforMDGs 20
2.5IndicatorsofMDGs 21
2.6AbsoluteandrelativeoverallprogressontheMDGs:top20achievers22
2.7Absoluteandrelativeprogress,andrankinginindicatorsforselected MDGs,1990–2008 23
2.8Ginicoefficientsofdistributionofpercapitaincome 24
2.9Incomedistributions,2000–11 25
2.10HDIadjustedforinequalityinlifeexpectancy,educationandincome26
2.11HDI,lifeexpectancy,educationandincomeadjustedforinequality, 2011 26
3.1Employment-outputelasticity,Vietnam,1997–2008 32
xviii Illustrations
4.1GDPgrowth,inflationandbudgetdeficit,2001–12,Vietnam41
4.2Targetsforkeymacroeconomicvariables(asofDecember2011)42
4.3IMFpolicystatementsoninflationin19developingcountries: examplesfromtheArticleIVconsultationprocess 43
4.4Cross-countrythresholdstudies
4.5Country-levelthresholdstudies
5.1MilestonesinVietnam’stradedevelopmentandexternalrelations55
5.2Averagetariffsandeffectiveratesofprotectionbyinput-output industry,1998
5.3Sourcesofemploymentgrowthinmanufacturing,Vietnam,1995–9 and2000–8 58
5.4EffectiveratesofprotectioninmanufacturinginselectedEastAsian countries,1970–2004 60
5.5Vietnam:Effectiveratesofprotectionandkeyindicatorsofthe manufacturingsector 62
5.6Growthoftotalexportsandkeymanufacturedexports, 2002–May2008
6.1Countrycomparisonsofvalue-addedperworkerinmanufacturing andagriculture
6.2Decompositionofemploymentgrowthbytypeoffirm 70
6.3ComparativeFDIflowsinVietnamandotherdevelopingcountries71
6.4IndicatorsofimportanceofFDIinVietnam 73
6.5ExportsbycountryandVietnam’sexportsbycommodity 75
6.6ForecastedimpactonrealGDPgrowthandjobloss,Vietnam,2009 and2010 76
6.7Fiscalstimulusmeasures,2009
6.8BudgetasproportionofGDP,2009
6.9DirectionofdevelopingAsia’stradeinpartsandcomponents, 1994–2006 82
7.1Numberandpercentofenterprisesatthesub-sectorlevel,200986
7.2ShareofSOEsinrevenueandoutputbysector
7.3Financialperformancesbyenterprisetype,2007–9
7.4Comparisonofefficiency,2000and2008 89
7.5Capital/labourratiosofenterprisesbyownership,2005
7.6Capitalintensitybyenterprisetype,2000and2008
8.1Numberofenterprises,2000–8
8.2Numberandgrowthrateofenterprisesbylegalstatus,2004–7101
8.3Employmentbylegalstatus,2000–8 102
8.4Percentageshareofemploymentbylegalstatus 103
8.5Selectedindicatorsofenterprisedevelopmentbylegalstatus,2000 and2007 104
8.6Employmentbyinstitutionalsectorandarea,2007and2009106
8.7Projectionsofemploymentbyinstitutionalsector,2015 107
9.1ConstraintsondoingbusinessinVietnamandEastAsia 116
9.2Firmsreportingdifficultyinhiringlocalstaff,Vietnam 116
9.3Firmsreportingdifficultyinhiringlocalstaff,Vietnamandselected ASEANeconomies
9.4Jobvacanciesbyoccupationandeconomicsectorinasampleof businessestablishments,2005
9.5Distributionofworkforcebyskilllevel,1998–2011
9.6GDPandlabourforcebyeconomicsector,1996–2010
9.7ProportionofhighlyskilledlabourandR&Dexpenditurefor manufacturingindustry,2000–4
10.1Numberofhighereducationinstitutionsbytypeandownership, 1999–2009
10.2Grossenrolmentratiofortertiaryeducation
10.3Percentageoftertiaryeducationenrolmentbysubject,2005132
10.4Graduatesbybroadfieldsofstudy,2005and2010
10.5Proportionofacademicstaffwithhigherqualifications
10.6Tertiaryeducationstudent-staffratio,2000–10
10.7CompetitivenessIndex,VietnamandselectAsiancountries,2012–13136
10.8Governancestructureofhighereducationinstitutions
11.1QualificationslevelsinTVETsystem
11.2NumberofTVETstudentsbyownership,2001–11
12.1GDPgrowth,inflationandsocialindicatorsduringtransition, 1989–95
Preface Sincethe doimoi economicreformsinitiatedin1986tocreatea‘socialistorientedmarketeconomy’,Vietnamhasachievedspectacularresultsonthe economicfront,withrapidgrowthinitsrealGDP,exports,foreigndirectinvestment,domesticprivateinvestment,andasignificantsheddingofpoorly performingstate-ownedenterprises.Ithasalsodoneverywellonthehuman developmentfront,withmostofthetargetssetfortheUnitedNations’ MillenniumDevelopmentGoalsmet,especiallyonreducingtheincidenceof poverty.Itearnedmuchpraisefrominternationaldevelopmentagenciesandindependentobserversalike,andbecametheenvyofmanydevelopingeconomies.
Muchofthissuccesshasbeenduetothecentrepieceoftheeconomicreforms, thepursuitofanexport-orientedindustrializationstrategythatseeksalsoto attractforeigndirectinvestment,integrationintotheglobaleconomy,andaccessiontotheWorldTradeOrganization.
However,thereisanegativesidetothisdevelopmentsuccess.Therehasbeen difficultyinkeepinginflationundercontrolandthestate-ownedsectorisstill large,withasignificantproportioncontinuingtoperformbadly.Thecreationof workthatisproductiveanddeliversafairincome,importantforwhatthe InternationalLabourOrganizationcalls‘decentemployment’,hasalsobeenless satisfactory.Youthunemploymentishighandis,asinotherdeveloping economies,probablyunderstated.Theagriculturalsectorprovidesworkthatis oftensharedandhaslowproductivity.Thecapacityofthemanufacturingsector toabsorblabourislowandbelowthatofotherASEANeconomies.Theservice sectorhasexpandedbutitslowproductivityreflectsthefactthatitisonlythe sectoroflastresortwhenallelsehasfailed.
Thepoor‘decentemployment’recordmaymeanthatthemuch-vaunted achievementinreducingtheincidenceofpovertymaybelessthanitseems.A significantpercentageofthelabourforceremainsvulnerable,withincomesthat aresoclosetothepovertylinethatonlyasmallriseinexpenditureorfallin incomewillpushthembelowit.Amidstthisisironicallyagreatshortageof skilledworkers,whichholdsbacktherateofindustrialgrowth,ahighrateof whichisneededtoprovidejobsfortheexpandinglabourforce.
Thisbookexaminestheimpactofthe doimoi andotherpoliciesontheeconomybutwithparticularemphasisonthecreation‘decentemployment’,asthisis
Preface xxi
stillthebestwaytoeliminatepovertyandraisethelivingstandardofthepopulation.Thecrucialimportanceofemploymenttotheeconomicandsocial developmentprocesshasbeenrecognizedintheWorldBank’s World DevelopmentReport2013,whichhaschosenthecreationofjobsasitscentral theme.InthecaseofVietnam,asitspopulationiscloseto90million,whichis oneofthelargestinAsia,anditsworkingagepopulationnearly70million,failuretoprovideworkwillaffectthelivesofmany,whichcouldaffecttherestof theregion.
PartIexaminestheeconomicandhumanresourcedevelopmentperformances ofVietnam,payingparticularattentiontoemploymentcreation.PartIIexamines howthemacroeconomicmanagementframework,policiesonindustry,tradeand foreigndirectinvestment,globalizationandbusinessregulationsaffectthe creationofjobs.PartIIIexaminesthecapacityofthehighereducationandtechnical-vocationaleducationandtrainingsectorstodealwiththeshortageofskilled workers,andthushelpVietnamtoavoidthemiddle-incometrap.PartIVprovides someconcludingremarks.
SomeofthematerialforthisbookcamefromtwostudiesIdidforthe InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)whileIwaswithGriffithUniversity. ThesecondstudywasproducedasoneofthebackgroundpapersforthepreparationofVietnam’s Five-yearSocio-EconomicDevelopmentPlan2011–2015.Iam gratefultoYanIslamoftheILO(Geneva)forgettingmeinvolvedinthestudies andalsoforhisguidanceandusefulcomments.Inthisrespect,Iwouldalsolike tothankPhuHunyhoftheILOinBangkokforhiscommentsonthefirststudy. AndtheofficesoftheILO,UNDPandInstituteofResearchandDevelopmentin HanoiweregenerouswiththeirtimeandhelpwhileIwasdoingfieldworkthere.
IamalsogratefultomywifeDeeandSamZhi,myformerPhDstudentin GriffithUniversity,forprovidingvaluableresearchassistance.Deealsoprovided muchneededsupportduringthefinalstagesofwritingthisbook,whichwas carriedoutwhenIwasbusyhelpingtheVocationalTrainingCouncilofHong KongtosetupitsTechnologicalandHigherEducationInstitute,whichoffers vocationally-orientednichedegreeprogrammes,andevenbusierastheInstitute’s foundingPresident/ViceChancellor.Andlastbutnotleast,Iwouldliketothank MiyukiNg,myexecutiveassistant,forproducing,amonghermanyotherduties, thetypescriptwithefficiencyandgoodcheer.
