Brent Haynes Thesis - M.Arch - The Water Machine - Manchester School of Architecture by Brent Haynes

THE WATER MACHINE MANCHESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE THESIS

BRENT HAYNES 20/21

Acknowledgments

Thank you to my InfraSpace tutors including: Dr. Richard Brook, Jack Baker, and Jamie Wallace. I had a lot of healthy debates with each one of you about this project’s direction and the processes that drove it. Each conversation helped guide my project in a path it most definitely would not have initially gone. I believe the project is better because of these conversations. I also need to thank two close friends of mine: Romano Ian Dayagbil, and Martin Trivieri. You two are always helping me progress as an indivudual and architect, and as a result, you had a huge influence on this project. Lastly, my family has supported me and encouraged me throughout not just this project, but my entire M.Arch journey (plus some). This was especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thank you.

CONTENTS

STUDIO 1

BACKGROUND CONTEXT SITE SEQUENCES

THE VIEW FROM THE ROAD

M58 TIMELINE

USING THE MOTORWAY - UK SCALE

USING THE MOTORWAY - ON SITE

DISTRICTS. WARDS. POPULATION. CENSUS

ENVIRONMENT: WILDLIFE + RISK

METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW LITERATURE FOUNDATION

NATURE INTERROGATED

THE STATEMENT

METHODOLOGIES

Time-line3 Intention

Value of Land

Land Ownership

METHODOLOGIES EXPANDED

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TIMELINE - MAPPING CHANGE

TIMELINE FINDINGS

CRISIS - “RATES OF FLUX”

SHOCK DOCTRINE

EXAMPLE SHOCK

CURRENT SHOCK

MAPPING TIME

CATEGORIES OF MAPPING

WW1 LEGISLATION

MOTORWAY 58 IN 1929

WW2 LEGISLATION

MOTORWAY 58 IN 1955

ENERGY CRISIS LEGISLATION

MOTORWAY 58 IN 1990

FINANCIAL CRISIS LEGISLATION

MOTORWAY 58 IN 2000

COVID-19 LEGISLATION

MOTORWAY 58 IN 2020

OWNERSHIP + VALUE 2000

OWNERSHIP + VALUE 2020

REASONS FOR SPATIAL STAGNATION: 1

REASONS FOR SPATIAL STAGNATION: 2

CONSTRAINTS

CLOSE UP: RAINFORD

CLOSE UP: BICKERSTAFFE

CLOSE UP: MOSS SIDE

102

SITE AS STASIS AND STAGNATION

106

STASIS INVESTIGATION

LEGISLATION INTERROGATED LEGISLATION EXTRACTED

110

DOCUMENT INTENT - NATIONAL VS LOCAL

112

DOCUMENT INTENT - NATIONAL VS NATIONAL

114

2012-2019 NPPF

116

2020 WHITE PAPER (3 PILLARS)

118

LEGISLATION AND DEVELOPMENT - SHOCK

120

PILLAR: DEVELOPMENT

122

PILLAR: ENVIRONMENT

124

PILLAR: INFRASTRUCTURE

126

RAINFORD CONSTRAINTS

128

BICKERSTAFFE CONSTRAINTS

130

MOSS SIDE CONSTRAINTS

132

KOWLOON - CITY OF LIMITED POLICY

134

BANGKOK’S URBAN STRUCTURE

136

DEVELOPMENT PILLAR MAPPED

138

ENVIRONMENT PILLAR MAPPED

140

INFRASTRUCTURE PILLAR MAPPED

142

GREEN BELT MASTER PLAN

144

CAPITALISM VS PRESERVATION

146

HIGHWAY OF HOUSING

150

TEMPORAL COMMUNITIES - TEMPERAMENTAL LAND

152

EQUI-DENSITY

154

PROVOCATION

STUDIO 1 COMPLETED WITH: DANIEL STEEL JAD CHOUCAIR KELLY WARD

BRENT HAYNES

STUDIO 2

STUDIO 1 SUMMARY GUIDANCE THE STATEMENT

160

SPATIAL STAGNATION

162

LEGISLATION DURING CRISIS + SHOCK

164

EXTINGUISHING HIGHWAYS

166

USING THE MOTORWAY - ON SITE

168

TRAVEL CONDITIONS WITH/WITHOUT M58

170

THE WIGANIAN (NOT) PROBLEM

172

VERTICAL ATELIER - WATER QUESTIONING WATER

179

WATER USE: PAST + PRESENT + FUTURE

178

PREMIUM WATER (BOTTLED)

180

GOLD. OIL. WATER.

182

RESOURCE PRIVATIZATION

184

CREATING WATER

186

STORAGE: WATER TOWERS

188

WATER TOWERS AS BRANDING

190

WHERE WE CAN GET FRESH WATER

194

SITE WATER SOURCED (EXTENDED)

196

SITE WATER SOURCED (CONFINED)

200

WATER SOURCE MAPPING

WATER CRISIS THE - SOON - CRISIS

206

CALIDROUGHT

208

HOUSEHOLDS AND PUBLIC SERVICE WATER

210

WATER SHORTAGE THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY

212

SIZE COMPARISON OF FUTURE NEEDS

214

INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS

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FUTURE NEEDS VIA HARVESTING

218

FUTURE NEEDS VIA FOG COLLECTION

220

FUTURE NEEDS VIA DESALINATION

222

DESALINATION WORLDWIDE

224

DESALINATION HIGH ENERGY CONSUMPTION

228

BRINE WASTE

230

USES FOR BRINE: PICKLES!

232

USES FOR BRINE: CURED MEAT

234

USES FOR BRINE: SALT BATTERY

236

USES FOR BRINE: STEEL COOLING

238

USES FOR BRINE: SEA SALT

240

USES FOR BRINE: RECYCLED ENERGY

242

MASTER-PLANNING A MACHINE THE SUPPLY CHAIN

246

THE SYSTEM (MIND MAP)

248

SOREK - CASE STUDY

250

SURFACE AREA OF THE SITE

252

THE VIEW FROM THE ROAD

254

THE MASTER PLAN

256

PLAN FOR STUDIO 3 OUTPUTS THE WATER MACHINE EXPERIENCE 1/2

260

THE WATER MACHINE EXPERIENCE 2/2

262

STUDIO 3

INSPIRATION AND STYLE ARTIST TO ARTIST

268

STRUCTURAL EXPRESSIONISM

270

INHERENT STYLE EXPRESSED

272

INSPIRATION FROM FILM

274

W.W.S.H.T.A.E.

276

THE WATER MACHINE EXPERIENCE 1/2

278

THE WATER MACHINE EXPERIENCE 2/2

280

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ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS COMPONENT: FONT + SIGNAGE

284

COMPONENT: BRINE RIVER

286

COMPONENT: BOATS

288

COMPONENT: BRIDGES

290

COMPONENT: WORKER HATS

292

COMPONENT: ELEVATORS

294

COMPONENT: SALT SHAKER COLUMNS

296

COMPONENT: FOG NETS

298

COMPONENT: PICKLE STORES

300

COMPONENT: WATER COLLECTION FUNNELS

302

COMPONENT: PREMIUM WATER BOTTLE

304

A JOURNEY THROUGH THE SPECTACLE PLACE MAKING

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308

STORY TELLING

310

SEQUENCE 1: TOWARDS IT

312

SEQUENCE 2: REVERSE OSMOSIS

314

SEQUENCE 3: BRINE + PICKLING DISTRICT

316

SEQUENCE 4: REMINERALIZATION

318

SEQUENCE 5: PREMIUM WATER FLAGSHIP STORE

320

THE WATER MACHINE SUMMARY

322

BIBLIOGRAPHY

324

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STUDIO 1

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

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BRENT HAYNES

Site Sequences The M58 is the motorway from north of Liverpool to Skelmersdale, Wigan and the M6. The motorway is actually in an unfinished state at both ends but provides a fast and remarkably quiet route across north west Lancashire, with typically three deserted lanes of flat, direct travel at almost any time of day. Here, we analyze the sequences of the motorway based on a video drive-through completed in September 2020.

Figure 1.

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Figure 2. Site Sequenced Out (N.T.S.)

Figure 3.

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The View From The Road The following conclusions can be drawn from analyzing the existing road (and their sequences defined in the previous page): ◦◦ The M58 lacks sufficient landmarks and drivers/passengers resort mainly to bridges and pylons to confirm their movement. ◦◦ The M58 often feels a confined space due to a significant landscape buffer either side of the road, while this restricts the view of the motorway it also results in very few external views from the road. ◦◦ At the end of the motorway the arrival into Liverpool is confused. There is no sense of arrival from what could be a significant node and the following journey into the city takes place on planted boulevards that features little landmarks and restricts views further diminishing the sense of arrival. The two most significant views are the spire of St. Philip’s Church that lines up with the approach from the road, however it seemingly passes by with a lackluster climax, leaving us unfulfilled. The view of the docks when traveling past the Red Lion Hotel is dramatic and the first glimpse of our destination. The elevated view also allows us to assess our surroundings and build a mental image of our place in the city which is an opportunity severely lacking from the rest of the journey.

