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ClassicalHumanismandtheChallengeofModernity

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ZeitschriftfürantikeLiteraturundihreRezeption/ AJournalforAncientLiteratureanditsReception

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MarkusAsper,SabineFöllinger,ThereseFuhrer, ChristofRapp,KatharinaVolk

Volume1

BasvanBommel ClassicalHumanism andtheChallenge ofModernity

DebatesonClassicalEducationin19th-centuryGermany

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To JeroenA.E. Bons amicohumanissimo

Contents

Preface XI

Abbreviations XIII

Introduction 1

Classicaleducationandmodernsociety 1

Theconceptof ‘neohumanism’ 3

‘Neohumanism’ versusclassicalhumanism 6

Theparadigmofmodernity 12

Structureandmethod 14

Part I: The Persistence of ClassicalHumanism

19th-centur yclassicalhumanism:thecaseof KarlGottfriedSiebelis(1769 –1843) 19

Introduction 19

Nineconstitutiveaspectsofclassicalhumanism 23

Thevarietyofclassicalhumanism 36

Teachingpractice 41

Thepersistenceofclassicalhumanism 52

Part II: TheAdaptabilityof ClassicalHumanism

Introduction 61

.The ChallengeofScience 64

Introduction 64

Philolog yasscience 64

Classicalhumanismandscientificphilology 64

Classicaleducationas schöneWissenschaft 69

The Kantian turn 73

Classicalphilolog yas ‘purescience:’ Friedric hAugustWolf 75

Scientificphilolog yasa humanisticdiscipline 79

Thecontinuityof Gymnasium education 87

Pedagog yasscience 94

Introduction 94

Nationaleducation:FichteandJachmann 95

Theunitar yschool:HumboldtandSüvern 99

Humanism astotalitarianpedagogy 102

Mythos Humboldt 105

.The Challengeofthe Bürgerschule 110

Introduction 110

Classicaleducationandtheriseofthe Bürgerschule 1770 – 1800 115

Introduction 115

Thequestfor Bürger education 117

Materialandformaleducation 121

Thecommongood 126

Conclusion 132

Latineducationin Bürgerclassen 134

Introduction 134

PostponingLatin 134

Sprachen and Sachen 136

ThequestforLatin textbooks 138

Thefightagainstgrammar:Latinas acolloquia llanguage 141

Conclusion 145

The Bürgerschule ashumanisticinstitution1800 – 1860 147

Introduction 147

Theconceptofthe Realgymnasium: ErnstGottfriedFischer 148

Realismas aformofhumanism 151

The Bürgerschule ashumanisticinsti tution 153

Formaleducation 

Idealeducation 

Twotypesofhumanness: KarlScheibert 

Themodern Humanitätsschule: KarlMager 

Conclusion 166

.The Challengeof Christianity 168

Introduction 168

Classicalhumanismandrationalism 173

Thequestforreligiousethos 173

Educationandethos 176

‘Neohumanism’ and Christianity 178

Classicalhumanismand Christianity 183

Introduction 183

Classicalantiquityasprecursorof Christianity 183

Historicisationandeducationalpractice 192

Curtailingclassicaleducation 194

Thedebateonpatristicliterature 199

Conclusion 203

Conclusion 204

Bibliography 208

Index 231

Preface

Thedesire to writethisbookaroseoutof my teaching. Aboutthirteen yearsago,I decided to studyClassicsattheUniversityofAmsterdambecause Iwasdeeplyin lovewiththeancien tGreeksandRomans.HavingreadworryingamountsofRomanticGermanliteraturein my adolescent years, Istronglysensedthattheclassicalworldwaspermeatedby akindof mysteriousspiritthatinfuseditscultural expressions with anearlysacred aura.For alongtime,itwasthemostnormal thingintheworldtometolookuponclassica lantiquityas asingularlyblessed epochof raresignificanceandbeauty.Myunbridledenthusiasmwasonlychallengedwhensometen yearsago – by acompletecoincidence – Istarted teaching.Fromonemoment to another Isaw myselffacetoface with aclassofthirteen-yearoldboysandgirlswhoexhibited adisturbingbutfascinating indifferencetoeverythingthatmatteredtome.Although theywerecertainlywillingtolearn,theirmindswerenotinanyway predisposed towardsthesubject that Iwassoenthusiasticabout .IfI wastoinspirethematall, Ihadtobegin fromscratch.Thus, Imadethefundamentalrealisation – obviousbutoftenforgotten – thatthesurvivalofwhatwecall ‘theclassica lheritage’ isalmostentirely dependentoneducation,andthereforeanythingbutself-evident.

Through thisconfrontationalexperience Ibecameinterestedinthecomplex relationshipbetweenclassicaleducationandmodernsociety.Why dowestill teachtheclassicsatthebeginningofthe 21st century?Whatisthei rmeaning? Theiruse?Theirvalue? Isoonrealisedthatthesearrestingquestionscanonly beaddressedin ameaningfulandconstructive waybytracingthembackto theirhistoricalrootsinthelate18th andearly19th centuries,thatis,to atime whenclassicaleducationfirstcameintoconflictwiththechangingneedsof modernsociety.Thepresentbookistheresultofthisintellectualenterprise,to which Ihavegratefullydedicated myselfoverthepastfiveyears.

Iwouldliketoexpress my gratitud etoa numberofpeoplewithoutwhom writingthisbookwouldnothave beenthesatisfyingandenrichingexperience thatitwas.Firstly, Iwanttothank my dearfriendandcolleague,professor JeroenA.E. Bons.Althoughforpersonal reasonshewasnotinthepositionof readinga singledraft ,hisspiritclose ly accompaniedmeoverthepastfive years.Myunderstandingofclassicalhumanismhasnotonlygreatlyimproved fromstudyinghistoricalsourcesbutalsofromknowing aschola rwhom Iregard asitstrueembodiment .Forhisuniqueabilitiesasa teacherandhisdeeplyhumanecharacterhehasbeenanexampletomeformanyyears. It istohimthatI thereforegratefullydedicatethisbook.Secondly, IwanttothankMrs. UtaRiemerschmid-vonRheinbaben,whofour yearsagokindlytooktheriskofaccom-

modatingmeinherwonderfulMunichhouse.Itisthankstoherthat my research staysdidnotturnintomonotonous,lonesom eoccasions – which researchstays oftendo – butintosalutaryexperiences markedbyquietude,devotedworkand friendship.RarelyhaveI feltnearertoHeaventhanwhen Iheadedforthe BavarianStateLibraryonfrostywintermornings,lookingforward to long daysofundisturbed readingwhilereflectingonourthoughtfulbreakfastconversations.

Thirdly, Iamgratefultoprofessor JosineBlokandprofessorPaul Ziche,who supervisedthedoctoralthesisonwhichthepresentbookisbased.Notonlyhave Ilearntmuchfromtheirmanyacuteandelucidatingcriticisms,butaboveall,I thankthemforallowingmethefreedomtoconduct my researchinthewayI deemedappropriate. Iwouldbynomeanshave succeededin writingthis bookhadtheynotkindlygivenexpressiontothatmostendangeredofacademic virtues: trust .Fourthly, Iwant to thankprofessorRolfSelbmannfromthe Ludwig-Maximilians-UniversitätMünchen,withwhom Ihaveinformallydiscussed allsubsequentchaptersofthisbookintheexhilaratingsurroundingsof Bavarianpubs. It hasbeen veryinspiringtoregularyengageinconversationwitha schola rendowedwiththe rarecombinationofmassive erudition,greatcommon senseandinfectioushumour.Fifthly, Ithank my fatherNiekvan Bommelforpurifying my bookofnumeroussmallinaccuracies.Themeticulousnessandpatiencewithwhichhehasperformedthistaskistrulyastoundingandhascontributedsubstantiallytothisbook’sprofessionalappearance.

Withall my heart Ifinallythankmybelovedwife SjaanOomen .Thepastfive years wouldnothave beensuch arewardinganddeeplyenrichingtimeif Ihad notspenttheminher r adiantandcomfortingpresence.Mymarriagetoher Igenuinelyconsiderthegreatestblessingofmylife.