DavidLim
TechnologicalandHigherEducationInstitute HongKong
ProfessorEmeritus GriffithUniversity Australia 20May2013
Abbreviations ADBAsianDevelopmentBank
ASEANAssociationofSouthEastAsianNations
CEECentralandEasternEurope
CIECentreforInternationalEconomics
CIEMCentralInstituteofEconomicManagement
CPRGSComprehensivePovertyReductionandGrowthStrategy
DBRDoingBusinessReport
FDIForeigndirectinvestment
FIEForeign-investedenterprise
GCGeneralCorporation
GDPGrossdomesticproduct
GDVTGeneralDepartmentofVocationalTraining
GSOGeneralStatisticsOffice
ICAInvestmentClimateAssessment
ICSInvestmentClimateSurvey
ILOInternationalLabourOrganization
IMFInternationalMonetaryFund
ILSSAInstituteforLabourStudiesandSocialAffairs
JETROJapanExportTradeOrganization
MDGMillenniumDevelopmentGoal
MOETMinistryofEducationandTraining
MOLISAMinistryofLabour,InvalidsandSocialAffairs
MPIMinistryofPlanningandInvestment
NISNewlyIndependentStates
PCIProvincialCompetitivenessIndex
SBVStateBankofVietnam
SCICStateCapitalInvestmentCorporation
SEDPSocio-EconomicDevelopmentPlan
SEGStateEconomicGroup
SMESmallandmedium-sizedenterprise
SOCBState-ownedcommercialbank
SOEState-ownedenterprise
STARSupportforTradeAcceleration
Abbreviations xxiii
TFPTotalfactorproductivity
TVETTechnical-vocationaleducationandtraining
UNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceforTradeandDevelopment
UNDPUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNESCOUnitedNationsEducation,ChildrenandScienceOrganization
UNICEFUnitedNationsChildren’sFund
USAIDUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment
VASSVietnamAcademyofSocialSciences
WTOWorldTradeOrganization
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PartI Economicandnon-economic performances This page intentionally left blank
1Economicperformances Pre-1986period DuringtheFrenchcolonialperiod,Vietnamoperatedasaclassiccolonialexport economy,producing,onthebasisofcomparativeadvantage,primarycommodities(e.g.coal,rubber,tobacco,indigo,teaandcoffee)forexporttoFranceand otherpartsoftheindustrializedWest,inreturnforessentialfoodsandmanufacturedgoods.However,thedevelopmentpathsdecidedforthenorthernand southernpartsofthecountryweredifferent.Industrialdevelopmentwastobe concentratedinthenaturalresource-richNorth,withrailroads,roads,power stationsandhydraulicworksconstructed,ashipbuildingindustrycentredin Hanoistarted,andsomeextractiveindustries(e.g.coal,ironandnon-ferrous metals)developed.Inaddition,whileirrigatedriceremainedtheprincipalsubsistencecrop,plantationagriculture(e.g.rubber,coffee,tea,cottonandtobacco) wasintroduced.TheSouth,whichwasbettersuitedforagriculture,wasdevelopedassuch,withricethemaincrop,whileindustryconsistedmostlyof food-processingplants,andfactoriesproducingconsumergoods.Thedevelopmentofexportsofmainlycoal,riceandrubber,andimportsofFrench manufacturedgoodsstimulatedinternalcommerce,resultinginricefromthe SouthbeingexchangedforcoalandmanufacturedgoodsfromtheNorth.
Therewerenoeconomicreasonstointerferewiththisclassicalcommodity exporteconomy.Thefewcustomsdutiesandexcisetaxesimposedwereprimarilyforcollectingrevenueforprovidingpublicgoods(e.g.street-lightingand education),andforcontrollingtheconsumptionofproductsconsideredharmful (e.g.alcoholandopium).Inessence,itwasafreetraderegimewhichservedthe French,whoneededrawmaterialsandamarketforFrenchmanufacturedgoods, well.
SuchacolonialexporteconomywasfoundalsoinmanyBritishcolonies(e.g. Malaya,CeylonandGhana),whereinternationaltradenotonlyactedasa‘vent forsurplus’bylinkingotherwiseidlenaturalresourcestostrongexternaldemand (Myint,1958)butalsoledtostaticefficiencythroughtheoptimumallocationof existingcapitalandlabour,anddynamicefficiencythroughtheinflowoftechnologyandforeigncapitalandlabour.However,therewasanegativesidetosuch apatternofdevelopment.Thedependenceonprimarycommoditiesandtheir
exportinanunprocessedformnotonlymeantthatthecountry’sprosperity dependedimportantlyonforcesoutsideitscontrolbutalsothedevelopmentofa dualeconomicstructurewheretheexportsectorandtherestoftheeconomyhad verylittletodowitheachother.Inaddition,evenwhentheunderlyingdemand fortheprimarycommoditieswasstrong,theirlowpriceelasticityofdemandand volatiledemandwouldleadtoinstabilityinexportearnings.Thiscould,inturn, increasethecostofdoingbusiness,reduceinvestorconfidence,anddisrupt governmentspendingonessentialservicesandimportantinfrastructuralprojects, allofwhichcouldbedetrimentaltothelong-termgrowthoftheeconomy.
DuringtheSecondWorldWar,theVietnameseco-operatedwiththeWestin fightingtheJapanese.AfterthedefeatoftheJapanese,anindependent DemocraticRepublicofVietnamwasdeclaredon2December,1945,onlyforthe Frenchtoreasserttheircolonialauthority.ThisresultedinthefirstIndochinaWar from1946to1954thatendedwiththedefeatoftheFrenchatDienBienPhuin May,1954.The1954GenevaAgreementsprovidedforaceasefirebetween communistandanti-communistnationalistforces,thetemporarydivisionof Vietnamatapproximatelytheseventeenthparallelbetweentheprovisionalnorthern(communist)andsouthern(non-communist)zonegovernments,andthe evacuationofanti-communistVietnamesefromnortherntosouthernVietnam. TheagreementsalsocalledfornationalelectionsinJuly1956tobringthetwo provisionalzonesunderaunifiedgovernment.However,theUnitedStatesand theSouthVietnameseGovernmentopposedthis,whichledtothecontinuationof thedivide,theVietnamWarbetween1959and1975,andmassivedestructionto theeconomyandcountry,andlossoflife.Vietnamwaseventuallyunifiedwith thefallofSaigonon30April,1975.
Forthefirst11yearsafterunification,Vietnamoperatedacentrally-planned economybasedonthedevelopmentmodelusedintheUSSRanditsEast Europeanallies,wheretheStatecontrolledallthemajorsectorsoftheeconomy, decidedwhattoproducetoachievenationalandsocialobjectivesandthe resourcestouse,anddistributedallproductionmaterialsandconsumergoods throughthestatedistributionsystem.Exceptionstopervasivestatecontrolwere few,thenotableonesbeingthe5percentofagriculturallandsetasideforpeasantsforindividualfamilyuse,andtheoperationofsmallshopsandsimple marketsfordirectsales.Whilethissystembroughtaboutsocialequality,ithadall theclassicproblemsofacommandeconomy.Thediverseandchangingneedsof societywerenotmetandunwantedgoodsaccumulated.Pricesweredistortedand scarceresourcesmisallocated.Dynamism,innovationandcreativity,crucialfor economicgrowth,werestifledandallbutdisappeared.Theguaranteeofjobsand freehousing,educationandhealth-careservicesnotonlyproducedadependency mentalitybutalsoconsumedtheresourcesneededforinvestmentandfuture growth.Inaddition,bureaucratizationincreasedandwithitcamerent-seeking activitiesanddead-weightlossestotheeconomy.
Asaresult,labourproductivitywasverylow,andwastesinproductionand economicactivitiesmassive.TheeconomystagnatedandeventhoughVietnam wasanagriculturally-basedcountry,itcouldnotproduceenoughfoodforits
populationandhadtoimportsignificantvolumesoffood.Thesituationwas worsenedbytheAmericaneconomicembargoimposedafterthefallofSaigon, andthecampaigntoremovetheKhmerRougeregimefromCambodiastartingin December1979.ItwasalsonothelpedbythefactthatVietnam’sinternational economicrelationswerealmostentirelywiththeUSSRanditsEasternEuropean allies,whoseownpoorlyruneconomiesgavetheVietnameseGovernmentafalse senseofeconomicefficiency.
Theeconomylimpedalong,helpedbytheeconomicassistanceprovidedby theUSSRanditsallies.However,whenthisaiddisappearedafterthemid-1980s withthecollapseoftheseeconomies,theVietnameseeconomywasincrisis.By theendof1986,inflationreachedastaggering775percent,thestandardofliving wasabysmal,andtherewasnolongeranyvirtueorpoliticalpropagandavaluein beingequallypoor.
Post-doimoi period InDecember1986,theGovernmentintroducedanextensivereformprogramme tocreateasocialist-orientedmarketeconomytocorrecttheeconomicshortcomings.Themajorcomponentsofthereform,knownas doimoi,translatedliterally as‘restoration’,aretherecognitionofthelegitimacyandrightsoftheprivate sector,theabandonmentoftheSoviet-typecentrallyplannedeconomicmodel, andtheestablishmentoftheStateasanadministrative,ratherthananeconomic, player.Specificmeasuresincludedliberalizingthedomesticmarket,encouraging foreigndirectinvestment(FDI)andtheprivatesector,andreducingthesubsidies tostate-ownedenterprises(SOEs).Agriculturallandremainsstate-ownedbutis distributedtopeasanthouseholdsforlong-termuse.Thesechangesresultedin privatehouseholds,nationalinvestorsandforeigninvestorsaccountingfor60per centoftheGDPin2008and90percentofthelabourforcein2009.
Thestatesectorstillplaysadominatingroleinthecommandingheightsofthe economysuchasenergy,themajornaturalresources,heavyindustry,communication,railways,aviationandpublictransport,andbankingandinsurance.Italso playsanactiveroleinareasthathaveasignificantimpactonlargesocialgroups, suchasconstruction,productionoffertilizer,constructionmaterialsandessential consumergoods,lightindustry,andtradinginagriculturalproducts.Thismeans thatthestatesectorstillaccountedfor34percentoftheGDPin2008,withthe collectivesectoraccountingforanother6percent.Theirsharesinthelabour forcein2009were10.0percentand0.5percentrespectively.
Thesereforms,whilenotexactlyturningVietnamintoamarketeconomy,did resultinverysignificantimprovementsfrom1990onwardinanumberofkey economicperformanceindicators.Theyear1990wasusedasthestartingpoint becauseearlierdatawereunreliableandtimewasneededfortheeffectsofthe doi moi reforms,introducedattheendof1986,tobefeltinasignificantway.The otheryearsare1995,2000,2005and2010.Comparisonisovertwoperiods: 1990–5,toshowtheimmediateimpactofthereforms,whichcouldbevery dramaticastheeconomywasabletooperatefreeofmanyofthestricturesofa
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Baharia Oasis This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Baharia Oasis
Its topography and geology
Author: John Ball
H. J. L. Beadnell
Release date: April 10, 2024 [eBook #73366]
Language: English
Original publication: Cairo: National Printing Department, 1903
Credits: Galo Flordelis (This file was produced from images generously made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library/Cornell University)
SURVEY DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC WORKS MINISTRY EGYPT.
BAHARIA OASIS: ITS TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY BY JOHN BALL, PH. D., A.R.S.M., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E. AND HUGH J. L. BEADNELL, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
CAIRO
NATIONAL PRINTING DEPARTMENT 1903
„ III. — THE ROADS CONNECTING THE OASIS OF BAHARIA WITH THE NILE VALLEY AND WITH OTHER O
PLATE I. Map of the Oasis geologically coloured at end
„ II. — Sketch Map showing Position of the Oasis „
„ III. Villages and Principal Sources of Water „
„ IV. — Section through Western Escarpment, 11 kilometres north of south end of Depression „
„ V. Diagrammatic Section from hill 15 kilometres northeast of Ain el Haiss to the Eocene-Cretaceous junction on desert to west „
„ VI. — Section from Mandisha through Jebel Mayesra and Conical Hill to Western Plateau „
„ VII. Map of the Synclinal fold from Jebel Hefhuf to its termination in the Western Plateau, 13 kilometres north-west of Ain el Haiss „
„ VIII. Sketch sections of Eastern Scarp „
FIG. 1. Section across Syncline, 12½ kilometres north-west of Ain el Haiss 66
„ 2. Sketch shewing probable relations of Eocene and Cretaceous in Anticline on Western Desert Plateau, 11½ kilometres north-west of El Qasr 69
PREFACE The geological examination of the Oases of the Libyan Desert was commenced in 1897, when two parties were sent out to Baharia Oasis, one under the charge of Dr. Ball, who, with Mr. G. Vuta as topographer, started from Minia and explored the eastern half of the area, while Mr. Beadnell with Mr. L. Gorringe as his topographer started from Maghagha and examined the western side of the oasis. The expeditions commenced work in October, and mapping on the scale of ¹⁄₅₀₀₀₀ the whole area was surveyed before the end of the year. The return traverses were made to Minia by the first party via Farafra to Assiut by the second. The following chapters and maps set forth the results of this joint exploration, certain gaps being filled from the data of Ascherson.
BAHARIA OASIS 
