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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is dedicated to Neil Postman, an amazing scholar, who never completely understood visual communication, although he was able to critique it. No book is ever completed without assistance from others. First, I would like to thank The College of Liberal Arts at the Rochester Institute of Technology for funding my graduate assistant, Bonnie McCracken. I would like to thank her for her work on helping me prepare this manuscript. Second, the reviewer of the text needs my thanks for providing helpful suggestions. Finally, I want to thank Mary Savigar for believing in this project when other editors did not. This book has been a ten-year process So, I give a special thanks to everyone that helped along the way.
For the revised version of the text, I would like to thank Kathryn Harrison from Peter Lang Publishing for her continued support of visual research.
instructional techniques that enhance visual thinking.
A further argument for the study of visual communication can be found in both the historical and contemporary development of interfaces designed for computer-based communication. The original development of graphical user interfaces, such as Windows and the Macintosh, was based on the work of Piaget and Bruner. These interfaces combine visual and verbal symbol systems together to create what J. David Bolter (1991) called a new picture writing: “Reorganizing and activating [iconic] elements is writing, just as putting alphabetic characters in a row is writing” (p. 51).
In addition to developing new symbol systems, interface researchers Byron Reeves and Clifford Nass (1996) discovered that people often respond to media in similar ways in which they react to ← ix | x → people and places. Although this notion may seem strange, consider how many people who live alone watch television while they eat. Or, think about the ways in which people talk about their computers. Similarly, Joshua Meyrowitz’s (1985) research on television and space, Gumpert and Cathcart’s (1986) seminal book Intermedia, and current theories relating to the Internet presented in Strate, Jacobson, and Gibson’s (1996) Communication and Cyberspace described the blurring boundaries between physical space and mediated cyberspace.
Of growing importance in the contemporary media landscape is visual communication. Contemporary culture is dominated by visual imagery, especially images created, distributed, and consumed through digital technologies. This has led many scholars to argue that contemporary culture is a visual one Nicholas Mirzoeff (1998) defines visual culture as a concern with visual events in which individuals seek information and meaning through interaction with a visual technology, including magazines, television, computer screens, and virtual reality. In contrast to this trend, Western culture has tended to privilege the spoken and written word as the highest form of intellectual practice Visual representations have tended to be viewed as talents rather than forms of intelligence. But, the widespread usage of visual imagery is currently challenging the hegemony of the word. As a result, the study of visual forms of communication is more important than ever.
Scholars have recognized the changing role of visual imagery in culture. For example, E. H. Gombrich (1999) asserted that there is an overriding demand for images in Western culture. For instance, homes that lack television sets are considered deprived. He argues that the relationship between image and society can be viewed as an ecological system social situations influence image making and vice versa. According to Gombrich (1999), this interplay can be compared to “the influence of the environment on the various forms of life” (p. 10). Visual society could be considered an ecological niche that favors visual forms of communication over verbal ones.
their own set of principles. Additionally, new theories are emerging for the study of digital forms of visual communication (see Bolter & Grusin, 1999). Although certain theories are often associated with particular visual media, many of these ideas can be applied to other media. For example, various visual theories could be applied to the World Wide Web, which supports both personal web pages and the distribution of microcinema. Consequently, this text does not attempt to propose one “grand theory” of visual communication, but rather, it attempts to present an overview of many theoretical approaches and ideas that have guided researchers in the analysis of visual symbols, their meaning, and their relationship to culture. As James Carey (1989) asserts, “Communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed” (p. 23). In contemporary communication environments, visual symbols are becoming a predominant form of cultural expression; as a result, the production, distribution, and reception of visual messages should be studied as an integral part of the communication discipline.
Since the originally writing of this text, visual images have proliferated in modern society. Several changes include the widespread use of personal images called “selfies”, which are transmitted through smart phones and the Internet; the increased mobility of television, films, and YouTube videos displayed on hand-held devices; and the increased availability of virtual reality technology. These developments have further promoted the images as a form of communication over the written word.
Overview of the Book
The first chapter of this book defines visual communication and examines the relationship between visual communication theory and cognitive science. The remainder of the book is divided into three parts: Part I: Developing Visual Literacy Skills, Part II: Understanding Visual Media, and Part III: Visual Communication in Cultural Contexts. Because there are more chapters than weeks in a semester, teachers can pick and choose which chapters to study. For example, Chapters 1–6, 8, 9, and 11 are recommended for a focus on Visual Literacy. Digital media are featured in Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, and 12. For more of a media focus, Chapters 7–11 describe specific types of media. For the cultural perspective, Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 13, and 14 discuss culture. However, most chapters have a section on digital technology and cultural change.
There are special features in the book. First, a number of “Boxed Topics” are included that enable artists, designers, and scholars to speak about their own works. Terms and websites are noted at the end of each chapter, along with suggestions for student exercises Finally, during the course of the research for this book, a number of YouTube videos were located that
illustrate the designer, developer, or concept being discussed in the book. These video addresses are provided with key terms to help find them at YouTube (http://www youtube com) This book introduces students to visual literacy terminology, methods for analyzing visual media, and theories on the relationship between visual communication and culture. By exploring both the meanings associated with visual symbols and the relationship of visual communication to culture, the goal of this book is to provide students with methods to better understand the visually oriented world in which they live.
References
Bolter, J. D. (1991). Writing space. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bolter, J. D., & Grusin, R. (1999). Remediation: Understanding new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bruner, J S (1966) Towards a theory of instruction Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Carey, J. W. (1989). Communication as culture. New York, NY: Routledge. ← xi | xii →
Gardner, H (1983) Frames of mind: The theories of multiple intelligences New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gombrich, E H (1999) The uses of images: Studies in the social function of art and visual communication London: Phaidon
Goodman, N. (1968). Languages of art: An approach to a theory of symbols. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill
Gumpert, G., & Cathcart, R. (1986). Intermedia: Interpersonal communication in a media world (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Langer, S. K. (1957). Philosophy in a new key. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Lester, P. (2011). Visual communication: Images with messages (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth
Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Mirzoeff, N (1998) The visual culture reader New York, NY: Routledge
Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge: An essay on the relations between organic regulations and cognitive processes. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, K , Moriarty, S , Barbatsis, G , & Kenney, K (2005) Handbook of visual communication: Theory, methods, and media. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Strate, L , Jacobson, R , & Gibson, S (1996) Communication and cyberspace Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press
Sturken, M., & Cartwright, L. (2001). Practices of looking: An introduction to visual culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Zettl, H. (1990). Sight sound motion: Applied media aesthetics (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadseorth.
CHAPTER
Digital Visual Communication Theory
Visual communication is a fundamental human experience. Visual symbolism originates at the dawn of civilization to meet the need for human expression and since has played an integral role in culture and communication. We use imagery for a variety of reasons, including the expression of cosmic anguish, the urge to play, art for art’s sake, the desire to represent the physical world in an imaginary virtual one, and to sell products. In primitive times, humans visualized their relationship to the world through animal drawings and symbols. Their prehistoric cave paintings portray their relationships to their environment that provides insight into primitive attitudes toward the cosmos, humankind, and eternal values. Similarly, the visual images in today’s culture reflect our own current values, beliefs, and attitudes toward our own environment. The persistence and ubiquity of visual symbols clearly shows their importance to cultures throughout history, but these same qualities make the study of visual communication seem daunting. The best place to begin, then, is with the most basic question: What is visual communication?
Defining Visual Communication
Currently, visual communication is so pervasive in our lives that we often take it for granted. In fact, many books on the subject forget to define the term itself. Therefore, we must first look to a general description of human
Author’s illustration. ← 2 | 3 →
Today’s environment is filled with so many different visual media that it is
Figure 1–1: Drawing from a piece of cave art of three animals moving in a circular composition.
difficult to list them all The messages distributed through these media vary a great deal. Some messages are designed to help us navigate our natural environment, such as traffic signs or GPS systems Others are developed to support our social and economic institutions; for instance, advertising is created to sell products and services. Still other visual messages, like greeting cards and children’s drawings, share personal feelings with the ones we love and when we combine these ideas together, we can define visual communication as the process through which individuals in relationships, organizations, and cultures interpret and create visual messages in response to their environment, one another, and social structures.
With this definition in mind, we can now understand how visual communication developed into a subject of study. The widespread use of television, which brought to our attention how individuals communicate visually, became a major topic of discussion in the 1970s. At that time, John L. Debes (1970) coined the term visual literacy and he organized the first national conference:
Visual literacy refers to a group of vision competencies a human being can develop by seeing. … The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects and/or symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communications. (p. 14)
Figure 1–2: Course party in Second Life (Barnes & Hair Advertising Course)
Visual literacy is a requirement for the understanding of visual communication and its visual messages. Moreover, becoming visually literate makes people more resistant to the manipulation and visual persuasion embedded in TV commercials, political campaigns, and advertisements. By learning about the devices and conventions used by the media industries to develop image-oriented messages, individuals can become aware of how meaning is created and they are less likely to uncritically accept visual messages Moreover, learning to “read” visual conventions and developing a vocabulary in which to discuss visual information helps individuals to better analyze and critique today’s increasingly mediated visual world.
Visual Communication Theory
During this past century, the work of many American scholars has contributed to our understanding of visual communication, including Nelson Goodman (1978), Suzanne Langer (1953, 1957), Jean Piaget ← 3 | 4 → (1971), Jerome Bruner (1966, 1986, 1990), Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 1999) and Ann Marie Barry (1997). Goodman’s philosophical work on media and symbol systems has contributed to our understanding of nonlinguistic symbols He identifies two types of symbol systems: notational and nonnotational. Notational systems have a unique set of separate characters that isolate the object or objects for which they stand. For example, the words in a language represent people, places, and things, and individual words are combined into sentences, paragraphs, and pages of text. Similarly, the notes written on a musical score represent sounds, and the separate notes can be combined in any number of different ways to create a musical composition. Simply stated, notational symbol systems can be broken down into smaller components. In contrast, nonnotational symbol systems cannot be broken down because the image cannot be divided into separate parts. Take, for example, the simple image of a smiley face. If the dots of the eyes were removed from the circle, they would lose their meaning as eyes because it is the relationship between all of the visual elements in a smiley face that communicates the idea of a face.
Philosopher Suzanne Langer makes a distinction between notational and denotational symbol systems. However, she uses the terms discursive and presentational forms instead of notational and nonnotational. Discursive forms, such as language and math, are composed of digital symbols or symbols that have an arbitrary relationships to the objects they represent, which is similar to notational symbols. For example, the words c-a-t- and g-at-o are arbitrary letter combinations that represent the same small furry animal. In contrast, presentational forms are not composed of arbitrary symbols because they represent their objects or call them to mind Presentational forms include drawings, paintings, photographs, and dance.
Analog symbols represent in their form important characteristics about the objects for which they stand. In communication theory, symbols that contain characteristics of their referents are called analogic because they are analogous or similar to what they represent. For example, road maps, portraits, and photographs are similar to the objects and people that they portray. Often, analogic symbols represent the structure of relations among parts of an object abstracted by the mind. For instance, the smiley face “brings to mind a human face, not because real human faces are composed of three black dots and a curve, but because the structural relationship among the dots and the curve in the symbol corresponds to the structural relationship among eyes, nose, and mouth that the mind abstracts from the sensory perception of human faces” (Nystrom, 2000, p. 28). In contrast, digital symbols are arbitrary because there is no relationship between the symbol and the object it represents. Language is an example of a digital symbol system because words do not “look” like the objects to which they refer. Moreover, there is no particular reason why the letters f-a-c-e were combined together to denote a particular part of the human body.
Constructivist View
Besides developing a theory about symbol systems, Goodman argued for a constructivist philosophy that could be applied to science, art, and cognition. Constructivists believe “that contrary to common sense there is no unique ‘real world’ that preexists and is independent of human mental activity and human symbolic language; that what we call the world is a product of some mind whose symbolic procedures construct the world” (Bruner, 1986, p. 95). According to this view, perception occurs only within an individual’s set of
Figure 1–3: Analog and digital communication. Author’s illustration. ← 4 | 5 →
development of visual theory. His studies revealed that there is a point in child development in which the visual dominates the logical understanding of events Symbolic codes transparently structure our thoughts, actions, and view of the world. Piaget believed that children and adults have a single mentality that develops through three stages until it reaches the final stage of linguistic reasoning. The first stage is the doing stage, in which objects are grasped. Thinking in this stage is action, and children act without thinking ahead about the consequences As children grow, they move into an image stage around the age of 6. For example, when shown a squat glass of water poured into a tall, thin glass, children will say that there is more water in the tall glass rather than the squat one. This occurs because the child is being dominated by the visual image, and visual logic says there is more water in a tall glass. Around the age of 11 or 12, children progress to a stage of facts and logic in which they begin to move away from the immediacy of the visual environment. ← 5 | 6 →
Building on the work of Piaget, Jerome Bruner (1966) developed a theory about different representational stages of learning or different learning mentalities. Bruner studied children and concluded that there are three stages in which human beings translate experience into a working model of the world. Bruner called the first stage enactive, or learning through action. In the enactive stage, “representation is based, it seems, upon a learning of responses and forms of habituation” (Bruner, 1966, p. 11). The second stage, iconic, uses a “system of representation that depends on visual or other sensory organization and upon the use of summarizing images” (Bruner, 1966, pp 10–11) Finally, in the third stage, symbolic, “there is representation in words or language” (Bruner, 1966, p. 11). However, there is a major difference between iconic representation and symbolic representation. In symbolic representation, the words used to represent the world are arbitrary. The arbitrary meanings assigned to words introduce syntax and grammar into the process of perception:
We observe an event and encode it the dog bit the man From this utterance we can travel to a range of possible recodings did the dog bite the man or did he not? If he had not, what would have happened? And so on. Grammar also permits us an orderly way of stating hypothetical propositions that may have nothing to do with reality. (Bruner, 1966, pp. 11–12)
According to Bruner, the ability to view the world through language creates an idea of reality that is not possible with actions or images. However, despite their development through the symbolic stage, people continue to acquire knowledge through enactive (social-gestural) and iconic (spatial-visual) forms of representation. In contrast to Piaget’s view of a single mentality that goes through stages, Bruner argued that there are different mentalities in a single
mind.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner further developed the idea of different mentalities when he proposed his theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner’s (1983) theory describes a modular view of the human mind in which the mind is composed of separate organs or information-processing devices. In Frames of Mind, he argued for the existence of seven separate human intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Gardner (1999) defined intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings” (p. 33). The multiple intelligence theory is based on accumulating knowledge about the human brain and culture. Its goal is to conceptualize the cognitive aspects of the human mind as many semiindependent intelligences. These intelligences work together to enable people to develop their intellectual and social capabilities. People decide how they are going to constructively use their different intelligences, and they use these intelligences in different ways.
An important aspect of the theory of multiple intelligences is the recognition that knowledge acquisition and representation use a variety of intelligences and that all symbolic forms of representation are equally important. Symbolic forms are systems of knowledge, perception, and experience, including myth, arts, sciences, history, and religion. Symbol systems are defined by the ways in which their syntactic and semantic features are used symbolically Syntactic features are the ways in which letters, words, or symbols are put together to form words, sentences, or images, for example, the letters, in the alphabet, notes of a musical score, and the patterns of line and color in a painting. Semantic features are the ways in which we construct meaning from symbols. From the view of multiple intelligences, our minds use different symbol systems to make meaning of the world and these systems are provided by culture. However, different cultures may have different symbolic preferences. For example, American culture has a preference for visual symbols, and the widespread use of visual media in the United States has led some scholars to argue that a new type of visual intelligence has now emerged. However, this visual intelligence is influenced by our emotional reactions. ← 6 | 7 →
Box 1.1: In His Own Words: Howard Gardner