Utrecht ,May 2014

Abbreviations

AAE ArchivfürdieausübendeErziehungskunst

AAZ Augsburgerallgemeine Zeitung

AB K.G.Siebelis, Kurze LebensbeschreibungdesM.CarlGottfriedSiebelis,RectorsamGymnasiumzuBautzenundRittersdesKöniglichenSächsischenCivilverdienstordens,von ihmselbstabgefasst,1843

BJ BraunschweigischesJournal

DQ K.G.Siebelis, Disputationesquinque,quibuspericulumfactumestostendendi,inveterum GraecorumRomanorumquedoctrinareligionisacmorumplurimaesse,quacumchristianaconsentiantamicissime,nequehumanitatisstudiaper suamnaturamveroreligionis cultuiquidquamdetrahere,sedadeumalendum conservandumqueplurimumconferre, iterumediditmultisquelocisauxitCarolusGodofredusSiebelis,1837

EKZ EvangelischeKirchenzeitung

GVW Fr.G.Resewitz, Gedanken, Vorschlägeund Wünschezur Verbesserungderöffentlichen Erziehung,5 vol.,1777-86

LZ Literarische Zeitung

HPBl Historisch-PolitischeBlätterfürdas katholischeDeutschland

NJPP NeueJahrbücherderPhilologie undPädagogik

PR Pädagogische Revue

SZ K.G.Siebelis, Stimmenausden ZeitenderaltengriechischenundrömischenKlassikern, 1832

VS K.G.Siebelis, VierSchulschriften, 1817

ZGW ZeitschriftfürdasGymnasialwesen

Introduction

“Manhat(…)die Behauptungaufgestellt,derNeuhumanismus(…)habemitder An tikekaum etwasz utun.Ichkanndazunursagen:wersodenkt,derirrt.” (WolfgangSchadewaldt,1973)

Classicaleducationandmodernsociety

Therewas atimewhentheclassicswerebyfarthemostimportantsubjectin highereducation.ThenumerousLatinschoolsandcollegesscatteredacross theEuropeancontinentinthe16th,17th and18th centuriesofferedextensive educationinRoma nand,to alesserextent ,Greekliterature. At theseschools,other topics,suchashistoryor geography, werenottaughtindependentlybutonlyinsofarastheywere relevant to thestudyofclassical texts.Theclassicswerealso prominentlyrepresentedatthe artes-facultiesoftheuniversities.Moreover,upto thelate18th century,highereducation,apartfromcenteringonclassicalsubjects, as arulewasconductedinLatin.

Untilthelate18th century,thedominanceofclassicaleducationwaspracticallyjustifiedbytheunchallengedstatusofLatinastheuniversallanguageof scholarshipandthechurch.Moreover,classicalliteratu re wasstillthefundamentofimportantbranchesofhumanknowledge,suchaslaw, medicineand philosophy. Finally, inmostEuropeancountries,Latin retaine ditsfunctionas aliterarylanguagebesidesthenationallanguagesuntilfarintothe18th centur y. It wasonlybytheendofthe18th centurythatthepractical relevanceoftheclassicssubstantiallydecreased.Latingraduallycededitspositionasacademia’sofficiallanguagetothenationaltonguesand adiligentexplorationofnewareasof knowledge aswellastheflourishingofnationalliteraturesmarginalise dtheimportanceoftheclassica lheritage.¹ Yetdespitetheweakeningoftheclassics’ practicalbasisinscholarship,scienceandliterature,throughoutthe19th century Europeanhighereducationremainedinvariablycastintheclassicalmould.The curriculaoftheEnglishpublicschools,the French lycées,the Italian ginnasilicei,aswellasthe Gymnasien inGerma ny,Austria-Hungaryand Russiawere alldomina tedbytheRomanandGreekclassics.ThesamewastrueofthephilosophicalfacultiesoftheEuropeanuniversities.Meanwhile,alongsidetheclassicalinstitutions,competingformsofbothsecondaryandacademiceducation

 Fora gooddiscussionofthegradualdisplacementofLatinbythemodernlanguages,see Leonhardt(2009:221 – 244).

emerged,especiallyinthesecondhalfofthe19th centur y. Theschoolsoffering thesenewkindsofeducation,however,forthemostpartdidnotacquirea status remotelycomparablewiththatoftheclassicalinstitutions.Indeed,theclassics succeededinpreservinga mightyswayoverEuropeaneducationdown to the outbreakoftheGreat Warin1914.²

Thus,thequestionariseshowthecontinuit yofclassica leducationrelatedto itsabatingpractical relevance.Howcouldtheidealofclassicaleducationenjoy suchwidepopularityat atimewhenboththeLatinlanguageandclassicalliteraturelosttheirtraditionalpositioninintellectualcultureataneverincreasing pace?Ofcourse,itisimportantnot to overestimatethetempoofchange.Although Latinlostits monopoly asthelanguageofscholarship,farintothe19th centuryscholarswereexpected to expressthemselvesinLatinonofficialoccasions. Yetdespiteunmistakablecontinuities,themarkedstabilityofclassicaleducationseemsdrasticallyatoddswithitsevidentlydecreasingpracticalrelevanceinmodernsociety.³

Inthisbook, Iwillexaminethe relationshipbetweenclassicaleducationand modernsocietyasexemplifiedbyGermany, wheretheoppositionbetweenthe twowasparticularlypronounced.Ontheonehand,theGerman ‘humanistic Gymnasium,’ as asecularised ,state-directedinstitution,bore amanifestlymodernstamp.Ontheotherhand,mostofits representativeswereoutspokenproponentsofclassica leducation,whichtheyadvocatedandpromotedwith lyrical verveandunrelentingvigour.Thehumanistic Gymnasium remainedfirmlyrootedin aclassicalcurriculumthroughoutthe19th centuryandfunctione dasa modelforeducational reformsincountriesasdiverseas Italy, Russiaandthe Netherlands.Whenitcomestothe relationshipbetweenclassica leducation andmodernsociety,then,Germanycanbeseenas aparadigmaticcase.

 Fora generalsurveyoftheprominenceofclassicaleducationin19th centuryEurope,see Mayer(1981:2 53 – 73).

 Inthisbook, Iusethe term ‘modern’ torefertolate18th and19th centurydevelopmentsthat have decisively influencedcurrentwaysofthinking.Thesecularised,19th-century Gymnasium I call ‘modern’ becauseinnearlyall WesternEuropeancountries,educationisnowadays largely independentofChurchsupervision.Theriseofthe Bürgerschule Idescribeas amoderndevelopmentbecauseitwasintimatelyconnectedtotheprofessionaldifferentiationandindustrialisationthathave decisively influencedtheoutlookofthesocietywelive in. Fora good discussionoftheterminologicalhistoryoftheterm ‘modern,’ seeH.U. Gumbrecht, ‘Modern, Modernität, Moderne,’ in:Brunner(a.o.)(ed.) GeschichtlicheGrundbegriffe,vol.IV(1978:93 –131). Fortheconceptof ‘modernity,’ seealsobelow,p.12 – 4.

The conceptof ‘neohumanism’

Sincethelate19th century,whenthe tensionbetweenthecontinuityofclassical educationandmodernsociety wasfirstseenas aproblem,scholarshave sought to makeclearthatdespiteitstraditionalappearance,theidealofclassicaleducationpursuedinthelate18th and19th centurieswasunmistakablya respons eto itsowntime.Inhismagisterial GeschichtedesgelehrtenUnterrichtsaufdendeutschenSchulenundUniversitäten (1885), FriedrichPaulsendemonstratedthattwo ofthemostardentchampionsofclassicaleducation, Friedrich August Wolf (1759 – 1824)and Wilhelm vonHumboldt(1767– 1835),advocatedthestudyof classica lliteratureina distinctlymodernway.⁴ Wolf,Paulsenpointedout ,was fullyawarethattheimportanceofclassica lliteraturetomodernsciencehadsubstantiallydecreasedandthatLatinhadlostitsmonopolyasthelanguageof scholarship.⁵ Therefore,thepracticalidealof imitation,whichwastheessence of “theolderhumanism, ”⁶ inhisviewwasnolongeruseful.⁷ Instead,classical studiesshouldbeconductedsolelybecauseof “theirown, absolutevalue,”⁸ whichboth Wolfand Humboldtfound,notinRoma nculture – whichhad beenthe mainfocusofclassicaleducationinthepast – butinGreekculture. Inancien tGreece,andonlyinancientGreece,theybelievedtheybeheld “theexemplary representationofthe Ideaofman.”⁹ Bygatheringa thorough historical knowledge ofGreekantiquity,theycontended,studentsenabledthemselvesto penetrateintothe verynatureof mankindandthustoacquire “self-knowledge andself-education(Selbstbildung).”¹⁰ In Wolf ’s and Humboldt’sideal ofeducation,thetraditiona lfocusontheclassical langua ges didnotdisappear,butthese languageswereunderstoodin adistinctlydifferentway. Whereastraditionaleducatio nchieflyfocusedontheimitatio nofstylisticmodels,theclassicallanguageswerenowphilosophicallyunderstoodas “thefirstartisticcreationsof thehumanmind[which]containtheentiresupplyofgeneralideasandof

 Although Wolf ’sand Humboldt’sideasonclassicaleducation werenotidentical,theywere similarenough to bediscussedincombination. Wolfand Humboldtwereboundby aclose friendshipandcorrespondedbyletterduringthemajorpartoftheirprofessionallives.SeePh. Mattson(ed.), WilhelmvonHumboldt,BriefeanFriedrich August Wolf (Berlin,New York,1990).

 PaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:2 17).PaulsenmainlydrewonWolf ’sfamous Darstellungder Alterthumswissenschaft of1807.

 Alltranslationsinthisbookaremine,unlessstatedotherwise.

 PaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:2 17). With “imitation” Paulsenreferredtotheage-oldpracticeof cultivatingstylisticandoratoricalskillsbyimitatingRoman(andGreek)literarymodels.

 Ibid. 217.

 Ibid. 203.

 Ibid. 204.

formsof [human]thought.”¹¹ With Wolfand Humboldt ,then,thetraditional, Latin-orientedidealofpracticalimitationwas replacedbya new,Greek-oriented idealofhistoricalcontemplation. It wasbecauseofthisinnovative outlook,that Paulsennamed Wolf ’sand Humboldt’sidealofclassica leducation ‘neohumanism’ (Neuhumanismus),therebycoiningthisterm.¹²

Paulse nemphasisedthatthetransformationofhumanisminto ‘neohumanism’ correlatedwiththetransformationofGermansociety.Notonlydidtheold practiceofimitationnolongermakesenseat atimewhentheinfluenceofLatin hadsubstantiallydecreased,butconfronting youngpeoplewiththeidealimage ofGreekmankindseemedofparticula rimportanceto Wolfand Humboldtinan age “thatpaidmoreattention to thingsthantopeople(…)andfocusedmoreon outervaluesandusefulnessthanoninnercontent.”¹³ Wolf ’sand Humboldt’s idealofclassicaleducation,then,arosefromdissatisfaction withtheutilitarian tendencyoftheirtime,whichtheyaimedtocounterbalance withthehistorical studyofa bygonebutidealcivilisation .AccordingtoPaulsen, ‘neohumanism’ shouldprimari ly beunderstoodas acriticalresponse to theriseofmodernsociety.

Theconceptof ‘neohumanism’ waswidelyadoptedbylaterhistoriansofeducatio nandacquired afirmplaceintheterminologyofeducational historiogr aphy.¹⁴ EspeciallyaftertheSecond World War, scholarshave sought tofurtherexposethemodernfoundationsof Wolf ’sand Humboldt’seducational ideal. Forexample, Humboldtexpectedclassica leducation to contributetocultivatingvaluesthatwereofparticularimportancetomodernsociety.Hedeemed thestudyofGreekliteraturepreeminently suitedtoachieving “thehighestand mostproportionateformation(Bildung)ofmanto awhole.”¹⁵ Callingfreedom “thefirstandindispensablecondition” ofhumanisti ceducation,¹⁶ heaimed to develop aunifiedschoolsystemthatwould “makethemeanestdaylabourer andthe mostfinelycultivatedman(…)like-minded.”¹⁷ Inotherwords, Humboldt expectedclassicaleducationtocontributetothemakingof anewsocietythat

 Wolf(1807: 91);PaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:2 14).

 SincethetermwasnotknownbeforePaulsen, Iwillconsistentlyputitinsinglequotation marks.

 PaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:2 03).

 Inthefirsthalfofthe 20th century,the term ‘neohumanism’ wasstillusedalongsideother termssuchas ‘humanism’ or ‘oldhumanism.’ It wasonlyaftertheSecond World Warthatit achieveditspresentcurrency.

 Humboldt(1792,in:1960:64).

 Ibid.

 “Der gemeinste Tagelöhnerundderamfeinsten AusgebildetemussinseinemGemüthursprünglichgleich gestimmt werden.” Humboldt(1809,in:1964:189).

wouldbegroundedinthetypicallymodernvaluesofindividualit y, freedomand equalit y.¹⁸ Inotherwords,ontheprevailingview,early19th-centuryhumanism gave theappearanceofcontinuity,butwasinfactanattemptto adapt the studyofclassica lantiquitytodistinctlymodernneeds.¹⁹ “Neohumanism,” we readinthe Historische sWörterbuchderPhilosophie, “whileshari ng withRenaissancehumanismtheloveofclassicalantiquity,differsfromitbyitsphilosophicaldepth,bythelongingforancientGreece(Griechensehnsucht)sprungfrom dissatisfactionwithone’sown time,aswellasby anew,anthropologically founde dconceptionofliterary,aestheticandhistorical Bildung.”²⁰ Yetthe sheercurrencyoftheconceptof ‘neohumanism’ allowsustoeasilyoverlook thefactthatitwaswhollyunknowntothepeople to whomitrefers. It is atelling factthatonlyshortlybeforetheterm ‘neohumanism’ wascoinedin1885, classicaleducationwasseenin averydifferentlight .Inhishistoryofthe Gelehrtenschulwesen publishedin1860,forinstance,theclassicalphilologist Friedrich Lübkerdescribedthelate18th-andearly19th-century reevaluationofclassical studiesasa “newlyrevivedhumanism” (neubelebterHumanismus);thatis,as arevivaloftheidealofeducationthathadbeenpropagatedbythegreatRenaissancehumanists.²¹ Somedecadesearlier,B enjaminOtto, adeclaredopponentof classica leducation,denouncedtheenormousenthusiasmofmanyschoolteachersforLatineducationasthecontinuationofa “four-hundred-year-old prejudice.”²² EvenafterPaulsen,theconceptof ‘neohumanism’ for alongtime wasnotasestablishedasitis today. RichardNeedon,forexample,inhishistory

 Forthisview,seee.g.Kraul(1984:2 8 – 34);Landfester(1988:30 – 55);Hamann(1993: 105 –114).

 Thisviewisfoundinnearlyallmajorstudiesonthesubject .I confine myself to mentioning those worksfromwhich Ihavelearntmost:M. Fuhrmann, ‚Friedrich August Wolf,’ in: Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fürLiteraturwissenschaftundGeistesgeschichte 33 (1959: 187– 236);H.J. Heydorn, Überden WiderspruchvonBildungund Herrschaft (1970),BildungstheoretischeSchriften Bd.2 (1979);G.Buck, RückwegeausderEntfremdung (1984);M.Landfester, Humanismusund Gesellschaftim19.Jahrhundert (1988); D. Benner, WilhelmvonHumboldtsBildungstheorie.Eine problemgeschichtlicheStudiezum BegründungszusammenhangneuzeitlicherBildungsreform (1990);G.Bollenbeck, BildungundKultur. GlanzundElendeinesdeutschenDeutungsmusters (1994); D. Benner,H.Kemper, TheorieundGeschichtederReformpädagogik, I: Diepädagogische Bewegungvonder AufklärungbiszumNeuhumanismus (2003).

 J. Ritter(ed.), vol. 3(1974:1218).

 In:SchmidII(1860:669).

 SeeB.Otto, GänzlicheUmgestaltungallerGelehrten-SchulenDeutschlands,einehöchstdringendeZeitförderung!OderDrittesGebrechenderGelehrten-Schulen:DievorurtheilsvolleundunwissenschaftlicheÜberschätzungdeslateinischenUnterrichts (1831:2 – 4).Ottowrote thatmost teachers,being “encasedin aLatinnimbus,” werepartofthe “oldphilologicalschool” (altphilologischeSchule).(ibid.)

ofthe Gymnasium of Bautzenwrittenin1927,describedtheentireperiodfrom 1790 to 1895,whentheclassicsweretaughtwithparticularzeal,astheeraof “oldhumanism” (Althumanismus).²³ Thefactthatfor averylongtime,19th-centuryhumanismwasnot yetseenasparticularly ‘modern,’ butonthecontraryas thecontinuationofanage-oldtradition raisesseriousquestionsastothevalidityofthecurrentconceptof ‘neohumanism.’ Isthisconcept ,withitsemphasis oninnovation,trulysuitable to describetheeducationalidealembracedby late18th-andearly19th-centuryclassicists?Ormustthe ‘neohumanistic’ theory of Bildung thathasbeendiscussedabovebedistinguishedfromother,moretraditionalformsofhumanism?

‘Neohumanism’ versusclassicalhumanism

Thecommonviewofthedisplacementof atraditionalhumanismby ‘neohumanism’ ischieflybasedontheexampleof academic philologists,suchas Friedrich August Wolf, FriedrichCreuzer(1771 – 1858)and August Böckh(1785 – 1867),as wellasontheexampleoftheutopianpedagogueswhowerethedriving force behindthefoundatio noftheUniversityof Berlinin1810,aboveall Wilhelm vonHumboldtand JohannGottliebFichte(1762 – 1814).Thesescholarsdecisively contributed to thegradualtransformationofclassica lstudiesinto aprofessional, academicdiscipline(commonlyknownas ‘Altertumswissenschaft’)thatwouldin turnbeofpioneeringimportancetothe genesisofthemodernresearchuniversity. ‘Neohumanism’ isbestdescribedastheeducationalphilosophythataccompaniedthismomentoustransformationofclassicalscholarship,whichhasattractedenormousscholarlyinterestin recentdecades.²⁴ Yetitisa pressing questionhowthe ‘neohumanistic’ idealofeducationendorsedby19th-century academicphilologistsrelatedtothepracticeof Gymnasium education.Which reasonsdowehave to believethat ‘neohumanism’ asrepresentedbythe abovegroupofwell-knowneducationalistsmadeitsentryintotheschools? Mostfrequentlymentionedassignalingtheintroductionof ‘neohumanism’ intothe Gymnasien istheincreasedimportanceofclassica lGreek,whichhas beencalledthe “externalindica toroftheentryofneohumanism.”²⁵ At the ‘neo-

 Needon(1927:70).

 EminentstudiesonthetransformationofclassicalscholarshipareGrafton(1983),Marchand (1996),Most(2002),Clark(2006)andBaertschi &King(2009). Foranextensive bibliographyon thistopic,seebelow,p.75f.,note36.

 Landfester(1988:9;cf.31). – As Humboldt’sidealwasemphaticallyanidealof general education(“allgemeine Menschenbildung”),alsotheinclusionofother topicsinthecurriculum,

humanistic’ Gymnasium classicalGreekwasmuchmoreprominentlyrepresentedthanitwasinthepast .Thiscanalreadybeobservedinthelate18th century, whenatsomeschoolsGreekliteraturewasstudiedwithgreatzeal.²⁶ Withthe Prussianreformsof1809 – 1819,therequirement sforancientGreekwerepitched exceptionallyhigh. APrussianexaminationregulationof1812decreedthat “the examinandus [should]becapableofunderstandi ng,evenwithoutpreviouspreparation, Atticprose,(…)thesimplerdialoguesofSophocle sandEuripides,next toHomer;ofexplaining anon-critical ly difficultchoral[ode]andofproducinga (…)translationfromGermanintoGreekwithoutviolati ng gramma roraccent(!) [rules].”²⁷ Intheschoo lplanofthesame year,theGreek-Latin ratiowassetat2:3, whichwasunusuallyhighatthetime.²⁸ Alsointhe Vormärz period,whenthe greatestupsu rgeofHellenophiliawaswellpastandeventhePrussian governmentweakenedits requirements,²⁹ Greekpreserved asignificantlylargershare inthecurriculumthanhadbeencommoninthepast .Atmostschools,thissituationwouldremainunchangedinthelate19th century.³⁰ suchasmathematics,naturalsciences,history,geography etc.,issometimesseenastypically ‘neohumanistic.’ Seee. g. Kraul(1984:31f.).Inthisbook,however,I confine myself to classical education,andthustotheincreasedimportanceofclassicalGreek.

 Asearlyas1772, atthe Frankfurt Gymnasium,Homer, Xenophon,Theophrastos,Thucydides, Herodotus,PlutarchandsomeGreekpoets wereallontheprogram.SeePurmann(1772:2 1).In 1781,atthe FriedrichswerderschesGymnasium Berlin,theGreekcurriculumwasevenmore extended:Homer,Aristophanes,Euripides,Xenophon, Herodotus,Plutarch,Pindar,Sophocles andPlato.See Fr. Gedike, ‚PraktischerBeitragzurMethodikdesöffentlichenSchulunterrichts’ (1781),in GesammelteSchulschriften (I, 1789:132 – 5).Cf. ‚NeueNachrichtvonderEinrichtungdes FriedrichswerderschenGymnasiums’ (1788),in op.cit. (II, 1795:57f.).

 Fora surveyoftheofficialPrussianregulationsconcerningtherequirementsforclassical Greek,seeSchmidt(1849: 209 – 14).

 ThisschoolplancanbefoundinPaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:292).

 AgovernmentalCircularof182 8decreedthatevenin Prima,chiefattentionshouldbepaid to relatively simple authors(suchasHomerand Xenophon)insteadofmoredifficultauthors(such as AeschylusandPindar),andthat “no Gymnasium-headmastershould ventureonbeginning Greekeducationalreadyin Quinta” (i.e.thesecond-lowestgrade).SeeSchmidt(1849: 212).Inthe so -calledPrussian Normalplan of1837,finally, theGreek-Latin ratiowasreducedfrom2:3to1:2 ThisschoolplanisprintedinPaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:354).

 AweeklyshareoffivetosevenhoursofGreektoeighttothirteenhoursofLatinwas very normalatmostGerman Gymnasien untiltheendofthe19th century. – Theintroductionof ‘neohumanism’ inotherGermanstatesthatfollowedthePrussianexampleisdiscussedin variousstudies:Seee. g. J. Kopp, DerNeuhumanismusinderPfalz (1928), O. Dürr, DieEinführung desNeuhumanismusinWürttemberg (1930); W. Ruf, Der NeuhumanismusinBadenundseine AuswirkungenaufdieGelehrtenschulen (1961),H.J. Apel, DaspreußischeGymnasiuminden Rheinlandenund Westfalen (1814 – 1848)(1984).

However,despiteitsconsolidatedcurricularposition,classicalGreek was hardlyeverassignedsufficientscopeas to makethecurriculumtrulycorrespond to Wolf ’sand Humboldt’sconvictionthattrue Bildung canonlybeacquiredby studyingtheGreeksandthat “theRomansdonotprovidedesirablematerial for(…)study.”³¹ Onlyata verysmallnumberofschools,educationaliststemporarilyexperimentedwithgivingGreekactualprecedenceoverLatin.³² At most Gymnasien,however,eveninthePrussianreformera(1809 – 1819),Greekwas creditedwithsubstantiallyfewerweeklyhoursthanLatin, asubordination thatwasonlytobereinforcedin Vormärz. Moreover,thebroadhistoricalperspective ontheancien tworldcharacteristicofthe ‘neohumanistic’ viewofclassicaleducationhardlyevergained afootholdattheschools.Throughoutthecentury, Gymnasium education retaine ditsprimaryfocuson aselectbodyof exemplary texts,whichstudentsapproachedassourcesfromwhichtoborrow rhetoricalandmoralflourishes.

Thelargely traditionalcharacterofclassical Gymnasium education raisesseriousdoubtsas to thevalidityofthecommonviewofthereplacemen tofa traditionalhumanismby ‘neohumanism.’ Asthe ‘neohumanistic’ theoryofeducation wasmanifestlybasedupongivingpriority to GreekoverRoma nculture,itseems hardtounderstandwhyeveninthegreatestheydayofGermanHellenophilia, therewashardlyany schooltoadoptan evidently ‘neohumanistic’ curriculum. Mostscholarsexplainthisdiscrepancybypointing outthatclassicaleducation wasplaguedby atragic gulfbetween aloftyhumanisticidealand asluggish, inertpractice.Onthecommonaccount ,the early19th centurywascharacterised by “aneverincreasingtensionbetweenthehigh-pitchedhumanisticclaim” and a “dustyeducational reality” thatfailed torespondtoit.³³ “Thestrongemphasis onLatin[inpractice],” ashasrecentlybeenstated, “enteredintoanalmos tabsurdcontras twiththe(…)pronouncedpredilectionoftheGermansforthe Greeks.”³⁴ Correspondingly, theheydayof19th-centuryhumanismiscommonly seen to virtuallycoincidewiththePrussianreformera,whenGreekwasatthe peakofitspopularity.EversincePaulsendescribedtheschoolplanof1812as

 Wolf(1807: 131).

 Twoofsuchexperimentalschools,theConradinumin Jenkau(from1810)ledbyReinhold BernhardJachmann(1767– 1843)and FranzPassow(1786 – 1833)andthe KantonsschuleAarau (Switzerland)ledbyErnst AugustEvers(1779 – 1832)arediscussedbyK.Sochatzy, DasNeuhumanistischeGymnasiumunddierein-menschliche Bildung.ZweiSchulreformversucheinihrer weiterreichenden Bedeutung (1973).

 Glenn W. Mostin:Graf(1997: 45 f.).Cf. SuzanneMarchand(1996:31,49),whodescribes classical Gymnasium educationinthe1840sascharacterisedbythe “drudgery” of “lifeless, drill-orientedlessons.”

 Leonhardt(2009:2 68).

the “constitutive documentofthenew Gymnasium, ”³⁵ mostscholarshave analysedtheentirehistoryofclassicaleducationinthelate18th andearly19th centuriesinlightofthePrussianreforms.Paulsen’sstudentEduardSpranger(1882 –1963)describedtherevivedinterestinGreekcultureinthelate18th centuryasa “preparatory” phaseof ‘neohumanism’ thatpointedforward to itsearly19th-century “heyday.” SprangerdescribedthedecadesfollowingthePrussianreformsas the “mature” phaseof ‘neohumanism,’ aperiodinwhichthe juvenileenthusiasmoftheprecedingperiodfellpreytogradualdecline. ³⁶ Thisheyday/decline paradigmhasdominatedthehistoriographyoftheGerman Gymnasium ever since.ThedecreasingpopularityofGreekfromthe1830sonwardsisusually interpretedasthedramaticfailureofthe augusthumanisticidealsthatWolfand Humboldthadputforwardwithsuchhighexpectationstwodecadesearlier. Thus,ithasbeenstatedthatatthe Vormär zGymnasium, “thesubjectsthat Humboldthadinmind[were]nominallymaintained,buthadnothingincommonany morewiththehumanistictheoryof Bildung fromwhichtheyoriginally emerged.”³⁷ The VormärzGymnasium effectuateda “relapseintothepre-reformatorystateofknowledge,” which “wasted” thePrussian Gymnasium’s “leadwith regard to modernity(Modernitätsvorsprung).”³⁸ This verywidesp readviewofthe failureof ‘neohumanistic’ idealstotakerootin aslothful,Latin-basedpractice restsonanassumptionthat Ideemworthbringingoutwithfullprecision.The underlyingreasoningisthis:inthe19th centur y, classica leducation wasjustified on ‘neohumanistic’ grounds.Inotherwords,19th-centuryhumanism equals ‘neohumanism. ’ The ‘neohumanistic’ theoryofeducationaimsathistoricalunde rstanding oftheancientworldandprioritisesthestudy ofGreekoverthestudy ofLatin.Therefore,humanismcanonlybefoundwhereGreekisstudiedwith exceptionalardourandwheretheold-fashionedimitationofrhetoricaland moralexamplesisdisplacedfromthecentreofeducationalpractice.Conversely, whereverthisisnotthecase,therecanbenohumanism. Thus,thefactthattraditionalLatineducationretaineditsdominanceatthelarge majorityofschools throughouttheperiodinquestionprovesthefailedimplementationofhumanisticidealsinpractice.Thiscommonview,whichdenies19th-centuryclassica leducationa claimtohumanisticvaluesassoonasitdoesnotcorrespondtothe specific ‘neohumanistic’ idealssetforthbyscholarslike Wolfand Humboldt,

 “KonstitutionsaktedesneuenGymnasiums, ” PaulsenII(1885, 3rd ed.1921:291).

 SeeSpranger(1910,ed.1960:5 f.).

 Schneider(1989:2 81).

 Landfester(1988:46).ElmarSchwinger(1988:2 06)describedthe “mature” phaseof ‘neohumanism’ as atimeof “rigidity” (Erstarrung). Acompar ableviewisfoundin,a.o.,Sochatzy (1973)andKraul(1984).

is radicallyatoddswiththefacts. It wasnotexceptionalfigureslike Wolfand Humboldtwhogave concretesubstancetoclassica leducation,but averylarge groupoflocalheadmastersandordinaryteachersofmuchlesse rfame.Throughouttheperiodunderconsideration,thelarge majorityofthese “practicalschoolteachers” ( praktischeSchulmänner),astheywerecalledatthetime,defended classica leducationinmarkedlytraditionalterms.Letustaketheexamplesof JohannGeorg Purmann(1733 – 1813),whotaughtclassica lliteraturefrom 1756to 1806,from 1770 asheadmasterofthe Fr ankfurt Gymnasium;and KarlGottfried Siebelis(1769 – 1843),whoworkedas aclassics teacherfrom 1798to1841,from 1804asheadmasterofthe Gymnasium in Bautzen (Saxony).Theprofessionalactivityofthesetwopracticalschoolteachersspannedtheentireperiodof ‘neohumanism: ’ itsearlyphase,itsheyday, aswellasitsdecline .Whenwestudytheir writings,wenoticethattheirideasonclassicaleducationsubstantiallydeviated fromthe ‘neohumanistic’ theorysetforthby Wolfand Humboldt.³⁹ Firstly, although bothPurmannandSiebelis,like mostoftheircontempo raries,hada veryhighopinionofGreekliteratureandtheoreticallyacknowledgedtheunique characteroftheancien tGreeks,⁴⁰ it wastoLatinthattheydevotedthemselves with mostardour.NotonlydidLati noccupy aconsiderablylargercurricular sharethanGreekattheschoolstheydirected,butmoreover,theywereknown asaccomplishedLatinstylists,whoproducedLatintreatises,poemsand speechesingreatnumbersthroughouttheirlives.⁴¹ Secondly, injustifying classical education,PurmannandSiebelis madenoessentialdistinctionbetween LatinandGreek.Theyrecommendedthestudyof both GreekandRomanliteratureforitscapacitytocultivate “humanness ” (Humanität).Byenteringintoa dialoguewiththegreat authorsofthepast ,theybelievedonecouldbecomea betterpersonandrefineone’ssenseofbeautyandmorality.Thirdly, both teachersinsistedthatclassicaleducationnotonlyfocusontheinterpretationofclassicaltexts,butalsoontheacquisitionofeloquence.Theywerefirmlyconvinced thatstudentscouldrefineandennobletheirhumannaturebyimitatingtheclassicalmodels.Purmann’sandSiebelis ’ idealofclassicaleducation,then,wholly

 JohannGeorgPurmannproducedmanywritings,e.g.overa hundredGermanandLatin textsthatwereincludedinannualschoolprograms.Fortheliteraryoutputof KarlGottfried Siebelis,seetheintroduction to thenextchapter.

 Purmann,in: Archiv fürdieausübendeErziehungskunst (henceforth AAE)V (1779,part 3: 16 –8);Siebelis(1817: 97 f.).

 PurmanncomposedLatinpoemson avarietyof topicsthroughouthislife. Furthermore,he wrotehis autobiographyinLatinhexameters (printedinthe1814autumnprogramofthe Fr ankfurt Gymnasium). To Siebelis,a greatadmirerofCicero,Latinwaslikea secondmother tongue.NotonlydidhewidelypublishinLatin,buthealsowroteLatinletters to hispersonal friends.

lackedthetypically ‘neohumanistic’ prioritisationofGreekoverLatin.Intheir writings,thereishardlyany traceoftheexaltedadorationofGreekcultureor theabstractphilosophyoflanguagecharacteristicof ‘neohumanism.’ Yet, although Purmann’sandSiebelis’ idealofeducationcanhardlybecalled ‘neohumanistic,’ itwas emphaticallyhumanistic. Asingleglanceattheirwritingssuffices to seethattheidealof Humanität wasattheforefrontoftheirminds.They recommendedaboveallthestudyofclassical,particularlyLatinliterature,becausetheyexpectedittocontributetorefiningourcharacteristicallyhumanfeatures.Thus,thereissimplynoreason to assumethatPurmann’sandSiebelis’ adherencetoLatin-domina tedcurriculawascausedbyaninert reluctancetokeep pace withtheriseof ‘neohumanism.’ BothPurmannandSiebelissubscribed to a formofhumanismthatwasdistinctlymoretraditionalthanthatpropagatedby theirwell-known ‘neohumanistic’ colleagues.Sincethisformofhumanismwas infact verysimilartothatoftheirgreatRenaissanceforerunners – whosesayingstheyaddressedwithtellingregularityintheir writings – itisbestdescribed notas ‘neo-’ butas ‘classicalhumanism.’⁴²

It isalsoimportan ttonotethestrikingsimilarityoftheidealsofclassical educationsetforthbyPurmannandSiebelis.Although onecouldpointto minorshiftsofemphasis,⁴³ thecoreargumentsinfavourofclassicaleducation arepreciselythesame.Educationalpractice,asfarasthiscanbejudgedfrom the availablesources,alsoseemstohave remainedlargely unchanged.⁴⁴ Since theprofessionalactivityofbothmenspannednearlya full century,theideal ofclassica leducationinthisperiodseemsnotonlytohavebeen traditional, but remarkably constant aswell. It isjustifiabletopresume,then,thatinthehistoriographyofclassicaleducation,disproportionateattentionhasbeenpaidto the ‘neohumanistic’ theoryofeducationthatwascloselycorrelated withthe emergenceofclassicalstudiesas aprofessional,academicdiscipline. It seems

 Ontherelationbetween19th-centuryclassicalhumanismandRenaissancehumanism,see alsobelow,p.52 – 7.

 Purmann,forexample,laidmuchemphasisontheconceptoftaste,whichenjoyedwide popularityinthelate18th century.Siebelis,ontheotherhand,oftenstressedthatintheturbulentpoliticalandsocialclimateofthe1830sclassicalstudies,ifproperlyconducted,could contributetostrengtheningChristianmorality.

 Thiscanbejudged,forexample,froma comparisonbetweenPurmann’sdetailedaccountof thewaytheclassicsweretaughtatthe Frankfurt Gymnasium in 1772 andSiebelis’ accountof 1843. See J. Purmann, Kurze Beschreibungdergegenwärtigen,innern VerfassungdesGymnasiizu FrankfurtamMayn (1772);K.G.Siebelis, KurzeLebensbeschreibungdesM.Carl GottfriedSiebelis, Rector samGymnasium zu BudissinundRittersdesKönigl.Sächs.Civilverdienstordens,vonihm selbstabgefasst (1843).

tohave beenlargely neglectedthattomostpracticalschoolteachers,thiscomplex,philosophicaltheoryofeducationwasonlyofmarginalimportance.⁴⁵

Theparadigmofmodernity

Beforesettingouthow Iwillattemptinthisbooktodiscusstheidealofclassical educationasconceivedandtransmittedbypracticalschoolteachers,itisworth consideringthatthepivotalsignificancecommonlyassignedto ‘neohumanism’ originatesfrom amarkedtendencyamongmoder nscholarstolookuponclassicaleducationfromtheperspective ofmodernity.Thelate18th andearly19th centuriesarenowad ayswidelyconsideredtobecharacterisedbytheriseoftheprofessionalmiddleclass,the genesisofliberalcivilsocietyandtheemergenceof themodernbureaucraticstate.Classicaleducationisalso mostlystudiedfrom theseperspectives. Wolf ’s ‘neohumanistic’ attempt to defendGreekeducation asanabsolutevalueinitselfshouldbeseenagainstthebackgroundofanunprecedentedoccupationaldifferentiationthatmadeclassicaleducationseem uselesstoincreasingnumbersofprofessionals.Humboldt’sidealofmakingclassicaleducationcontributetothecultivationofindividuality,freedom,andequalitypointsforwardtomodernliberalsocietyinmorethanonerespect .Finally, the gradualdeclineofthe ‘neohumanistic’ idealfromthe1830sonwardsisclosely connectedtothetransformationofthehumanistic Gymnasium into atraining groundforofficialsofthemodernbureaucraticstate.Thepredominantattention paidto ‘neohumanism,’ then,pointstotheunderlyingaimofexposingclassical

 Thedangerofattachingdisproportionateattentiontoexceptionalfiguresclearlyemerges fromKlausSochatzy’sbook DasNeuhumanistischeGymnasiumunddierein-menschliche Bildung (1973). Init ,Sochatzyconceivedakindofmanifestocontainingthetenidentifying “theses” of whathecalled “strictneohumanism” (147 – 9). AccordingtoSochatzy,oneonlyqualifiedasa “strictneohumanist,” when,amongotherthings,oneconsidered1)GreeksuperiortoLatin, 2) theGreeksasincarnating ‘purehumanness;’ 3) agrammarschool ametaphysicalinstitution, 4)Greekhistorythe ‘childhoodofmankind;’ 5)theGermannationcommissionedwiththenoble taskto “rescuehumanity.” InSochatzy’sview,strictneohumanism “cameto aclearvictory” in the19th century,whereasother,moremoderateformsofneohumanismremainedrelatively impotent(156).Inreality, however,therehasneverexisted agroupofclassicistsconsidering themselvestobe “strictneohumanists,” letalone amanifestoidentifyingthemassuch.Significantly, Sochatzycouldfindnomorethansix(!)Germanclassicistswhometalltenrequirementsof “strictneohumanism” (Gottfried Hermann, FriedrichThiersch,FranzPassow, Reinhold Jachmann,Ernst AugustEversand FriedrichNiethammer(2 2)).Inother words,the countlessclassicistsfallingoutsidethisgroup,i.e.almost all classicistsatthetime,heinterpretedasdeviatingfromanorm whichbarelyexistedatall.

education’sinterrelationwiththe genesisofmodernsociety.⁴⁶ Thecurrenttendency to lookuponthelate18th and19th centurieschieflyfrom aperspective ofmodernityisfoundamonghistoriansofwidelydifferentsignatureandhas beenfrequentlyobservedbytheoristsofhistoriography, mostnotablybyArno Mayerin ThePersistenceoftheOld Regime (1981) .Inthisbook,Mayerdemonstratesthattheinnovatoryforcesin19th-centur yEuropeansocietywerenotnearly asomnipotentasiscommonlyassumed. “Fortoolong,” Mayerwrites, “historianshave focusedexcessively ontheadvanceofscienceand technology, of industrialandworldcapitalism,ofthebourgeoisieandprofessionalmiddle class,ofliberalcivilsociety,ofdemocraticpoliticalsociety,andofcultura lmodernism.Theyhave beenfarmore preoccupiedwiththeseforcesofinnovation andthemakingofthenewsocietythan withtheforcesofinertiaand resistance thatslowedthewaningoftheoldorder.”⁴⁷ Inhisbook,Mayerdemonstratesin greatdetailthatinallmajor respects – economics,politics,culture,world-view –19th-centur yEurope remainedpervadedbythehierarchicpowerstructu resinheritedfromthe anciensrégimes andbycorrespondingnobilitarian modesof thought. AsMayerargues,thefundamentalproblemwiththecommonapproach tothe19th centur yisthatitfailstoacknowledge theactualstrengthandresilienceoftheomnipresentforcesofhistoricalperseverance.Byanexclusive focusonthemakingofthenewsociety,theseforcesofperseveranceareeither seenasunimportantrelicsof adyingpast ,orasdelaying,derangingandcomplicating the inevitableadvanceofmodernsociety.⁴⁸ Such aviewmighteasily leadto askewedreadingofhistory,since,asMayerputsit, “the ‘premodern’ element s[in19th-centurysociety]werenotthedecayingandfragileremnantsofan allbutvanishedpast ,butthe veryessenceofEurope’sincumbentcivilandpoliticalsocieties.”⁴⁹

 Thisaimunderliesnearlyallstudiesonthetransformationofclassicalscholarshipintoa modernacademicdiscipline.Itisalsolatentinmanystudies(mostofthemfromthe1960sand 1970s)with asociologicalorientationtowardsthechangingsocialandpoliticalsignificanceof the Gymnasium. Seee.g. L. O’Boyle, ‚KlassischeBildungundSozialeStrukturinDeutschland zwischen1800und1848,’ in: HistorischeZeitschrift 207(1968:584 – 608);K.-E. Jeismann, Das preußischeGymnasiuminStaatundGesellschaft, 2vol.(1974/1996); D.K.Müller, Sozialstruktur undSchulsystem.AspektezumStrukturwandeldesSchulwesensim19.Jahrhunderts (1977);M. Kraul, GymnasiumundGesellschaftim Vormärz.NeuhumanistischeEinheitsschule,städtische GesellschaftundsozialeHerkunftderSchüler (1980); P. Lundgreen, SozialgeschichtederdeutschenSchuleimÜberblick, Teil I: 1770 – 1918 (1980).

 Mayer(1981:4).

 Ibid.5

 Ibid. 5f.

Mayer’sviewpointcanwellbeappliedtothehistoriographyofclassica leducation. Forthestrikingfocusontheinnovatoryfeaturesof18th-and19th-century humanismisparalleledbyanequallystrikingneglectof,orindifference to,its traditionalfeatu res.Themaking ofmodernsocietyis generallyconsideredof suchoverridingimportancethattheentirehistoryofclassicaleducationisusuallyunderstoodfromthisperspective.Nothingprovesthisbetterthanthefact thatthecontinuedpredominanceoftraditionalLatineducation,ifdeemed worthmentioni ng atall,isnearlyalwaysinterpretedasprovingthefailureof progressive, ‘neohumanistic’ ideals. It ishardlyeverrecognisedthatcontinuing thetraditionofLatineducationispreciselywhatmosthumanistssought to do.⁵⁰

Structureandmethod

Inthisbook Iintend to discusstheidealofclassica leducationpropagatedand transmittedbypracticalschoolteachersintheperiod 1770 – 1860.Since Ihave foundthisidealofeducation to have beenstrikingly continuousthroughout thisperiod, Iwillintroducethis topiconthebasisof acasestudy. Thefirst partof my bookhighlightstheidealofclassicaleducationpropagatedby Karl GottfriedSiebelis(1769 – 1843),whomwehave alreadymet .Siebelis’ idealof classica leducationcanbeseenasan ‘idealtype’ ofhumanismthatwasbroadly representative fortheperiodinquestion.Sinceitwasemphaticallyconceivedas a continuation ofRenaissancehumanism, Ichoosenot to describeitas ‘neo-‘ but ratheras classicalhumanism.

Inthesecondpartof my book Iwillinvestigatehowthisclassical-humanistic idealofeducationwaschallengedby anumberofmajorintellectualandsocial developments:theriseof anewconceptof ‘science,’ theriseofthe Bürgerschule andtheriseofChristiancritiqueontheallegedpagancharacterofthehumanistic Gymnasien. Iwillargue that thesedevelopmentsarebestunderstood,notas being opposed toclassicalhumanism,butastendingtostretchitsboundaries.In thecourseoftheperiodinquestion,variousnewperspectivesonclassicalstudieswere incorporated intotheclassical-humanisticidealofeducation.As Iwill

 Mineisnotthefirststudytounderlinethecontinuityoftraditionalwaysoflookingat classicalantiquity.OnthepersistenceofclassicalhumanismattheDutchuniversitiesup to 1850,see J.P. Guépin, HetHumanisme 1350 – 1850(1993)and TypischNederlands.DeLatijnse Poëzie (1993).Onthecontinuedimportanceofclassical exemplavirtutis amongtheDutchrevolutionariesduringthe Batavianrevoltof1795, see W.R.E. Velema, OmstredenOudheid.De Nederlandseachttiendeeeuwendeklassiekepolitiek (2009).

argue,itwasaboveallbyitsmarked adaptability thatclassica lhumanismsucceededinsecuringitssurvivalfarintothe19th century.

Since my focusisonan ‘idealtype’ ofclassicalhumanismas representedby averageschoolteachers, Ihaveavoidedattachingprimar yimportance to the handfulofwell-knownandeasilyavailablewritingsbyexceptionalfigures suchas Wolfand Humboldt .Instead, Ihaveprimarilyfocusedonothersources: thenumerouslocallypublishe dspeeches,schoolprograms,essaysandpamphletswrittenby regionalschoolteachers,oftenaddressinga restricted,local readership.As arule,suchtexts,directedastheyweretowardssympathetic audiences,attractedlittleopposition,whichiswhytheyfrequentlyand rapidlyfell intooblivion.However,itisnotdespite,but because oftheirobscuritythatsuch textsarevaluabletous.The veryfactthattheyusually wentunopposedmightbe takenasevidencethattheircontent waswidelyshared. Ihavealsoamplydrawn onarticlesonclassica leducationpublishedinjournals,magazinesanddaily newspapers.Secondly, IhavedeliberatelyavoidedfocusingprimarilyonPrussia in generalandthePrussianreformer ainparticular,asmostscholarsbefore me have done.AsManfredLandfesterhasshown,thepublicdebateonclassica leducationwasanemphatically “pan-Germanphenomenon.”⁵¹ Notonlywerethe debatesconductedfarbeyondstateboundaries,butmoreover,therewas alively movementofclassica lhumanistsacrossGermany, especiallyinthe19th centur y. Inviewofthispan-Germancharacter,I have drawnfrom textsfromwidelydifferentprovenance:NorthernandSouthe rn,urbanand regional,CatholicandProtestant ,etc.

Thirdly, since my aimwastoconstructan averageidealofclassicaleducation,itwasofparticularimportancetoconsultalarge numberofprimarysources. Thus, my accountisbasedon acorpusofroughly450primarytexts,mostof whichdatefrom 1770 to 1860.Yet Ihaverestricted myselfinthreeways: firstly, since my goalistodescribethe public opinionaboutclassicaleducation, Ihave mainlydrawnonpublishedsources.Secondly, Ifocuson Gymnasium insteadof universityeducationforthefollowingreason:up to the19th centur y, providing classical-humanisticeducationwasthetaskbothofwhatwenowcallsecondary schoolsandofthe artes-facultiesoftheuniversities.Althoughthephilosophical facultyoftheGermanuniversitiesdidnotofficiallyabandonthisfunction,from theearly19th centur yonwardsitwasanincreasinglyambivalentplaceasitofferedscopefortheprofessionalisationofclassica lscholarshi pthat ,aswewill see,posed aseriouschallengetothehumanisticidealofclassicaleducation. Fortheschola rinterestedinclassicalhumanism,thephilosophicalfacultyis

Landfester(1988:12).

thereforenotthebestplacetolook.Myfocuswillthereforebemainlyonthe Gymnasien.

Finally, although classica lhumanismdominatedGermaneducationright down to theGreat War, Iconfine myselfinthisbooktotheperiodofitsgreatest heyday: c. 1770 – 1860.Bytheendofthe19th century,anextensive networkof Realschulen and Bürgerschulen hadevolvedalongsidethehumanistic Gymnasien andhadbrokenthelatter’smonopolyonuniversityaccessforatleast aselect numberofstudies. Besides, alarge arr ay of technischeHochschulen provided professionalinstructionintheappliedsciencesandinengineering,topicsconsciouslyshunne dbythehumanistical ly orienteduniversities. Aboveall,inthe wakeoftheGermanunification,thegreatestupsurge ofclassicalenthusiasm hadpassed.Emperor WilhelmIIfamouslystatedthathewanted “toeducatenational youngGermans,andnotGreeksorRomans.”⁵² Besides,thearenawasenteredbypeoplewhoopenlydeclarededucationinthenaturalsciences to besuperiortoclassica leducation.⁵³ Bythe1900s,then,theclassics’ traditional supremacywasatleastseriouslycontested. Ithereforefocusontheperiodin whichdownrighthostile voicesasthosementionedabovewerestill very rarely heard.

 ’WilhelmII.,EröffnungsansprachezurSchulkonferenz1890,’ in:G.Giese(Hg.): Quellenzur deutschenSchulgeschichteseit1800,(Göttingen1961: 196f.).

 AfamousexampleisthephysicistandphilosopherErnstMach(1838 – 1916), whodeemed mathematicsandnaturalsciencesofgreatereducationalbenefitthanphilologicalsubjects.See e. g. Mach(1886,esp.p.20).

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TABLE DES MATIÈRES

LA BELLE QUE VOILA...

OUVRAGES DU MÊME AUTEUR

Maria Chapdelaine, 650ᵉ édition (Bernard Grasset, éditeur).

EN PRÉPARATION

Monsieur Ripois et la Némésis. Battling Malone.

LOUIS HÉMON

LA BELLE

QUE VOILA...

PARIS

BERNARD GRASSET, ÉDITEUR

61, Rue des Saints-Pères, 61

1923

CET OUVRAGE A PARU PRÉCÉDEMMENT DANS LES «CAHIERS VERTS» PUBLIÉS A LA LIBRAIRIE GRASSET, SOUS LA DIRECTION

DE DANIEL HALÉVY; LE TIRAGE A ÉTÉ DE 30 EXEMPLAIRES

SUR PAPIER VERT LUMIÈRE, 100 EXEMPLAIRES SUR PAPIER

PUR FIL LAFUMA ET 6.600 EXEMPLAIRES SUR VERGÉ BOUFFANT TOUS NUMÉROTÉS DE 1 A 6730; DIX EXEMPLAIRES ONT

ÉTÉ TIRÉS SUR VÉLIN PUR FIL LAFUMA CRÈME (HORS COMMERCE),

NUMÉROTÉS H. C. 1 A H. C. 10

EXCEPTIONNELLEMENT IL A ÉTÉ TIRÉ EN PLUS TRENTE EXEMPLAIRES

SUR JAPON NUMÉROTÉS DE A à A D ET CENT EXEMPLAIRES

SUR HOLLANDE VAN GELDER NUMÉROTÉS DE A B à B A

LE TOUT CONSTITUANT L’ ÉDITION ORIGINALE

Tous droits de traduction, de reproduction et d’adaptation réservés pour tous pays.

Copyright by Bernard Grasset, 1923.

LA BELLE QUE VOILA...

LA BELLE QUE VOILA...

Ils se regardaient par-dessus la petite table ronde du café avec des sourires de cordialité forcée, et malgré le tutoiement qu’ils avaient repris, sans réfléchir, dans la première surprise de leur rencontre, ils ne trouvaient vraiment rien à se dire.

Les mains sur ses genoux écartés, le ventre à l’aise, Thibault répétait distraitement:

—Ce vieux Raquet! Voyez-vous ça! Comme on se retrouve!

Raquet, recroquevillé sur sa chaise, les jambes croisées, le dos rond, répondait d’une voix fatiguée:

—Oui... Oui... Quinze ans qu’on ne s’était vu, hein? Quinze ans! Ça compte!

Et quand ils avaient dit cela, ils détournaient les yeux ensemble et regardaient les gens passer sur le trottoir.

Thibault songeait: «Voilà un bonhomme qui n’a pas l’air de manger à sa faim tous les jours!»

Raquet contemplait à la dérobée la mine prospère de son ancien camarade, et d’involontaires grimaces d’amertume plissaient sa figure maigre.

Le sol du boulevard était encore luisant de pluie; mais les nuages se dispersaient peu à peu, découvrant le ciel pâle du soir. Au delà de l’ombre qui s’épaississait entre les maisons, l’on pouvait presque suivre du regard la course de la lumière qui s’enfonçait dans ce ciel, fuyant, fuyant éperdûment la surface triste de la terre.

Séparés par la petite table de marbre, les deux hommes continuaient à échanger des exclamations distraites:

—Ce vieux Raquet!—Ce vieux Thibault!

Et ils détournaient les yeux.

Maintenant la nuit était venue, et dans la lumière chaude du café ils causaient sans gêne, presque avec animation. Ils repêchaient dans leur mémoire, l’un après l’autre, tous les gens qu’ils avaient connus autrefois, et chaque souvenir commun les rapprochait un peu, comme s’ils rajeunissaient ensemble.

«Un tel? Etabli quelque part... commerçant... fonctionnaire... Cet autre? A fait un beau mariage; grosse fortune; vit avec la famille de sa femme, en Touraine... La petite Chose? Mariée aussi; on ne savait pas trop à qui... Son frère? Disparu. Personne n’en avait entendu parler...»

«Et la petite Marchevel... dit Thibault. Tu te souviens bien de la petite Marchevel... Liette... que nous retrouvions aux vacances. Elle est morte; tu as su?»

«J’ai su» fit Raquet; et ils se turent.

Le heurt des soucoupes sur le marbre des tables, les voix, les bruits de pas, le fracas confus du boulevard: ils n’entendaient plus rien de tout cela; et ils ne se voyaient plus l’un l’autre. Un souvenir avait tout balayé; un de ces souvenirs si réels, si poignants, que l’on s’étire en en sortant comme si l’on sortait d’un rêve. Le souvenir d’un grand jardin, d’une pelouse ceinturée d’arbres, baignée de soleil, où jouaient des enfants... Sur cette pelouse, ils étaient quelquefois beaucoup d’enfants, toute une foule d’enfants, garçons et filles, et d’autres fois, ils n’étaient que deux ou trois. Mais toujours Liette, la petite Liette était là. Les jours où Liette n’était pas là n’avaient jamais valu qu’on se souvînt d’eux...

Thibault épousseta son genou d’un geste machinal:

—C’était une belle propriété, dit-il, qu’ils avaient là, les Marchevel. Ils arrivaient toujours de Paris le 13 juillet, et ils ne repartaient qu’en octobre. Tu les voyais à Paris, toi, c’est vrai! Mais nous, les campagnards, nous ne les avions guère que trois mois par an.

«Tout est vendu maintenant, et c’est tellement changé que tu ne t’y reconnaîtrais plus. Quand Liette est morte, n’est-ce pas, ça a tout bouleversé. Tu ne l’avais peut-être pas vue après son mariage, toi, puisqu’elle était allée habiter dans le Midi. Elle avait changé très vite, toute jolie fille qu’elle était, et la dernière fois qu’elle est venue là-bas...

—Non! fit Raquet avec un geste brusque. Je... J’aime mieux ne pas savoir.

Sous le regard étonné de son ancien camarade, sa figure hâve s’empourpra un peu.

—C’est toujours la même chose, dit-il. Les femmes qu’on a connues autrefois, petites filles ou jeunes filles, et qu’on retrouve plus tard, mariées, avec des enfants peut-être, elles sont toutes changées, naturellement. Une

autre, cela me serait égal, mais Liette... je ne l’ai jamais revue, et j’aime mieux ne pas savoir.

Thibault continuait à le regarder, et voici que sur sa figure épaisse l’air d’étonnement disparut peu à peu, faisant place à une autre expression presque pathétique.

—Oui! fit-il à demi-voix. C’est vrai qu’elle n’était pas comme les autres, Liette! Il y avait quelque chose...

Les deux hommes restaient silencieux, retournés à leur souvenir.

Ce jardin!... La maison de pierre grise; les grands arbres du fond, et entre les deux la pelouse à l’herbe longue, jamais tondue, où l’on pourchassait les sauterelles! Et le soleil! En ce temps-là il y avait toujours du soleil. Des enfants arrivaient par l’allée qui longeait la maison, ou bien descendaient le perron marche par marche, avec prudence, mais en se dépêchant, et couraient vers la pelouse de toutes leurs forces. Une fois là, il n’y avait plus rien de défendu. L’on était dans un royaume de féerie, gardé, protégé de toutes parts par les murs, les arbres, toutes sortes de puissances bienveillantes qu’on sentait autour de soi, et c’étaient des cris et des courses, une sarabande ivre en l’honneur de la liberté et du soleil. Puis Liette s’arrêtait et disait, sérieuse:

—Maintenant, on va jouer!

Liette... Elle portait un grand chapeau de paille qui lui jetait une ombre sur les yeux, et quand on lui parlait, pour dire de ces paroles d’enfant qui sont d’une si extraordinaire importance, on venait tout près d’elle et on se baissait un peu en tendant le cou, pour bien voir sa figure au fond de cette ombre. Quand elle se faisait sérieuse tout à coup, l’on s’arrêtait court et l’on venait lui prendre la main, pour être sûr qu’elle n’était pas fâchée, et quand elle riait, elle avait l’air un peu mystérieux et doux d’une fée qui prépare d’heureuses surprises.

L’on jouait à toutes sortes de jeux splendides, où il y avait des princesses et des reines, et cette princesse ou cette reine, c’était Liette, naturellement. Elle avait fini par accepter le titre toujours offert sans plus se défendre, mais elle s’entourait d’un nombre prodigieux de dames d’honneur, qu’elle comblait de faveurs inouïes, de peur qu’elles ne fussent jalouses. D’autres fois, elle forçait doucement les garçons à jouer à des jeux «de filles», des jeux à rondes et à chansons, qu’ils méprisaient. Ils tournaient en se tenant par la main, prenant d’abord des airs maussades et moqueurs. Mais, à force

de regarder Liette qui se tenait debout au milieu de la ronde, sa petite figure toute blanche dans l’ombre du grand chapeau de paille, ses yeux qui brillaient doucement, ses jeunes lèvres qui formaient les vieilles paroles de la chanson comme autant de moues tendres, ils cessaient peu à peu de se moquer, et chantaient aussi sans la quitter des yeux:

Nous n’irons plus au bois Les lauriers sont coupés, La belle que voilà

Ils s’étaient séparés et ils avaient vieilli, beaucoup d’entre eux sans jamais se revoir. Mais ceux qui se rencontraient bien des années plus tard, n’avaient qu’à prononcer un nom pour se rappeler ensemble les années mortes et leur poignant parfum de jeunesse, pour revoir la petite fille aux yeux tendres qui tenait sa cour entre la maison et les grands arbres sombres, sur la pelouse marbrée de soleil.

Thibault soupira et dit à demi-voix comme se parlant à lui-même:

—Le cœur humain est tout de même une drôle de machine! Me voilà, moi, marié, père de famille, et le reste! Eh bien! Quand je pense à cette petite-là et au temps où nous étions jeunes ensemble, ça ramène d’un coup toutes les choses bêtes auxquelles on songe à seize ans: les grands sentiments, les grands mots, ces histoires comme on en voit dans les livres. Ça ne veut rien dire tout ça; mais, rien que de penser à elle, c’est comme si on la voyait, et voilà que ces machines-là vous reviennent dans la tête, tout comme si c’étaient des choses qui comptent!

Il se tut un instant, et regarda son camarade curieusement.

—Et toi! dit-il, qui devais la voir plus que moi, je parierais bien que tu as été un peu amoureux d’elle dans les temps?

Raquet se tenait courbé vers la table, les coudes sur les genoux, et regardait le fond de son verre. Après quelques instants de silence, il répondit doucement:

—Je ne suis ni marié, ni père de famille, et toutes ces choses qui vous hantent à seize ans, et que les hommes de bon sens oublient ensuite, je ne les ai jamais oubliées.

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