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Figure 4.

Figure 5.

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M58 Timeline

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To the east of the M6, a further section of M58 was planned to run across the south of Wigan to reach the M61, thereby providing another route between Liverpool (and its docks in Bootle) and Manchester. An underpass exists beneath the M61 just to the north of junction 5. The route was almost built in the early 2000s in a Wigan Borough Council plan for a local road called the A5225 - a watered-down road scheme that wouldn’t quite have gone all the way to the M61. There was also meant to be a much better onward connection from the west end of the M58 into central Liverpool, relieving the A59 towards the city. This never happened either, and without it the M58 stops in open land without really carrying traffic into the urban area at all. (Pathetic Motorways, 2020)

Figure 6.

Junction 2 is missing from the M58, for another never-finished idea. The M59 would have set off north from here, bypassing Preston to the west and ending on the M55, which is also missing its junction 2. It might seem that the M58 is a bit of an unfinished job but the truth is that much of the road has been pieced together over time. Much of the eastern half used to be the A506, built as part of the Skelmersdale New Town development and once called the Regional Road. The M58 also has the distinction of being the only motorway to use a slang word (not an abbreviation) on its signs. “Skelmersdale” is referred to in one or two places as “Skem”.

BRENT HAYNES

Using the Motorway - UK Scale There is no doubt that major roads and motorways play a vital role in modern life within the UK. This infrastructure is the mechanism that provides rapid commerce nation wide, while allowing increase of daily commutes based on housing and work locations. This map recognizes built-up locations within Britain based on major road networks. It will become a tool in analyzing the site in comparison to other places based on shear quantity of road infrastructure. In addition to this, each major road/motorway has been annotated based on it’s use, with thicker lines representing higher use, and thinner lines representing lower use. In addition to London, the map clearly shows high number and usage of roads in and around Liverpool and Manchester. Zooming into the site will give clarity on the number of major roads, and which ones of these are used more or less.

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Figure 7.

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Using the Motorway - On Site Looking at the site in comparison to the major roads and motorways, it becomes clear that the M58 has a low usage. In addition to this, the motorway is physically quite short, and it has various other major and minor roads surrounding it. The line charts below quantify these numbers, proving that the M58 has less users than any other Motorway in close proximity. In addition to this, as car ownership and usage has increased in the past two decades, the M58 has stayed fairly stagnant. Based on the data showing types of vehicles used on the site, represented as a pie graph at the bottom of the map, it becomes clear that majority of users are domestic (75% of vehicles on the M58 are for domestic use). (Traffic census points on the M58, n.d.) These two data sets combine to question the impact of the M58 on users. How many people would be negatively impacted if they could no longer use the M58, and how much of an negative impact would this be? Users would have to utilize other road networks, perhaps increasing time on their commute, but by how much?

Figure 8.

Figure 9. INFRASPACE 20/21

M58

Figure 10.

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Districts. Wards. Population. Census. The corridor is Governed by the Metropolitan districts of : Liverpool, Sefton, Knowsley, St Helens and Wigan. With the area north of the M58 governed by West Lancashire County. Within this smaller Civil and Non-Civil Parishes govern smaller areas, under the metropolitan district or county, and then the wards of these respectively. The most dense areas are Liverpool, Sefton, Knowsley and Wigan. The rest of the corridor is then covered by very low density rural settlements with the exception of Ormskirk and Skelmersdale. The income of the areas follow a similar footprint to the density, with the denser areas being of lowest income and the rural, less-dense areas, being more affluent. Contrary to the wealth per person, Liverpool has the most available jobs and the best hourly rate, however this does not account for the cost of living.

Liverpool 171,000 jobs, mean hourly wage £9.97 Sefton 64,000 jobs, mean hourly wage £8.10 Knowsley 43,000 jobs, mean hourly wage £9.64 St hellens 46,000 jobs mean hourly wage £9.43 Wigan 87,000 jobs mean hourly wage £9.30 W.Lancs 36,000 jobs mean hourly wage £9.68

* Maps not to scale

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Figure 11.

Figure 12.

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

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Environment: Wildlife + Water Risks Looking at the site from a different scope, we noticed the concentration and diversity of vascular plants, Lichen and bees are further away from the motorway, suggesting that the biodiversity of the site is affected more by the M58 than it is by the urban landscape around it. The flood maps data forecast the effects the flood could do to the longevity and functionality of the M58, especially in the three sites marked in figure 16. Furthermore, the sewer spillage sites near, on or below the M58 could also prove increasingly problematic if/when the floods clash with the motorway and the neighboring towns.

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Figure 15. Wildlife

Figure 16. Water Risks

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METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Literature Foundation ◦◦

Icelandic Lessons. Industrial Landscape. Teaching and Research in Archi tecture: (Blanchard et al., 2019)

◦◦

‘Place: The Networking of Public Space’ in Varnelis (Varnelis and Fried berg, 2008)

◦◦ ‘Re-tracing the Ringscape – Infrastructure as a Mode of Urban Design’ (Van Acker, 2011) ◦◦ ‘Superscape – an interview with Mark Smout & Laura Allen’ - Landscape Futures. Instruments, Devices and Architectural Interventions (Smout and Allen, 2013) ◦◦

Power broking: Contemporary issues of institutional power, State and ar chitectural practice in Britain’ (Rose and Miller, 1992)

◦◦ ‘Notes on Infrastructural Monuments’ in MIT CAU (2016) Infrastructur al Monument (Urbanism, 2016) ◦◦ ‘Micro Infrastructure’ in MIT CAU (2016) Scaling Infrastructure (Urban ism, 2016) ◦◦ ‘The Objectification of Infrastructure: The Cultural Project of Suburban of Infrastructure Design’ (D’Hooghe, 2011) ◦◦ ‘Infrastructures Marginal Spaces and the Invention of a Prosaic Land scape - Visual Knowledge and Design’

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Figure 17.

There was little clarity on what defined ‘nature’. There was often mention of ‘public’ but little attention paid to the structures that inform who is included in the group of the ‘public’. ‘Governments’ were often mentioned, seemingly being excluded from the concept of ‘public’. These discrepancies and ambiguities in the texts led us to question the concepts of ‘nature’ and ‘public’ and the relationship between the two.

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Nature Interrogated

◦◦ Xunzi, Tianlun - “Heaven goes with regularity. It does not exist for Emperor Yao, nor does it die for Emperor Jie.” on Confucius Analects XVII:19 Nature is that which man does can not control ◦◦ William Paley - Teleological argument premise differentiates between the supremely or humanly designed Nature is that which man did not design ◦◦ Aristotle - The unchanging is unnatural. Nature is constantly changing and moving

◦◦ Immanuel Kant - “The mind imposes order” Chaos is natural - order is unnatural ◦◦ Plato - Purpose is the measure of artificial things Nature is that with no prescribed purpose ◦◦ R. Philip Bouchard - Nature can be determined by a series of elimination. If nature is unaltered by man then nature no longer exists

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“Nature makes nothing incomplete, and nothing in vain.” -Aristotle

◦◦ Sitting Bull - “Yield to our animal neighbours the same right as ourselves, to inhabit this land.” Excess consumption is unnatural ◦◦ Tutu - “Umbutu - you are connected and what you do affects the whole world” Humanity is natural ◦◦ Jiddu Krishnamurti - “Life is a movement, a constant movement in relationship; and thought, trying to capture that movement in terms of the past, as memory, is afraid of life” Nature is change, not a point in history

Figure 18.

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The Statement

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Preservation = Unnatural Capitalism = Natural

Figure 19.

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Method Timeline:

Within the timeline methodology, we re to overlay these two approaches that a and structuring data/events chronologi tions between them, while also being p and their impacts.

This methodological approach will allo over time spatially, economically and tec standing the changes within the site at necessary information to select and inte M58 corridor.

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dologies

efer to both events and data and intend are often kept separate. By categorizing ically we can begin to find the connecpossible to assess how they came about

ow us to see how the site has changed chnologically. Documenting and undert a macro level will provide us will the errogate interesting locations along the

Figure 20.

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Methodologies Intention: ◦◦

By analyzing documents of intention vs documents of review we can see if the concerns of the infrastructure fully meets the public will.

◦◦

Key phrases of documents of intention vs documents of review - lines indicating frequency of key words and phrases

Mapping M58 Intent vs Public Opinion

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Figure 21.

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Methodologies Value of Land: ◦◦ Land Value maps often neglect to provide any tangible attributes to the physical space in question. We are ingrained to understand these visual data sets as monetary-limited information. But, how we begin to actually understand what makes certain plots of land more ‘valuable’ than other plots can be done through layering of information (Verheye, n.d.). ◦◦ This methodology should provide rationale on why land throughout, and around the site, have different monetary values. It may also provide anomalies, or mis-valued locations around the M58 corridor. It may also begin to question our current methodologies of establishing the value of land. ◦◦ Based on the interrogation of nature, this methodology helps tell the tale of what has changed or remained stagnate, and thus what locations have naturally developed overtime, and which ones have not. This is an element that can lead us to unique locations based on their perception of unnatural growth, or lack thereof.

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Figure 22.

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Methodologies Land Ownership: “Nature gives to each individual his body and his labour; and what he can make or obtain by his labour naturally belongs to him” - Thomas Hodgkins ◦◦ Land Ownership poses the questions of who owns what in a world consumed by contracts, regulations and laws that separate the ‘natural’ world with the ‘artificial’. ◦◦ Looking at the different scales of ownership, from the privately owned land to the public corporations land (network rails, forest commission, National Trust, Highways England), we can draw connections between the different entities through the laws and regulations that govern them. ◦◦ The gaps between these lands constitute the unregistered lands that could potentially hinder/block infrastructural systems from entering these areas. Are these legal gaps therefore highlight the most ‘artificial’ land on paper?

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Figure 23.

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METHODOLOGIES EXPANDED

Timeline - Mapping Change * Interactive database in Appendix How to Map Change: Taking historical data which identifies key moments that can indicate the moments of most change and interrogating the site at these moments as “snapshots” could tell us far more than a study over a regular period (investigating each decade for example) as it shows us the responsive ground condition and allows us to speculate the causes.

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Figure 24. The Cross-Disciplinary field of Development Studies

We organised a database grouping data into the three categories and included technological advances in construction materials, personal technologies and transport technologies as these may be pertinent to our site and approach. We graphed; ◦◦ Quantitative data as line graphs, ◦◦ Global and national qualitative data as time-line and ◦◦ Qualitative data which directly impacted the M58 corridor ...from the 19thC to Present Day

Figure 25.

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Timeline Findings Where we found Change We identified “clusters” of information, (where our quantitative linear data provided most intersections and our qualitative data increased in frequency around particular dates) ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

Early 1930s Early to mid 1950s 1980 - 1990 2000s

Crisis - Change Correlations: These dates seem to appear at times of national crisis namely: ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

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World War 1 World War 2 Energy Crisis Global Financial Crisis (2012 “double dip” UK)

Figure 26. 1930s

Figure 28. 1980s

Figure 27. 1950s

Figure 29. 2000s

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Crisis - “Rates of Flux” With the exception of Technology (that seems to only react fluctuate post after wars - not the oil crisis or Financial crisis) the categories seem to fluctuate at set points after a Crisis. (This is a correlation not necessarily a cause)

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Figure 30. Economic (3 Years)

Figure 31. Socio-Political (5 Years)

Figure 32. Infrastructural Habits (7 Years) - 2 years in more recent history

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Shock Doctrine The August 2020 White Paper would centralize the planning process. Currently different authority levels have the ability to create planning legislation which can control development. Whereas, in the White Paper system, current levels of the planning hierarchy, would feed into a single document and a Wesminster based system would permit or refuse developments.

“Only a crisis - actual or perceived - produces real change. When that crisis occurs, the actions that are taken depend on the ideas that are lying around. That, I believe, is our basic function: to develop alternatives to existing policies, to keep them alive and available until the politically impossible becomes the politically inevitable.” - Milton Friedman

Figure 33. INFRASPACE 20/21

Figure 34. LEGISLATIONS MOVES FROM FAVOURING AUTHORITIES TO FAVOURING DEVELOPERS

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Example Shock Prior to the 2005 Hurricane Katrina crisis, New Orleans’ educational system had major academic, structural and economic issues that the authorities deemed could only be solved with neoliberal ideologies. The shock of Hurricane Katrina only presented an opportunity to institute and enforce neoliberal economic policies which are usually too unpopular to be implemented without a shock doctrine. (Sanchez, 2010)

“I think the best thing that happened to the education system in New Orleans was Hurricane Katrina.” U.S. Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan (2010) (Maxwell, 2010)

This proves that legislation pushed forward after a shock is not always necessarily related to the specific crisis - i.e. flooding, mass migration, etc. - but are often defended by policy makers as essential to diminish of the economic after-shock.

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Figure 35.

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Current Shock “Though every crisis is different, the global recession wrought by COVID-19 already shares at least one immediate parallel with that of 2008–9. In a similarly abrupt fashion, entire states went into lockdown — shuttering economic activity on a scale that would have been unthinkable only weeks before.” (Savage, 2020) However, more alarmingly, this crisis is the first time both advanced economies and emerging market and developing economies are both in recession. The IMF projects the cumulative output loss as a result of the economic collapse resulting from COVID to be around 9 trillion USD, greater than the economies of Japan and Germany combined.

Figure 36.

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Figure 37.

Figure 38.

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Mapping Time To investigate the corridor at the times of most change we used mapping. This could inform us of the changing infrastructure and the increasing size and density of settlements We identified four dates of crisis extracted from the clustered data of the interactive database that we chose to map the ground condition of at our site in their respective times of shock.

Figure 39. 2020 INFRASPACE 20/21

Figure 40. 1929

Figure 41. 1955

Figure 42. 1990

Figure 43. 2000

BRENT HAYNES

Categories of Mapping We chose to focus on specific categories showing growth over time, namely the density of buildings which demonstrates the physical urban growth or stagnation of towns and cities around the m58. The M58 outline is also evident on all our historic maps (dotted if it wasn’t built yet.) We also mapped out the value of the land and its use over time to determine whether the land is too valuable to be built on and if certain areas are protected against urban spill-over.

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Figure 44. Buildings

Figure 45. Roads

Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

Figure 46. Land Type

Figure 47. Land Value

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WW1 Legislation In 1917 unemployment was at 0.7%, however by 1921 this had skyrocketed to 16.9%. Alongside wages also took a downturn, in 1920 average weekly earnings were £2.88 but by 1923 they were down to £2 and stayed around this level until 1940, when they were £2.79. This marked a period or long wage stagnation in the British economy. (Denman and McDonald, 1996) The gold standard meant each country fixed the price of gold in their local currency. In the UK, the price of one troy ounce of gold was £4.25. In the US it was fixed at $20.67. This implied a fixed exchange rate between pound sterling and the dollar ($4.87 per £1), and all the other countries on the gold standard. To enhance the credibility of the arrangements, authorities guaranteed that paper money was fully convertible into gold. Anyone could request to convert their pounds into the equivalent value of gold. This was abandoned following the war. (Thompson et al., 2012) All local authorities have been required by law to provide council housing since the 1919 Housing Act. The proportion of social housing stock increased from around 1% of housing in 1911 to 10% by 1938.

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Figure 48.

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Landuse Legend Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

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MO T O RWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and land

5 8

1 9 2 9

duse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 49.

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WW2 Legislation Charges for secondary schools were abolished by the Education Acts of 194447, which introduced a common distinction between primary and secondary level at age 11. The school leaving age was raised to 15, having previously been set at 12 in 1899 and 14 in 1918. Consequently, by 1950, just under a third of children in England and Wales aged 14 to 18 were in grant-aided schools, compared with 2% in 1901. About a third of secondary level pupils were in selective grammars. Most of the other two-thirds attended secondary modern schools. Following WWII, around a million homes were built under the post-war Labour Government, over 85% of which were social housing. Much of this house building was to replace homes bombed during the war. (Thompson et al., 2012) In 1931, the average life expectancy was 58.7 years for males and 62.9 years for females. In 1951 this rose to 66.4 years for males and 71.5 years for females. This marked one of the sharpest 20-year increases and coincides with the creation of the NHS. (ONS, 2015) In 1946 net migration was -200,000 in the UK. Legislation was brought in that offered citizenship to the commonwealth which brought the level back to nett 0. This was extremely necessary during to post-war rebuild.

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Figure 50.

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Landuse Legend Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

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MO T O RWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and land

5 8

1 9 5 5

duse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 51.

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Energy Crisis Legislation Around 1970 the country entered into a period of economic restructuring, energy price shocks and the advent of North Sea gas. Energy consumption in 1970 was 186.5 giga-joules (GJ), this decreased gradually year on year and was 168.6 GJ in 1984. Warde, 2007) Throughout the 1970s social housing accounted for around 30% of the dwelling stock in England. Since the introduction of ‘right-to-buy’ schemes in 1981, which entitled council tenants to purchase their homes at a discount price, social housing stock has diminished. The scheme, which proved a cost-effective way of renovating dilapidated estates, was partly responsible for the increase in owner-occupiers from 55% in 1981 to 67% a decade later. But together with limitations on local council house building, it also caused a dramatic reduction in local authority housing stock, from 5m in 1981 to 1.7m today, a level last observed in 1961. (Thompson et al., 2012) The energy crisis of the time meant that the UK benefited from historically high oil prices and it has been estimated that in the years between 1980-81 and 1989-90, the Thatcher governments received a windfall of £166bn from the North Sea oil sector. In 1985 it contributed some 6% of the UK’s total GDP. However much of this windfall was spent reducing taxes and also led to a sluggishness manufacturing sector which resulted in high levels of unemployment (13%) in 1982. (Lodge, 2013)

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Figure 52.

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Landuse Legend Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

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MO T O RWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and land

5 8

1 9 9 0

duse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 53.

BRENT HAYNES

Financial Crisis Legislation In 2007 finance and insurance bonus payments totaled around £18 billion and were £11 billion in 2008. When the 2010 Financial Services Act was brought in they totaled £15 billion and have remained around a similar level since. This indicates that the Act has stabilized bonus payment bus hasn’t been successful in reducing them as was intended. (ONS, 2017) In 2012 when the Welfare Reform Act was passed, the UK was spending £118.04 billion on welfare. Since this, spending has decreased every year until 2020 when is was £119.08 billion. In this same period GDP has gone from £1667 billion to £2229.8 billion and so it is clear to see that the act was successful in decreasing welfare spending. (Chantrill, 2020) In 2008 the UK produced 8.42 metric tonnes of C02 per capita, in 2014 this was down to 6.5 metric tonnes per capita. From the figures, you can see the direct relationship that legislation has had on emissions. (Data Commons, n.d.)

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Figure 54.

BRENT HAYNES

Landuse Legend Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

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MO T O RWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and land

5 8

2 0 0 0

duse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 55.

BRENT HAYNES

Covid-19 Legislation The Stamp Duty Land Tax (Temporary Relief) Act was passed on July 22nd when UK housing transactions were around 50,000 per month. Since the bill has been passed, sales have increased to 100,000 per month while house prices increased 7.3% from last year. However due to how recent this catastrophe/ shock is it is difficult to assess how effective these measures are and it is likely that further legislation will be passed in the future such as the Planning for the Future White paper. (Fraser, 2020)

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Figure 56.

BRENT HAYNES

Landuse Legend Rough Grazing Urban Water Arable Suburban Grassland Woodland Orchard

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MO T O RWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and land

5 8

2 0 2 0

duse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 57.

BRENT HAYNES

Ownership + Value 2000 The transition between 1990 and 2000 illustrates the change of areas becoming increasingly suburban. This change in classification is likely due to reduced urban density. Much of the growth of the period takes place at the periphery of the existing large urban areas while areas outside this remain stagnant. Situated along these peripheries are newly-built industrial/office parks aren’t integrated with the existing urban fabric. When comparing the land value and ownership maps of the M58 corridor in 2000 and 2020, a few trends begin to develop. The value of the land has increased significantly alongside the prevalence of land owned by overseas companies, possibly suggesting investment from overseas or wealthy owners transferring their holdings to offshore companies. It is also interesting that agricultural land seems to have been considered more valuable in 2000 but the 2020 map exhibits a change in this mentality with inner-city areas gaining value drastically. When examining the maps more closely the closure of many government, school and factory buildings becomes apparent, a possible outcome of the 2007/8 financial crisis and cost-cutting exercises by councils and business.

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M OT ORWAY

5 8

2000

Urban growth and change including land value and ownership at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 58.

BRENT HAYNES

Ownership + Value 2020 Since the 2000 map, little physical change has occurred in and around the site. Based on the time line tool set we have used; little industrial or governmental policy has been implemented to induce growth or change. Digital technological advances soar through these two decades, leading to the era of social media through Facebook, YouTube, Instagram and more; all accessed using smart phones laptops. Perhaps the most obvious of changes is not with the sprawl and higher density of buildings or expansion of road networks, but instead on the way in which land has been designated (such as urban, suburban, or arable land). While some urban areas are naturally becoming more urban, surprisingly many areas are becoming viewed as suburban and less dense; reversing what is commonly attributed to ‘natural growth’. The value of land seems to have a direct relationship with it’s ownership. This shift correlates greatly between political ideologies. A map comparison shows how these ideologies appear on the ground. Since the 2010’s change in government leadership, there are less public buildings, and more private buildings (many from overseas). Land value, in consequence, has gone up.

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M OT ORWAY

5 8

2020

Urban growth and change including land value and ownership at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Figure 59.

BRENT HAYNES

STASIS INVESTIGATION

Reasons for Spatial Stagnation: 1 We wanted to investigate the soil types surrounding the land that has not been built upon. It was an initial assumption that the soil may be too valuable to convert into developed space. It turns out that a great deal of the undeveloped land ends up having a top layer of raised bog peat soil (pink). These areas are sometimes used to support low number of grazing animals, but cannot easily be farmed on. They are regarded as valuable carbon stocks and are classified as carrying unique habitats and biodiversity After drying, peat can be used for fuel (20% of home heat in Ireland comes from peat). The UK establishes this type of land as a priority for conservation. This type of land requires special procedures for foundational work when building. Some of these areas, near moss side, use to be a small body of water called Hengerther Lake, which was drained in the 14th century by monks. This initiative converted the unused body of water into fertile land. Majority of the site and surrounding areas sits on naturally wet very acid sandy and loamy soils (red). This is highly productive land and is suitable for growing cereals, roots, potatoes and vegetables.

Figure 60. Raised Bog Peat Soils near Rainford

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Soil Type Legend Saltmarsh soils

Wet very acid sandy and loamy soils

Sallow very acid peaty soils over rock Freely draining line-rich loamy soils Freely draining slightly acid sandy soilds Freely draining very acid sandy and laomy Permeable slighlty acid but loamy and clayey soils

Restored soils mostly from quarry and opencast spoil

So i l

Typ es

Ne a r

M 5 8

Contents/Substances of the Earth’s surface along the site

Raised bog peat soils Sea Water

Figure 61.

BRENT HAYNES

Reasons for Spatial Stagnation: 2 The Green Belt was first proposed in 1935 by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee. Provisions in 1947 allowed local authorities to incorporate green belt proposals into their first development plans. In 1955, local authorities were encouraged to consider protecting land around their towns and cities by the formal designation of clearly defined green belts. The National Planning Policy Framework states that green belt serves five purposes: ◦◦ To check the unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas; ◦◦ To prevent neighbouring towns from merging into one another; ◦◦ To assist in safeguarding the countryside from encroachment; ◦◦ To preserve the setting and special character of historic towns; and ◦◦ To assist in urban regeneration by encouraging the recycling of derelict and other urban lands. According to the Ministry of Housing in 2019/20, the Lancashire 12-authorities contain around 69,980 hectares of ‘Green Belt’, or approximately 24% of the land area. A substantial proportion of the Green Belt land in the Lancashire-12 area is designated in West Lancashire (44.3%), where it covers 90% of the district, owing to the large amount of top-grade agricultural land. (Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government, 2019)

Figure 62. England Greenbelts (N.T.S.)

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M 58

Gr een b e l t

The not so ‘belt’ shaped greenbelt surrounding Liverpool

Greenbelt

Figure 63.

BRENT HAYNES

Constraints Zooming into each individual site made it possible to understand some of these considered constraints on a smaller scale. It become clear how restricting the Green Belt is around the sites. Studying the sites closer in also made it possible to visualize common constrains such as Listed sites, exiting water, flood zones etc. We also considered infrastructural elements that may be more common based on the joint commonality of close proximity to a Motorway, such as: Railways, overhead and underground electrical lines, pipes as well as electrical pylons.

Below are the sites with overlaid constrains in black and white. The darker and area, the more constrains there are in that particular place. Note: These maps do not include building bylaws, which, of course, are often the most strict constraints for the built environment.

Figure 64. Rainford (N.T.S.)

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Figure 65. Bickerstaffe (N.T.S.)

Figure 66. Moss Side (N.T.S.)

Figure 67.

Rainford

Figure 68.

Bickerstaffe

Figure 69.

Moss Side 93

BRENT HAYNES

Close up: Rainford In 1869, Rainford broke away from the parish of Prescot and became an independent township later forming an urban district council in 1880 under the Local Government Act. Situated on the Wigan Coalfield, much of the village’s industry relied upon the resource. In the 17th century Rainford was well established as due to the clay tobacco pipe industry that exploited the local deposits of suitable coal measure clays and peat. The introduction of the railways into the village further opened up opportunities for trade and industry with Rainford having several collieries, in its heyday, but the last of them closed in 1930. (Rainford History, n.d.)Today the village retains much of the distinct character typically associated with these industrial activities. After becoming part of St. Helens in 1974, an effort has been made to preserve this character with parts of Rainford becoming designated as Conservation Areas in 1976. (St Helens Council, 2008)

Figure 70. INFRASPACE 20/21

Figure 71.

Rainford Population 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

1880

Government

Professionals

1850

Government

Agriculture

Figure 73.

Figure 72.

Unknown

1850

2011

1900

Professionals

Domestic Services Commercial

Unknown

2011

Domestic Services Commercial Labour

1900

Under 15

Labour

Figure 74.

15-64

Over 65

Figure 75.

Under 15

15-64

Over 65

Figure 76.

Under 15

15-64

Over 65

Figure 77.

BRENT HAYNES

A Brief History: Today the village retains much of the distinct character typically associated with these industrial activities. After becoming part of St. Helens in 1974, an effort has been made to preserve this character with parts of Rainford becoming designated as Conservation Areas in 1976. Through mapping Rainford you can see that the activity that formerly brought it prosperity now severely restricts its growth. The heavy mining activity has resulted in large areas being designated as high-risk development by the Coal Authority and the removal of the Ormskirk to St. Helens Railway has weakened local transport connections. The sheer number of the village’s coal mining shafts can also be seen, the largest of which are the four located at the old Rainford Colliery which are all around 180m deep. (St Helens Council, 2008)

Figure 78. (N.T.S.)

Due to the Green Belt and Coal Authority designations, much of Rainford could be considered undevelopable due to legislation. The area is also situated on Grade 1 ALC land which adds further complexity as LPAs must consult with Natural England for development proposals not included in local plans or neighbourhood plans that are likely to cause the loss of 20 hectares or more. These constraints don’t restrict all types of development but do mean that large scale development in Rainford is unlikely and will therefore remain unchanged and static (Natural England, 2018).

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Figure 79.

Figure 80.

Figure 81.

Figure 82.

BRENT HAYNES

Close up: Bickerstaffe Bickerstaffe is almost entirely greenbelt land barring a small pocket of residential land. This greenbelt land is almost entirely owned by the Lord of Derby who is also the owner of the Knowsley Estate, which sits on the Southern border of Bickerstaffe. The lord of Derby has place Section 31 declarations to prevent any public right of way throughout the Bickerstaffe lands, without preventing the public from accessing the land. The Southern half of the Bickerstaffe lands are also declared as holdings in a Channel Islands private bank, thus further legally protecting the land from development. The ward is entirely protected by West Lancashire mineral Safeguarding. Bickerstaffe town hall and adjacent buildings are subject to grade 1 listing to protect the exterior appearance for its local historic significance. The population of the ward are affluent commuters (approx. 29%), self employed persons (approx. 10%) and retirees (approx.7%) with a modal age bracket of 60-64. There is a wide range of employment industries though retail and education account for the majority of the industry share. The land value of the ward is substantially higher than the adjacent land in Skelmersdale. Residents are predominantly classified as the social grade AB - “AB - Higher and intermediate managerial, administrative, or professional positions”, with over 33% of residents holding a Degree or Professional Qualification.

Figure 83. INFRASPACE 20/21

Figure 84.

Bickerstaffe Population 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0

1850

1900

2011

Figure 85. 1880

Government

Professionals

Government

Professionals

Domestic Services Commercial

Agriculture

Labour

Unknown

1850

2011

Under 15

15-64

1900

Over 65

Under 15

15-64

2011

Over 65

Under 15

15-64

Over 65

Labour

Unknown

Figure 86.

Figure 88.

Figure 87.

Figure 89.

Figure 90.

BRENT HAYNES

Figure 91. (N.T.S.)

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100

Figure 92.

Figure 93.

Figure 94.

Figure 95.

Figure 96.

101

BRENT HAYNES

Close up: Moss Side Moss side is a region of Maghull, a town and civil parish in Sefton, Merseyside. It is historically known as the site of the first specialist hospital to treat what is now understood as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for those who had witnessed the horrors of the First World War. The Moss Side Military Hospital between 1914-1919 became renowned in the developing field of psychological medicine, treating over 3,600 patients. Clinical staff at the time were described as “the brilliant band of workers who made Maghull the centre for the study of abnormal psychology”. The site closed in 1995 and buildings were later demolished. In the 1970s, overcrowding at Broadmoor resulted in further expansion and the construction of Park Lane Special Hospital on land at the facility. Park Lane opened in 1974 and was gradually expanded until 1984 into a high-security psychiatric facility operating independently of Moss Side. In 1989, the two hospitals were amalgamated to become Ashworth Hospital. The hospital has had a mixed history and in the 1990s was the subject of two major inquiries. The Blom-Cooper report in 1992 found evidence of bullying and abuse of patients. The 1998 Fallon Inquiry was even more shocking. It too raised concerns about how patients were treated, as well as uncovering evidence of drug and pornography use. In the surrounding area of Maghull, Lydiate, Melling and beyond, Ashworth is noted for the weekly test of its alarm system, sounded at 9:00 am every Monday morning. The alarm, based on the air raid sirens used in WW II, is audible in much of the surrounding area, as far afield as the outskirts of Kirkby, Crosby and Skelmersdale. It is intended to warn residents and institutions of escapees, of which there have been two in its history as a psychiatric hospital.

Figure 97. INFRASPACE 20/21

102

Figure 98.

2011 Population: 921 Figure 99.

2011

Government

Professionals

Under 15

Domestic Services Commercial Agriculture

15-64

Over 65

Labour

Unknown

Figure 101.

Figure 100.

103

BRENT HAYNES

Figure 102. (N.T.S.)

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104

Figure 103.

Figure 104.

Figure 105.

Figure 106. 105

BRENT HAYNES

Site as Stasis and Stagnation Through research and mapping, we have concluded that Rainford, Moss Side and Bickerstaffe have primarily remained in a state of stasis or stagnation due to national policies. The issues with broad brush restrictions is that they often don’t sufficiently account for the needs of communities at the ground level. These sites also exhibit the possible unintended consequences of national policy that were not considered or imagined. To properly assess this phenomenon, we will analyze the intent of national policy and how it has failed or succeeded to address the problems it identified.

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106

Figure 107.

107

BRENT HAYNES

LEGISLATION INTERROGATED

Legislation Extracted When looking at the words most used in each document (largest in the word clouds) we can see the shift between NPPF and LDPs and the newly proposed White paper. Look specifically at the change in emphasis of “Policy” We can see that the post-covid condition will be seek to cut the number of policies restricting development.

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110

Figure 108. August 2020 White Paper

Figure 109. NPPF 2019

Figure 110. W. Lancs LDP

Figure 111. Sefton LDP

111

BRENT HAYNES

Document Intent - National vs Local We see here, more clearly than by graphing the frequency of the words, that the NPPF more aligns to the LDPs emphasis on different issues. However, this may be due to the LDPs being a result of the NPPF rather than being indicative of local will. Graphs show 1 line for every 0.01% of the total document that a word or applicable word variant (“House” for “Housing” but not “Developer” for “Development”) accounts for. This means we can analyze, in greater detail, if the emphasis share of the proposed national planning documents more aligns with the LDPs than the current national planning framework.

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112

Figure 112. 113

BRENT HAYNES

Document Intent - National vs National When directly comparing the current NPPF to the new White Paper, which is foreworded with concerns and the opportunity for reform of Covid-19, we see very clearly that there is much less concern for environment, sustainability and heritage. Also a notable increased focus on housing rather than development. Graphs show 1 line for every 0.01% of the total document that a word or applicable word variant (“House” for “Housing” but not “Developer” for “Development”) accounts for. Here showing a direct comparison of the current and proposed national documents intentions.

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114

Figure 113. 115

BRENT HAYNES

2012-2019 NPPF - “National Planning Policy Framework”

“This sh this has b - Greg C

Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government Core principles (for Plan making and decision taking):

Plan-led.

Creative not just scrutiny.

Sustainable development.

High quality.

Resultant Planning System

Closed Body or Process

6. Build a climateConsiderate of diverse character Demographic Body or Processresilient, lowcarbon economy. of areas. Outcome

Closed Body or Process

Influence

Demographic Body or Process

Mutual Influence / Dialogue

Outcome

Applications and Requests

Influence

The Crown

Crow Estate

Mutual Influence / Dialogue Applications and Requests

Public

Central Government Outline Policy

Voluntary / Private Sector Organisations

Town & County Plans

Pre-App. Consultation

Businesses

Local Development Plans

Neighbourhood Authorities

Neighbourhood Development Plans

Evolution of Current NPPF 2010 a commitment to ‘publish and present to Parliament a simple and consolidated national planning framework covering all forms of development and setting out national economic, environmental and social priorities’

2010 INFRASPACE 20/21

2011

Commu Developm

Community Build Order

Development Order

Commer Developm

Figure 116.

2012 NPPF replaces all former planning legislation for Simplicity and accessibility. Issued by Minister for Planning & Decentralisation. 15 year plans should be drafted by a collaboration between all scales of authority. Parishes and Neighbourhood forums are given the power to draft development plans (conforming to local plans’ strategic policies but not non-strategic policies) and grant permissions through “neighbourhood development orders” or “community right to build orders”.

2012

2013 116

2014

201

hould be a collective enterprise. Yet, in recent years, planning has tended to exclude, rather than to include, people and communities. In part, been a result of targets being imposed, and decisions taken, by bodies remote from them” Clark MP Minister for Planning & Decentralisation

Conserve 8. and enhance the natural environment & reduce pollution.

Encourage brownfield land use

Encourage mixed-use development.

11. Maximise public transport, walking & cycling.

Framework Guidance Areas Strong, competitive economy.

wn es

Sustainable transport.

Conserve/ Enhance natural environments.

Vitality of town centres.

Wide choice of high quality homes.

Protecting Green Belt land.

Conserve/ Enhance historic environment.

Prosperous rural economy.

Good design.

Address climate change, flooding & coastal change.

Sustainable use of minerals.

Figure 115.

Summary

unity ment

12. Support health, social, cultural well-being.

Figure 114.

Quality communications infrastructure.

Healthy communities.

The NPPF was a large-scale reform to the planning system to include various communities into the plan-making and decision-taking. This created workarounds and loopholes that could be exploited by developers wishing to avoid legislation. If one authority refused another could over-rule the decision. The 2018 update then further muddied waters by the accusation that councils and planners were preventing development, and implementing housing quotas, that would force rural councils to infringe upon the greenbelt. Despite this, there was no reform to the greenbelt policy. 2018 Theresa May launches overhaul of NPPF, (followed by public consultation) focusing on greater responsibility and accountability of councils and developers for housing delivery.

rcial ment

y 2015 Communities and Local Government consultation opened

10. Conserve heritage.

2016 Communities and Local Government consultation published

2016

2017

-10% of new homes should be affordable. -More transparency about affordable housing in planning stages. -New nationwide standard showing housing need in their areas. -Infrastructure will need to be considered at the pre-planning stage. -Independent inspectors to review councils perceived (by the central government) to be blocking housing development. 2019 = technical update for clarity on housing land supply, definition of “Deliverable” and what constitutes appropriate assessment.

2018 117

2019

2020

Figure 117.

BRENT HAYNES

August 2020 White Paper - “Planning for the Future”

“The out our devel -Robert

Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government Reform Aims

The “3 Pillars” of F

Streamline and replace current

2. Digitise

Resultant Planning System

3. Focus on design and sustainability

Voluntary / Private Sector Organisations

5. Free land for homes and development

Crown Estates

1: Local Plan “Growth”, “R “Protect

Central Government Outline Policy

2: Po establi nation

Community Development

3: “Sus develo te

Town & County Plans

4: Hou figures s relea

Commercial Development

Businesses

5: Grow autom be gr outline perm

Local Development Plans Closed Body or Process Demographic Body or Process

Neighbourhood Authorities

Influence Mutual Influence / Dialogue Applications and Requests

Figure 119.

The Pillars intentions are to address the current problems. However the outlined changes in fact further the issues of affordable housing, environmental damage or habitat depletion, and developer led town planning by remove local or individual authority and increase developers control. The foreword of the document suggests that the recent crisis has highlighted these issues however the White Paper build on the former “Design Guide” and “Building Better, Building Beautiful” documents.

118

6: Decisio faster w dead

7: Stand visual and Local

Outcome

Neighbourhood Development Plans

Summary

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1.Develo

Figure 118.

The Crown

Public

4. Universal Infrastructure Provision

8: Tim & sanct Inspe

9: Neighbou for inp

10: Stronger emp

Suburban new-builds pr renewal = no affordabil

Avoiding neighbourhoo

tbreak of COVID-19 has affected the economic and social lives of the entire nation... this has been a moment where long-standing issues in lopment and planning system have come to the fore.” t Jenrick MP Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government

Future Planning

opment

ns to identify Renewal” and ted” areas.

olicies ished at nal scale.

stainable opment” est.

using req. so land is ased.

wth areas matically ranted planning mission.

on-making with firm dlines.

dardised, map-based l Plans.

metable tions for ectors.

urhood Plans put only.

phasis on build out.

Reform Aims 2.Beautiful and sustainable places

3.Infrastructure & Connected Places

Disparity 19: The Community Infrastructure Levy to replace CIL and S106. 20:Infrastructure Levy extended to permitted developments.

11: Visual, predictable, binding design guidance. 12: Design codes authority, a chief-officer for each area.

21: Infrastructure Levy should deliver affordable housing provision.

13: Change to National Leadership & Homes England’s strategic objectives. 14: Fast-track for local character aspects.

22: More freedom given to local authorities spending the Infrastructure Levy

15: NPPF to address climate change. 16: Protecting habitats & species in England.

23: A resources and skills strategy for the planning sector

17: Conserving historic buildings. 18: Energy efficiency to net zero by 2050.

24: Strengthen enforcement powers

referable over urban lity

Penalisation & deadlines = less ability for lengthy environmental/heritage assessments

od inputs

Centralised authority, chief officers, legislation, Benefits to individuals and developers who can timetable and penalties avoid the Levy - no council control over Levy

119

Infrastructure Levy exemptions for custom and belt builds = promotes belt building

Figure 120. BRENT HAYNES

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120

Figure 122.

Figure 121.

121

BRENT HAYNES

Develo

Existing Development Issue Green belt = 1.Gentrification & Rising Urban house prices

2. Lack of development in Rural areas and rising Rural House Prices 3. Heritage Sites left derelict till collapse to free up land for housing

+£££

+££ Green Belt

+£

-£

+££ Figure 123.

NPPF Response 250% 150%

125%

+£

100%

Green Belt

+£££

-£

+££ S art

+££

Figure 124. 10% affordable met by hiking the other 90% Infill and redevelopment sites subject to same planning legislation 5% housing target can include some green where councils have no alternative Growth zone in green belt reduces drive to adapt greenbelt heritage site

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122

opment

Development

Impact after Shock?

The greenbelt policy creates a major barrier to urban and rural development The greenbelt policy creates a major barrier to urban and rural de of these areas and the industry. and by extension the economies of these areas and the industry.

belt = and by extension the economies rification & Rising Urban house prices

k of development in Rural areas and rising Rural House Prices

The NPPF through the implementation of a housing quota more encourages The NPPF through the implementation of a housing quota more tage Sites left derelict till collapse to free up land for housing consistent development and it allows a loophole for building in theconsistent green belt.development and it allows a loophole for building in th

The white paper reform of national planning policy could see “growth zones”paper reform of national planning policy could see “gr The white build on existing housing developments in the green belt. build on existing housing developments in the green belt.

Green Belt

+£

+££

White Paper Reform Response

+£

-£

White Paper Reform Response

250% 150%

+££££

125%

Green Belt

+£££

+££££

-£

+£ +££ S art

Green Belt

+££

+£

More affordable new builds as market floods

+£

-£

+£

More affordable new builds as market floods Figure

125.

Councils needed both Redevelopment & growth zones leave greenbelt councils Councils growth zone entirely the green belt. & growth zones leave greenbelt counc needed bothinRedevelopment Developers will favour new builds in the belt rather than redevelopment in theseDevelopers areas. will favour new builds in the belt rather than redevelopment in th

Council’s outlining “Redevelopment” zone will favour derelict builds over infilling Council’s outlining “Redevelopment” zone will favour derelict builds over infi

no alternative Growth zone in green belt reduces drive to adapt greenbelt heritage site

Growth zone in green belt reduces drive to adapt greenbelt heritage site

age site Heritage sites will not be preferred over growth zones

Heritage sites will not be preferred over growth zones

123

BRENT HAYNES

Environ

Existing Environment Issue Both policies agree on the need to conservation habitats, heritage and the climate. However the issue with these is the high cost and low yield nature of conservation. Neither document is clear how development can address Climate Change.

Figure 126.

NPPF Response The NPPF planning framework encourages preservation yet the lengthy process of site surveying discourages development.

White Paper Reform Response The white paper aims to combat this by making legislation clearer to make heritage, or protected habitat sites more accessible to developers.

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124

nment

Impact after Shock?

Environment

Impact after Shock?

e and climate. Thethe white paper reform to lift barriers than prevent development on heritage sites andwhite sitespaper with protected will than go some way development to address- on heritage s The reform tohabitats lift barriers prevent ing the stagnation of such sites. ing the stagnation of such sites. e of conservation. Where climate change is concerned there are many potential avenues to commercialise incentives reducing projects. Where and climate changecarbon is concerned there are many potential avenues to comm e Change. • Tax reductions or returns on projects with low or negative carbon footprints • Tax reductions or returns on projects with low or negative carbon footpri • Taxation on high carbon materials and projects which increase national or global net carbon • Taxation on high carbon materials and projects which increase national or • A carbon credit system to offset the development • A carbon credit system to offset the development

CO2 Reduction submitted to Registry

Carbon Offsetting Industry

Buyer Purchases Carbon CO2 Reduction submitted Credits from Registryto Registry

Carbon Credit Registry

lengthy process of site surveying discourages development.

Registry pays company

• • • • •

Carbon Cre Registry

Carbon Credits Awarded Registry pays company to Permit Development

C t

Figure 127.

r to make heritage, or protected habitat sites more accessible

Benefits of a Carbon Credit System

Carbon Commercial Offsetting Development Industry

Bu C

Benefits of a Carbon Credit System

Developers do not have to up-skill or specialise in carbon reduction • Developers do not have to up-skill or specialise in carbon reduction A mandatory system is more effective than an incentive system (if it is national not site specific) • and A mandatory system is more effective than an incentive system (if it is nat Carbon offsetting would create a new competitive industry • Carbon offsetting would create a new competitive industry The carbon offset industry would commercialise effective green space - creating habitatoffset spacesindustry and preventing the stagnationeffective of greengreen space - cre • more The carbon would commercialise space space It would increase the value of protected sites • It would increase the value of protected sites

125

BRENT HAYNES

Infrastr

Existing Infrastructural Issue Areas with good infrastructure provision are more desirable to developers. Development improves infrastructure through tax and private investment. This creates both a positive and a negative feedback loop

$ £

+ Figure 128.

NPPF Response

Currently, the NPPF outlines that CIL is set and spend by individual councils. Thus, there is a large divide between councils in the positive feedback loop and the councils in the negative feedback loop. Councils with poor infrastructure provision struggle to encourage development.

White Paper Reform Response

$ £

+ +

+ Figure 129.

The White Paper proposes an abolition of the current CIL (infrastructure tax on developments) in favour of a new system. The new “Infrastructure Levy” proposes tax breaks for those building in the belt and on custom developments. This would provide intensive for developers. This could potentially begin to reverse the negative loops effecting the greenbelt councils (such as the Stagnant sites we have identified) who have poor infrastructure provision. However, this may not be enough to encourage development as the each council is still a closed system.

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126

ructure

Infrastructure

evelopers.

vestment.

Impact after Shock?

dual councils. Thus, there is a large divide between councils dback loop. e development.

Impact after Shock?

Neo-liberal : Globalising the Levy

+ + Neo-liberal : Globalising the Levy

Figure 130.

If the Infrastructure Levy were to be reformed in line with the centralisation of If thethe planning framework, might effective in with breaking Infrastructure Levyitwere tobe bemore reformed in line the centralisation o the cycle of those councils in stagnation or decline due to lack of investment. the cycle of those councils in stagnation or decline due to lack of investment.

+ +

astructure tax on developments) in favour of a new system. uilding in the belt and on custom developments. This would o reverse the negative loops effecting the greenbelt councils rastructure provision.

the each council is still a closed system.

127

BRENT HAYNES

Rainford Constraints

Figure 131. Current Constraints

Figure 132. White Paper Constraints

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128

Figure 133. No Greenbelt

Figure 134. 30 years at 5% growth

129

BRENT HAYNES

Bickerstaffe Constraints

Figure 135. Current Constraints

Figure 136. White Paper Constraints

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130

Figure 137. No Greenbelt

Figure 138. 30 years at 5% growth

131

BRENT HAYNES

Moss Side Constraints

Figure 139. Current Constraints

Figure 140. Local Development Plan

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Figure 141. No Greenbelt

Figure 142. 30 years at 5% growth

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BRENT HAYNES

Kowloon - City of Limited Policy This wall city was a densely populated, ungoverned boundary, replacing what was once a military fort. By 1990, 50,000 people crammed into an this area of 2.7 hectares comprising of 500 buildings. Policy It was classified under British Ownership, though this was disputed among Chinese officials. By 1947, after the Chinese Civil War, about 2000 squatters occupied the walled city, which was no longer ‘walled’ as the stone was used in the expansion of the nearby Kai Tak Airport. At this time, the British adopted a ‘hands-off ’ policy in most matters concerning the site. (Fraser and Li, 2017) Impact on Development While political dispute continued to change the ownership of the land, policy remained untouched. A fire destroyed about 2,500 huts in 1950, leading to the growth of the city with few restriction, those of: the physical boundaries (few written policy about planning requirements), and the one city restriction of building heights maxing out at 14 storeys based on its close proximity to an airport. (Girard and Lambot, 1993) Kowloon can visually demonstrate urban land discharged from policy, or on the contrary; clearly demonstrate the gravity that few policies can have on the built environment - most predominate in the city’s physical form.

Figure 143. INFRASPACE 20/21

134

Figure 144.

135

BRENT HAYNES

Bangkok’s Urban Structure Bangkok is classified as a Newly Industrialized Country (NI) which is a socioeconomic categorization representing a country considered in a developing state whose economic growths are much higher than other developing countries. A consequence of this industrialization includes (often rapid) urbanization and the reorganizing of society. Policy A policy called the Third Economic and Social Development Plan was revised in 1972 to include the grant of more incentives to exporting industries. These policies did not restrict the location of said industries and ans therefore most gathered in and around Bangkok’s center. As a result, the Metropolis Region become the most economically and efficient location for future import and export oriented industries in Thailand (Pansuwan, 2010. p118) Impact on Development Bangkok has grew 30% in the city core, and by 66% in the metropolitan area between 2000-2010. Much expansion has occurred in the periphery in form of townhouses and detached housing. This expansion has been made possible by the increase of Bangkok area, inexpensive land and house construction prices (Cox, 2012). Average new house prices have remained similar in average household incomes for the past decade according to the Bank for International Settlements (Bank for International Settlements, 2020). This has maintained a competitive land market for new housing and is one of the main reasons Bangkok has retained affordability in housing (Cox, 2012)

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Figure 145. 136

Figure 146.

Figure 147. Bangkok Size Comparison to Site

Site located in UK

Bangkok region scaled and overlaid on site

137

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DE V E LO PME A pillar of future planning in

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138

E NT

PI L L A R

the August 2020 White Paper

- Sites investigated

Figure 148. 139

BRENT HAYNES

E NV I RO NME A pillar of future planning in

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140

E NT

PI L L A R

the August 2020 White Paper

UK Carbon Dioxide Emissions t/1x1km <1

<10-32

- Sites investigated <1995

Figure 148. 141

BRENT HAYNES

INFRA S T RUCT A pillar of future planning in

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142

T URE

PI L LA R

the August 2020 White Paper

- Sites investigated

Figure 150. 143

BRENT HAYNES

INFRASPACE 20/21

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Figure 151. 145

BRENT HAYNES

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Figure 152.

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BRENT HAYNES

PROVOCATIONS

Highway of Housing Given that the M58 is underutilized, and the greenbelt is restricting the areas in which housing (or almost any other building type) can be built - perhaps changing the function of this infrastructure is a proper reaction. What would a housing corridor look like, what is the density, how can a sense of community be established, and how would it function in this unique condition? Would affordability be possible based on the existing nearby infrastructure? To what extent, would this unique condition become valuable in perceived terms of the general public? Would there become a tourist element, and would there be a demand four houses built higher to get a unique view of the corridor and vast amount of green space beyond. It will be important to note how these new residences interact with the existing communities near by (such as Bickerstaffe, Rainford, and Moss side). Of course, those neighborhoods will need to find a different way to commute to nearby cities for work and leisure, but will there be more vehicle traffic in their own neighborhoods as well. Would this increase of population be financially beneficial or just a nuisance?

The current population of the M58 corridors Parish and Non-Parish Councils

0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

BURSCOUGH 9,645

25°0′N

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

DALTON 398

LATHOM 895

35°0′E

WRIGHTINGTON 2,878

NEWBURGH PARBOLD 2,578 1,027

25°0′N

SHEVINGTON 9,548

ORMSKIRK 26,262 20°0′N

20°0′N

LATHOM S. 669

SKELMERSDALE 35,120

AUGHTON 8,016

LYDIATE 6,029

BICKERSTAFFE 1,125

UPHOLLAND 7,559

15°0′N

SEFTON CP 827

MAGHULL 19,899

WIAGN 317,895

SIMONSWOOD 139

BILLANGE 5,783 RAINFORD 7,720

10°0′N

AINTREE 6,702

SEFTON N.C.P 212,112

L.POOL 498,042

WINDLE 2,533

KIRKBY 43,796

CHAPEL END 4,752

KNOWSLEY 149,571

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

ST.HELENS 135,175 0°0′ 0°0′

INFRASPACE 20/21

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

150

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

If M58 = 19,310 length at average 20m width 386,200 people could stand on the road (1m2 each) 0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

25°0′N

20°0′N

15°0′N

10°0′N

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

0°0′ 0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

151

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

BRENT HAYNES

Temporal Communities - Temperamental Land Current legislation or inability to get mortgages or insurance restricts development on land that is deemed too risky to be built upon. Along the M58 corridor this includes former coal mines, flood plains, disused infrastructure and high carbon dioxide emissions. In the midst of a housing crisis, it is however possible to see that these undervalued locations could lead to very affordable housing and there may be some demographics willing to accept the trade-off. These lands while not suitable for permanent development may be suitable for temporal living that could be provided for specified durations depending on the tenant’s requirements. Students, for example, would certainly think about accepting no building insurance if that meant cheaper accommodation. This approach while unorthodox could provide a new market for developers, new ideas about ‘the home’ for certain demographics, while breathing new life into locations suffering from stagnation.

The current population of the M58 corridors Parish and Non-Parish Councils

0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

BURSCOUGH 9,645

25°0′N

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

DALTON 398

LATHOM 895

35°0′E

WRIGHTINGTON 2,878

NEWBURGH PARBOLD 2,578 1,027

25°0′N

SHEVINGTON 9,548

ORMSKIRK 26,262 20°0′N

20°0′N

LATHOM S. 669

SKELMERSDALE 35,120

AUGHTON 8,016

LYDIATE 6,029

BICKERSTAFFE 1,125

UPHOLLAND 7,559

15°0′N

SEFTON CP 827

MAGHULL 19,899

WIAGN 317,895

SIMONSWOOD 139

BILLANGE 5,783 RAINFORD 7,720

10°0′N

AINTREE 6,702

SEFTON N.C.P 212,112

L.POOL 498,042

WINDLE 2,533

KIRKBY 43,796

CHAPEL END 4,752

KNOWSLEY 149,571

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

ST.HELENS 135,175 0°0′ 0°0′

INFRASPACE 20/21

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

152

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

If equally distributed 500,000 people would be live in flood zones

0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

25°0′N

20°0′N

15°0′N

10°0′N

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

0°0′ 0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

153

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

BRENT HAYNES

Equi-density Currently legislation is belting the growth of cities and preventing the availability of rural housing. Thus forcing a metropolitan condition on the population. Given the opportunity to re-write national legislation, doing away with the green belt could allow for a more equal density throughout all the districts. ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

If this were the case what would the ground condition become? Would people choose between denser and less dense areas? Would developers create variety or volume? Would people chose to live closer to workplaces or would employment change to smaller scaled systems? Would there be any competition in the housing market? Would habitats benefit or be more disturbed by the spread of the population? Could this help achieve a net-zero reality? Images of Brøndby Garden City, Copenhagen

The current population of the M58 corridors Parish and Non-Parish Councils

0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

BURSCOUGH 9,645

25°0′N

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

DALTON 398

LATHOM 895

35°0′E

WRIGHTINGTON 2,878

NEWBURGH PARBOLD 2,578 1,027

25°0′N

SHEVINGTON 9,548

ORMSKIRK 26,262 20°0′N

20°0′N

LATHOM S. 669

SKELMERSDALE 35,120

AUGHTON 8,016

LYDIATE 6,029

BICKERSTAFFE 1,125

UPHOLLAND 7,559

15°0′N

SEFTON CP 827

MAGHULL 19,899

WIAGN 317,895

SIMONSWOOD 139

BILLANGE 5,783 RAINFORD 7,720

10°0′N

AINTREE 6,702

SEFTON N.C.P 212,112

L.POOL 498,042

WINDLE 2,533

KIRKBY 43,796

CHAPEL END 4,752

KNOWSLEY 149,571

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

ST.HELENS 135,175 0°0′ 0°0′

INFRASPACE 20/21

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

154

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

The change in population if this were equally distributed

0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

BURSCOUGH -9,645

25°0′N

20°0′E

25°0′E

30°0′E

DALTON +25,602

LATHOM +22,105

35°0′E

WRIGHTINGTON 2,122

NEWBURGH PARBOLD -2,422 +7,973

25°0′N

SHEVINGTON +9,542

ORMSKIRK +28,738 20°0′N

20°0′N

LATHOM S. +28,331

SKELMERSDALE +27,880

AUGHTON +54,984

LYDIATE +23,971

BICKERSTAFFE +98,875

UPHOLLAND +52,441

15°0′N

SEFTON CP +18,173

MAGHULL 19,899

WIAGN -135,895

SIMONSWOOD -1,139

BILLANGE +5,217 RAINFORD +90,280

10°0′N

AINTREE +8,298

SEFTON N.C.P -70,112

L.POOL -338,042

KIRKBY 43,796

CHAPEL END +3,248

WINDLE +2,533

KNOWSLEY -133,571

5°0′N

Map Legend 1,000 Residents M58 Corridor Catchment Floodzone

ST.HELENS -135,175 0°0′ 0°0′

5°0′E

10°0′E

15°0′E

20°0′E

155

25°0′E

30°0′E

35°0′E

0°0′

Figure 153. BRENT HAYNES

STUDIO 2

STUDIO 1 SUMMARY GUIDANCE

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BRENT HAYNES

The Statement

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160

Preservation = Unnatural Capitalism = Natural

161

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Spatial Stagnation The Green Belt was first proposed in 1935 by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee. Provisions in 1947 allowed local authorities to incorporate green belt proposals into their first development plans. In 1955, local authorities were encouraged to consider protecting land around their towns and cities by the formal designation of clearly defined green belts. The National Planning Policy Framework states that green belt serves five purposes: ◦◦ to check the unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas; ◦◦ to prevent neighbouring towns from merging into one another; ◦◦ to assist in safeguarding the countryside from encroachment; ◦◦ to preserve the setting and special character of historic towns; and ◦◦ to assist in urban regeneration by encouraging the recycling of derelict and other urban lands. According to the Ministry of Housing in 2019/20, the Lancashire 12-authorities contain around 69,980 hectares of ‘Green Belt’, or approximately 24% of the land area. A substantial proportion of the Green Belt land in the Lancashire-12 area is designated in West Lancashire (44.3%), where it covers 90% of the district, owing to the large amount of top-grade agricultural land.

Landuse Legend Rough Grazing

M O T O RWAY

I N

1929

Landuse Legend

Urban growth and change in landtype and landuse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

M OTORWAY

Rough Grazing

5 8

1 9 5 5

Landuse Legend

Urban growth and change in landtype and landuse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

Rough Grazing

Urban

Water

Arable

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Arable

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Arable

Suburban

Grassland

Woodland

Orchard

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Figure 49.

Woodland

Figure 51.

162

Orchard

M OTORWAY

Urban growth and change in landtype and landu

M 5 8

Gr een b e l t

The not so ‘belt’ shaped greenbelt surrounding Liverpool

Greenbelt

1 9 9 0

Landuse Legend

use during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

Rough Grazing

MOTORWAY

2000

Landuse Legend

Urban growth and change in landtype and landuse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

Rough Grazing

Urban Water - Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Arable

5 8

2 0 2 0

Urban growth and change in landtype and landuse during at the date mentioned (+/- 5 years)

Water - Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Arable

Suburban

Grassland

Woodland

Figure 53.

M OTORWAY

Urban

- Indicate sites requiring further investigation

Woodland

Orchard

Figure 55.

163

Orchard

Figure 57.

BRENT HAYNES

Legislation During Crisis + Shock

“Only a crisis - actual or perceived - produces real change.

When that crisis occurs, the actions that are taken depend on the ideas that are lying around. That, I believe, is our basic function: to develop alternatives to existing policies, to keep them alive and available until the politically impossible becomes the politically inevitable.” - Milton Friedman

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Hurricane Shock Legislation pushed forward after a shock is not always necessarily related to the specific crisis but are often defended by policy makers as essential to diminish of the economic after-shock. An example of this would be the shock of Hurricane Katrina, in the USA, being presented as an opportunity to institute and enforce neoliberal economic policies which are usually too unpopular to be implemented without a shock doctrine. (Sanchez, 2010)

165

BRENT HAYNES

Extinguishing Highways The State of New York has decided to remove a major Parkway in Niagara Falls after deciding that it’s vehicle usage is too low. The State has decided to convert the highway into open space that includes recreational activities to boost “quality of life and economic opportunity” for New Yorkers (Patterson, 2018). The idea of converting a highway from it’s existing use into something else is not uncommon, especially in or near city centers. The UK makes it possible to extinguish public highways though various Acts. It is important to note key principles when asking to remove part, or an entire highway: ◦◦ A highway is a legal right over land. It does not connote freehold ownership of the land. The majority of the freehold on which there is highway maintainable at public expense are not owned by the highway authorities ◦◦ A freehold owner of land on which there are highway rights cannot obstruct or interfere with such public rights ◦◦ The legal maxim is ‘once a highway always a highway’ which means highways can only be extinguished by statutory power ