INSiGHTS: Integrated Slow, Green and Healthy Tourism Strategies

INSiGHTS: Integrated Slow, Green and Healthy Tourism Strategies O 4.1 MODEL ON SLOW, GREEN & HEALTHY TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

June 2019

Document prepared by: Development Center of the Heart of Slovenia

O 4.1. MODEL ON SLOW, GREEN & HEALTHY TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS 1

Introduction .................................................................................................... 3 1.1 The INSiGHTS project ..................................................................................... 3 1.2 The model on tourism development ................................................................. 3

2

The model on Slow, Green & Healthy tourism development .................... 4 2.1 Three pillars ..................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Tourism strategy development ......................................................................... 5

3

The sub-model of integrated management schemes................................. 6 3.1 Theoretical background.................................................................................... 7 3.1.1 Definition of governance ................................................................................. 7 3.1.2 On good governance ...................................................................................... 8 3.1.3 Cooperative management and collective intelligence as models of good governance ..................................................................................................... 9 3.1.4 On cross-border governance ........................................................................ 10 3.1.5 Governance and tourism management ......................................................... 11

3.2 How to set up or improve a DMO and its governance structures ................... 13 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6

Definition of possible territorial boundaries ................................................... 14 Corporation: Defining DMO members and partnership ................................. 17 Planning the common future ......................................................................... 21 Definition of the management model ............................................................ 23 DMO: Defining the structure, roles and procedures ...................................... 29 Monitoring – A Task of DMO ........................................................................ 37

3.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 40

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The sub-model of tourism product and service development ................ 40 4.1 Theoretical Background ................................................................................. 41 4.2 The Sustainable Tourism Product Chain........................................................ 42 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

Definition of the tourism chain ....................................................................... 42 The tourism products .................................................................................... 43 Development of sustainable tourism products............................................... 46 Sustainability ................................................................................................ 51

4.3 Assessment of the Developed Product and its Positioning within the Local Suppy Chain.............................................................................................................. 58 4.3.1 Assessment of Products ............................................................................... 58 4.3.2 Positioning in the Tourism Chain .................................................................. 64

4.4 Certification .................................................................................................... 68 4.4.1 Certification Systems .................................................................................... 69

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4.5 Conclusion on product development .............................................................. 72

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The sub-model of how to channel the promotion into the touristic offer72 5.1.1 Reaching tourists through marketing and promotion ..................................... 73

5.2 Existing vs. possible new clients: to whom is the product advertised ............. 76 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4

Secondary Data Collection ........................................................................... 78 Primary Data Collection ................................................................................ 79 Identify your potential market ........................................................................ 84 Uniqueness versus unique experience ......................................................... 88

5.3 Marketing strategies and their essential components .................................... 90 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5

Identify your marketing goals (SMART) ........................................................ 92 Marketing Mix ............................................................................................... 94 Online Tools ................................................................................................101 Choosing Marketing and Promotional Tools ................................................107 Monitoring and Evaluation ...........................................................................108

5.4 Conclusion on marketing and promotion ...................................................... 109

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Good Practices and Lessons Learnt from the Pilot Actions ................. 110 6.1 Overview of the lessons learnt ..................................................................... 110 6.2 Conclusions of the lessons learnt for the Model ........................................... 111

Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 112

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1 Introduction 1.1 The INSiGHTS project INSiGHTS’ aim is to assist in improving participatory governance frameworks tackling responsible green tourism development, supporting bottom-up networks of tourism providers and generating quality-driven green tourism packages, which will attract more ecoconscious visitors. Improving the environmental attitude of all players within the complex tourism ecosystem will lead to a better balance between protection and sustainable exploitation of local resources, reduce the ecological footprint of destinations and also contribute considerably to sustainable socio-economic development for the benefit of local communities.

1.2 The model on tourism development The main questions to be answered by the INSIGHTS Model on Tourism Development were based on common needs and challenges on how to boost a responsible green tourism sector. Local policy-makers are well aware that competitiveness and sustainability of the tourism industry shall go hand-in-hand as the quality of destinations is strongly influenced by their natural and cultural environment. To avoid the threat of overusing valuable natural resources, negative environmental impacts of destinations and tourism-related transport must be limited and tourism development must be harmonised with the interests of nature and heritage protection. Therefore, fostering sustainable utilisation of natural and cultural heritage in order to preserve and upgrade the intact local resources providing an outstanding potential to make regions attractive destinations for healthy and slow tourism is the core message of this model.

In the INSIGHTS project the question on how to boost a responsible green tourism sector has been subsequently diverted into 3 main questions, challenging partners, experts, stakeholders and policy-makers in finding the most innovative and applicable answers: 1. How should an efficient, effective management of a destination look like?

2. How should touristic goods and services be designed and operated to be less harmful to the environment and residents and give a great experience to visitors?

3. How to promote sustainable touristic products and the approach to healthy lifestyles for the benefit of providers, locals and visitors?

The Model on Slow, Green and Healthy Tourism Development provides solutions for these questions pointing at the 3 major outcomes of the project, which are the sub-models that have been elaborated for compiling this model.

This model has been composed foremost for the stakeholders in destinations, with important natural and cultural heritage, to enhance their knowledge on the relevant topics of management, product development and promotion, which are detailed in the sub-models presented in chapter 2.1.

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Therefore the model is not addressed to a specific group, but is of interest for: Management (sub-model 1)

Product Development

Promotion (sub-model 3)

(sub-model 2) Policy-makers

X

Destination managers

X

X

X

Business sector

X

X

X

Science sector

X

NGOs

X

X

X

In addition, the model is of course of value for any kind of follow-up project on sustainable tourism within and beyond the Danube region.

2 The model on Slow, Green & Healthy tourism development 2.1 Three pillars DMO has a central role in the development of the tourism in the destination as a catalyser and coordinater. At the same time also represents the central governance body for the destination. We have designed the model on Slow, Green & Healthy tourism development on the three main pillars - governance, touristic products and marketing and promotion - which are crucial for the development of the modern tourist destination.

Based on three pillars, which has very different functions we have decided to split the development of the model into three separate sub-models where each sub-model is covering one pillar. The sub – models are in detail elaborated in the chapters 3 to 5: -

The sub-model of integrated management schemes

-

The sub-model of touristic products and services development

-

The sub-model of how to channel the promotion into the touristic offer

In the sub-model of integrated management schemes we aim to evaluate and improve the governance structure and leadership in the respective regions. We provide several tasks to evaluate the existing stucture, the management tasks and services provided by the DMO to facilitate the process with your stakeholders.

In the sub-model of touristic products and services development the specific objective is to increase, diversify, and coordinate the fragmented touristic supply into an integrated touristic network linked together by waterways, cycling and trekking trails as sustainable Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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slow travel chains. This supply shall be based on the natural, traditional and cultural assets of the region. It is to promote the integrated slow, green and healthy touristic offer along greenways via state-of-the-art ICT tools to reach new target groups and improve visibility of the touristic regions involved.

The focus is on product development, specifically on supply chains. Situated between strategy management, and marketing and promotion, it addresses developing products with special attention to forming joint products and joint supply chains through which the destinations can market themselves in networks. The product placement is a strategic step in which providers and planners have the opportunity to create stronger bonds between tourism providers on location and to strengthen the overall offer. This bond can lead to better integration of the products in the tourism region, a stronger regional identity and brand, and to a better projection of local culture and tradition.

In the sub-model of how to channel the promotion into the touristic offer we aim to address marketing and promotion in tourist destinations. This will be done by investigating the current and potential market, target groups, strategies and tools. The focus is on coordination on regional level, and promotion and marketing on larger scales aimed at selected target groups. It is to promote sensitization of visitors towards a healthy & ecoconscious lifestyle via sustainable tourism using smart methods on how to channel the promotion of green & healthy living into the touristic offer.

2.2 Tourism strategy development On three pillars based model on Slow, Green & Healthy tourism development is one of the last planning steps for tourism strategy development. Forming a useful and realistic strategy consists of multiple steps.

Marketing Promotion

Figure 1: Tourism Strategy Formation and Implementation

Within INSiGHTS these steps have been broken down into manageable and clear sections which take the developers and planners from initial idea to final strategy, marketing and promotion. In previous documents developed specifically for INSiGHTS everything from Awareness Raising to Product Development and Marketing has been covered. Each step

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was illustrated for users through inventories, manuals or models which assist in breaking these steps into conquerable measures. Table bellow gives an overview of the steps.

Step

Name

Manual/Document

I

Awareness Raising

Inventory of Policies related to Sustainable Tourism

II

Status Quo Analysis

Status Quo Synthesis

III

Analysis of Strengths and Weaknesses

Self-Assessment Manual

IV a

Vision Development

Regional Visions: Integrated development Concepts on Sustainable Tourism: Guidelines and Template; Assessment Tool and Reporting for National Tourism development Strategies

IV b

Strength based Strategies

Strategies for Integrated Development Concepts Sustainable Tourism: Guidelines and Template

V

New Product Development

Sustainable Tourism Product Development Walkshop, Digital Product Development

VI

Supply Chain & Product placement

Sub-model of integrated, slow, green & healthy tourism product development: smart tools & methods for coordinated sustainable tourism supply, linked to greenways and novel IT solutions promoting them

VII

Marketing and Promotion

Sub-model of sensitisation of visitors towards healthy & ecoconscious lifestyle via sustainable tourism: smart methods on how to channel the promotion of green & healthy living into the touristic offer

VIII

Governance

Sub-model of integrated management schemes tackling sustainable tourism: smart methods & tools for launching & operating multi-stakeholder destination & visitor management schemes.

on

Table 1: Tourism strategy planning steps and corresponding INSiGHTS documents

3 The sub-model of integrated management schemes This sub-model (full name: The sub-model of integrated management schemes tackling sustainable tourism: smart methods & tools for launching & operating multi-stakeholder destination & visitor management schemes) aims to evaluate and improve the governance structure and leadership in the respective regions. In order to do so the theoretical background is summarized. Against this background we provide several tasks to evaluate the existing stucture, the management tasks and services provided by the DMO to facilitate the process with your stakeholders.

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3.1 Theoretical background 3.1.1 Definition of governance The first decade of the 21st century experienced a shift of focus from 'government' (see ‘governmentality’ by Foucault, 1991) towards 'governance' (Taylor, 2002), where the former concentrates more on state entity itself and it rather represents a sovereign institution, while the latter might mean different and wide-ranging interpretations, like it is a social organization (March and Weil, 2005), it is a specific social practice (Bevir, 2012), it is a social practice that is embodied through decision-making which supports, reproduces or changes the existing social norms and/or institutions (Olsen, 2010). The former usually means an executive power and/or authority of a state itself, while the latter means much more than pure hierarchical power, but it rather reflects a network-related solutions, where the efficiency, proper functioning of the authority becomes the key denominator (Grzeszcszak, 2015), namely accountability, transparency, efficiency and flexibility.

Figure 2: Simplified comparison of government and governance “Governance means a manner for exercising economic and social resources of a country in order to achieve development.” (World Bank, 1992) „The whole system of rights, processes and controls established internally and externally over the management of a business entity with the objective of protecting the interest of all stakeholders.

(Centre of European Policy Studies 1995)” (Beritelli et al. 2007)

Although, it is important to underline that the term 'governance' does not have any clearly settled definition, does not exist any governance grand theory that could satisfy every theoretical angles, opinions and approaches (Curtin-Dekker, 2005). This means that the

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concept of governance can be interpreted flexibly and in different ways. Some basic common principles can be drawn from the concept, like democratic, open, accountable and transparent government that respects rule of law and human rights (Anghie, 2004). Ruhanen et al. (2010) identified 6 variables mentioned the most in governance literature, i.e. accountability, transparency, involvement, structure, effectiveness and power.

It indicates that governance is a multidimensional concept that implies less government control and weaker predictability because it involves multiple stakeholders with different interests.

According to Francis Fukuyama (2016), 'governance' may include three basic meanings.

The first meaning of governance is the cooperation between bodies without full state sovereignty, like supranational and international organizations, e.g. European Union. This layer of governance is influenced by globalization during the erosion of state sovereignty.

The second understanding of governance mirrors the activities of public administration and employment of state policy. The third meaning represents a set of networks, interpretations, performances and non-hierarchical mechanisms that regulate social behaviour and norms. In this study, we will apply the concept of governance according to the last interpretation.

3.1.2 On good governance The idea of good governance started to be introduced and proposed as a substitution of the ineffective structural adjustment programmes, which failed to bring the expected development outcomes for the failed states. Thus, international organizations and financial structures started to emphasize more deep-going attention toward the modes of governance and its application instead of pure economic re-structuralization (Taylor, 2002). During the last decades, good governance has become a central explanatory factor for states (Neuman and Sending, 2010) and a focus on how to promote democratic and legitimate governance.

According to the World Bank (1991, p. i-ii), “good governance is central to creating and sustaining an environment which fosters strong and equitable development, and is an essential complement to sound economic policies. (…) Good governance is a continuum, and not necessarily unidirectional: it does not automatically improve over time. It is a plant that needs constant tending”.

The mainstream explanations are positive that emphasize empowerment, democratization, release of energies, liberation of civil society through good governance.

The European Union principally introduced the term in 1991 when the European Council in Luxemburg and the Council of Development Ministries adopted a declaration that expressed a link between good governance and development (Grzeszczak, 2015). The White Paper of the Commission on European Governance (2001) focused its attention on the issue of good governance in the European Union. The document identifies five principles of good governance that enhance more democratic governance, these are: openness, participation, accountability, effectiveness and coherence.

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The EU handbook on promoting good governance (p. 8) speaks about six basic clusters that figure as elementary indicators and markers of good governance. These are the following ones: democratization and its support; promotion and defence of human rights; reinforcement of the rule of law and justice; development of civil society, its capacity and role; reform of public administration, public finances and civil service; and decentralisation, reform of local government.

Although, it has to be underlined that good governance necessitates numerous changes within long-standing practices, cultural habits, social or religious norms. Good governance should not be considered as an asset taken by granted but rather a result to struggle for.

3.1.3 Cooperative management and collective intelligence as models of good governance In a wider sense, management means the process through which someone reaches his / her objectives by exploiting the available resources. This way, management presupposes the drafting phase of a strategy / plan including the objectives to achieve; the organisation of the procedures and the direction of the work of the staff in the direction set by the plan; and comparing the results with the objectives set previously (monitoring).

According to the earliest theorists of management, it should be considered as a hierarchical, rational, objective driven manipulation of the resources (see Taylor and Fayol as first theorists).

Managing is the art of “knowing what you want to do and then seeing that it is done in the best and cheapest way”. (Frederick Winslow Taylor) „To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate and to control.”

(Henri Fayol) (cited by Prasad and Gulshan, 2011)

However, during the second half of the 20th century a gradual erosion of the preliminary concept could be detected.

Figure 3: Evolution of the concept of management

Participative management was the first phase of this democratisation process. Partly based on Japanese models and lessons, organisations started to be considered as constructions made by the interactions of the individuals. According to the new model, the Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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decisions and their responsibility have been shared inside the entire collective. (Gélinier, 1968) At the same time, catastrophes like that of the Challenger space shuttle in 1996 demonstrated the weak side of the theory: without strong central coordination, the individuals can make bad decisions endangering the success of the company.

In the 2000s, the theory of cooperative management was born as an answer to the above critics. The key element of this new approach is the role of networking and the joint use of the resources for common goals. The main factors of the model are 

the free circulation of the information



adoption of behaviour based on trust and mutual assistance



connection of the company’s interest to that of the employee



realisation of the human, technological and organisational means to achieve the objectives. (Delacroix, 2006)

The most recent development in this field is collective intelligence (or Management 3.0).

It is a horizontal (non-hierarchical, transversal) model of management where knowledge, power and responsibility are shared among the partners. The main advantages of the approach are found in the 

diversity and complementarity of the opinions (“Innovations rarely comes from one single person but rather from the process of aggregation of ideas exchanged by more persons.” (Boyer, 2012); “Getting value from difference is at the heart of the collaborative leader's task…” (Archer and Cameron, 2008))



decentralisation of the resources and mobilisation of the personality (no any company is able to access and process all information necessary for innovation; instead, it is economic to use even the knowledge of those who cannot be hired by the company (Rheingold, 2002))



intellectual freedom and autonomy of acting (based on trust building)



objective mechanism of extracting the consensus in full transparency (including also top-down components of norms, routines and rules of collective management).

The core factor of collective intelligence is the assumption that knowledge is not concentrating in one’s hand but in the collective. Thanks to the ICT revolution, the members of a network can react on changing conditions promptly. For this purpose, the information has to be shared (to understand what? and why?) with and the opportunity of the contribution (autonomy, mobilisation of human skills) should be given to every partner.

3.1.4 On cross-border governance Cross-border governance is a special case of governance which has become a key expression within the domain of regionalism and territorial relations of the European continent in the recent decades, hence opening up the 'European art of rule' for unpredictable and hybrid formations of governance (Kramsch and Hooper, 2004). Approach

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of the European Union toward cross-border governance has been formulated on the basis of previous experiences with the model of euroregion that promotes cooperation between local governments (Gualini, 2003). The new generation of cross-border governance is represented by European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation, the EGTC launched by the European Union in 2006 (EU, 2006).

The integrating European continent and European cross-border governance reframes territoriality, its role in every-day life and politics as it principally aims to reduce and diminish the existing disparities between core and periphery through development of endogenous potentials and capacities of regions located at the peripheries. Cross-border governance mirrors interests, creativity, imagination, ingenuity and eagerness of regional and local communities and it can be understood as a specific social-constructive process which improves networking, interactions, coalition-building, cooperation and even reconciliation (see e.g. Böhm and Drápela, 2017) across the borders and cultural/linguistic differences.

Cross-border governance can be considered as a typical representation of management 3.0 practices and good governance since it creates transboundary networks challenging tradition forms of government and nation states paradigm.

3.1.5 Governance and tourism management Tourism as economic sector involves numerous actors, multiple and multi-layered relations (interests, knowledge, engagement) of actors and agents that produce services and goods for visitors within a very competitive environment. It cuts across numerous fields and frontiers what necessitates managed cooperation and coordination; subsequently, application of governance approach is highly relevant and its impacts are substantial to ensure the dynamic economic, social, environmentally sustainable development and growth of tourism sector. „… governance applied to tourist destinations consists of setting and developing rules and mechanisms for a policy, as well as business strategies, by involving all the institutions and individuals.” (Beritelli et al., 2007)

'Governance of tourism' suffers similar confusion as governance itself (Ruhanen et al., 2010). Some definitions have been already published, namely the concept of governance which is applied to tourism and tourist destination involves individuals and institutions in order to set and develop rules and mechanisms for a policy and also advance business strategies (Beritelli et al., 2007) and/or governance is useful for analysing tourism policy because it involves the policy elements of design and implementation on one side and maintenance of relationships between state, civil society and economic interests on the other side (Hsu et al. 2013); although, there is no wide agreement what is the appropriate dimension and theory that might fully and comprehensively explain tourism destination governance.

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The OECD acknowledged and advocated in 2006 that tourism needs a 'whole of government' approach. There is a need to move beyond the traditional understanding of tourism as specific policy, but it requires to recognize tourism as a sector that involves wide range of activities, actors, sectors which are linked through numerous horizontal and vertical linkages at national and regional levels (Laws et al., 2011).

The issue of 'governance' in the area of tourism might be deduced, namely as a process of coordinating activities between those actors which are involved in tourism industry, either public or private subjects in order to achieve synergetic effect, progress and development.

Assuring that diverse range of actors participating in cooperation and tourism decisionmaking might significantly enhance democratic processes within the field (Bramwel and Lame, 2012). Instead of the traditional public sector based model, more corporate procedures have been spread. (WTO, 2007) Regional tourism, as opposed to centralised, nation-state viewpoint, has become a focus of tourism development, clustering and destination building (Wachowiak 2006). „The underlying principle of good governance is to provide a collaborative forum in which the core competencies of individual actors and stakeholder agencies can be pooled to develop synergies and produce better outcomes than would otherwise be the case.” (Wray et al., 2010)

Good governance and its elements such as civil society, decentralisation, local government and emphasis on bottom-up initiatives and approaches have clear relevance to tourism since stakeholder theory posits that the various groups might have a direct influence on managerial decision-making (see e.g. Presenza and Cippolina, 2010). Furthermore, local communities (Almeida-García et al., 2016) and stakeholders need to be involved in the process of tourism development (Hsu et al., 2013), hence decentralisation and more democratic involvement, which is regularly underlined by good governance, might support political empowerment of local communities because democratic involvement may generate a feeling of representation, participation and decision-making (Boley et al., 2014).

In line with the collective intelligence model of management, also tourism destination management needs „constructive dialogue, information sharing, communication and shared decision making about common issues and interests” (Wray et al., 2010). In some regions characterised by niche tourism, collaborative networks (CN) started growing in a spontaneous way (Ammirato et al., 2014). Akoumianakis calls these cooperation forms as „cross-organizational virtual alliances” (Akoumianakis, 2014) referring to the lack of a stable institution behind the collaboration.

However, most recent theories rather favours mixed solutions including the advantages of bot community and corporate models (Beritelli et al., 2007; Dregde, 2006).

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3.2 How to set up or improve a DMO and its governance structures This chapter is dedicated to the key factors of setting up, operating and monitoring the operation of a tourism management organization.

When designing the management model of a tourist destination, the following questions should be answered: 

Where should the boundaries of the destination be defined? (What is the territory? / Where?)



Which member structure should be achieved? Which partners should be involved?

(Who?)



What is the mission of the partnership on the defined territory? (What?)



Which major tasks will the DMO have related to the fulfillment of the mission? (How 1?)



How would we like to achieve our goals in common? (What is the structure / the management model? / How 2?)



How can we detect whether we achieved our goals? (How to monitor the functioning?

How 3?)

Figure 4: Destination management step by step

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3.2.1 Definition of possible territorial boundaries 3.2.1.1 Definition of a destination Definition of tourism destination has been designed by the WTO Think Tank on Destination Management, in 2002. „A local tourism destination is a physical space in which a tourist spends at least one overnight. It includes tourism products such as support services and attractions and tourist resources within one day’s return travel time. It has physical and administrative boundaries defining its management, and images and perceptions defining its market competitiveness.” (WTO 2007)

Destinations are traditionally regarded as defined geographical areas (Davidson and Maitland 1997). Tourism is about places and spaces (McVetty, 1997) that are embedded in cultures, economies, and social lives of communities. In tourism, production, consumption, and experiential characteristics become interconnected in a given location. The complex processes of tourism production and consumption depend on destinations (Crouch 1999, Gnoth 2007). Destinations are referred to as locations where tourism development, planning, and the effects of tourism occur (Bærenholdt et al. 2004).

Local tourism destinations incorporate various stakeholders often including a host community, and can nest and network to form larger destinations (WTO 2002, 2015). From the point of view of marketing sciences a tourist destination is a place and also an amalgamation of elements of the product that is able to attract a number of visitors into a place (Leiper 1995, Bieger 1997, 1998). Destinations are agglomerations of services and facilities designed to meet the needs of tourists. Tourists perceive the service offered in the context of a destination, as a whole. The package of services is often impossible to separate from the geographical place – destination and product are thus identical (Keller 2000). A destination is usually seen as the unit of action where different stakeholders, such as companies, public organizations, hosts, and guests interact through co-creation of experiences (Saraniemi –Kylänen 2011; sub-model chapter 4, fig. 11).

A destination management should respond to the reality that a destination is more than the sum of its parts (the visitors seek for and remember adventures and experiences, not regions or countries). It is fundamental to the concept of tourism destination that tourism is generally not the sole industry or economic activity of the area identified as a destination; tourism should be integrated into the general development pattern (Howie 2003; sub-model chapter 4.2.2.).

Destinations offer a variety of attractions which can be grouped into five categories: cultural (e.g. historical monuments, museums, religious facilities), traditions (festivals, handicrafts, folklore, dance, and music), scenery (e.g. national parks, flora, fauna, mountain and beach resorts, natural landscape), entertainment (e.g. sports, amusement and recreation parks, theatre, night life, cuisine), and other attractions (e.g. climate, health resorts, unique attractions not available elsewhere). The attractions are, to a very large extent, geographical in character; location and accessibility are important factors (Misra – Sadual 2008).

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3.2.1.2 Inland destinations The spatial distribution of attractions can have great influence over the potentiality of a tourism destination. There are no general rules on the optimal size of a destination. Small destinations

can better meet the requirements of good governance (direct democracy), larger destinations can more easily reach critical size for long-term competitiveness.

Hence, instead of delimitating destinations by administrative borders, there is a great opportunity to define the tourism destination based on the tourists’ consumption space and the spatial distribution of attractions (Blasco et al. 2014). The important part is to understand that the perception and purpose of a destination differ between different target groups, and thus define their destination differently. Avoiding traditional definitions of destinations based on administrative borders seems to be a key feature in the process of understanding destinations (Skäremo 2016).

The delineation of the destination is based on functional geographical features: a functional tourism region serves wider purposes regarding tourism development, for example, the clustering of tourist attractions, the creation of tourism routes and transportation and knowledge sharing (Perkmann and Sum 2002). Regarding the coherence with landscape units and functional geographic regions, it shows how much the territorial designation takes the natural and human geographical features of the given region into consideration when it comes to the delimitation of physical space. Especially in the case of conservation areas, administrative boundaries should not be considered since in many cases, landscapes cross these boundaries. (WTO, 2007) Destination as an imaginary region: the territory is socially constructed and perceived by a wide range of visitors and decision-makers as a single unit with regard to tourism.

3.2.1.3 Cross-border destinations Tourism is affected by the existence of political boundaries. Borders affect many aspects of tourism, including travel motivations, decision making, infrastructure development, marketing and promotion, place image and perception of space and so on. People cross borders not only when going to an extended holiday but in many cases they cross municipal, or city boundaries to dine out, watch a movie, or go hiking. At the same time, the most transparent boundaries from a tourism perspective are found at the international level (Timothy 2006).

Tourism is a significant industry in many border regions, and some of the world’s most popular attractions are located adjacent to, or even directly on political boundaries. So, borders and border regions can act even as tourist attractions or destinations. International boundaries attract attention among tourists not necessarily because of the borderline itself (like the border at San Diego or in Gibraltar) but rather the activities, attractions, and special features of communities in the immediate vicinity of the boundary (Timothy 2006). The given area’s appeal is rooted in its location adjacent to the border, which creates opportunities and competitive advantage to supplement the other side’s attractions and other features, and to base its development on the common features, to create joint services, products and infrastructure with the neighbouring abroad territory.

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There has been a shift towards cross-border partnership and cooperation, manifested in common tourism development strategies and the building of cross-border destinations (Prokkola 2008).

In a new politico-economic situation in which regional cross-border organizations and partnerships are emerging, state borders no longer merely represent barriers to development, but instead they have become resources (O’Dowd 2003). Former peripheral borderlands find themselves suddenly prospering from valuable tourism revenues and managers and politicians subsequently face questions on weather a border region could be considered as destination itself, how to market it as a competitive destination unit, and what to consider in managing it in a sustainable way (Wachowiak 2006).

Some attractions have the possibility to alter the way a border is viewed and interpreted (Timothy, Guia and Berthet 2014). The emergence of transnational identities is a result of increased mobility and deeper cross-border partnerships in border regions (Prokkola, Zimmerbauer and Jakola 2015). A strong international identity is highly valued within the tourism industry in order to reach a broad market.

How to define the boundaries of a destination?

There are many aspects to be considered when defining the geographic scope of the destination, like geomorphology, land cover, the geographic extent of landscapes, settlement hierarchy, economic ties, transport connections, existence of DMOs withihn the region, etc. However, there is no unquestionable rule describing the optimal set of a destination: it can be identical with a water fall, a volcanic mountain or a river valley. The stakeholders should every time fit the geographic factor to their purposes.  The destination is a narrative in the visitors’ mind. It should be coherent and unambiguous: easy to understand, remember and restructure (e.g. in a travel blog). The larger is the destination, the more complex and ambiguous is the narrative. Therefore, it is better to narrow the geographic scope of the destination that can ensure a more coherent message and brand.



At the same time, the destination should be large enough to be able to sustain itself and to ensure wide range of experiences to the visitors. For this purpose, higher number of service providers should be involved what – in the case of more naturally based regions – may make necessary to settle a larger extent of the destination.



It is a coincidence if the administrative borders are identical with the boundaries of a destination (like in the case of Malta). Especially in the case of products based on natural assets and heritage, these boundaries will not respect administrative barriers. Even more, administrative barriers can hinder the successful brand building and marketing of landscape-based tourism products. When defining the boundaries of a tourism destination, an organic approach should be applied and administrative borders should not be respected. According to the new forms of collaborative management, networking of the partners can bring much more benefits than a strict hierarchical structure managed in line with administrative system of power.



Destinations are shaped along by spatial phenomena like landscape unites, urban functional zones, influencing areas of tourist resorts, etc. All these factors have a spatial character which has its own boundaries. When applying the methods of collective intelligence, an open model is the best option: those actors being able to identify themselves with the narrative of the destination and considering an opportunity to do

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business therein, will join. Those, for whom the destination cannot meet the expectations will leave the cooperation. Hence, partnership which has again a spatial nature will define by itself the barriers of the destination in an automatic / organic way. You have to do nothing but insist on your pre-defined narrative.

3.2.2 Corporation: Defining DMO members and partnership 3.2.2.1 Mapping and typology of members within the DMO “Tourism is neither good nor bad. Its development should be guided by local wishes”. (McVetty)

For the purpose of identification of the partners the theoretical approach developed in the 90s, namely the 'triple helix model of innovation' that referred to cooperation and interactions between different institutions and authorities is worth adapting. This model reacted to the reality that separate activities on individual basis often lead to isolation, competition or even duplication of activities that generate substantial waste of resources, energy and time. The helix model was based on the idea that partnerships might ensure extensive cross-sectoral cooperation which supports widespread problem solving, development of innovative approaches, sharing of knowledge and competencies, effective utilization of resources and establishment of new networks and channels between partners representing different sectors: academia, business and government (Cavallini et al., 2016).

If the interactions between the institutions representing the three sectors take place, they generate alterations and each party may adopt some features and characteristics of the other two institutions (Etkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1995).

At the beginning of 2000s, the model has been completed with the fourth dimension, creating the Quadruple helix model. There are several versions of this model slightly differing from each other (e.g. Baber, 2001; Carayannis and Campbell, 2009; Caduff, Siegenthaler and Wälchli, 2010; Yawson, 2009) but all of them agree on the importance that the fourth sector has to be involved next to other ones, thus focusing on innovation generated by the citizens.

This new approach enables the stakeholders to establish non-traditional innovative paths, so called 'innovation culture' or 'open innovation' where innovation itself becomes an inclusive process and the involved actors jointly create and experiment new approaches, services and products (European Commission, 2015). Moreover, the quadruple helix model approach was identified as the reference model for Research and Innovation Strategies for Smart Specialisation in the European Union (European Commission, 2012).

Knowledge and its creation is no longer a separated task of individual actors. It requires flexibility, adaptation of processes, potential re-distribution of power and acquisition of new skills (European Commission, 2012) which makes necessary to share knowledge and competencies. By involving the four sectors of the quadruple helix model, every shortage of every partner will be compensated. The following figure illustrates this countercompensation highlighting the necessity of a cross-sectoral approach.

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Figure 5: The compensation matrix of the quadruple helix model

The connectedness of the partners representing different strengths enables the partnership to share knowledge, to develop innovation and competitiveness (Dregde, 2006).

The term ’mapping’ of partners, refers to the factor that we are interested in these actors not in isolation but with their power and networking capacities (who they are, where they are within the community). Thus, mapping is a comprehensive task; we have to identify Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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

the factors influencing the fulfilment of our objectives (relevance);



the stakeholders holding the power of these factors (significance);



the stakeholders position within the destination (positioning);



the potential interest of the stakeholder in cooperation (involvement).

3.2.2.2 Involvement, ownership and mission of different actors Governance in the context of green, slow and healthy tourism is complicated since it should include partners sometimes with controversial interests. While green associations or nature protection institutions want to protect the uniqueness and intactness of natural environment, local authorities and entrepreneurs are interested in a stronger attractiveness of tourists in order to guarantee the incomes necessary for the sustainability of the undertakings and the local population. According to the former ‘government’ based models, the coordination is coming from the governmental level: the decisions are made quickly, the lower levels have to respect these decisions. Governance means that the decisions have to be made in common, through democratic debates, in line with Management 3.0 methodology where the stakeholders have to find shared conclusions regardless of the diversity of their interests. At the same time, this form of management can achieve a stronger self-identification with the shared values than a verdict coming from above.

As Dredge (2006) underlines, the functioning of networks means struggles for different interests what can even impede cooperation among the partners. Consequently, the task of involvement necessitates great efforts (Sub-model chapter 5).

The success of the cooperation depends on the ability to put together the best set of partnership. The first step in this process is the 'identification' of the most appropriate subjects and their potential motivation / interest in taking part in the partnership (Presenza and Cipollina, 2010). This step involves monitoring of strategies, reports, web-sites and undertaking some meetings and dialogues with the possible partners (Sub-model chapter 4, fig. 11).

The second step is 'resource mapping' that looks at the needed resources, specifically to make a basic draft on the expected financial resources (Sub-model chapter 4.2.2.). At the same time cross-sectoral cooperation may also ensure non-cash resources that the partners usually bring into the partnership and cooperation, like transfer of know-how and experience, common thinking, planning and constructive feedback.

The third step is the 'partner commitment', i.e. to move beyond dialogues, thus there is a need to express serious commitment for cooperation, like signing a memorandum of understanding which is an important step for consolidating partnership either in medium or in long-term period. This step ensures that the partnership goes beyond informal meetings, planning and it takes more formal phase (Sub-model chapter 4.2.3.2).

The fourth step is the management of the partnering process. This stage is highly important since it has to manage partners with different roles and it has to effectively manage intrapartnership relations.

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Delivery of successful project appears as the fifth step. This step appears when the partners 'get down to the business' and they start to implement common projects. It includes the process of working out of well-defined action plans and project frameworks.

The following stage is to maintain the launched cooperation. This phase might include development or reform of institutional capacity and establishment of new institutions, change in organisational culture, promotion of dynamic and functioning networks. The 'successful partnering' means identification of clear measures for success, evaluation of outputs and impacts. Subsequently, it is followed by sharing of knowledge, good experiences and examples (Tennyson, 2011).

When building the partnership, the DMO will face further challenges. On the one hand, as it was stated above, the potential partners can have even opposite interests (e.g. the profitmaximising tendencies of tourism industry and the interest of nature protection represented by the NGOs). This situation can endanger the successful realisation of the common strategy (Sub-model chapter 4.2.3.2).

At the same time, interdependency between tourism and diverse suppliers may lead to the establishment of a supply network that benefits all related sectors and businesses (Submodel chapter 4.2.3.2).

These difficulties have to be detected during the mapping phase and we have to tackle them by limitating the circle of involved partners or to establish a differentiated model of involvement.

On the other hand, every partnership is as strong as its weakest member. When mapping the partnership, we have to take into consideration the level of danger the given partner can mean for the maintenance of the network and the achievement of our common goals.

In both cases, the dangers can be tackled by establishing different levels of involvement.

New forms of governance introduced in the first chapter allows for creating multi-layered partnerships where the partners have diverse forms of authorisation (like in on-line platforms).

Another problem lies in the fact that, similarly to other industries, tourism is also driven by economic interest and business approaches. The product needs demand for being sustained. The business character of tourism provides a stronger focus to the undertakings of the cooperation whose pricing policy falls beyond the competencies of the destination management organisation. At the same time, the management should explain to every stakeholder, how the incomes of tourism are spread among all the actors, and hence, the long-term perspectives and goals can overwrite the short-term market interests. It is the reason why trainings and awareness raising activities are so vital for a successful destination management. The manager has to create a balance between different interests and take every actor’s value hierarchy taken into account.

3.2.2.3 Additional aspects of cross-border networking Cross-border cooperation has special characteristics in the field of partnership development and networking. As additional factors, we have to consider

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(1) different legal and administrative systems: while the partners representing the same sector within a country have the same competencies, in a cross-border context, it is not self-evident since for instance the competencies of tourism management or law making related to tourism can be owned by very different stakeholders; (2) shortages in international and community law solutions: there are only a few models of permanent cross-border institutions (e.g. EGTC dedicated to governmental institutions and local and regional municipalities; EEIG invented for businesses; European Fundation targeting non-governmental sector, etc.) but there is still no solution for quadruple helix cooperation where different sectors can cooperate with each other; (3) different cultural background: culture defines the way of thinking about everything, the way of behaviour, enforcement, doing business, contracting, etc.; (4) the different consideration of cooperation: the culture of cooperation is based on different historic experiences influenced very often by the conflicts related to the set of the borders what fundamentally effects how the stakeholders consider crossborder cooperation; (5) language barriers what mean at the same time (serious) interpretation problems e.g. in contracts, agreements or task division, etc.

(6) financial problems: the problems with international transfers, currency issues, salaries of the staff on the other side of the border, application of public procurement rules, etc.

As a consequence, in a cross-border context, loose and open structures, platforms or networks are recommended to set up where the partners can quasi-autonomously shape the development process of the destination. As a good example, the project ‘Slow Tourism’ can be mentioned.

3.2.3 Planning the common future Once the partnership is established, the common vision has to be defined. The process is described in other documents of the project.

3.2.3.1 Community-based planning “Tourism is part of a complete system that includes the environment, community, industry, economy and the legislative environment. Its planning should be democratic and integrated with related planning processes. Its planning should help tourism to contribute to a community’s well being.”

(McVetty, 1997)

Community-based and community-led local development model has a history of 50 years and it started gaining greater attention when the LEADER programs targeting rural areas

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(Liaison Entre Actions pour le Development de l'Economie Rurale) spread over Europe, since the 1990s. During the current budgetary period (2014-2020), partly thanks to the socalled Barca Report (Barca, 2009), the methodology of LEADER has been extended to urban developments, as well, through the CLLD (community-led local development) model.

The special character of community-based planning lies in that the role of data collection and analysis is removed from the analysts (experts) and given to the citizens and the local community to complete. The emphasis is on the collective wisdom of those involved in the decision making. It is of great importance of having a comprehensive community held vision of their desired future that is supported by a strategic plan. This vision and accompanying strategic plan describes the overall development direction. The plan formulation process should involve the local people in the day to day aspects including local groups to complete relevant research projects. Destination management should also be based on the involvement of communities, the planning should be adapted to the needs of local communities living within the territory of the given destination. Tourism development which is a part of a community is generally more successful than development set apart from a community (Pearce & Moscardo, 1999). Even more, tourism development which is not integrated with the concerned community can be disastrous (Butler & Hall, 1998). In order to achieve a community-led tourism, the practice of tourism planning needs to shift the focus from economic growth and marketing to community input (Fuller & Reid, 1998).

The more the people, directly or indirectly related with tourism, are well informed of the internal goals and state of each of them, the more they are engaged with achieving those goals. As such, a fundamental part of this approach is the community engagement as community consultation during planning phase, and as broad distribution of information during the rest of the process (Manidis Roberts Consultants, 1997). Community-based planning is a form of planning that focuses on the grass roots level of the community as the alternative to a top-down approach (De Beer – Marais, 2005). It concentrates on the involvement of the host community in the planning, construction, maintenance and management aspects of tourism development (Harwood, 2000). This implies that the host community is involved in, has a control over or ownership of the planning outcomes.

According to Reid (2003) community-based tourism should focus on the involvement of the community in the planning process to guide the intensity and location of tourism development. Once the community have made these decisions they will then be in a position to own, operate, manage and control tourism development within their territory.

Involving communities can: 

enhance local socio-economic benefits (Mitchell, R. – Eagles, P 2001);



increase the limits of local tolerance through participation by locals in the tourism development process (Tusun, C. 2000);



assist communities to be more responsive to intensifying competition from the globalisation of trade, business and travel (Jamal, T. – Getz, D. 1995); and

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

help secure the commitment of local people, without which the sustainable development of tourism is extremely difficult if not impossible (Sautter, E. – Leisen 1999, Bimonte and Faralla, 2016).

Tools of involvement could include as follows: public consultation and hearing, workshops and roundtables, road-show, exhibition, voting letters and websites, survey and questionnaire in electronic or personal form (e.g. in public spaces), poll and so on.

Questionnaires for the guests will help to find out about their satisfaction on various tourism related topics. This will not only make the guests feel comfortable, but it is also crucial for the quality management of a region (Sub-model chapter 5.3.1.2.).

3.2.4 Definition of the management model There is no one-size-fits-all solution or optimal tourism management model to apply for all kind of conditions (Wray et al. 2010), they “vary in size, type, structure and aspiration for their tourism future” (KTS, 2012). Rather, when structuring destination management, several factors should be taken into account. In this chapter we provide a short overview on these potential factors starting with the evidently different conditions the partners are working within.

3.2.4.1 Lessons learnt from the project partners’ models Previous documents of the project (like the SWOT analyses) give an overview on the stateof-the-art of the tourism management of the 8 partners of INSiGHTS project. Based on these documents, the following factors can be identified that determine the management model to apply.

Size matters First of all, the geographical scope of the given partner region greatly influences the identification of the most suitable management model. We will need a different approach in as a small area as 700 km2 (Central Istria) compared to the Plovdiv region which is nearly 9 times bigger (5,972.9 km2). Similarly, when looking at the population rates, the same diversity can be observed among the partners: there are regions that only count around 24.000 inhabitants, others own nearly 700.000 (in the case of Swabian Danube Valley, “more than 30 million people are living within a radius of 90 minutes’ drive” (Sub-model chapter 5.2.4.)). When identifying the potential partners, when setting up a coherent and manageable structure, the solution cannot be the same in these cases.

Territorial capital determines Secondly, the model needs to take into consideration the given regions’ strengths and weaknesses as definitive facts regarding the potential exploitation of territorial capital. The 8 partner regions are fundamentally diverse in their set of territorial capital: in the selfassessment there was not one aspect along which all the regions were in harmony. This

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forecasts that the different regions have to tackle different challenges when creating the conditions for slow, green and healthy tourism management.

Objectives drive Thirdly, the aims and visions of the regions are also only in harmony when they are defined in broad terms: all partners wish to work towards a slow, green and healthy tourism scheme.

At the same time, they picture the exact endpoint – and the route towards it – slightly differently. The visions of the regions show divergences according to their approach as well as the tools they regard as the basis for achieving their stated aims.

Structure individualizes INSiGHTS partners represent fundamentally different types of institutions (from county councils, through NGOs, to an EGTC and a Local Action Group) whose room for maneuvering, legal conditions, management models are just incomparable. Some of them already have own DMO, other have not.

3.2.4.2 Maturity analysis and institutionalisation Another component that has to be analysed is the level of maturity of the cooperation. It is enough to have a look at the list of the partners of the INSiGHT project and we can see, how diverse institutions can deal with tourism development. Some of them have several centuries pre-history (like the county councils), others are very young (like the EGTC); some of them has a long-standing tourism management organisation (like Donautal Aktiv e.V.), for others, organised tourism is a relatively new experience (Harghita County Council); some of them are just planning to create the narrative of the destination (Zala county), others have already shaped their story (Heart of Slovenia), etc.

Obviously, there is no one single institutional solution what should be adapted by all partners within and beyond the INSiGHTS project. Different models can be followed which are in line with tourism life cycle and the length of prehistory of the partnership.

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Figure 6: Tourism Area Life Cycle (WTO, 2007)

World Tourism Organisation established a model of life cycle of a destination.

Institutionalism appears in the fourth phase of the development (during ’consolidation’).

During the starting phases, the management structure will be more informal, network-based.

More institutionalised forms will occur when the destination reaches the highest maturity level followed by stagnation. The model is instructive from different points of view. On the one hand it underlines that the development of the destination does not necessitate the preexistence of a stable institution. Destination building is a process in which every stage has their characteristics and appropriate forms of cooperation. On the other hand, stable institutions appear during the full maturity phase and this institutionalisation has a negative impact on innovation: the destination starts stagnating. The stagnation phase can end with rejuvenation or decline and the managament will have a crucial role in determining the follow-up.

Beside the life cycle of the destination, also the pre-history of the cooperation will influence the set-up of a stable institution as destination management. The stakeholders have to put on three crucial questions: 

Is the cooperation mature enough to create a „joint venture”?



Are the members ready to finance the functioning of this company and its debts?



What is the appropriate legal form of cooperation?

Concerning the first question, there is a need for strong mutual trust on behalf of the partners and the acceptance of different interests which all have to be deserved by the management institution. Trust building is a long-lasting project, it is not easy to reach. Therefore, in the first phases of the cooperation, the coordinators have to concentrate on trust building and management of the partnership. Reliability, openness toward different viewpoints and interests, good balancing capabilities are the skills that are required the most for successful trust building.

Financing is a corner stone in the life of every partnership. The coordination of the destination development makes necessary the co-financing of the activities from the very first step. But when establishing a joint company, there is a big change in responsibilities, decision making competencies related to financial issues and financial management. The decision on setting up of a company always necessitates to build trust and to make clear the economic interests.

If the first two questions are answered positively, the partners can select from among different institutional solutions. Some of them are listed in the WTO’s study on destination management: 

department of single public authority;



partnership of public authorities, serviced by partners;



partnership of public authorities, serviced by a joint management unit;

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

public authority(ies) outsourcing delivery to private companies;



public-private partnership for certain functions – often in the form of a non-profit making company;



association or company funded purely by a private sector partnership and/or trading – again for certain functions.

(WTO, 2007)

The result of the model selection will be influenced by how the partners feel themselves committed to invest.

The solutions listed above represent a kind of evolution from less to more institutionalised forms. As Dredge (2006) establishes, maturity can be detected by applying different stations of this evolution. The author differentiates between “ad hoc, temporary or informal organization” and „formal, stable, permanent coalition structures”.

TASK I: To which of the maturity levels does your destination belong?

Please discuss, evaluate and justify your findings.

Please mark the maturity level on the green line that represents your current situation. This task should be done in group work with the respective stakeholders.

3.2.4.3 Structural factors Several further structural factors can effect the final decision, e.g. political interferences (Dredge, 2006), legal and taxation rules or budget limitations of the partners, etc. It is a

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general observation that the type of tourism management fundamentally depends on the type of the destination defined by many different factors. Let us mention some of them.

Pre-history (Pre)-history of the destination has a crucial impact on the management model since in network-minded cooperation structures, trust has a key role. Trust building is a time consuming process, consequently, the older is a cooperation the stronger is the trust (unless there were some calamities with the partnership – again in the past). As Beritelli assumes, “with older and more mature relationships are more likely to have a coordinating structure, represented by a strong neutral body, such as a DMO”. The partners are more open toward an institutionalised form of coordination if they good have long-term experiences on the coordination itself.

Furthermore, the pre-history results in differences in management from the point of view of the existence of a DMO. The coordination model will be different in destinations which already have a joint coordination body compared those not having such institution.

The scope of the actors Similarly, the management model will be influenced by the scope of the stakeholders involved in tourism destination.

On the one hand, as a structural factor, strong communities, long-term partnership try to find more balanced solutions while weaker networks have a stronger tendency to accept the coordination of one dominating actor (power asymmetries). (Beritelli et al., 2007) On the other hand, the structure and the decision making procedures are defined by the key persons (the “driving forces” (Beritelli et al., 2007)) and their personality, influence and capacities. Many times, the local tourism is coordinated by one of the “industry’s peak bodies” creating formal an informal networks. (Dredge, 2006) In these cases, DMO plays a complementary role besides the driving forces. On the contrary, if the tourist enterprises are weak or they are well-organised by themselves, DMO will fulfil a more strategic mission. The situation is similar if the number of stakeholders is high.

Thus, the scope of driving forces cannot be separated from the dimension and the size of the partnership. „While the average size of the boards reflects the quantity of involved actors (and therefore the degree of community orientation), the average number of individuals sitting on these boards reveals the connection between the institutions through personal union, and gives an insight into communication effectiveness and reciprocal control. Moreover, if this number differs considerably from the average number of board positions, the risk of accumulation of power among a few actors is high (power asymmetries).” (Beritelli et al., 2007)

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Intensity of the cooperation Not independently from pre-history, also the intensity of cooperation will influence the model of tourism governance. As Dredge (2006) says: „dense networks suggest greater cohesion and offer greater opportunities for information exchange and shared responsibility. However, criticisms have also emerged that dense network structures tend to reinforce inertia, and can be particularly hostile to innovation and policy entrepreneurialism”. It means that more intense networking can result in stronger cohesion but the same phenomenon can cause lack of flexibility. On the contrary, more loose partnerships can endanger the sustainability of the network.

In addition, more intense cooperation structures are more able to concentrate their resources, to act more successfully and to be ready to unexpected circumstances since these structures enables the development of strong leadership representing better the intensity of the cooperation. However, this factor favours the corruption of the system and the development of uncontrolled managerial behaviour.

Therefore, the partners should control and monitor the activities of the management in order to prevent themselves from becoming the instruments of one’s economi interest. (Beritelli et al. 2007) 3.2.4.4 Community and corporate models of management In line with the new governance theories, less formal models of institutionalisation are spreading. So-called tourism breeding environment (TBE) solutions favours for loose cooperation structure where the actors share values and their infrastructure for achieving common goals. Collaborative Networked Organizations (CNOs) do not establish a joint company but work together according to Management 3.0 rules. A CNO can be created e.g. by the extension of the services of one service provider (e.g. a hotel), involving further partners (local food makers, transport companies, museums, etc.). Another model is the Tourism Virtual Organisation where temporary alliance is created between private and public institutions. Very often, the cooperation is managed via Internet-based solutions and platforms. (Ammirato et al., 2014) These postmodern solutions do not only meet the requirements of good governance but they help bridge the period between the launching phase and the consolidation of the destination.

At the same time, these more informal models can easily lose the focus and they react slowly and very often in an inaccurate way on the unexpected changes, new challenges.

Beritelli et al. (2007) summarised the differences between these two forms of tourism governance.

Dimension

Community model

Corporate model

Transactions costs

Generally high, depending on the number of actors and institutions

Generally low, limited to the dominating firm(s) and its business partners

Power asymmetries

Diverse, depending on the ability to form coalitions or interest groups and on the ownership structures

Strong concentration on the dominating firm(s), possibly strong influence by the municipality/public institution

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Interdependence

Diverse, depending on the integration degree of the services, as well as on the diversity of the market portfolio

Strong between the dominating firm(s) and the municipality/public institution

Trust/control

Strong need for mutual trust, in order to come to decisions and actions; social control at least as strong as institutional control

Trust is ensured by control mechanisms and formal contracts, inside the dominating firm(s), as well as between the firm(s) and the municipality/public institution

Knowledge

Diffuse and general, relevant for the historical context, the institutional and individual relationship

Detailed and specific, relevant for business strategies and specific contracts

Informal, personal connections

Numerous, networked

Limited, among few actors

Table 2: Differences of the community and the corporate model

As it can be seen, similarly to the compensation matrix of the quadruple helix model, the different governance solutions can well complement each other that envisages a kind of mixture of the two models – in harmony with the diverse supplementary factors by each destination.

3.2.5 DMO: Defining the structure, roles and procedures „Destination management is the co-ordinated management of all the elements that make up a destination (attractions, amenities, access, marketing and pricing). Destination management takes a strategic approach to link-up these sometimes very separate entities for the better management of the destination.” (WTO 2007)

The form and the structure of destination management is affected by different factors, such as: 

the maturity of the partnership: the more mature is the cooperation, the more institutionalised forms will appear;



the functions to fulfil and the service portfolio to be provided: the structure and the bodies of the cooperation have to fit the tasks to perform;



the competences of the stakeholders: the joint management structure will not be allowed to extend beyond the competencies its members have.

We have to highlight again, that there is no one-size-fits-all solution: every destination has to decide on the most appropriate structure to apply for the sake of delivery of the expected results.

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3.2.5.1 Functionality and competencies Destination Management Organisations (be they institutionalised or not) have a complicated and comprehensive set of tasks to deliver. The WTO practical guide on tourism destination management summarises the position of the DMO as it can be seen on the figure below.

Setting up of a DMO has many advantages compared to less formalised and less designed tourism development. DMO can ensure the development of a regional brand identity through its organisational capacities. The unique brand guarantees the coherent narrative what is the basis for positioning. Another advantage is the coordination of the service providers and developing tourism value chains, experience clusters what is the key for experiential quality tourism. This way, DMO contributes to the financial sustainability of tourism within the region.

Figure 7: Destination Management (WTO 2007)

In the case of slow and green tourism, the management plays a crucial role in diminishing the detrimental impacts of tourism on the natural heritage.

Accordingly, DMOs introduce a holistic approach of representing the destination, which is in charge of a triple set of tasks: 

to ensure a suitable environment for tourism delivery: from the legislation to taxation rules;



to help deliver suitable services meeting the visitors’ expectations: from transport through product development to trainings;



to ensure the visibility and marketability of the destination: as an “information broker” including CRM and e-solution development.

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DMO is the initiator, the coordinator and the analyser of the feedback of tourism activities within a region and this include that a product developer needs to ensure feedback from customers and employees (Sub-model chapter 4).

Accordingly, the service portfolio of the DMO should include: 

Product development,



Destination and product packaging,



Promotion,



Distribution and sales,



In and outbound logistics,



Destination operations and services,



Aftercare (visitors),



Destination planning and infrastructure,



Training and skills development,



Technology and systems development,



Related industries and buying local products.

(WTO, 2007)

In addition, DMO should provide services to the partners, as well. These services can include: 

fund raising



drafting applications



organisation of events



printing of brochures



development of websites and databases



search for partners



issuing a newsletter, etc.

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TASK II: Evaluation of existing and relevance of future services Service

Existing Service Performance (1=low to 5=high)

Future Task Relevance (Priority/relevance 1=low to 5=high)

Product development Destination and product packaging Promotion Distribution and sales In and outbound logistics Destination operations and services Aftercare of visitors Destination planning and infrastructre Training and skill development Technology and systems development Related industries and local products Fundraising Drafting applications Organization of events Printing of brochures Development of website and database Search for partners Issuing newsletters …

Example: Model of Noosa Council Noosa Council, situated in South East Queensland, Australia has created an integrated destination management which is based on community governance. This governance model enables the involvement of local communities in the decision-making processes connected to tourism. Tourism Noosa Board, the main organisational established by the Council consists of community, industry and council representatives. Its primary role is to oversee the development and management of tourism within the destination, and to develop a strategic vision and directions for the tourism industry. 4 directors are elected by the members, 3 directors jointly appointed by the Tourism Noosa, a CEO for the local tourism, and the Council, 3 directors represents the community, and one councillor is appointed by the Council. Thus, the Council has established an overarching Board structure comprising representatives from local government, business and community stakeholder interests with expertise/knowledge of tourism.

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The second level of the management structure is represented by the Tourism Noosa CEO with over 600 members who come from a diverse range of sectors including accommodation providers, tour operators, restaurants, retail businesses, real estate agents and health and wellbeing, etc. With the help of the CEO the management involves the third, and also local level; stakeholders representing marketing, commercial services and the CEO has a function of connecting bookings, membership and visitor services. The management structure thus provides a structure for communication and information exchange about tourism amongst stakeholders.

To support daily operation as well as strategic thinking, specialist committees (e.g.

Marketing and Events Committee, Finance and Governance Committee, Policy Committee) have been established.

Figure 8: The Model of Noosa Council (Wray et al., 2010) TASK III: Please draw a graph showing the competencies and structure in your DMO. Analysing the structure of different DMOs might be helpful.

For the management it is important to understand the structure. Therefore, it is useful to illustrate the relationships and hierarchical structure and relationships.

It is suggested to work in groups and to compare the understanding and roles demonstrated and visualized in the respective structures.

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3.2.5.2 Risk assessment When designing the management, the partners have to draft a risk assessment document containing 

the list of potential risks endangering the functioning of the DMO (such as financial instability, lack of human capacities, changing economic environment, etc.);



the probability of the occurrence of the risk (is it highly or less probable that the risk in question will occur);



the potential impacts that the risk can have on the operation of the management (is it high or damaging, or less relevant);



the provisions to be taken in order to minimise the probability and impacts of the risk.

Based on the results of the monitoring, the risk assessment document has to be regularly revised.

3.2.5.3 Internal communication One of the main missions of the DMO is to create the conditions for permanent internal communication. The tools of communication include personal meetings, online communication tools and other ways, like mails, phone calls, surveys, events, local media, etc.

The main objectives of the communication are 

to create a pool of information through permanent exchanges



to intensify integration, thus enhancing self-identification.

The target groups of internal communication are the service providers, and local community.

It is the DMO’s responsibility to enhance their commitment. At the same time, it is in the interest of the DMO to involve the local stakeholders since it needs their financial contribution for sustainability. (For further details check Sub-model chapter 5.3.2.3).

3.2.5.4 Vertical and horizontal cooperation Vertical cooperation Traditional form of tourism organisation creates the conditions for vertical cooperation. The division of the competencies forms the basis for the separation of the different levels.

According to the classification of the WTO, three-layered system is the optimal solution.

Regarding the division of the competences, the WTO recommends the following model.

As it can be seen, national level is the responsible party for more strategic issues, while local level rather focuses on operational questions. Obviously, there is no destination standing alone. As being a geographic phenomenon, with special characteristics, every local destination is built into a more comprehensive system. These regional destinations support national level tourism coordination. At the same time, the DMO systems arranged along by administrative barriers fail the main mission of geographical integrity. Especially those Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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destinations organised on their unique spatial features make necessary to apply the landscape-based approach. To sum up, without vertical coordination, our destination can be found itself in a conflictuous situation while cooperation among different levels can create synergic effects. At the same time, the main organising power of contemporary destination management consists of the ability of network building with horizontal partners – and not of vertical cooperation.

Table 3: The system of competences along by different territorial levels of DMOs (WTO, 2007) Horizontal cooperation „Governance […] involves the establishment and maintenance of appropriate collaborative structures and processes to manage tourism across governments, business and community interests.” (Wray et al., 2010)

Horizontal cooperation has a multi-faceted character. First and foremost it means the building and maintaining of the partnership within the destination. The DMO’s main task is to keep the different stakeholders together and let them achieve their own goals, as well.

Second dimension of horizontal cooperation targets other sectors within the region. WTO proposes diverse forms of collaboration, such as joint brand development (e.g. use of shared logos, design styles, etc.), co-branding (exchange of trademarks and labels with other sectors), exchange of materials, brochures, web links, shared media appearances. (WTO, 2007) Corporate Identity (CI) described in Submodel in chapter 5.3.1.2 should be developed, meaning that inter-coordinated appearance of a region requires the creation of a proper and uniform – thus recognizable – image of the destination. (Sub-model chapter 4.3.1.)

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Third dimension of horizontal cooperation addresses the local community. As it has already been explained, the involvement and training of local communities have also economic impacts. (Sub-model 4.3.2.3). Within the framework of green and nature-based tourism, visitors can disturb or even endanger the traditional life-style of the population.

When developing a new destination, sensitization of the community in relation to the needs of sustainable tourism as well as the service providers regarding the traditional ways of living has a crucial role in creating a sustainable model. WTO compiled a list of recommendations on how to involve local community in destination development: 

Develop partnerships and joint ventures in which communities have a significant stake.



Facilitate access to training, managerial support and market information.



Foster the development of community-based tourism products by providing marketing and mentoring support.



Encourage visitors to spend more money in the local economy, and to visit local bars and restaurants and participate in tours to local areas, bringing business to local communities.



Sell local crafts and food products through visitor centres and facilitate distribution through mainstream tourism enterprises (WTO, 2007)

Further recommendations are found in Sub-model in chapter 4.

Finally, DMO has much to do with visitors. On the one hand, there are the tasks related to education of the tourists (see the previous chapter). At the same time, tourists are more and more interested in being involved in the daily life of the destination. It is even more true in those regions characterised by green, slow and healthy services where the visitors can experience the traditions, the heritage and spend longer time that enables them to be involved more deeply. Nowadays, involvement does not limitate to participate in local events. According to a survey conducted more than 10 years ago, 65% of the respondents were curious about the ways of supporting local economy / preserve the natural heritage during their stay. As a consequence, some destinations made possible to finance their activities (e.g. in the field of protecting the nature) by the visitors. (WTO, 2007) Successful destination management is unseparable from active cooperation with the visitors.

3.2.5.5 Ensuring stability and sustainability The management has an additional responsibility for ensuring the stability and sustainability of the destination as a structure. Among the conditions of global competition this is a hard challenge since the business environment changes rapidly and the stakeholders get many different influences thanks to the on-line world. Without stability, visitors can easily draw back from the given destination. As Reid (2003) outlines, tourism will be sustainable when a community reaches a collective decision through the identification of commonly held

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values and aspirations for development. Therefore, first aspect of sustainability is the maintenance of the partnership and the involvement of the community.

Another factor is the professional and financial sustainability and stability of the DMO office as the engine of the destination. As it was highlighted above, the partnership of the actors of the regional tourism is a necessary but not sufficient component of success. The office has to play a coordinator role and to guarantee the implementation of the strategy.

Consequently, the sustainability of the destination fundamentally depends on the sustainability of the management body. The need of financial stability makes necessary that the office seeks for alternative financing opportunities and develops own service portfolio generating incomes.

3.2.5.6 Specific factors to consider in cross-border cooperation In the case of cross-border destinations, the management and networking are even more complicated. The reason is that there are differences in the organisation of tourism activities on both sides of the border, the languages create a boundary; the taxation and legal background of undertakings are different. While natural landscapes do not respect administrative borders and this fact provides the opportunity for developing cross-border tourist destinations, the administrative and legal differences hinder the creation thereof. E.g. it is very complicated to develop an institution responsible for the whole cross-border region.

EGTC can be a good solution to involve the local municipalities. However other sectors of the quadruple helix can participate in an EGTC with limitations or not at all. Consequently, the destination management of a cross-border tourist region necessitates the set-up of a cross-border partnership with a joint coordination organ (without legal entity) and working groups. The management has to involve also the representatives of the national tourism system from both sides and to create the conditions of harmonisation of different level strategies. In a cross-border context the operational costs are always higher based on the translation needs, the lower density of border crossings and public transport lines (longer routes) and mental barriers. The last one means that every actor considers the distance across the border longer than within the same country that increases the costs of cooperation.

3.2.6 Monitoring – A Task of DMO Monitoring activities have to be carried-out according rules defined beforehand. Thus, together with planning the structure and operation, also monitoring procedures have to be set.

The most important rules of monitoring are the following. 

Respect your methodology The methodology applied during the first evaluation should not be modified.

Otherwise, the results will not be comparable what makes the identification of the developments impossible. The main mission of the monitoring is to detect where we are compared to where we were planned to be. If the methodology is changing, we

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will not be able to settle the direction and the achievements. Therefore, the selfassessment tool must be applied covering all aspects of sustainable development. 

Minimise overlaps There are different institutions collecting data from the ground. It is worth avoiding overlaps. On the one hand, the results of other data processing can be used when drafting our own evaluation. On the other hand, the addressed respondents lose their temper if they get regularly on-line questionnaires on the same data.



Schedule your monitoring activities The results of monitoring will be more useful if they are identified regularly with the same space of time. If the data are collected according to the same space of time, the changes will offer clear trends easy to analyse. Furthermore, in harmony with the different maturity level of a destination, information and data have to be gathered by different schedules (not every data have to be collected at the same time).



Make the results public Transparency and trust necessitate that the results of the monitoring are available for different stakeholders. At the same time, publicity encourages the management to work even better.

For the partners we provide a list of crucial criteria which stand for effective destination management and good collaboration (see next page). The checklist is based on criteria developed by Wray et al. 2010. Further aspects, such as communication or geographical extension have been added.

Each partner should provide a self-assessment and evaluate their current status. We suggest that the evaluation is done by several members within the partnership independently. In the next step the eventually divergent results might be discussed and summarized into one overall evaluation.

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TASK IV: DMO – GOVERNANCE EVALUATION CHECKLIST Criteria

State of implementation Value 1 = poor to 5 = excellent, 0 = does not apply

Leadership

Value: Comment:

Clearly defined roles and responsibilities

Value: Comment:

Regular participatory processes are defined for debates and decision making

Value: Comment: e.g. one is not enough

Engaged and participative communities

Value: Comment:

Develops and shares expertise and knowledge

Value: Comment:

Transparent and accountable decision-making is given

Value: Comment:

Critical questioning

Value: Comment:

Self-learning, flexible and adaptive management tools are applied

Value: Comment:

Diversity in tourism system

Value: Comment:

Effective relationship management

Value: Comment:

The DMO works efficiently

Value: Comment:

All members are treated equally

Value: Comment:

The geographical extension is fitting

Value: Comment:

The current involvement of communities in the DMO is fitting

Value: Comment:

The DMO includes locally relevant NGOs

Value: Comment:

The DMO includes locally relevant academic institutions

Value: Comment: e.g. this aspect does not apply when there are no regionally relevant academic bodies to be involved

Frequency of meetings meets the requirements

Value: Comment:

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Risk assessment tools are in place

Value: Comment:

Monitoring initiatives have been started

Value: Comment

3.3 Conclusion This chapter has presented methodologies and applicable approaches to the management of destinations, which have important natural and cultural heritage.

Concluding on the presentation, it can be stated that stakeholders in a defined area, called destination, need to know what they have and what they can offer, need to decide in which direction they want to develop in terms of tourism, need to find a “corporate identity” in order to serve visitors at best, need to contantly check if the agreed goals can be or are reached, need to adress any concerns about unsustainable developments and find the appropriate response to it.

All these needs require a professional coordination, a transparent communication, a consensus building approach and most important stakeholders, which are well informed.

It has to be clear that destination management is a continous and ever-changing process, because the people involved will change and the destination will change for sure, too.

Therefore destination management is not one linear and easy to explain approach. Each destination and its stakeholders are different, which means that one methodology here cannot be applied there. However, this sub-model shows a large variety of possible approaches, which can be uptaken by those in a destination, which are in charge, involved and/or affected by tourism development.

4 The sub-model of tourism product and service development This chapter is based on the sub-model of integrated slow, green & healthy tourism product and service development: smart tools and methods for coordinated sustainable tourism supply, linked to greenways and novel IT solutions promoting them and is talking on increasing, diversifying, and coordinating the fragmented touristic supply into an integrated touristic network linked together by waterways, cycling and trekking trails as sustainable slow travel chains. This supply shall be based on the natural, traditional and cultural assets of the region. It is to promote the integrated slow, green and healthy tourism, offer along greenways via state-of-the-art ICT tools to reach new target groups and improve visibility of the touristic regions involved.

Fitting into the previous steps and manuals developed by INSiGHTS, the focus is on product development, specifically on supply chains. Situated between strategy management, and marketing and promotion, it addresses developing products with special attention to forming

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joint products and joint supply chains through which the destinations can market themselves in networks.

The product placement is a strategic step in which providers and planners have the opportunity to create stronger bonds between tourism providers on location and to strengthen the overall offer. This bond can lead to better integration of the products in the tourism region, a stronger regional identity and brand, and to a better projection of local culture and tradition. In addition the various organisations involved from a supply chain and interactive network.

4.1 Theoretical Background The modern day destination does not quarrel amongst themselves for recognition on a local level. Marketing and promotion are a common endeavour, a joint effort to distinguish their region from others. In order to show this, regions need to create visibility on the market. To achieve this, products need to be aligned in or grouped into a supply chain or along the tourism chain. At this stage, it is important to keep the next implementation steps in mind. In future, these products will be marketed and promoted. The purpose of modern marketing and promotion is the creation of a corporate identity, which sets values and selects goals through creating guiding principles. Furthermore, it is a strategic tool that works along its defined long-term development aims and abides to the created strategy and concept.

Finally, it is a set of tools and methods that serves as an instrument to achieve the development goals of a region (Freyer, 2004).

Since the early 2000’s new forms of marketing have been emerging. Cooperation or network marketing in tourism has seen a strong rise in application. Network marketing is to be understood as a cooperative marketing style in which regional providers bond together vertically or horizontally along the tourism supply chain and market themselves together (Freyer, 2004). The benefits of bonding together in the supply chain will be felt manifold, if these groupings are transferred into marketing as well. Gains include better brand reputation, morale, long-term business relationships, returning clients, higher revenue, reduced costs and improved efficiency (Font, Tapper, Schwartz, & Kornilaki, 2008). A successful partnering includes mutual understanding of the multitude of objectives (Wearing et al. 2007). “For tourism marketing strategies, it needs to be acknowledged that traditional destination branding is not effective anymore in a global environment, that branding is connected to complexity of a place, and that all stakeholders needed to be involved in the process.” (Jamrozy, 2008).

Synergies between products and development are created. This means it must come to a balance between strategic sustainability goals and the stakeholders’ economic visions. In this context Wearing et al (2007) gives recommendations when marketing in sustainable destinations: The product supply chain marketing needs to be realistic, regional and relationship focussed. Therefore, the products themselves need to focus on regional relationships in their chains. The providers need to have realistic visions of what their

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product will bring to the market, and who they can engage with to use the current resources effectively and sustainably.

Font et al (2017) argue, that the ideas of tourism marketing and sustainability seem to contradict each other. Marketing, being associated with quick self-gratification and sustainability aiming at long-term equality. Sustainable tourism looks at combining the needs of both visitor and stakeholder, now and in future. It applies marketing in a way that upholds the values and resources of a destination. In the branch of “product development approach” sustainability is mainstreamed and normalised through purchase and consumption of sustainable goods by placing the emphasis on personal benefits to the consumer, instead of sustainability benefits. In product chains this means that sustainable options need to be made the easiest to consume. It is in the hands of the providers to develop sustainable options for the sake of the destination.

The sustainable supply chains “depend on good working relationships with suppliers, organizational cultures that are supportive of sustainbility principles and organisational resrouces to invest in sustainability” (Font, Tapper, Schwartz, & Kornilaki, 2008: 266).

In the following chapters the sustainable tourism product chain is discussed and illustrated more closely. The various parts of the chain will be expanded on. A section on assessment should aid providers in recognising the role of certain products in the supply chain and their contribution to sustainability.

4.2 The Sustainable Tourism Product Chain “Tourism destinations are a special kind of network and cooperation processes are crucial for them to succeed” (Zemla, 2016:10). This chapter covers the tourism chain as a network.

It takes a closer look at the product elements that make up this network and which specific challenges these face in light of sustainability.

4.2.1 Definition of the tourism chain As tourism involves a specific sequence of certain recurring, consecutive elements, it can be described as a chain. The basic elements of this chain are the journey to and from the chosen destination and the stay at the destination. Additionally, the preparation phase (selection of the destination, booking and packing) and the wrap-up of the stay at home are considered links of the chain as they always take place one way or another.

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The advantage of analysing tourism as a chain is that it allows to structure the complex system of tourism, and thus to identify its different elements. Once the components of the tourism chain are clear, and all its possible aspects are recognized, it will be easier to understand the definition of the tourism product and the analysis of the different economic, cultural and natural assets and impacts of tourism. The concept of the tourism chain is a theoretical model useful to illustrate the tourism process and to assist in the process of product development. The figure bellow illustrates the elements of the tourism chain.

Figure 9: The tourism chain (European commission. DG Enterprise and industry. Tourism Unit 2002:28)

Generally the chain can be broken down into five major categories concerning product offers: Transportation, accomodation, attractions, activities and food and drink. Within the INSiGHTS project the partners often try to improve the local amenities and attractions, such as infrastructure for cyclers or new technical outdoor applications for experiencing nature. However, all these new developments need to be embeeded in the tourism chain, including places to eat, places to stay and additional attractions. This submodel therefore aims to increase the awareness of the respective partners to consider the required network right from the beginning.

4.2.2 The tourism products For each of these links of the tourism chain, the provision of a variety of goods and services is required. The tourism product is defined as the combination of goods and services such as transport, accommodation, food and drinks, activities, attractions, provision of material, infrastructure etc. that are necessary to enable tourists to have a complex experience which starts at them leaving their home and ends at their return.

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Figure 10: Break down of tourism products

The figure above shows a simple breakdown of the categories of products. In general, it is easy to link a product to one of these five categories. A hotel is an accommodation. A restaurant provides food and drink. Many tourism products go beyond a basic form and are multiple categories at once. A wellness hotel is an accommodation and an activity. A restaurant offering a “dinner and crime” show evening is food and beverage along with an activity. With both of these examples, the main category is clear, but additional function is also given.

The second aspect of the tourism product is an economic one: The tourists must travel to the destination to use the product, but many parts of the product are produced in the destination and many services provided by local people living in the region. Thus, tourism is dependent on the economic resources available at the destination. Some planning aspects such as preparation and booking are provided from outside the destination. This includes services by tour operators, transport and provision of information. But the main parts of the chain relate to what is offered in the region - accommodation, food and drinks, activities, guiding services, information and education etc. This only happens if the region itself offers sufficient related goods and services.

Otherwise, these need be imported and are consequently provided from outside the region.

This happens often in the case of specific tourism-related products and labour that are scarce at a destination (e.g. souvenirs, furniture for hotels, guides, hotel personnel). When discussing how a tourism product can be made more sustainable, these different origins of supply should always be considered.

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Figure 11: Regional Added Value ( Pröbstl-Haider 2015)

The figure above shows how – thinking in a network and supply chain – tourism may contribute to regional development especially in rural areas and along greenways. Beyond just the consumption of food and drinks or the overnight stay, the tourism region also benefits by additional sources of income such as guided tours and other services, the provision of local agricultural products such as wine, honey, meat products, for direct consumption or taking home. Economic benefits are also provided by local events and locally produced souvenirs. Tourism planning in the respective destination should consider possible links and possible partners from the very beginning. Figure also illustrates that from a regional perspective any destination should include possible interrelations and additional benefits with daily visitation and local demand.

Looking at the resources and services provided for tourism products in the destination, it becomes clear that tourism takes place within a complex network of providers from various economic sectors which are related to each other. As the tourism product is comprised of different items, it is related not only to the tourism sector but also to other business sectors.

This interrelation of the tourism industry is commonly divided into three sectors when discussing product provision: 

The tourism business (tour operators, hotels etc.)



The supply business (bakeries, laundries etc.)



The resource business (agriculture, forestry, fishery, etc.)

These sectors depend and mutually benefit from each other. While they are partly created by tourism and/or serve only tourism purposes, other parts of these sectors serve the local population as well. The consequences of this relationship between tourism business and other sectors are to be recognized when developing tourism in a sustainable way. The local economy feels the positive and negative impacts of tourism, especially in sectors that do not directly work for tourism. This means that many stakeholders are indirectly linked to tourism.

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The institutional, legislative and administrative background against which sustainable tourism is developed is multi-structured because so many different parts of the economy and society are involved in tourism.

Greenways Case Study: Donautäler

Donautäler is a green way spanning across seven sub-regions in the Swabian Alb located in the southern German state of Bavaria. It totals 319km of cycling routes and has established a well developed website to communicate the products provided in the region. The website includes various information on the routes to chose from and a variety of routing options. It even offers GPS data for the dedicated cycler. In this regard the greenway functions as both a form of mobility but also as an activitiy.

Donautäler goes far beyond this however. On the website great care was put into pooling information on accommodations and restaurants, adding further product forms and offering an overview of the tourism chain product on location. In addition, there is a vast collection on activities and attractions along the greenway that will add to the over all experience. These attractions include observations towers, from which the landscape can be marveled at. It also includes castles, palaces and monestaries which give insight into the rich cultural and historical heritage of the area. Even a few free rest and relaxation options such as city parks and gardens are on the list. Furthermore, bicycle repair and rental shops are listed for the region. A service that will surely be needed.

Donautäler is an excellent example of pooling information on products from all categories into one joint project. It creates not only a joint brand to market, but offers a lot of information on one efficient website. Visibility of the region was greatly improved and the internet platform opened up the information to new target groups. It is a combination of greenway and IT-solution that really illustrates the added value of percieving a region as a network.

Source: Donautal aktiv e.V., 2018

4.2.3 Development of sustainable tourism products 4.2.3.1 Basic steps of product development and people involved The complexity of the tourism product and its interconnections to the destination, the place of origin of the customer, and to businesses at interregional level require the consideration of a diverse range of aspects when developing a tourism product. It also means that in many cases, a range of cooperating entrepreneurs need to be involved in the development.

To begin with, three basic producers can be identified: 



Individual service providers (e.g. hotels, restaurants, tour guiding) coordinate their products, which are supplemented by the services of other partners. They generate profit mainly by selling the primary service that they provide.

Travel agencies and tour-operators sell a tourism product, which is a combination of services from other providers, mainly providers and organizers of itineraries, lodging and catering. The tour operator then sells this product under its own name

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

(or in co-operation with vendors). The income of the travel agency or tour operator is generated from percentages received from providers of individual primary services or by increasing the total price of individual products, or by the combination of both methods.

Destination management organizations (DMOs), similarly to a tour operator, create products from services of other providers. They do not, however, sell this product but provide it for vendors. The profit is generated from the percentages received from the vendor (who generates their income based on percentages received from primary service providers) and/or from percentage gained from the income of primary service providers.

These providers need to understand that tourism development has some essential features that can support the development of high quality products that protect the local heritage.

Some of these features are:      

Using techniques with low impact on the local environment, such as limiting the number of visitors Encouraging tourists and local communities to support the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage of the destination Acknowledging the vital importance of the local nature, culture, knowledge and traditions for the tourist experience Educating locals and tourists Providing economic support to the local economy through community involvement Ensuring that local wildlife and flora, as well as values and traditions, are respected.

In addition to these features, an individual or an organization willing to develop a tourism product should be able to analyse the potential of the region and create a product. They should be able to consider market preferences, communicate with local communities and tourists, be aware of the role of tourism in empowerment, as well as environmental and cultural preservation.

While the assessment of the potential of tourism will most probably take place at the very beginning, part of the marketing, for instance, takes place at the stage of product development. As these elements complement each other and partly overlap, it is important to take them all into consideration.

One entrepreneur could undertake all the different activities of the process. For example, developing a hotel and offering and selling services. In contrast, several entrepreneurs will provide the different components of the tourism chain, while tour operators or DMOs take care of packaging and marketing of the product. It is worth mentioning the role of the internet and the widespread of the sharing economy in facilitating the development and promotion of tourism products, allowing individual providers to reach a wider audience.

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4.2.3.2 Involving the community Sustainable tourism development requires the involvement of the local community. The following actions can ensure local involvement:  

 

Respecting local values, traditions and customs Involving community members in the implementation of tourism. For example, locals can provide a number of services, including tour-guiding, managing accommodation (independent hotels, bed and breakfast, home stays…), supplying food and meals for tourists, managing tourist attractions, etc.

Involving the community in the product development phase, agreeing on different features of the product including price calculation, benefit sharing, risk sharing…

Monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the tourism product regularly and actively listening to and taking into account the community’s feedback

For a tourism product to be successful, it is essential that the community is involved at an early stage and that this involvement continues long-term, throughout all the phases of the product lifecycle. It is also vital to ensure that tourists are aware of the local values, cultures and tradition in order to behave in a respectful way. Finding balance between the needs of the tourists and the local customs can be challenging, but it is essential for the long-term sustainability of the product. In-depth information on how to conduct stakeholder involvement can be found in the INSiGHTS manual on stakeholder involvement.

For products to be developed that are in line with stakeholder involvement and are aimed at benefitting locals and tourists alike, the product developer needs to ensure:       

Principles of sustainability are followed Consistency, offering the same services to all customers High quality standards Supports the learning and training of staff members Feedback from customers and employees is taken into account Ethical business practices are enforced Promises are kept

4.2.3.3 The regional supply for tourism As described, tourism has a complex structure and is related to the regional economy and regional resources. The fundamental question for the sustainability of tourism is if the regional economy, that is local producers and the local population, benefits from tourism, or if the income generated is drawn from the region through leakages. The economic benefit a region can obtain from tourism therefore depends on the following aspects: 

if goods and services that tourism businesses use are bought in the region or are brought from abroad;

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  

  

if goods and services are produced from regional resources or if resources are purchased from elsewhere; if the production of goods takes place in the region or if goods are brought from abroad; if the producing enterprises are owned by inhabitants from the region or if companies that are not from the region or international companies own them (e.g. big international hotel chains); if tourism businesses employ local inhabitants or if employees come to the region from elsewhere (and maybe just for the tourism season); if local tourism providers and producers of supply are connected in a regional economic network and benefit other local businesses; if the region and the communities can benefit from taxes and fees the tourism business generates.

This interdependency between tourism and diverse suppliers may lead to the establishment of a supply network that benefits all related sectors and businesses. The main pre-condition, however, for tourism to bring about these advantages is the engagement of local businesses. If the goods and services needed for tourism are supplied by local producers – this includes, for example, farmers (food production and supply), craftsmen (construction works) and local handicraft traders (selling of local products) as well as tourist guides, owners and employees of accommodation facilities and restaurants, etc. – the consequence is that tourism can initiate a boost to the entire local economy.

Achieving this task requires that the local economy provides the goods and services required for tourism in adequate quality and sufficient quantity, and that the local population is able to fulfil the demands of newly established job opportunities. Training and capacity building measures might be necessary to enable the local inhabitants to participate in the tourism sector, if as service providers, employees of tourism enterprises or as suppliers of tourismrelated goods and services. In a second step, a local supply network based on the diverse needs of the tourism branch can be established, so that both tourism and all other local businesses are mutually profiting from each other. The results are, firstly, a long-term viability of the economic sector of the destination and, secondly, a diversified economic structure which is not solely dependent on tourism.

A common vision and the good will to work together is a necessity. Cooperation and integration are further important keywords. The following examples show possible goods and services that are components of such a sustainable regional supply chain:

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Locally produced food and drinks Tourists like food that is grown and stored in the region or even on the field in front of their eyes. Existing farms may offer their own produce on site or open an own small café or restaurant. Maybe it is even possible to make an ecofarm out of it.

(pictures: own source CEEweb)

Lodging Local hotels or camping sites can be delivered with those regional products. Thus the farmer or another local producer can raise their sale and the chance that more guests frequent the facilities is high because they prefer the quality of fresh food. If a renovation or just new furnishings and equipment are necessary, the local carpenter should be asked first. Again the benefit would stay in the region.

Handicrafts If guests come to the region, they are interested in culture.

Handcrafted

artifacts

are

a

good

possibility

to

demonstrate it. Handicraft workshops may produce these objects and sell them either directly to guests or they resell it to local or regional handicraft shops that offer it to interested travelers.

Revitalization of buildings

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O 4.1. MODEL ON SLOW, GREEN & HEALTHY TOURISM DEVELOPMENT Untenanted houses, flats or farmhouses can be revitalized and rented afterwards. Workshops for regional architecture can be offered for supporting the financing of the costs, possibly a part of the house can be rented to open a small museum or the above mentioned handicraft shop that in turn facilitates further renovations. Smaller flats or even rooms of a flat or a house can be offered as bed and breakfast, a possibility to supplement one’s income.

Nature – profit and protection Guests who come from cities, where they do not have the possibility to enjoy nature are not only fond of activities like cycling, swimming or hiking outside. Hiking paths or nature observation points can be developed, guided tours can be offered. That way, new jobs are being created and natural resources can be used in a reasonable way. But taking benefit from nature involves also its protection.

Without intact nature and thus the recreation-aspect the guests will stay out and so will a long-lasting prosperity.

Festivals and events Celebrating is a joy not only for guests. Special events, of diverse nature build a point of attraction. They can increase the number of guests and forgotten traditions like special dances or songs can be revitalized. This benefits both hosts and guests.

4.2.4 Sustainability The strategy of drawing certain benefits from tourism - mainly of an economic nature implies taking advantage of free-market mechanisms for ecological and social purposes,

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and this in turn indicates to accept the logic of a system mainly driven by private enterprise, in which competitiveness and operational profitability are both, the core purpose and at the same time the prerequisite for its very ability to function. People wanting to develop sustainable tourism or to make tourism in a region more sustainable, therefore need to accept that they are acting against the background of market mechanisms and profit-driven entrepreneurship. Especially those who have their main focus of work on non-profit activities, such as protected area managers, government institutions or NGOs, and that want to actively participate in the development of tourism tend to neglect the economic aspects that the main purpose of the tourism sector is to sell a product - and for this reason often fail to achieve economic sustainability of their tourism projects.

On the other hand, tourism can generate income for individuals just as well as for whole communities in very different direct and indirect ways. Besides economic benefits, tourism can also positively impact the cultural and societal development and quality of a region.

The main positive socio-economic impact of tourism is that it generates income for the host economy as well as foreign exchange earnings. Furthermore, tourism stimulates investment in the region’s economy and infrastructure, which leads to the generation of employment and, again, to an increase in income for the local population. Employment may be created directly in the tourism industry through hotels, restaurants, souvenir sales and other tourism related services, or indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed by tourismrelated business. Tourism development often requires infrastructure improvements such as better water and sewage systems, roads and public transport networks, thus improving the quality of life for residents. By stimulating economic development tourism contributes directly to government revenues by the taxes on the implementation of income from tourism and indirectly through taxes and duties levied on goods and services supplied to tourists.

Furthermore, tourism can contribute financially as well as in other ways to the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage. Tourism income not only improves the economic situation of a destination, but can foster environmental protection. Direct financial contribution to conservation is generated through entrance fees for protected areas, grants with which tour operators and other tourism providers support conservation measures, taxes which the government partly uses for financing environmental protection.

Tourists appreciate a healthy and beautiful natural environment and reject destinations where the pollution and destruction of the natural environment takes place. Tourism can therefore raise the awareness of the local population concerning environmental problems and enhance the motivation for conservation activities or promote the improvement of conservation management. Another positive impact of tourism on the natural environment of a destination is that it provides an alternative to unsustainable economic activities, such as intensified agricultural practices or highly polluting industries.

To obtain the maximum benefits from tourism for the sustainable development of a region, it is necessary to evaluate and adjust all elements of the tourism product regarding to sustainability aspects. This can be done at the level of the individual elements of the tourism

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chain, such as transport or accommodation, but also regarding the integrated product and its placement in the regional economy and supply chain.

At both of individual and regional levels, the product has to fulfil the principles of economic, environmental as well as social and ethical sustainability. That means that in the developing process the balance act of the following aspects has to be considered: 

Conservation, preserving biodiversity and natural resources, and greater understanding and the acceptance that preserving the environment is vital.  The inhabitants should be able to benefit from tourism by improved living standards, local empowerment, poverty reduction and (in best case) positive cultural exchanges.

Finally, sustainability for tourism business means heading for long-term profitability through tempered price policies (customer and investment) as well as attractive and diverse products.

4.2.4.1 Sustainability of basic tourism elements Transport The most sustainable means of transport for traveling – besides walking and cycling – are coaches and trains. A train only uses a quarter of emissions per passenger a car produces and a coach only one eighth of these. The most intensive mode of traveling is using the airplane – needing three times the energy as both, train and coach together. The transportation sector is the most difficult to implement sustainable solutions in (Font et al., 2008). Nonetheless, it is one of the most important sectors achieve sustainability in. If changing mode of arrival and departure are not an option, efforts should be made to offer distinctly sustainable mobility options while in the destination. The transport at the destination itself can decisively contribute to increased environmental sustainability.

Depending on the local circumstances, the use of bicycles can be offered or guests can be transferred by public transport. Some tour operators offer special prices or incentives for costumers that use public transport for traveling to a destination (if transport is not included).

Accommodation Sustainable accommodations take care of the reduction, sustainable use and recycling of natural resources. Water consumption, energy management, water use management, waste water management, waste management and chemical use, as well as the possibilities of contributing to biodiversity and nature conservation, to community development, social issues in the workplace, environmental management systems and sources of further information are topics that owners of hotels, pensions, camping places and other types of accommodation should consider. A variety of guidelines, labelling and certification schemes, eco-audit programs and award systems exist at national and international levels in order to help owners to evaluate and improve the eco-friendliness and the socio-cultural sustainability of their business. According to Font et al (2008) accommodation is the easiest product to engage in effective sustainability approaches as they are responsible for a large

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portion of resources consumed. Accommodation is the first and foremost location to guide visitors into an environmentally friendly stay.

Food and beverages The best way to ensure the provision of ‘sustainable’ food and beverages is offering local cuisine, i.e. regional or locally grown and produced products. Bio-products are the best option because then the ecological impacts of the food production is controlled.

Furthermore, the use of regional products reduces transport ways and thus CO2 emission.

From an economic point of view, purchasing the food and drinks for tourists from local producers support the regional supply chain and benefits the regional economy so that more people in the region can generate income from tourism. It is the sector that will bring the greatest economic benefit to local people (Font et al 2008). Regional or local menus are also important for the tourists' experience.

Activities Activities that take place in natural areas are often per se considered as 'ecotourism', 'sustainable', 'ecological' etc. This is a false perception. The concept is often promoted to sell tourism products under the label of eco-friendliness. In many cases the fact that the activities take place in a natural environment result in seriously endangering or even destroying habitats and landscapes, regardless of the subjective impression of the tourist who is 'enjoying nature'. Nevertheless, nature-bound activities can also be eco-friendly and much less harmful to nature than other popular recreational activities that require the consumption of space and natural resources and cause disturbance and pollution. The recognition of the specific impacts of the different outdoor activities and the management of these impacts is crucial to ensure the sustainability of sports and recreation activities. The evaluation and identification of proper management practices needs to be adjusted to the area the activities take place. While nobody would consider a cross-country motorbike race as an eco-friendly activity, most people would label horse riding and hiking much more sustainable. But when thinking of sensitive habitats influenced by noise, littering, erosion and water pollution, these can be quite harmful to nature, too. To ensure an adequate balance between nature protection requirements and attractive tourism activities, adequate management systems need to be established. If trails, resting places and other infrastructure for outdoor activities are well planned and maintained, the negative impacts on nature can be reduced. For very sensitive habitats and regarding harmful activities, restrictions might be the only way to achieve sustainable tourism. Generally, it is important to note that while activities and excursions have the most visible sustainability for the tourist, it is not where the most benefits for the local population arises. All sections of the tourism chain need to be incorporated.

Attractions The same points as mentioned for activities are valid for attractions, including those of cultural heritage or traditional importance. Too many tourists visiting historical places and buildings cause major damages if there is no adequate visitor management. These

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attractions can only survive if a management strategy is devised that ensures it can incorporate demand in a way that will make it available in future. This may have to include limited access.

Product diversification If a region is interested in attracting new clients, there are some approaches that can be considered (shown in table bellow). For this document, the discussion will focus on diversification, in which new products are to be introduced to a new market or a new target group. Complementary assets grouped around the genuine offerings help to attract a broader range of tourists and may give the final kick when deciding on where to go for a holiday.

Offers Existing products

New products

Existing markets, clients, target groups

New markets, clients, target group

Market Penetration

Market Development

Modification of existing products for an existing market

New positioning of an existing product in order to attract a new market, target group

New Development

Diversification

Introduction of new products for an existing market

Introduction of a new product for a new market and a new target group

Table 4: Classic approach to developing new products

Two examples on possible ways of differentiating a tourism product are introduced in the following: Local events and local products.

Local events: There is no better way to experience living culture in a region than by participating in a local event. Tourists will enjoy interesting new experiences and unforgettable impressions, while at the same time the local population benefits.

Villages or communities that have managed to keep their traditions alive are a particular attraction. At the same time, the interest of tourists in the living culture of the rural areas may even be the trigger for the local population to recognize the value of their local assets. Seeing that tourists value local culture and customs can lead to a new appreciation and even to a revitalization of local traditions. Sometimes practices, knowledge and skills which have been forgotten are revitalized through this new understanding of the value of their culture. At the best, locals also learn from the tourists about other countries, their traditions and their behaviour and lifestyles. This way, a cultural exchange takes place, which allows for mutual understanding and thus for a peaceful relationship in the destination as well as outside. In addition, well-known events contribute to the overall enhancement of a village’s or region’s image, thus contributing to an increase in attractiveness for tourists. That way, even the problem of seasonality can be reduced, if well-announced events, e.g. a big traditional village festival or a harvest feast, can stimulate tourism in off season.

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Events can be festivals and celebrations that take place annually or regularly. Often they are already part of the local culture of a village or a region. A regular Sunday market on the village square represents a basic form of a local event. On the other hand, it is worth considering newly designed festivals, aiming to attract tourism. A danger here is that these events – both the traditional and newly established ones – might lose their charm and authenticity in the course of getting more and more commodified. This will follow loss of quality for the tourists. On the other side, annual or regular events, which show high quality and attractiveness and which are well managed, have the potential to make visitors return to the destination.

Local products: Local products provide another possibility of diversifying a tourism product.

Local products include a vast number of offers, ranging from local food and beverages to handicrafts, art objects, etc. In particular, if tourists attach importance to contact with local nature, people and culture, during their stay they will be enthusiastic to bring home something that combines their recent experiences, e.g. eating some homemade honey together with their hosts in the garden, with a souvenir to bring home – in that case, the honey.

Regarding food and beverages, tourists especially like the idea of these products being ‘fresher’, having more taste and being healthier than the typical (supermarket) products at home. The fact that the local products are authentic and found in no other place but exactly where they have been purchased, is another factor of interest. Focusing on local products as essential parts of the tourism product may have a huge impact on the quality of the local supply chain and thus on the health of the local economic cycle. Tourism development causes a surplus in demand, and the suppliers are responsible for their fulfilment. This way, tourism based on local products can be seen as a driving force for the development of the local and regional economy.

The orientation towards local products contributes to the conservation of specific local knowledge, skills and techniques in producing these local products. For example, wine making or cheese production as well as creating traditional wooden objects. In this sense, there might possibly be a need for training and capacity building, if more people need to be taught specific manufacturing techniques. In this way opportunities or new jobs might be created. It is particularly worth pointing out that the production process of some of these items is very much appealing and interesting for tourists. Therefore, it should be considered as individual tourist attraction, where possible. Similar is the integration of tourists into daily life, i.e. supporting farmers’ work or having cooking courses or baking bread together with the locals.

Regarding food if local restaurants and accommodation are encouraged to cooperate with local farmers, buy on the local market and offer regional specialties, new opportunities for local product development can be created, while making substantial contributions to the local economy. However, it must be ensured that food is continuously supplied at

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determined amounts and keep a high quality. The establishment of a supply or/and distribution network is an opportunity to overcome this problem.

Greenways Case Study: Istria Bike&Outdoor Initiative

The ISTRA Bike&Outdoor Initiative covers the entire region of Istria, Croatia with a great number of cycling, hiking, thematic routes and accommodation along the coast as well as through the beautiful natural landscape of Central Istria and its quaint villages. The initiative was launched to develop outdoor tourism in Istria and thus promote synergies between the subjects of tourism with the ultimate aim being to reposition and restructure Istria into a high-quality tourism region with a year-round tourism offer. The repositioning also involves the diversification of the offer and a shift from the dependence on the “sun and sea” products traditional for Istrian tourism.

The Istra Bike & Outdoor DMC Department, as part of the Istrian Tourism Development Agency, was established in 2012 to implement an integrated development and management of cycling tourism as well as other forms of active tourism. The Istra Bike & Outdoor DMC department is supported by Istria County, hotel companies Maistra d.d., Valamar Riviera d.d., Istraturist Umag d.d., Laguna Novigrad d.d., Plava laguna d.d., Arenaturist d.d., as well as Istria Tourist Board along with local tourist boards.

Today’s Istrian cyclo-tourism consists of many segments of which the most important are the numerous bike trails of all types, the specialized Istra Bike & Bed accommodation, quality bike rental & transport service providers and professional bike guides. Also, there are events of huge importance which, besides hosting numerous participants, do the targeted promotion of the specialized offer of Istria beyond its borders. Apart from this, of course, there is the education of the service providers, as well as the promotion of Istria and its bike offer abroad. With its multiple beneficial effects, the project agrees well with the rest of the tourism offer in Istria, including Bike&Bed accommodation, spa centres and gourmet segments of Istrian tourism, namely rural, wine and olive oil tourism. The extensive network of cycling trails targets a wide spectrum of visitors including families, youth, seniors and adventure seekers. The network distinguishes between official and adventure trails and supports tourists in planning their stay by preparing detailed information on the website for each trail regarding the difficulty, length, elevation, surface type and the time required to complete it. The interactive map allows tourists to look for nearby accommodation well in advance and each trail is accompanied by a description of directions and recommended sights along the route. The easily understandable information provided on the website is also a result of the tremendous efforts devoted to developing a uniform signalization for cycling and hiking trails. In addition, the spatial visualization of the trails has also been significantly improved through open-source cartography. The network of cycling and hiking trails is also complemented by the Istra Bike&Bed scheme through which cyclists have access to specialized accommodation where they can safely store their bike and use tools and equipment if necessary.

The new DMC department is committed to the further development of Istra bike (www.istria-

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bike.com), Istra trails (www.istria-trails.com) and Istra climbing (www.istria-climbing.com/hr) projects and the continuous upgrade of the related websites with all the information regarding the trails, races and events as well as specialized types of services.

The Istra Bike&Outdoor Initiative is an outstanding example of successful sustainable tourism product development and diversification. Effective market segmentation has been carried out to cater to the needs of a diverse range of visitors, further strengthened by a website which contains a wealth of information and engages visitors by transforming content into an interactive experience. All pilot regions can benefit from the management and promotion techniques employed by ISTRA Bike&Outdoor DMC, whether they wish to establish or revive a greenway, a network of routes or a certain promotional tool (website, app). The number of cycling trails since 2013 has tripled from 43 to 124 in 2017, covering 3.600 km of the Istrian peninsula. The region also offers around 120 Bike&Bed locations with 12.000 beds. The beneficial impacts of the development of the regional tourism offer go beyond the tangible, quantifiable results. The Istrian peninsula has now built up an image for its active tourism sector which is easily identifiable for tourists both when searching for a destination and during their stay. With the help of this unified tourism package, tailored to different needs, Istria has positioned itself as a hotspot for slow, healthy and green tourism.

Source: INSiGHTS (2018): Collecting state-of-the-art good practices in slow, green and healthy tourism in the Danube region and beyond. Pg.: 35 – 37.

4.3 Assessment of the Developed Product and its Positioning within the Local Suppy Chain Single products make up the tourism region and all contribute to the same regional tourism strategies. This section is an effort to combine product assessment with linking products into the tourism chain. This means understanding where exactly your product fits into the market and which gap it is filling. The clearer it is to you, the clearer it will be communicated to the visitors. Tables 3 and 4 are an opportunity to measure the diversity and unique selling points of the regional tourism products. Table 5 expands on this, and will offer concrete information on exactly who and in what form is being cooperated with. The more well spread the offers are along the tourism chain, the more likely a guest is to spend the entire stay in the area.

4.3.1 Assessment of Products Step 1: Inventory of existing network options Step 1 is an assessment of the new product regarding its potential network. This requires linking the product to the possible network partner elements listed in table bellow: Overnight Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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stays, food and drink, tours and services, local products, souvenirs and gifts, and events.

Add local transport, as mobility on location is an additional important element. These elements of the tourism chain should be addressed in the first step. This gives an understanding of the ties your product has or should have with other products and offers.

Determine if a link between your product and partners within the elements exist at all. If they do, list the partners that are being cooperated with. Evaluate if the supply of these services is sufficient, or if there is a desire to add onto this supply. Prioritize these aspects of the tourism chain into high, medium or low importance. Table has been developed to facilitate the analysis of existing or possible links.

Existing Partners Evaluation and Links

Overnight Stays

Food Drink

Tours Services

Local Products

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____ __________________

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

and ☐ Yes If yes, which: ____ __________________

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

and ☐ Yes If yes, which: ____

☐ Basic Supply

__________________

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____ __________________

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

Souvenirs and ☐ Yes Gifts If yes, which: ____

Events

☐ Basic Supply

☐ Basic Supply

__________________

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____

☐ Additional supply needed

__________________

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Future Plan Explain and Priorities ☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

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Local Transport

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____

☐ Additional supply needed

__________________

☐ High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

Table 5: Assessing product’s potential network

Highest priority areas will be connected to strongly while positioning your product in the market. They are vital for bringing the product into the market and for the product’s success.

Medium and low prioritised categories should be seen as future development aims as they reflect potential that has not been tapped into yet. In a way, high, medium and low priority can be seen as short, mid and long-term development aim for the product. Connecting with segments of the tourism chain will add diversity and strengthen the integration of the product. The assessment of the potential network is the foundation for positioning the product.

Identify weak links and use this to set out requirements for further planning. Remember that the aim is to achieve an integrated product. Requirements for further planning should set the stage for improvements and developments that will lead towards the regions established goals. The requirements should take the sustainability and experience contributions into account to ensure benefits for both the tourists and the region. Analyse your product for completeness.

Step 2: Contribution to sustainability, experience, culture and economic benefit The following step helps to determine the added value of the product. Both for what the new product can offer other elements and how other elements can add value to your product.

Added value should be considered in four regards: Cultural identity, sustainability, economic benefits and experience.

Consider the cultural aspects of your region concerning your product. These can be part of the unique selling points or maybe culture and tradition have a high standing in the community and wishes to be shared with tourists. Ask yourself questions such as:    

What traditions and cultural aspects are being shared?

How accurately is this being done?

Where local stakeholders consulted in the portrayal?

How will the product contribute to preservation of tradition?

As addressed in previous sections, sustainability is mostly felt in the region and usually not directly by the visitor. Sustainability should be incorporated into the products that are the most attractive to the guest and which are the easiest to use, making these the ones with the greatest personal benefit for the consumer, and the greatest sustainability benefit for the

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region. The contribution of a product to sustainability will increase the entire tourism chains sustainability. Ask yourself questions such as:   

What official labels and certification can be joined?

In which parts can local resources be used? Local workforce, local agricultural products?

How can waste be minimized?

Furthermore, economic benefits for the region are to be examined. Ask yourself questions such as:  

What will this product add for the local community? Employment, income, knowledge?

How will this product assist long-term development?

Experience is a crucial factor for the visitor. Impressions formed by visitors are perceived as a whole rather than singularities. Recognizing this, and recalling the stated benefits of networking from the theoretical background section it becomes clear that forming joint initiatives will multiply the experience effects on the visitor, increase efficiency for the provider and reduce costs. Due to this, it can also be a catalyst for resource efficiency and increased sustainability. Ask yourself questions such as:     

How does my product improve visitor experience?

How does it make a visit easier?

What impression will it leave on the visitor?

How is it combined with other products?

Where can it still be linked and combined?

The questions listed in the paragraphs above are food for thought. They are a springboard to address regionally specific topics in experience, sustainability and tradition. Following table is a template developed to gather the contribution assessment of your product.

Network products

Contributes to Cultural Identity

Sustainable Development

Local Economic Additional Benefits Experience

Existing offers A B C Planned Offers A

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B C Table 6: Assessing the products contributions

Fill in table above using the following symbols: (+) +

No contribution Partial contribution Significant contribution

In some cases, one or two categories may be irrelevant. For example, if local products are non-existent, there is no need to create some just to tick a box. All offers should be relevant and aim at contributing meaningfully to the overarching goal of creating an integrated product offer that will contribute to sustainability, cultural heritage and regional development.

As an example, consider a greenway focused on cycling. Let us say the new product developed is a regional platform on cycling in the region. It is not a real world example but merely a visualisation. For such a greenway, overnight stays and gastronomy are of high importance. After all, these are the basic requirements for tourists. Events, services and attractions are of medium importance. They enhance the experience and quality of the visit.

Gifts and local products are of low priority for the greenway, as cyclists usually travel lightly.

For such a scenario the table may look like follows: Existing Partners and Links ☐ No

Overnight Stays

Food and Drink

Tours and Services

X Yes If yes, which: Hotel “SleepWell”, Campground “Lake”, Hostel “Backpack”

Evaluation

X Sufficient Supply ☐ Basic Supply ☐ Additional supply needed

Future Plan and Priorities X High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

X No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

X High

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____

☐ Medium

__________________

X Additional supply needed

☐ Low

☐ No

☐ Sufficient Supply

X Yes

X Basic Supply

If yes, which: Bikeshop “RideWell”,

☐ Additional supply needed

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☐ High X Medium ☐ Low

Explain Priority is to maintain the quality and ensure supply remains sufficient

Supply is not harmonized with the type of tourists Services along the route are well developed.

The Tours are limited to family trips.

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Local Products

Souvenirs and Gifts

Events

Local Transport

Tour

X No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____ __________________

X Additional supply needed

X No

☐ Sufficient Supply

☐ Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: ____ __________________

X Additional supply needed

☐ No

X Sufficient Supply

X Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: “Cycling with kids”, “Historic Cycle Day”

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ No

X Sufficient Supply

X Yes

☐ Basic Supply

If yes, which: Bike rental “EasyRider”, public transport

☐ Additional supply needed

☐ High X Medium ☐ Low

☐ High ☐ Medium X Low

☐ High X Medium ☐ Low

X High ☐ Medium ☐ Low

No link between providers and distribution to tourists.

No locations to purchase souvenirs and gifts.

Only during high season there are various events around cycling.

There are 5 bike rental shops and public transport which can also transport bicycles.

Table 7: Example of assessing product’s potential network

The categories overnight stays, tours and services, events and local transport seem to be covered quite well for the time being. These categories will have plenty of existing offers that are already linked to your product. Tours and services, local products, and souvenirs and gifts have no existing offers linked to your product. For these either reach out to existing offers that just aren’t incorporated yet, or perhaps new offers will need to be developed in the future. High and medium priorities are taken care of for the most part. All except one that is. Food and drink are important for the basic provision of services. Perhaps there are plenty of offers along the greenways, or perhaps there is room to improve the offer. Locations may consider offering picnic baskets or packed lunches for cyclists that include local products and give the cyclists the energy they need for the day. It may even be an opportunity to educate guests on certain production traditions. This would lead to the completeness of the product and fully integrate it into the tourism chain.

To gain better insight, move on to the next table on contribution to culture, sustainability, economy and experience. This example has been kept brief, listing only one example product for each category. In reality, this table will become very long when listing all products that are in your network in relation to your product.

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Contributes to Network products

Cultural Identity

Sustainable Development

Local Economic Additional Benefits Experience

Existing offers “EasyRider” (Bike Rental)

-

(+)

+

+

“FollowMe” (Tour)

+

+

(+)

+

“RideWell” (Services)

-

+

+

-

“Cycling with Kids” (Event)

+

+

(+)

+

“SleepWell” (Overnight Stay)

-

-

+

-

Farmers Market (Local Product)

(+)

+

+

(+)

Local product Lunch Pack (Food and Drink)

(+)

+

+

+

Souvenir Shop (Souvenirs and Gifts)

(+)

+

+

(+)

Planned Offers

Table 8: Example of assessing the products contributions

In this example, planning and development needs were seen in the categories local products, food and drink, and souvenirs and gifts. This verdict was evaluated on the grounds that there were no links and an insufficient supply. In the next step planning would be conducted along priorities. First covering the lack of food and drink, then local products and finally souvenirs and gifts. The planned offers will further integrate the product into the tourism chain. Offers were chosen that would also offer valuable contribution to the region, fulfilling both planning and contribution objectives.

4.3.2 Positioning in the Tourism Chain When developing a new product, it is beneficial to identify the exact positioning of said product within the existing offers. The aim is to achieve integrated and diverse offers. To do this, identify all the specific products and providers that are linked to your new product.

Following table is an example of a summary overview.

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Provider or Form of Marketing Product cooperation Initiatives

Contact information

Notes

Name:

Overnight Stays

Address: Tel.:

A

E-mail: Name: Address: Tel.:

B

E-mail:

Food and Drink (Gastronomy)

Name: Address: Tel.:

C

E-mail:

Tours Services

and

Local Products Souvenirs and Gifts Events Local Transport Table 9: Product Positioning within the Tourism Chain

In each of the categories think of both the standard and the alternative options. For transportation, for example standard options for arrival and local transport public transport and bicycles. More alternative options include but are not limited to e-cars, Segway’s, tractors, horses, carriages and so on.

Use the table above to list any packages or cooperation forms that link the products together.

The column on form of cooperation should list both formal and informal cooperation, private or public, horizontal or vertical. These could include: tourist cards, tour provider packages, webpackages, print media, supply or delivery contracts or communication cooperation.

Marketing cooperation has received their own column. They should be official partners that can be identified from outside the mere product development. By providing contact information, a product can be linked to the person or people who are responsible for the

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maintenance of these bonds and provide a contact point for implementing further planning steps. Add rows to the categories as needed. This table is a basis to be worked with and can be expanded and adjusted as needed.

Additional notes may include space for future developments; planned or just ideas. It can address how the cooperation is working and whether this cooperation has been beneficial.

This section could also be used to note if there is a desired expansion of the current cooperation.

This table is to be used to identify how the single elements of the tourism chain can be linked to the new product to provide an improved overall package for the visitor. Consider using it to create visual diagrams of local offers. Create a flowchart or mind map of the entire tourism chain with all of the provided products if it will grow your understanding of the regional network. It will give an overview of the chain as a whole and generate greater understanding of the region’s offers and positioning of single products. This way the providers can also see connections that may not have been clear before.

Continuing the example from before, we draw on the fictional product of a regional platform for a cycling greenway. It is a representation of what listing all providers could look like. This table will be very long. The notes section includes points to consider for future planning steps. Reflecting on the previous tables, this one shows how the priority of incorporating gastronomy and local products are currently in the forefront of the planning process. These were the elements deemed to have the highest priority for integrating the product into the chain and anchoring its position amongst the other offers.

Provider or Product

Form of cooperation

Marketing Initiatives

Formal: Webpackages, booking system

Joint, local level, platform

Formal: Webpackage

Joint, local level, platform

Contact information

Notes

Name: Jane Doe Hotel “SleepWell”

Address: Street 1, Town Tel.: 123 456 1 E-mail: j.doe@sleepwell.com Name: Daniel Dummy

Overnight Stays

Campground “Lake”

Address: Street 2, Town Tel.: 123 456 2 E-mail: d.dummy@lake.com Name: Fred Fake

Hostel “Backpack”

Food and Restaurant Drink „BlueMoon” (Gastronomy)

Formal: booking system

Formal: supply contract with hotels and events

Joint, local level, platform

Address: Street 3, Town Tel.: 123 456 3 E-mail: f.fake@backpack.com Name: Sarah Snow

None

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Address: Street 4, Town Tel.: 123 456 4

Contact for joining into formal cooperation

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None

None

Address: Street 5, Town Tel.: 123 456 5 E-mail: b.bell@snack.com

Bikeshop “RideWell”,

Tours and Services

Tour “FollowMe”

Tour “RideSafe”,

Vineyard „GoodGrape”

Discounts offered tourists

to

Formal: webpackage

Special offers in low season for hostel guests, booking system

Formal: Supply contract with hotel and restaurant

Joint, local level, platform, leaflet

Joint, local level, platform, leaflet

Joint, local level, platform, leaflet

Name: Bob Biking Address: Street 6, Town Tel.: 123 456 6 E-mail: b.biking@ridewell.com Name: Rob Riding Address: Street 7, Town Tel.: 123 456 7 E-mail: r.riding@followme.com Name: John Doe Address: Street 8, Town Tel.: 123 456 8 E-mail: j.doe@ridesafe.com Name: Georgina Green

None

Address: Street 9, Town Tel.: 123 456 9 E-mail: g.green@grape.com

Local Products

Name: Becca Blue Woodworking „Carved”

None

Contact for joining supply contract for lunch packs

None

Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 10

10,

E-mail: +b.blue@carved.com

Organize stakeholder meeting with product providers for future cooperation interests, farmers market

Name: Robert Red Kiosk „Corner”

None

None

Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 11

11,

E-mail: r.red@kiosk.com

Souvenirs and Gifts

Name: Shop „ForgetMeNot”

None

None

Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 12 E-mail:

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Find contact, intitiate souvenir corner

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“Cycling kids”

with

Formal: regional and national Tourist Board

Joint, regional and local level, posters and print media

Formal

Joint, regional and local level, posters and print media, promotional video

Events “Historic Cycle Day”

Name: Oliver Organizer Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 13

13,

E-mail: o.organizer@kids.com Name: Harry History Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 14

14,

E-mail: h.history@cycle.com Name: Jerry Joe

Bike rental “EasyRider”

Formal Platform member

Joint, local level, leaflet

Address: Street 15 , Town Tel.: 123 456 15 E-mail: j.joe@rent.com

Local Transport Public transport

Informal: Communication with tourists on use of public transport by other providers

Name: David Driver None

Address: Street Town Tel.: 123 456 16

16,

E-mail: d.driver@transport.com

Establish formal cooperation for marketing and destination information

Table 10: Example of Product Positioning within the Tourism Chain

The overall goal of the analysis and assessment is to gain a clear understanding of the product’s position, completeness and integration. The analysis of the contribution to cultural identity, sustainability, economic benefits and experience produce greater awareness of the significance of the product to the overall development, while the positioning of the product in the tourism chain and the links that integrate it, allow progression in the development process towards sustainable network marketing.

4.4 Certification Assessment of products can be a difficult task. Depending on the overlaying regional aims and strategies, specific assessment indicators may have to be developed. Generally for INSiGHTS however the aim is to create products that are integrated, sustainable and healthy.

When assessing sustainability in a product chain context it is critical to develop a sustainable package, as it can only be as sustainable as the sum of its suppliers and their products.

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Improving the sustainability of a product chain involves measuring the current performance of service providers to establish priorities for action, developing a policy and standards for the reduction of impacts as well as setting targets and actions for achieving sustainable supply chain goals. To create a sustainable tourism service, e.g. a hotel, a restaurant or a guiding service, owners need to consider a great number of factors that influence the impacts their businesses have on natural and cultural environment, economy and society.

To assist entrepreneurs in the process of and to contribute to the sustainability of the product or service, different approaches can be followed. 





Legally approved audit and certification systems concrete management systems that can be applied to any business. They normally focus on the eco-management of the enterprise and are applicable to any kind of enterprise or organization, so the criteria are rather general and not focused on tourism.

Sustainable tourism labels, brands or awards, define the criteria of sustainability the service provider has to fulfil. These schemes often include, besides the ecomanagement, other factors of sustainability, such as conditions of employment, impacts on the cultural environment or incentives for eco-friendly behaviour of the tourists. The criteria for labels, brands or awards for sustainable tourism often consider the quality of the product as one of the most important issues.

Standard quality management as commonly applied in the tourism industry is often helpful because many of the requirements of sustainability also are related to quality.

But this quality management can only be the basis and must be complemented by specific criteria for sustainable tourism.

Because of the different focuses of the approaches, it might be useful to combine the different approaches to achieve all principles of sustainability. A first step is to gain insight into the impacts of respective businesses and activities on the natural and cultural environment. Generally speaking, the provider will have to compile information about all the single activities of their business and identify the impacts these activities have. Based on this information, the sustainability performance of the activities is assessed and finally goals are defined to improve performance.

4.4.1 Certification Systems Since the 1970s tourists in Europe have been familiar with different standards of hotels. All tourists know the difference between a one star and a four star hotel and have at least a superficial understanding of the main criteria of these categories. The systematic evaluation process and the norms behind this classification system bring the advantage that each client can rely on a truly comparable signage and whatever evaluative information stands behind it (Pröbstl and Müller, 2012). Furthermore, the traditional hotel classification system is a helpful tool for the planning and development of hotels, and it can also contribute to the overall image of a region and its marketing. Finally, it serves as an instrument to maintain or even improve the service quality (Juen, 2009). On the other hand, the tourism branch is Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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currently characterized by an ever increasing trend to specialisation and segmentation that attempts to identify respective target groups ever more precisely. Therefore, the tourist is confronted with an increasing number of labels and classification systems addressing concerns, such as sustainability, that go beyond the sole focus on hotel quality associated with the star system.

Pröbstl and Müller (2012) also highlight that beside the differentiation and marketing aspects certification systems are also used as a tool to enhance the sustainable development of hotels and tourism enterprises. As such these certifications play a key role in sustainable tourism management (Honey 2002, Bien 2007, Font 2002). Certification has also been recognized as a valuable method to influence markets (Buckley 2002, Font 2001). Honey and Rome (2001) define certification as a voluntary procedure that assesses audits and provides a written assurance that a facility, product, process or service meets specific standards and it awards a marketable logo to those enterprises that meet or exceed baseline standards. Ideally the certification differentiates clearly sustainable from unsustainable organisations (Font and Harris 2004). It is therefore perceived as an important tool of competitiveness and differentiation, which establishes consumer confidence (Sloan, Legrand and Chen, 2011). The trend toward environmental or sustainable certification has increased in the last two decades. By now a large number of voluntary standards have emerged and many companies have adopted them (see Bendell and Font 2004, Haufler 2001, WTO 2002) using these various certifying programs and their sustainability standards (Font, 2002).

All these certifications have three crucial functions: environmental standard setting, third party certification of these standards and value-added marketing or environmental communication (Sloan, Legrand and Chen 2011). In addition to various voluntary approaches the International Organization for Standardization has developed more generic environmental certifications that do not apply to one industry in particular (e.g. ISO 14001 and ISO14004). In Europe the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) serves as an environmental benchmark and plays an important role in various branches (Pröbstl et al 2004, Pröbstl and Jiricka 2009). The instrument of certification is also used by governmental initiatives to improve sustainable development. The Austrian Ministry of Environment has developed a certification to enhance sustainable development in various sectors but also with a strong focus on tourism (Lebensministerium, 2005).

However, with the sheer quantity of eco-labels on the market, the tourist as a customer may struggle to identify which labels are valuable and credible and which are not. The tourism and hospitality industries can choose from over 100 eco-levels worldwide and over 60 in Europe alone (Sloan, Legrand and Chen 2011). Furthermore, the certifications vary between geographical areas. The Green Globe 21 Scheme was designed to harmonize this variety.

New publications show that in Europe this label still has rather limited popularity (Sloan, Legrand and Chen 2011). Recent initiatives to increase the transparency of certificates and to minimize the effects of “green washing”, such as the initiative VISIT (Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability In Tourism) (2004) or by the TSC (Tourism Sustainability Council) (2010), are still facing a difficult task. This task is also challenging because the various new ”green” labels are based on different understandings of sustainability and focus their certification Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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and label at a specific target group. The main argument of these diverse new approaches is that the existing labels are not covering the specific needs and requirements of a certain group of hotels and their target group or that the existing initiatives are not going “far enough”.

One needs to investigate criteria that will assist in finding a suitable certification. First of all the main focus of the certificate shall be analyzed, checking whether the focus is on environmental, economic, social or cultural aspects or all of them. Ideally the certificate should have a broader focus. The process and frequency of the evaluation process is an important criterion. Ideally the evaluation should be undertaken by external experts over a short time period (2-3 years max). For a hotel owner the costs for the external evaluation, possible member fees and other costs must be considered for a specific label. Ideally the costs should be moderate to enhance the willingness owners and operators to cooperate. If a label considered International or European norms such as ISO or EMAS it raises the quality of the label because this ensures external standards and enhances their comparability for owners as well as clients. Also consider if the label is part of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) or member of the Tourism Sustainability Council (TSC). Both initiatives contribute to more transparency and the embedding of the label into the international family of sustainable initiatives.

It is worth considering the total number of certified enterprises as an indicator for the relevance of this respective label in the marketplace. Finally check if the relevant information about the certificate is available online and is transparent for the client. Pröbstl and Müller (2012) also showed that often certification is selected for a specific purpose: 

Regional representation: sole labels are not available everywhere. “The Green Key” can only be found in Germany and not in any other alpine country. “The Green Globe” is only represented in Austria and Germany. “Bio-Hotels” are only present in Austria.



Substantial methodological differences and levels (demanding and less demanding certificates): The systematic within the evaluation methodology varies significantly between the respective labels. Some labels define basic criteria and bench marks which have to be fulfilled by the hotel. Other concepts, such as “The Green Globe”, list many criteria but only 51% must be fulfilled. A third group of labels uses various levels and define various requirements e.g. for the silver and gold level.



Marketing concept and main target groups: A typical example for a target oriented certification is the Austrian Group of “BIO-Hotels”. The whole list of criteria is dominated by the concept to attract tourists supporting the concept of organic living (organic food, beverages, cosmetics etc.). The “Natur-Idyll-Hotels” clearly state that they want to attract the so called LOHAS (Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability) clients as their main target group. They do not accept hotel chains as members. These kinds of certificates differ from those open for all type of hotels and each of them is characterized by a different definition or understanding of sustainability.

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Certification is more than simply defining truly sustainable criteria and indicators and inspecting them. Beside the criteria per se, an owner or operator will consider the regional representation of the label and its possible effect on his or her most important target group.

Arguably, local and regional certification programs should be linked to an international accreditation system, but the limitations are quite visible. The varying content, and the varying levels of the different certificates make it extremely complicated for the tourist to understand the certification system. This reduced transparency will undermine the ultimate goal of certification to change in function and effect from awarding excellence to actually becoming a de facto requirement of the trade (Bendell and Font 2004:139).

4.5 Conclusion on product development This chapter has discussed products which form the tourism chain. It pays special attention to their sustainability and assessment.

In summary, it is vital for a region that seeks to be integrated, green, healthy and sustainable to investigate a newly developed product in the tourism chain. Since tourism in a region is seen as an entire network of services and goods, it is important to investigate each element of the chain in regard to its link with the new product. Consideration of contributions to sustainability, culture and experience needs to be given. A chain is only as sustainable as its individual links, and this applies to a region as well.

The best approach here is not only to encourage single providers to make their offers more sustainable, but much rather to band together and form a network. This integrates products in a way that gives support and understanding. The network can form a strong unit which will not only greatly improve efficiency but create a stronger regional brand which is more easily marketed.

5 The sub-model of how to channel the promotion into the touristic offer This chapter is addressing the increasing, diversifying, and not well coordinating the fragmented touristic supply into an integrated touristic network linked together by waterways, cycling and trekking trails as sustainable slow travel chains. It is based on sub-model sensitisation of visitors towards healthy & eco-conscious lifestyle via sustainable tourism: smart methods on how to channel the promotion of green & healthy living into the touristic offer with eco-edicational service. It is fitting into the previous steps and manuals developed

by INSiGHTS, the focus is on marketing and promotion. Situated as the last part of the chain after strategy management and product development, it addresses marketing and promotion in tourist destinations. This will be done by investigating the current and potential market, target groups, strategies and tools. The focus is on coordination on regional level, and promotion and marketing on larger scales aimed at selected target groups. The supply shall be based on the natural, traditional and cultural assets of the region. It is to promote sensitization of visitors towards a healthy & eco-conscious lifestyle via sustainable tourism

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using smart methods on how to channel the promotion of green & healthy living into the touristic offer.

Forming a useful and realistic strategy consists of multiple steps. Within INSiGHTS these steps have been broken down into manageable and clear sections which take the developers and planners from initial idea to final strategy, marketing and promotion. In previous documents developed specifically for INSiGHTS everything from Awareness Raising to Product Development has been covered. Each step was illustrated for users through inventories, manuals or models which assist in breaking these steps into conquerable measures.

This sub-model is one of the last planning steps for tourism strategy development. It is assumed that a tourism product has been developed that either corresponds with the developed vision or was formed within a strength based strategy. This sub-model should lay the final cornerstone for implementation.

5.1.1 Reaching tourists through marketing and promotion In order to ensure the long-term sustainability of tourism, it is important to ensure that not only the industry, but also travellers are aware of the consequences of their actions.

Educating tourists benefits not only the destination, but also the overall tourist experience, as more responsible behaviour has a wide variety of positive effects including increased intercultural understanding, greater economic profit to the local community due to expenditure in local product, or a more positive attitude of the community towards tourists.

Responsible tourist behaviour can also reduce the negative impacts of tourism. For example, tourist unsocial behaviour is part of the current issue of overtourism.

While the education of tourists is not solely the responsibility of the industry, the tourism industry, public bodies and other tourism organisations are in a good position to raise awareness within their customers and the general public. All stakeholders need to join forces and contribute to a more sustainable, responsible and fair tourism industry. In this sense, it is important to acknowledge the work that has been or is currently being done in this field In order to ensure the long-term sustainability of tourism, it is important to ensure that travellers are aware of the consequences of their behaviour. Educating tourists benefits not only the destination, but also the overall tourist experience, as more responsible behaviour has a wide variety of positive effects including increased intercultural understanding, greater economic profit to the local community due to expenditure in local product, or a more positive attitude of the community towards tourists. Responsible tourist behaviour can also reduce the negative impacts of tourism. For example, tourist unsocial behaviour is part of the current issue of overtourism.

While the education of tourists is not solely the responsibility of the industry, the tourism industry, public bodies and other tourism organisations are in a good position to raise awareness within their customers and the general public. All stakeholders need to join forces and contribute to a more sustainable, responsible and fair tourism industry. In this sense, it is important to acknowledge the work that has been or is currently being done in this field.

The following part of this chapter will look into the concept of Responsible Tourism and Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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present a number of campaigns and initiatives working towards a more responsible sector.

Marketing and promotion can be exceptional tools to educate tourists in these matters. In this sense, there are a number of initiatives and campaigns from international organisations, NGO’s and private companies targeting tourist behaviour. Some examples are presented below: 









“Your Actions Count” a campaign by the UNWTO raising awareness among tourists about trafficking issues, the campaign offers recommendations to individuals on how to avoid contributing to wildlife, human, artefact and counterfeit trafficking (www.bearesponsibletraveller.org/) “Travelers Against Plastic” (www.travelersagainstplastic.org) is a campaign that aims to educate global travellers about the harmful impacts of plastic water bottles usage and encourage travellers to be prepared to clean their own drinking water. It involves both tourists and tour operators, raising awareness and influencing tourist behaviour.

“Pack for a Purpose” is a non-profit organisation that encourages tourists to bring products needed by local communities (see www.packforapurpose.org). The charity provides information on which goods are needed, and how to donate, and involves local accommodation suppliers to help with the logistics of the donations. Through this initiative visitors can make a real positive impact on the destinations they visit that benefits the local community directly “World Responsible Tourism Awards” Responsible Travel (see www.responsibletravel.com ) founded the Responsible Tourism Awards in 2004 in order to shine a spotlight on the remarkable achievements in responsible tourism and to inspire others by good examples.

UNWTO’s “Global Code of Ethics for Tourism” is the frame of reference for responsible and sustainable tourism. GCET is a comprehensive set of principles designed to guide key-players in tourism development. Addressed to governments, the travel industry, communities and tourists alike, it aims to help maximise the sector’s benefits while minimising its potentially negative impact on the environment, cultural heritage and societies across the globe (http://ethics.unwto.org/content/global-code-ethics-tourism).

5.1.1.1 UNWTO supporting sustainable tourism: ‘Travel.Enjoy.Respect’ Campaign 2017 was designated by the UN General Assembly as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. The aim of this designation was to raise awareness of the contribution of sustainable tourism to development among public and private sector decision-makers and the public while mobilizing all stakeholders to work together in making tourism a catalyst for positive change.

In this context, the UNWTO launched the Travel.Enjoy.Respect.Campaign, which had the aim of raising awareness of the value and contribution that sustainable tourism can make towards development and engage all stakeholders in making the sector a catalyst for positive change.

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The campaign promoted tips on how to be a more responsible traveler. Through a number of online promotion tools, social media coverage, manuals on responsible tourist behavior, a number of videos and a responsible travelers’ competition, the campaign aimed to reach a wide public. The competition offered a price of a one-month trip around the world visiting sustainable destinations. The winner, who is now travelling and sharing her experiences through her blog, has the opportunity to see the world, be inspired and educated by what she learns, to in return enrich us all with her stories and experiences, and most importantly, to set an example of the power that consumer behavior can have on charting a course for a sustainable and responsible sector. While awareness rising is not exactly marketing and promotion, this campaign is stepping stone for the spread of sustainable and responsible tourism along the tourism industry, and supports and contributes to spread the values of the INSiGHTS’ project by supporting more responsible, green tourism development, increasing the ecological conscience of visitors and improving the environmental attitude of all players involved.

Case Study: Sustainable and Energy Efficient Mobility Options in Tourist Regions in Europe SEEMORE is a Europe-wide project that was undertaken from 2012 to 2015 in 8 coastal tourist regions: Balearic Islands (Spain), Bohuslän (Sweden), Madeira (Portugal), Limassol (Cyprus), Malta (Malta), Pomerania (Poland), Forli-Cesena (Italy) and Dobrich (Bulgaria). The aim of SEEMORE is to offer tourists and visitors sustainable and comfortable alternatives to the private car. In order to achieve this, it is vital to improve the offer on sustainable transportation available in these destinations. The project also aims to act as an Increase the awareness among visitors about sustainable mobility options in tourist regions.   

To increase co-operation between the sectors of tourism and mobility, and creation of new and improved energy efficient mobility options for leisure travel.

Shift of travel behaviour of visitors towards more sustainable modes.

Widely share and communicate the SEEMORE experiences and outcomes with other actors in Europe.

Case studies on previous good practices were used to inspire, support and improve regional actions, and regular meetings, seminars, conferences and other public events were held in order to share experiences among the involved parties and with other tourism destinations. Social networks, newsletters and the website of the project were also used as dissemination tools.

Communication within project stakeholders, the public and the wider tourism industry is vital to spread the experiences of SEEMORE and get more and more destinations involved in similar practices.

The eight SEEMORE regions have implemented a range of 179 local actions. Examples include sustainable mobility tourist guides, communication campaigns and promotion of sustainable transport in hotels and tourism hotspots (videos, photo competitions, advertising on billboards…), promoting cycling and walking in tourist areas through the establishment of bike and walking routes and the provision of public bikes, training programmes for industry members, improving and developing new public transport services, parking management, as well as other targeted

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awareness campaigns and specific cooperation schemes with hotels and other stakeholders of the tourism industry.

SEEMORE has been successful in reaching its specific project objectives. Co-operation between tourism and mobility improved in every region, awareness was raised within all tourism stakeholders and a shift on tourists’ perceptions was observed. Additionally, the experiences from SEEMORE were shared with other regions.

More specifically, the combined promotion and awareness actions of the SEEMORE project have reached 7,800,000 visitors, with 60% of surveyed tourists stating that they were aware of the sustainable mobility options that are promoted by the project. Representatives of 107 European tourism regions participated in small scale workshops sharing the experiences from SEEMORE, and the dissemination activities reached 1,300 practitioners. From 2012 to 2014 and within the SEEMORE regions, additional 1,500,000 public transport tickets were sold, reflecting a shift towards sustainable mobility.

It is believed that based on the results from this project, SEEMORE contributes to achieving EU 2020 objectives on CO2 reduction and savings in primary energy use. More and more regions are following the steps of SEEMORE and implementing similar actions, and it is calculated that by 2020 more than 65 regions will do so. This will lead to important reduction of CO2 emissions and to an important contribution to more sustainable tourism.

Further information: http://www.seemore-project.eu/

5.2 Existing vs. possible new clients: to whom is the product advertised Market research is the most important step of the process to outline whether a specific product or service will meet the demand of customers. It is a way of getting to know better the current and potential market. An effective market research will not only provide invaluable information about current visitors but also about competitors, market trends, demographics an even spending patterns. By understanding the current customers to a specific region will strongly support to create a more realistic and accurate segmentation and targeting. The data used in market research can be primary or secondary data, also known as desk research or fieldwork.

Collecting data is one of several steps in the market research process (see figure below): 

  



First of all, one has to define the research aim, thus the result you want to know in the end. Concerning this chapter, this may be the target group or even the question if the planned tourism product is feasible if the demand is high enough.

Then it has to be thought about the design of the research, thus the sources of the data, budget or maybe deadlines Next, the data has to be gathered – data collection After that, the data has to be evaluated, e.g. if data has been collected via questionnaire, the answers have to be sampled and conclusions have to be drawn.

The result is the analysis of the data Finally, the results have to be documented in an understandable way and maybe even presented, e.g. to stakeholder or other members of the assessment team, etc.

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When starting the initial steps of marketing and promotion consider the following table. A region is looking at four categories which combine the four framework conditions: They are either working with existing products or new products. These products are either to be positioned in existing markets with existing clients, or new markets with new target groups.

It is easiest to gain information about existing products in existing markets. It is hardest to get information on new products for new markets.

Offers

Existing markets existing clients / target groups

New markets / clients / target groups

Existing products

Market Penetration

Market development

Modification of existing products for an existing market

New positioning of an existing product in order to attract a new market / new target audience

New products

New Development

Diversification

Introduction of new products for an existing market

Introduction of a new product for a new market and a new target group

Table 11: Classic approach to developing new products

definition

design methods

data collection

data analysis

problem aim

documentation

budget

desk &

evaluation

presentation

deadlines

field research

report

Figure 12: The market research process (Source: N.I.T. 2006b: 2)

It is not always easy to gather data which is really relevant, nor is it always given to get the right information at the right level of detail. Therefore, prior to data collection, at least some key information necessary should be clearly identified.

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The following three questions should be the guidance for this identification process: 

what information is needed



what part of this information is already available



what further information, therefore, needs to be collected to fill the gaps between the information needed and the information available

5.2.1 Secondary Data Collection Desk research, also known as secondary research includes the preparation, analysis and interpretation of the existing material. A problem may be to compare data with different sources or even to obtain useful data. Reliability, credibility and adequacy need to be proved. The advantage of secondary research is that it is relatively inexpensive. Against the background of limited financial and time resources, secondary research is most often the main source of data. Especially in the beginning, it is useful to get an overview of the existing information. If not gathered by internal sources, i.e. data existing within the own organization based on previous market research reports, vending or visitor rates, available information comes from external sources like from public domains, either free of charge or for sale.

Cooperation with various agencies and other organization are other useful sources of secondary information.

Frequently used data sources for tourism include (N.I.T. 2006): Official statistics      

Lodging statistics (which are the main source of data for domestic tourism) Statistics about cross-border tourist traffic Cross-sectored statistics UNWTO (www.world-tourism.org) OECD (www.oecd.org) Eurostat (www.europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat)

Media analyses e.g. by big publishers: Several European Media Research Institutions are listed at: www.emro.org/countries/countries_con.html Tourism and trade journals     

Journal of Travel Research Annals of Tourism Research Tourism Management The Tourist Review Journal of Tourism Studies

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

Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing

Publications of tourism and trade associations, e.g.

The European Travel Monitor of the International Tourism Consulting Group is a continuous representative survey measuring the outbound travel demand and travel behaviour of Europeans. Over 400,000 Europeans are interviewed in more than 30 European countries every year (www.ipkinternational.com).

TGI (Target Group Index) is a fast-growing, a global network of single-source market research surveys. It provides invaluable, comparable product, brand, media, attitudinal and demographic data for over 50 countries across 6 continents (www.tgisurveys.com).

Tourist databases and archives ALTIS: This service aims to provide a trusted source of selected, high-quality Internet information for students, lecturers, researchers and practitioners in the areas hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism. Altis is created by a core team of information specialists and subject experts based at the University of Birmingham. (http://130.88.13.164/).

Tourism Insight: Relevant news and information, all related to issues pertaining to tourism (www.toursminsight.com/?spraak=english), the site is updated daily.

CIRET: International Centre for Research and Study on Tourism (www.cirettourism.com) Travel Blogs Travel blogs are defined as “individual entries which relate to planned, current or past travel…are the equivalent of personal online diaries…commonly written by tourists to report back to friends and families about their activities and experiences during trips”. Blogs are mainly used to share positive or negative experiences or opinions and beliefs. Travel blogs can give a great idea about tourists’ behaviour within destinations, what did they like or dislike. Therefore, it is a great starting point to gain a better understanding of the current market. (Banyai, 2016) 5.2.2 Primary Data Collection Primary data collection requires time and effort, however, the result will provide a much deeper understanding of the market. The advantages of using primary data collection are that it generates fresh, unused data with significant control throughout the process. There are numerous ways to do that depending on the desired outcome.

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Qualitative surveys Qualitative surveys focus on attitudes and opinions. The surveys are of a smaller scale and aim to get to know reasons why people behave and think as they do. In tourism research, qualitative data is used for exploratory purposes such as destination images or holiday motives. Mostly used are group discussions and in-depth interviews.

Group discussions Group discussions are a useful instrument to find out how ideas develop in a group and what could happen in reality. Within a short time frame, one can find out quite a lot about behaviours and attitudes. Further, the observation of interactions between the group members can produce new ideas for further investigation. What has to be considered is that members of the group may suppress their own opinion, feeling uncomfortable showing it in the group and thus adopt the opinion of the majority.

In-depth interviews In-depth interviews are conducted with an individual but without a strict questionnaire. The interviewer has some key points that have to be answered and that control the main content of the interview. But the guideline follows a response orientated way. The problem with these kinds of interviews is that they are fairly time intensive. However, they help to explore majority and minority opinions and allow exploration of less socially acceptable attitudes, e.g. the ecological or socially impact of tourism.

Quantitative surveys Quantitative surveys operate with quantities, figures or frequencies and thus should be of larger scale. The interviews are standardized, i.e. every person is asked the same questions in the same way. This kind of survey allows aggregating results and then considering response variations to these questions as given by sub-groups such as sex, income, age or education. Quantitative surveys can be gathered either by face-to-face interviews, telephone or a self-completion interview. They can be filled out by hand or on a computer, depending on the proceeding of the survey.

Face-to-face interviews As the name implies, this kind of survey is accomplished with personal contact between interviewer and interviewee. The advantage is that these interviews can be done nearly everywhere, in front of a hotel, in a national park, pedestrian areas, etc. Furthermore, the interviewer can eliminate doubts and misunderstandings concerning the questions.

Disadvantageous is the geographical limitation; if surveys need to be conducted all across the country or even across borders, the cost for the interviewer may be quite high.

Generally, a good possibility to reduce costs in research is the cooperation with universities.

The interviews and even parts of analysis may be integrative elements of a student’s project.

That way, both sides can profit from each other.

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Telephone interviews Telephone interviews have the advantage that a wide range of people can be reached. The interviews can be made from the bureau or another office without having travel costs or the like. Further, the anonymity of a telephone interview may comfort people in order to give open answers to questions. Telephone interviews should not be too long and the respondent should be informed how long the interview will take, otherwise the risk exists that the call is finished before the interview can start at all.

Self-completion interviews Self-completion interviews have no need of a personal interviewer. Most common are postal questionnaires or interviews via the Internet. The so-called self-administered questionnaires are less expensive and allow distributing and achieving high numbers of items. To increase the chance of high response questionnaire are often connected with a small sweep or e.g. a free coffee in a hotel – always depending on the background of the interview.

Questionnaire The construction of a questionnaire can be divided into different phases: 

Definition of contents o Contact questions o Questions about the research topic o Socio-demographic questions



Decision about question format



Decision about question order



Questionnaire design



Pre-test



Revision and final version of the questionnaire

All questions should be:      

Easy to understand Unequivocal Clear cut Precise Not suggestive Pleasing and not offending

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In order to ensure that the questionnaires are understood by the respondent, it is important to make pre-tests. Before starting with real interviews the questionnaire has to be run through with test persons. Sometimes it becomes clear only in dialogue that questions are mistakable, or that too much expert knowledge is assumed by the designer of the questions.

Also the systematic may confuse the respondent, the questions may be simply too many or it takes too much time answering them. After this pre-test the questionnaire can be optimized and can then be really started.

QUESTION

open

closed

ANSWER

ordinary

multiple

numeric

Figure 13: The market research process (Source: N.I.T. 2006b: 2) – own draft

Open questions are questions that have to be answered without predetermined default values or answers. They allow the respondent expressing himself without being influenced in a special direction by already existing answers. Especially at the start of a topic section, they are useful to focus the respondent’s attention. At the end of a topic they allow gathering data that has not yet been covered. The problem is the analysis of open answers. They have to be attributed and encoded, which is pretty much work, costs and time intensive.

Example: What did you like during your stay in the greenways?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The opposite of open questions are closed questions. For the answer of the question the respondent has a set of given alternatives. Closed questions themselves can be differentiated again. Some of them allow more than one possibility to answer, i.e. they allow multiple answers: Example:

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What kind of activities are you interested in visiting in the region xy? □ relaxing at the beach □ sightseeing □ cycling □ hiking □ visiting friends or relatives Category questions, on the contrary, allow only ordinary answers. Each answer excludes the other.

Example: How long did you stay in this region? □ one day □ 2-3 days □ a week □ more than a week In addition, there is a third type of question, the ranking question, which requires a numeric answer.

Example: Please evaluate: during your stay has been relaxing

□ very important □ important □ not important

experience of nature

□ very important □ important □ not important

learning more about tradition □ very important □ important □ not important and culture sustainability of the offer

□ very important □ important □ not important

Many questionnaires combine both open and closed questions. Distributing and collecting filled questionnaires and surveys can be challenging, however new technologies can make this process easier. Online survey tools such as Survey Monkey, Typeform or Google Forms in combination with social media can be used to reach a wider audience and ensure higher response rates. There is a wide variety of online survey tools to adapt to all needs and budgets, the ones mentioned in this document are merely examples.

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5.2.3 Identify your potential market As the name already implies – successful marketing involves having a closer look on the market. The tourism market consists of different market segments, with each segment having different people or groups interested in buying the segment’s products. Simply speaking, it can be compared to a market hall, where different areas like fish, meat, fruits, vegetables, etc. are coexisting side-by-side. If a butcher wants to sell their specific product, meat, they are likely to put up their stand in the meat area and not in the fruit market segment. This is because, people who are interested in buying the meat/product – their target group – are looking for them in this particular segment of the hall. In the same way, the right segments of the tourism market and the proper target groups have to be identified or chosen. Only then, the marketing will be successful. A butcher who addresses vegetarians is not very to be successful!

5.2.3.1 Segmentation Market Segment… “…refers to a specific type of tourism that attracts a specific type of tourist, for instance nature tourism, cultural tourism, health tourism and sport tourism.”

European Commission. DG Enterprise and Industry. Tourism Unit 2002: 75

Market segmentation is an important step in the marketing strategy. If a region wants to offer to as many guests as possible as many things as possible – it will fail because of the increasing competition. No visitor will feel attracted because the uniqueness is missing.

Therefore, rather than trying to compete in an entire market, organisations are recommended to segment their market. Segmentation is the process of dividing the population of possible customers into distinct groups.

The customers within the same segment share common characteristics that can help in targeting those customers and marketing to them effectively. Also, market segmentation enables the destination, tourism attraction or service to make choice about who it wants those clients to be – assuming that the desired customer group has an interest in, or can be attracted to, the place.

There are numerous ways of dividing up markets for segmentation purposes. These are usually based on reliable data from market research analysis. Traditionally, segmentation is based on price, purpose, motivations, behaviour, benefits and many more.

However, recently there is growing emphasis on trying to understand an individual’s mental attitudes and psychological make-up – through lifestyle segmentation (Plog, 2002).

Customer lifestyle segmentation can help to understand the customer and his/her needs, product choices as well as his/her taste for new products.

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important to find the right market segments, i.e. to sort out adequate parts of a market.

Examples for market lifestyle segments can include visitors interested in cycling tourism, hiking tourism, nature tourism.

5.2.3.2 Targeting From the previous section, the desired market segments are identified. The first step before developing a marketing strategy is to define the target group and the potential markets to which the sustainable product shall be sold and offered. Both - market and target group are linked up with each other.

There are different ways to target your customers: The sustainable tourism product or the assets necessary for its development already exist; thus the market has to be analyzed where to tap into with the offers.

The analysis of the market happens first and only in a second step, it will be decided on future offers. The main selection criterion is the anticipated growth potential or the product’s under-representation in the region.

Sustainable tourism product development tends to follow the first approach because it is based on the use of the given environment (natural and cultural resources) and aims not to change the region’s lifestyle, characteristics and original features. However, it is still important not to ignore the point of view of the visitor/market side in order to avoid unsatisfying outcomes. The key to successful tourism product development is a combination of both approaches, balancing what is possible to offer with the wishes and needs of the tourists.

The target group allows addressing the market segments with a tightened focus.

Within the different market segments, there are different groups of customers, which can be clustered in 

terms of age, like youngsters, families, 50+, etc.



terms of interests, like biking, hiking, sightseeing, etc.

Depending on the target group the offers have to be adjusted to the different demands and wishes. Elderly people will probably like to have more comfort at resting places; quite contrary to young people, who will look for ‘action and adventure’. When thinking about target groups one should always keep in mind the target market strategy. If, for example, the aim is to extend the season then the target group should be e.g. families with small children or pensioners. But if the goal is to increase turnover, it may be a strategy to attract more pensioners, but families with small children would probably not fall into this category.

Concerning the sustainability aspect, a study called INVENT (www.invent-tourismus.de) found out that there exist two groups of customers: Group A: Sustainability messages can be explicitly mentioned in text and imagery. Target groups may be those looking explicitly for nature, outdoor or culture holidays.

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Group B: ‘Sustainability’ should not be directly mentioned in text and imagery. It would evoke fear of having to pay for something that is not in the special interest of this kind of tourists. Typical groups are the sun and beach holidaymakers or young and action holidaymaker. Sometimes it can also be the families with children.

The UNEP has composed a list of typologies of national tourists that visit protected areas:

Category

Typical Characteristics

Explorer

Individualistic, solitary, adventurous, requires no special facilities. May be relatively well off, but prefers not to spend much money. Rejects purpose built tourism facilities in favor of local ones.

Backpacker

Travels for as long as possible on limited budget, often taking a year off between school/ University and starting work. Hardship of local transport, cheap accommodation, etc.

Enjoys trekking and scenery, but often cannot visit remote areas because of expense.

Requires low-cost facilities.

Backpacker +

Often experienced travelers, and generally in well-paid profession. More demanding in terms of facilities than Backpackers and with a higher daily spend. Genuinely desire to learn about culture and nature, and require good information.

High Volume

Often inexperienced at traveling, prefers to travel in large groups, maybe wealthy. Enjoy superficial aspects of local culture and natural scenery and wildlife if easy to see. Need good facilities, and will only travel far if the journey is comfortable. Includes cruise ships passengers.

General Interest

May travel as Free Independent Travelers (FITs) on tailor-made itineraries with a tour operator, and often prefer security and company of group tour. Usually have limited time available for holiday. May be relatively wealthy, interested in culture, keen on nature/wildlife when not too hard to see. May be active and enjoy ‘soft adventure’ such as easy trekking and low-grade white-water rafting. Dislike traveling long distances without points of interest. Need good facilities, although may accept basic conditions for short-term periods.

Special Interest

Dedicated to a particular hobby, fairly adventurous, prepared to pay to indulge hobby and have others take care of logistics. Travel as FITs or groups. May have little interest in culture. Requires special facilities and services, e.g. dive-boats, bird-guides. Accepts discomfort and long travel where necessary to achieve aims. May have active involvement, e.g. environmental research project. Prefers small groups.

Table 12: Tipology of tourists visiting greenways and healthy lifestyle tourism destinations in protected areas

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5.2.3.3 Positioning Positioning refers to the place that a brand occupies in the mind of the customer and how it is distinguished from products from competitors. There is a wide range of different positioning strategies, but then again, this approach needs to be in harmony with the previously identified market segment and target groups in order to succeed.

In order to position products, companies should emphasise the distinguishing features of their brand (what it is, what it does and how, etc.) or they may try to create a suitable image (inexpensive or premium, utilitarian or luxurious, entry-level or high-end, etc.) through the marketing mix. Once a brand has achieved a strong position, it can become difficult to reposition it.

An important factor for successful marketing is the message. It has to tell the customer, i.e. the target group, what he needs to know to decide on where to travel. Generally, competition in the tourism market – and not less in the specific segment of sustainable tourism – is quite high.

This gets us back again to the aspect of distinctiveness and product diversification.

Highlights and peculiarities (so-called ‘preferences’) have to be identified, which distinguish the own offer from the entire range of tourist products on the market. This can be achieved either through real differences concerning service or through psychological work. The latter meaning to influence the customer’s subjective perception of the offer having an advantage or plus compared to the competitor.

The preferences or only one single preference is called Unique Selling Proposition (USP).

Examples of a USP include:   

a special homemade jam, following an old, local recipe a special event or feast, traditionally celebrated every year a particular sight in nature, like a mountain, a special tree, or a special landscape.

It also can be a service offering that distinguishes the own offer from others

An USP (Unique Selling Proposition)... ...is a non-interchangeable offer. It can be achieved through real existing differences or through influencing the customer’s subjective perception. An USP can be of material or immaterial nature.

Luft 2001

5.2.3.4 Reaching the main regional target group Once a better understanding of target groups is achieved, the next step is to link marketing and promotional tools and methods with these groups. Identify how you can connect, with those you want to reach. A table like Table 2 can aid in organizing these thoughts.

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This table should list methods and tools used for marketing and identify which target groups they reach. Identify for your region, if the tools will reach the current, additional or new target groups. Ultimately this table should give developers an overview of which tools best suit the target group aimed at reaching. Perhaps current tools can be used further, or new tools need to be introduced.

Method/Tool

Current Target Group

Additional & Current

New Target group

Flyer

☐

☐

☐

Brochure

☐

☐

☐

Webpage

☐

☐

☐

Facebook

☐

☐

☐

Event

☐

☐

☐

…

☐

☐

☐

Table 13: Identifying target groups reached

5.2.4 Uniqueness versus unique experience From the point of view of the visitor's experience, unique natural "wonders" like the Grand Canyon, the Great Barrier Reef or the wildlife of Krueger National Park may be, at first sight, main attractions that most other regions cannot compete with. But this does not necessarily mean that a region without such big attractions cannot be a place for an outstanding natural experience. The key to this experience is interpretation (UNWTO & ETC, 2017). Explaining and informing about natural features like plants, animals, rivers or rocks and their role within complex ecosystems will change the visitor's perspective from just a fleeting experience to an insight into the wonders of the natural world.

The same is true for cultural heritage - everybody wants to see the Eiffel tower or St. Peter's, and compared to them, the little village church may be of less importance. But what makes a visit special is the insight and understanding of a region's history, culture and the people as a whole - murals can tell exciting stories, dances can demonstrate great spirit and rites and habits can be extremely inspiring and thus forming a vivid and unique experience.

Case Study: Schwäbisches Donautal Nature Tourism Master Plan

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The Swabian Danube Valley is located in southern Germany, between Ulm and Donauwörth.

Tourism is a valuable economic activity for the region, which receives approx. 1,040,000 overnight stays and has great potential for day visits and short-breaks, with more than 30 million people living within a radius of 90 minutes’ drive from the destination.

The Nature Tourism Master Plan was created to serve as a guide for the implementation of tourism in the region, providing a strategic framework for tourism development and supporting the effective marketing of the destination. Based on the cooperation of the tourism authorities of the Bavarian Swabia and Swabian Alb, the plan describes the tourism strategy of the region up to the year 2025, and presents the potential that the region has for nature tourism and adventure related activities, including hiking, cycling and waterbased activities.

The Plan sets foundations for a more sustainable tourism sector. During the development of the Master Plan, the heterogeneous structure of the region and the weak attitude some stakeholders presented towards tourism was identified as a threat to the development of nature tourism. To address this issue, the Master Plan proposes stronger cooperation within the different districts, counties, and with the central Government, and proposes a series of short, medium and long term actions to be taken. In order to choose these actions, Kohl & Partner undertook a series of indepth project workshops with Donautal-Aktiv and the relevant stakeholders. As a result of this process, the Plan proposes a series of high-priority actions (development or improvement of various cycle and hiking paths, improvement of the available accommodation, including building hotels in Günzburg and Wertingen, and the construction of an observatory and information centre in Wertingen) and medium-priority actions (the construction of the first adventure centre for the Swabian Danube Valley, the construction of further information centres in all the districts involved, and the improvement of existing hiking trails).

In addition to these actions, a strong marketing strategy has been proposed that requires the cooperation of all the tourism organisations in the region. Implementation must be done in a coordinated manner, through a number of workshops held by Donautal-Aktiv and with the participation of representatives from the six districts, the supra-regional marketing organisations of Bavarian Swabia and Swabian Alb, and representatives from those municipalities with tourism departments.

Nature tourism is an excellent way of developing sustainable, slow tourism, and the Swabian Danube Valley is promoting the preservation of the natural and cultural heritage as an instrument for tourism development. This destination has managed to put promote its local assets, and is a great example of how tourism frameworks based on stakeholder cooperation can transform local tourism perceptions and make use of the potential for tourism to move from an unorganised, weak group of municipalities without a clear purpose when it comes to tourism into a strong, coordinated destination.

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5.3 Marketing strategies and their essential components Because marketing is such a complex subject it almost deserves a strategy of its own to help plan and coordinate the different actions needed.

Having chosen the specific marketing goals, the next important step is to figure out how they can be reached – i.e. the right strategy has to be selected. Marketing strategies aim at reaching special positions at the market (the chosen goals). They build upon or expand competitive advantages of the region compared to other tourism destinations. Tourism based on natural and cultural heritage is already oriented towards specific market segments.

Therefore, the marketing strategy should as well clearly address the identified types of tourists.

The lack of marketing expertise and knowledge of the tourism industry’s distribution channels is the main reason why entrepreneurs in (not only sustainable) tourism fail. This is especially true for destinations that aim to attract more specialized markets. They often assume that having an authentic and exciting tourism product is enough to interest tourists; thus, they fail to understand the nature of the tourism industry as a marketplace. Many donors and policy makers also underestimate the challenge and the costs of distributing the tourism product. They do not recognize marketing as a key to economic success, which, in the case of sustainable tourism development, is a part of the sustainability of tourism development and helps to ensure its long-term viability.

The aim of this chapter is, therefore, to clarify and emphasize the fact that marketing is an essential part of sustainable tourism development and that its basic principles should be understood if economic failure, disappointment and discouragement of the ones engaged in sustainable development shall be avoided.

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Before thinking about marketing, the following steps as shown in graphic bellow should have been treated.

1

Inventory of existing attractions and activities, analysis of the possible competition with existing projected tourism developments in the area

2

5

Clarify community objectives with respect to tourism, the environment, socio-cultural aspects and economic development

Determine market targets (which type of tourists, how many and from where)

3

4

Estimate current and possible level of demand and compare to existing carrying capacity (number of visitors, frequency of visits, lengths of stay

Assess support services of both, private and public facilities (to see if they are sufficient to meet the demand)

Figure 14: Preparatory Steps of Marketing Source: own elaboration, based on Luft 2001

Marketing builds up on the results of the assessment (in the figure below called ‘production site analysis’), which clarified the problems, potentials and possibilities existing for the destination, as well as on the identification of target groups and market segments, i.e. the future product’s positioning at the market. It uses the knowledge gained in these first steps of product development for starting a process in which a specific marketing strategy is being developed, aiming at the improvement and firm establishment of both, the product itself and its marketing (‘market concretion’). This process starts with the definition of marketing goals,

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continues with the elaboration of corresponding marketing strategies and ends up with the application of instruments, i.e. the final marketing tools.

Production Site Analysis

 Marketing Goals  Marketing Strategies (= Determination of the marketing orientation) 

strategic

Application of instruments - Product -

Communication

-

Distribution

Increasing concretion of marketing

= Marketing - Mix

Figure 15: Marketing process – own draft

The definition of reasonable marketing goals is the first and also one of the most important steps in the marketing process. Only if the targeted goals are clarified, and the message that wants to be sent is clear to everybody, the right strategies and measures can be chosen.

Whereas goals describe terms and conditions, a strategy determines the frame of actions and deals with the question of how to achieve the determined goals. The last step, ‘application of instruments’ finally consists of three different activities – product, communication and distribution, the so-called marketing mix.

5.3.1 Identify your marketing goals (SMART) The success of a marketing strategy depends on the identification of the right marketing goals, as they determine the further decision-making and strategy development in the marketing process. It is important to establish exactly what the organisation wants to achieve through its marketing strategy. Therefore, setting the right goals is crucial in the planning stage. There are a variety of different planning tools available, however, one of the most effective goal and yet least used tools for achieving goals setting structure is a SMART method. It refers to goals which are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timebound. The method brings structure and trackability to the organization’s goals and objectives as well as very convenient to plan and monitor.

Within the objectives, an organisation can set goals which are related to increasing visitor numbers, awareness or even increase income/ profit. These are called macroeconomic (quantitative) or market psychological goals (qualitative).

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5.3.1.1 Macroeconomic goals (tangible) Macro-economic goals refer to the productivity of tourism in a region. They incorporate guidelines that are directly connected with measurable market results. Such goals can be:       

Increasing overnight stays of the guests Augmentation of the length of stay Expansion of the percentage of international guests Improvement of the numbers of guests during low season periods Increasing participation of local and regional actors Augmentation of their benefit Increasing the number of guests using public traffic

5.3.1.2 Market psychological goals (intangible) Market psychological goals are of qualitative nature and help to create conditions, which enable the macroeconomic goals to be realised. The following examples can be market objectives of an organisation.

Corporate Identity (CI) Corporate Identity stands for the inter-coordinated appearance of a region, i.e. the creation of a proper and uniform – thus recognizable – image of the region. Well known in this context is the Corporate Design of a region. It can be a sign, a slogan or a logo, which needs to be imprinted on kinds of documents, notepaper, posters, leaflets of other kinds of information materials and which is being commonly used by all providers and services being part of the regional/local tourism chain. Because of the uniformity (Corporate Design) the recognition, the assignment and the enforceability increases. All this contributes as well to the general improvement of the market communication.

Branding Branding can be a very important tool for a product. However, sometimes it can be even more important not to ‘overload’ potential guest with images, signs and writings. If every single village or city has its own branding it will cause a kind of stimulus satiation and the effect of recognizing will not be given any more. It might be the best to check if there is already a tourism branding for a whole region existing and if so, I can be thought about joining it – and being involved in its marketing activities. If a region does not dispose of a CI yet, its foundation including an accordingly corporate body should be considered. Of course, this is a process that cannot be accomplished within weeks and it means a lot of work and discussions with and among the interested stakeholders. However, a marketing company or just a centre, where all tourism news of the region, its products and offers are coordinated and further distributed, means an important step towards an effective sustainable tourism product development (see case study of Gömörszőlős in the INSiGHTS Sustainable Tourism Product and Service Development manual).

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Customer orientation The improvement of visitor satisfaction is one example of customer orientation. Sometimes it can already get achieved by very small advertencies – some little sweeties on the pillow at arrival, a welcome drink or sending information about the region to the guests before they arrive will already do. Cost-free transport services and shuttles are other examples.

Questionnaires for the guests will help to find out about their satisfaction with the stay, the program, the service, the guides and the more. This will not only make the guests feel comfortable (because they are asked for their opinion), but it is also crucial for the quality management of a region. Only if the level of satisfaction as well as shortcoming and gaps are known, the contentment of both, guests and region can be enhanced.

Customer orientation refers to different phases of the support service; if all these phases are combined they form the so called service chain. The contact with guests is sometimes not easy, because each guest has its own wishes, expectations, needs and opinions. Even though the staff is very tactful, odd mistakes or misunderstandings are virtually unavoidable.

Such situations are called critical incidents.

To avoid such incidents, it is best to imagine yourself in the guest’s place, taking their remarks and reactions seriously, communicating with them directly and systematically reviewing individual sequences and processes for critical incidents.

B e fo r e

 In fo r m a tio n / R e s e r v a tio n

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O n th e s p o t

 J o u rn e y



 Local in fo r m a tio n



 Food



 A ccom m o d a tio n



 T ra n s p o rt



 A c tiv itie s





= C r itic a l in c id e n ts



= G o o d s e r v ic e

A fte r

 E n te r ta in m e n t



 Jo u rn ey hom e



 P o s t-v a c a tio n g o o d w ill a c iv itie s



Figure 16: The service chain

5.3.2 Marketing Mix The marketing mix is the foundations of the marketing, it is a set of tools used by organisations to pursue marketing objectives. In order to implement the marketing strategy, the optimal combination of marketing methods must be selected according to the developed goals and considering the given environment. The components in the marketing mix are product, place, price and promotion known as 4P’s. It is a combination of elements that used to market products. Marketers use the marketing mix to create an added value for their product. The four elements of the marketing mix are used and adjusted until the marketer gets the results that he wants.

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5.3.2.1 Product policy Normally, the product can either be a tangible good or an intangible service that meets a specific customer need or demand. It may consist of combining various product elements to achieve the right tourism package or of the design of a single product. The product policy concentrates on the adequate product design for the selected market segment. The distinction between competing products is part of the product policy. It decides whether to continue with what is already on offer or to change the products on offer (elimination, variation or innovation).

However, in the tourism industry, the product is very different because of the customer purchases services, experiences rather than goods. The tourist experience is the product, which is intangible and perishable. Therefore, it is important to highlight the service features, customer value and satisfy the need of the tourists. The product can be further divided into core, a tangible and augmented product, which gives the marketer a more expanded approach to promote their products.

Traditionally, brochures were used as a physical evidence of intangible product. As the technology has developed internet took over most of the role of traditional brochures.

Customers nowadays can access videos, images, live cameras or even virtual reality experiences within seconds.

Marketers should also take into account a recent trend, which suggests that tourism businesses should focus on experiences and unique offers rather than traditional assets of products or services. Experiences could include unique ways to connect and engage with local people and gain insight into local lifestyles, cultural heritage and sense of place. This will provide unique, more intimate, customised experiences that reflect traveller values and aspirations/ An experience can differentiate products/ services in a way which consumers willing to pay extra for its uniqueness.

5.3.2.2 Price policy The price of the product is the amount that a customer pay for it. Adjusting the price of the product has an impact on the entire marketing strategy as well as greatly affecting the sales and demand of the product. The price policy can be market-oriented, that means that the price of the product is not determined by considering the costs, but by evaluating the current market situation and competition. Different price policy strategies include price differentiation, high pricing (quality, exclusiveness), low pricing (discount offers) and price balancing (financing the discount on one product through another product which has a high price).

Thanks to the internet, the prices of products have become much more transparent, allowing customers to understand what exactly they are paying for. The different price comparing sites can adjust prices to respond to supply and demand. The development of technology had a significant impact on the pricing strategies as it has increased the competition in the market.

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In the tourism sector, price policies are often based on price differentiation of the following factors:       

Time: peak season - off-peak season, weekend - working day, stand-by-offers costumer: families, kids, students, seniors volume: rebates for groups, prices for contingents distribution chain: discounts for tour operators point of time of payment: discount for early booking/payment spatial criteria: different prices for different departure points/ geographically separated markets commercialization of “free goods”: climate, air, water, location, view, orientation (e.g. ‘ocean view’)

For information that is more detailed please refer to the INSiGHTS Sustainable Tourism Product and Service Development manual.

5.3.2.3 Promotion policy The key characteristics of the promotion are the different methods of communicating the information. The communication policy consists of making the potential customers, tour operators and a wider public aware of the product and thus guarantees the continuing of their interest. The communication policy does not change the product itself but enables influencing the attitude of the customer and his idea of the offer.

Online promotion has the advantages of being instantaneous, interactive and permissionbased. Traditional advertising was based on creating memorable impressions while looking at brochures and hoping that customers will remember the brand when choosing holidays, however, nowadays websites are there to support customers.

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Within the tourism sector communication policy consists of Public Relation (PR), Advertising and Sponsoring. Which of the three items is the most suitable depends on the product and the particular communication instrument’s effect on it. Thus, constant monitoring and control is important.

Public Relations PR)

(=

Advertising

Inside communication

print media advertising

Outside communication

adverts (magazines, newspapers, trade magazines), prospects, leaflets, posters, placards

Sponsoring

electronic advertising radio,television, Internet direct marketing cross promotion

Figure 17: Communication field of action – own draft

In general, the adjustment acts upon the degree of efficiency the instrument has on the decision process of the customer. It can be separated in the following four steps showed in the figure bellow: These four communication functions determine the distribution of the instruments. They have to complement one another.  Attracting attention  Causing interest  Inspiring wishes  Causing booking

(A = Attention) (I = Interest)

AIDA - model

(D = Desire) (A = Action) Figure 18: AIDA model – own draft

Public Relations PR describes the communication of the company with the wider public. It is usually unspecific, giving general information about the product and the provider and it focuses on contact with the media to ensure ongoing and positive media coverage.

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Why? Information Motivation

How? Taking stock Identifying target groups Uniform appearance

Attention

For whom?

Positive image

internal

Communication Information

Public relations

Public relation

Image cultivation

staff / members / working groups / partners external customer / administrative authorities / general public media /public and private

Who? liaison office; press officer; voluntary team; PR officer commissioned agency

When?

What?

Product

regularly on particular occasions

Offers Visions Projects

Figure 19: Public Relations – own draft

Internal communication Internal communication implements regional and local public relations towards service providers and the local population. The main focus of the internal communication is to create confidence and initiate active co-design. The PR-Instruments can include direct contacts with the public, for example:     

information meetings constant provision of news (service provider, clubs, associations and policy) organization of a ‘tourism day’ open days general connection to the local population via the regional media (press, radio, regional TV)

The contact with the local population is important because they have to gain confidence in tourism and the possibilities and benefits it may bring to them.

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External communication and advertising External PR activities target the customer and satisfy a primary function. The attention for both, product or region, is attracted particularly through articles in newspapers, magazines or TV-shows. This emphasizes the importance of publicity. To motivate media representatives to report about the particular sites with their specific products, instruments can be used such as: 

press releases



press conferences



presentations on site

Press releases, press information and press reports provide the basic framework for all media activities. They contain information, explanations, statements or news about a destination or a tourism product.

Press releases should be mailed regularly. They must be topical, clear and understandable as well as brief and factual. The most important statement should be at the beginning of the text (see the “six questions box below). Important is thematic ‘peg’, for example a cultural event, the uniqueness of the product. Six questions whose answer is important for designing every press release: WHO? WHAT? WHEN? WHERE? HOW? WHY? Only important events, for example a new opening of a national park or a special event require a press conference. Press conferences imply a lot of effort, but they allow a better presentation, open questions can be answered immediately and personal contact to journalists can be made.

Press kits are a good possibility to offer further material for journalists and can be included with press releases or distributed at press conferences. Press kits should always be up to date and the most important item of information should be placed on top. Press kits can include: image material, annual reports, diagrams, information material, leaflets, posters, sticker, local maps maybe even notepads and small presents. If the press conference goes along with an event, a program, information on speakers or statements can be included.

Advertising Advertising means to make someone conscious of a tourist offer in a market segmentcompatible, target group-specifically and audio-visually way. Before starting advertising four main questions have to be considered: 

For what shall be advertised? (advertising goal)



Who shall be the potential client? (target group).



How shall be advertised? (advertising statement)



What advertising media shall be used? (advertising material)

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Print media advertising This term covers all advertising messages in printed version. Such as: 

Adverts



Leaflets Within the phase of specified Orientation (Phase II = Interest), the customer collects information first of all via prospects or leaflets. That is why tourism information centers have their focus in prospect advertising.



Posters/ placards In contrast to adverts, placards and posters have enough space for visual messages.

Because of their size they cause special attention.

Electronic advertising The electronic advertising can be divided in: 

Radio Radio has got the advantage of widespread information possibilities, because it is installed in a lot of places.



TV Compared to the radio, the television advertising has the possibility to combine both, audio and visual effects. Problems are the high costs for production and broadcast.



Internet Advertising The Internet has gained high importance for advertising. Its advantages are: global access, no time limits like opening and closing hours or time shift, actuality (modifications can be changed immediately, as they do not have to be reprinted), multimedia-based, audio, visual, and dynamical. Online marketing tools and strategies could have a document on their own, however, later in this chapter the basic online tools will be introduced. The Internet has transformed the business marketing. Nowadays it is expected to be at the heart of any organization’s marketing strategy and it is a must in order to stay competitive. There are a number of different online marketing tools and realistically without professional knowledge, not many of them can be successfully used by small enterprises, however a little training can go a long way. Advice on how to improve online advertising skills will be presented later on this chapter. Being active online is vital, because it will not only improve website traffic and sales, but also contribute to brand visibility or to build a better relationship with customers.

Direct advertising Direct advertising means direct addressing of potential customers. The most common are Direct Mailings. Direct Mailings are advertising letters, which are sent via traditional or

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electronic way to a certain company or private person. Important for such an instrument is a well-kept address file. In the tourism sector the following possibilities for collecting addresses are: 

Addresses of the coupon – reflux



Addresses of e-mail-contacts



Addresses of written prospect demand

Cross-Promotion Cross-promotion stands for promotional support of non-tourist and tourist companies, which target the same interest-groups. The advantage of cross-promotion compared to sponsoring is that it is based on as most equal benefit as possible.

5.3.2.4 Place policy The place is the term used to describe the location of all the points of sale that provide access to the product. This should be based on the target market characteristics, by understanding the market will lead to an efficient distribution channel that directly speaks to the desired market.

The distribution comprises all activities that serve to provide the availability of the tourist services. Beneath the communication policy, it is the connecting link between the vendor and the consumer. Its tasks contain arranging channels of distribution as well as merchandising and, thus, to enhance the sale.

Examples can be:      

Tourism and leisure fairs (WTM & ITB) Workshops Acquisition Packages (see chapter 5) Ways of purchasing - directly by the customer or via tour operators Internet now has provided an alternative distribution channel for tourism products and services. Customers can book tickets to exhibitions or entire holiday’s packages online.

5.3.3 Online Tools In the last few years the mainstream use of the Internet, social networks and mobile social media has greatly impacted the way tourism products need to promote themselves to stay competitive. An online presence is now essential for the survival of a tourism product or destination. The Internet and social media can be excellent tools to promote transnational, niche tourism products (UNWTO & ETC, 2014; UNWTO & ETC, 2017). There are numerous tools to increase the online presence of an organization, however, in this chapter only the most mainstream tools will be introduced.

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Website Customers will expect to be able to find businesses on the Internet. Having a website is essential to provide some information about your business, contact details or selling services online. It is important to establish what the business wants to achieve through a website.

Domain names should reflect on the products or services so customers can easily find it through search engines. Product or service related content and images on the website will help customers understand the “offer” better and will make them feel comfortable with buying from your business.

Social media Social media opens a wide variety of opportunities to reach and engage with potential visitors. In addition to excellent marketing and customer service tools, social media can help develop and promote a consistent, strong brand that can reach a wide public. Different social media platforms have different users and hence, a social media strategy is necessary. In addition, many social networks provide insightful analytics that can be used by business managers to adapt the strategy and find new opportunities.

Some of the most relevant social media platforms for tourism businesses are: Facebook The largest social network, it provides a variety of opportunities for companies to interact with customers: pages, targeted advertising or messenger.

Having a Facebook page has numerous benefits for businesses. Normally, it can lead to increased sales and profits. Advertising through Facebook does not require a large budget, it is a low-cost marketing strategy. Brand awareness and word of mouth also a great benefit of Facebook, once existing or potential customers follow the business Facebook page, they receive updates of which they can share or comment on. Their friends will also see them therefore being associated with the business brand.

Pages can be extremely useful to interact with an audience on a regular basis; they are similar to personal profiles and free of charge. They allow businesses to share basic information about themselves and describe their products or services. They are a powerful communication tool as businesses can instantly and directly interact with users by sharing post and videos, therefore create interest in their products and services. A strategic use of Facebook increases credibility by building long-term relationships with other users.

Facebook can also be used to keep up to date regarding competitors’ activities or industry trends. Facebook pages can be linked to websites which ultimately steers traffic to it.

Users that like a page will regularly receive updates, however only about 17% of a page’s updates will show up on a user’s news feed. When posting on a business page, it is important to ensure that the content post is relevant to the page’s audience; for example, news articles related to sustainable, responsible tourism initiatives or links to blogs that promote healthy lifestyles and travel. It is also important to interact with the audience by posting relevant questions, answering enquiries and getting involved in conversation.

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Facebook pages are also an excellent source of primary data information as they provide analytics that can be used to study how the audience responds to the information posted.

Visitors who come to the website can be exposed to stronger marketing messages and, often, the option of buying goods and services. Website visitors are likely to be more receptive than the average visitor, because they already know something about your business and were motivated to click the website link. Facebook can also analyse all the information that millions of users enter into their profiles.

Targeted advertising is a very powerful tool on Facebook given the amount of detailed demographic information that the network gathers about its users. The platform allows businesses to create ads targeting geographic areas, ages, education levels, interests, the types of devices used for browsing or anything else that appears in their profile. A limit to the budget can be set to avoid unexpected costs, and Facebook provides very detailed analytics on the performance of the advert. Finally, potential and current customers can use Facebook messenger to contact the business; this is a great opportunity to provide excellent customer service.

Twitter It has more than 300 million active users, Twitter is a very useful tool for marketing, communication and branding. Signing up is not necessary which makes it even more convenient to follow real time conversations, to research trends and therefore to find out what customers say about brands or competitors. It has a range of uses and benefits for business, and can complement other communication channels. It lets followers to communicate with businesses too by tweeting to them or re-tweeting their status to the followers of the customers. Companies can “tweet” news, product information or promotions to share it with their followers or audience. Tweeting about special offers or new products can encourage followers to find out more, potentially leading to sales. But tweets can be also used to respond to customer’s comments or questions, or to get involved in conversations with potential clients. Businesses can also use it as a platform for customers to give online feedback, review or comment about their experiences.

It is important to note that Twitter is a fast–paced social network and tweets tend to be forgotten rather fast. For this reason, it is important to post more often than in other social networks, and to reply to mentions as fast as possible. There is a wide variety of information on how to use Twitter for business, but Dominique Jackson (2017) provides a good summary. Twitter's business pages provide more information, including a Twitter guide for small business.

Photo Sharing Sites and Apps Every photo sharing site or application has its own rules or principle that customers have to follow. Although these rules are sometimes very strict, it is still possible to use them for marketing purposes. One of the greatest benefit is to showing people a photo or video of your product or service. It will often be more powerful and appealing than writing about it.

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Images of tourist destinations, accommodation, fashion, food and homewares are common on photo-sharing sites. It is a great way to show or explain customers’ unusual or new products / services. By using tagging can help to raise the profile of businesses or spread the name widely. It increases traffic to websites and other social media accounts. Photo sharing sites can lead to build stronger relationship with existing and potential customers by engaging them. Like all forms of social media, photo-sharing services allow users to identify things that they like and then quickly recommend them to others, therefore encouraging word of mouth recommendations.

Although search engines can’t view images yet businesses can still improve their search engine ranking, appear higher in internet searches by uploading images to photo-sharing services describing the image. Developing a photo library by save, organise and edit images can be very useful for marketing purposes. Some advertising agencies and other businesses turn to photo-sharing services to source authentic and powerful images for their marketing campaigns.

Instagram One of the most popular social media platforms, Instagram allows users to share image and video content with a group of followers. When it comes to marketing, Instagram offers businesses many advantages (Instagram users are 10 times more likely to engage with brands than users from Facebook or Twitter). Business users can create a Business Account that provides basic, free analytical data and allow customers to quickly contact the business by telephone, SMS or e-mail. While a Business account can be used to reach and engage with a wide audience free of charge, Instagram offers business users the possibility of analysing the data available and provide advice on how to promote their business in a more efficient way. This can be good for those who have budget for it.

In order to stay relevant in Instagram, it is important to post relevant content regularly. Once or twice a day would be advisable, but it depends on how the audience reacts.

Snapchat While it is a consolidated social media platform with over 150 million daily users, Snapchat is still relatively new and hence, it is not yet used as a marketing tool as much as other platforms. However, the engagement rate of Snapchat is higher than other platforms such as Twitter or Instagram, and it is ideal for targeting a younger audience (teenagers and young adults).

Snapchat is used to share videos and photos that can be viewed during 10 seconds before disappearing automatically. Companies can use the platform to launch new products, share discounts or interact with customers in a more personal way. Businesses can also create a Snapchat Story (a series of images and videos that disappear after 24 hours) to promote their products.

YouTube YouTube is another communication channel commonly used by businesses as well as customers. Businesses can use YouTube to allow customers to see their products in action

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before they purchase it. With over 1.3 billion users and the second largest search engine (after Google), businesses can benefit from posting content on the largest video-sharing site.

It can be used to increase follower numbers or build a community by engaging with customers. Businesses can share product launches, event footage, vlogs or even videos produced by customers therefore it is an opportunity to add colour and movement to businesses. YouTube can be used in a numerous ways and not only sharing videos about specific product or services but also to show that the brand has a “personality”. Businesses can share information about how the product was made or the stories which is not necessarily shared previously and makes the product more exotic and unique. YouTube is a great tool to share recordings in case customers were not present or to potential customers to get to know the product or service better. A video can be a great way to address a frequently asked question with your product or service.

Destinations, private businesses or non-for-profits can create a channel and share content.

An example on how YouTube can be used as a marketing tool for responsible tourism is the channel of Responsible Travel (https://www.youtube.com/user/responsibletravel/featured).

In addition to having a channel to post new videos, businesses can choose to advertise on videos of interest to the target market (targeting by demographics, interest or topics).

Advertisers pay when the video is watched and have control over how much they are wishing to spend. YouTube provides an online advertising guide with detailed information available at https://www.youtube.com/yt/advertise/.

Newsletters Newsletter advertising has some important advantages over other types of advertising such as ending targeted messages to a selected group of customers. Newsletters can increase awareness and loyalty to businesses. It is a good way to keep in touch with current or potential customers. There are numerous publishing softwares available to produce newsletters. This tool can educate readers about new products, highlight employees, share successes and announce upcoming events or promotions. They even can serve as another advertising vehicle by offering coupons or specials only for those who read the newsletter, which is a smart way to track readership. Compared with other advertising and marketing tools, newsletters are inexpensive to produce. Most newsletters are sent electronically, eliminating even the cost of paper and postage stamps.

SEO SEO (Search Engine Optimisation) will help small business owners create a faster, smoother, and user-friendlier website. Today’s SEO is about improving user experience through well-structured, clean, and uncluttered websites compel a casual visitor to stay longer, thereby decreasing bounce rate and increasing page views. Businesses that have a SEO optimised website bring more customers and grow as twice as fast than businesses

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that do not have one. SEO is probably the most efficient and affordable marketing strategy that exists today (see UNWTO & ETC, 2014).

PPC Pay-per-click (PPC) is of the tools that help business and destination managers to connect directly with audiences in the online world. It is based on keywords which best reflect businesses, products and services. It helps to strengthen online presence rapidly. Running PPC campaigns allows measuring the results made available via their conversion metrics and reporting tools. It helps to understand what keywords work or do not work. PPC campaigns can be a guiding tool for marketing campaigns on other platforms. Businesses can reach niche audiences by precise targeting which can be done via keywords, interests, location, time and days when to showcase your ads. This saves businesses from spending on audiences that are not interested in their products and services.

Hashtags In order to help customers discover product or services, businesses should label - hashtag - their content in social media. Hashtags are keywords prefixed with the symbol #, and are an integrated part of any social media marketing strategy. Each time a user adds a hashtag they enable posts to be indexed by the social network and becomes searchable and discoverable by other users. Once someone clicks on that hashtag, they will be brought to a page that aggregates all the posts with the same hashtags, in real-time.

Storytelling If storytelling is done right, it can have a much better impact than old marketing tactics and can lead to excellent brand building benefits. It is about promoting business’s uniqueness more than just facts and figures and that is why using it correctly makes such a big difference. The idea of storytelling is based on how well you can capture the attention of the audience and engage them on emotional level is the best way to do so. It is a great way to make an emotional connection with the audience, which is so crucial for a long-term relationship. Since stories make audiences become a part of the experience, they can associate themselves more closely with brands and this is the power of storytelling.

For more information on how to develop a social media marketing strategy for sustainable tourism, Training Aid, a tourism training company specialised in sustainable tourism, provides a variety of on-line courses, some free of charge. UNWTO & ETC, 2014 also provide more information on this matter.

Case Study: Green Scheme of Slovenian Tourism

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The Green Scheme of Slovenian Tourism (GSST) is a tool developed at the national level and a certification programme that supports destinations and service providers in their sustainability endeavours and promotes them through the SLOVENIA GREEN umbrella brand.

Destinations, tourism providers, parks and agencies across the country have joined the GSST and several others are in the process of assessment.

The scheme aims to enhance the implementation of green tourism in Slovenia by introducing sustainable models to Slovenian tourism, both tourism service providers and destinations. It informs stakeholders about the significance of climate change and its impacts on tourism and encourages action to be taken towards adapting to climate change and mitigating it.

The Green Scheme is a system that combines all sustainable development efforts under the umbrella brand SLOVENIA GREEN. It enables comparisons with other green destinations around the world, and adds national character, which makes it possible to more easily position green Slovenia on the global map. In 2015, the Slovenian Tourist Board started to implement the scheme at the level of destinations and accommodations. The GSST is operated by a manager, who actively manages and develops the scheme and establishes promotional channels, and an accredited partner (Association for Sustainable Tourism GoodPlace) who has a licence to make assessments using the Green Destinations Standard and is a Green Destinations partner.

The most important feature of the GSST is that it brings together all efforts directed towards the sustainable development of tourism in Slovenia. It does so by offering tools to destinations and service providers that enable them to evaluate and improve their sustainability endeavours, while also promoting them through the SLOVENIA GREEN brand.

The levels are closely connected. The destination motivates key interested parties (service providers) to operate sustainably and carry eco-labels, since a green destination can only be credible if it has a critical mass of certified service providers. To date, the GSST includes 23 destinations with the Slovenia Green Destination label, 16 accommodation providers with the Slovenia Green Accommodation label, 3 parks with the Slovenia Green Park label, and 2 agencies with the Slovenia Green Travel Agency label. Slovenia Green Association boasts 10 new destinations and 5 new accommodations per year, the Slovenia Green Farm Stay, the Slovenia Green Attraction, and the Slovenia Green Event.

Further information: https://www.slovenia.info/en/business/green-scheme-of-slovenian-tourism https://www.slovenia.info/uploads/dokumenti/zelenashema/sto_slovenia_green_zsst_brosura_jul2017_ang_web.pdf

5.3.4 Choosing Marketing and Promotional Tools After identifying target groups and creating a network marketing strategy, tools and methods need to be chosen. In the previous chapters some tools and platforms have been listed. If

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difficulties in choosing tools arise, it may be easiest to use the following table to generate an overview.

Tool

Advantage

Disadvantage

Suitable for my Product

Flyer

☐

Brochure

☐

Webpage

☐

Facebook

☐

Event

☐

…

☐ Table 14: Marketing Tools

List the tools available to you and create a simple overview of advantages and disadvantages. Think of aspects such as financing, distribution and target group when listing these. Finally decide whether or not it is an appropriate tool for your products and network marketing.

5.3.5 Monitoring and Evaluation Controlling the outcomes of marketing by comparing the goals with the results is not only required at the end of the process but also throughout the process through constant monitoring, tests and surveys ensuring appropriateness of the selected strategies. The following checklist will help you to develop printed material that will grab your readers. yes

no

Have you clearly identified the audience for this printed piece?

()

()

Have you surveyed materials from your competitors? Will your material compete effectively?

()

()

Have you determined your distribution methods and requirements before creating your design and deciding how many to print?

()

()

Is the size appropriate for the method of distribution? Will it fit in the display rack or mailing envelope?

()

()

Have you designed the material with your target audience in mind? For instance, have you avoided small print if your major audience is seniors?

()

()

Does the cover identify a benefit – visually or through a key word or phrase?

()

()

Do the printed materials reflect your true image? A slick city stile brochure is inappropriate for a remote rustic village. But so is a photocopied version on gaudy yellow paper

()

()

Is there continuity among all of your printed materials? Do they look as though they are representing the same community? Consider colour, design, slogan, logo, typeface, overall impression

()

()

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()

()

Have you a color scheme that appeals to your audience?

()

()

Have you presented facts and eliminated puffery? Clichés, superlatives, and blatant distortion have no place in your materials. Focus on uniqueness

()

()

Are headlines and picture captions well written?

()

()

Avoid the trendy. Have you come up with something tremendously clever? Check it out with strangers. Learn from their reactions.

()

()

Table 15: Checklist for Evaluating Promotional Material (Source: UNWTO 1998: 117)

In relation to INSiGHTS the above evaluation can be continued specifically concerning the regional products and tools. The following table is a template for creating a quick overview: Product

A

Network Marketing

Marketing Tools

Represents Local Tradition

Yes/No (if yes: with whom?)

Culture Protection of natural resources Local Tradition

B

Culture Protection of natural resources Local Tradition

C

Culture Protection of natural resources

Table 16: A template for regional marketing

In a first step identify the regional products being marketed and whether these are part of any network marketing strategies. Elaborate who these networks contain and which marketing tools and methods are being used. Furthermore, identify if your products and tools serve the traditional, cultural and natural conservation of the region.

This table helps to evaluate the products in relation to the INSiGHTS aims and will indicate if these are being achieved in the marketing strategy.

5.4 Conclusion on marketing and promotion This chapter has been designed to serve as a marketing and promotion guide for responsible, sustainable, green tourism destinations areas of extraordinary natural beauty the Danube region and beyond. The manual draws upon state-of-the-art theoretical and practical knowledge to help destinations create, implement and monitor successful Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

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marketing and promotion strategies that can contribute to the development of integrated, green tourism products that attract more eco-conscious visitors. Current and potential market trends, target groups, strategies and tools have been investigated and presented.

The role of the Internet and new technologies and the impacts these have on tourism marketing have been pointed out throughout the document. This new, digital world presents a variety of opportunities that can help all tourism players the in the INSiGHTS area better understand the need to improve their environmental attitude in order to create a better balance between protection and sustainable exploitation of local resources, reduce the ecological footprint of destinations and also contribute considerably to sustainable socioeconomic development for the benefit of local communities. New technologies are also an excellent tool to reach new, more responsible tourists with a mindset that alligns with the values of this project, and to educate potential visitors.

6 Good Practices and Lessons Learnt from the Pilot Actions Partners worked in close cooperation with stakeholders in 8 Danube regions, in order to gain relevant local feedback on the current situation of tourism, and also ideas and proposals for new opportunities for slow, green and healthy tourism. As a result, 8 actions have been planned and implemented, targeting sustainable tourism strategies, green products and promotion actions developed by the partner regions.

Under Pillar 1 (Integrated tourism management schemes), the pilot action of Pons Danubii European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation and Harghita County Council have been implemented; under Pillar 2 (Coordinated slow, green & healthy tourism supply linked to greenways), the pilot actions of Local Action Group Central Istria, Development Centre of the Heart of Slovenia, Donautal - Aktiv e.V. Registered Association and Zala County Government; and under Pillar 3 (Promotion of healthy & eco-conscious lifestyle), the pilot actions of Regional Development Agency with Business Support Centre for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises and Regional Economic Development Agency for Šumadija and Pomoravlje.

The measures identified and successfully implemented within these pillars can be considered examples of good practice in future strategy development, and can be implemented elsewhere, thus providing an important opportunity in the field of tourism.

6.1 Overview of the lessons learnt By implementing the various measures, each partner identified certain aspects that deserve to be transmitted, such as:

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

The idea of the walkshops created an environment where all partners became inspired by each other`s ideas and initiatives and they could exchange and cross reference their experience.



The implication of the local stakeholders contributed not only to the development of the activities, but also to defining those areas of the regional tourism that need further improvement or where initial investment was necessary.



The experiences and good practices gained during the meetings and site visits organised in Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Serbia and Croatia assisted the implicated entities to define the development objectives and to adopt them according to the specificities and resources existing in their region such as the methods and planning processes which are working good in other partner areas.



Possibility to include civil society and other stakeholders by offering the opportunity to contribute to the development of sites, applications, etc.



Before the project, the local public institutions from the field of tourism were working mostly individually and in the last 2 years they learned that together they are stronger and have a better influence on the decision makers.

In the document prepared in the INSIGHTS project named “Synthesis of the results of the pilot activities within the international project INSIGHTS” is more detailed description of the results of pilot activities and is an important text for its enhanced understanding.

6.2 Conclusions of the lessons learnt for the Model The field of tourism is constantly developing due to the accelerated evolution of the world in terms of technology, needs and resources. That is why it is necessary to change the old methods and to involve the new methods offered by this development, which have positive effects on the economy, also taking into account the needs of nature.

The measures implemented within the pillars by those involved in INSiGHTS have focused on the opportunities offered by technology, which can facilitate bilateral communication with the new generation of tourists and visitors, involving them in some cases even in an active way.

The importance of pilot activities is centralized in the implemented models, i.e. in the solutions found in the local issues, which concerned the tourism field. Finding an effective way to use all existing resources is necessary for the development of tourism, and these projects contribute to defining the roads to follow in the future.

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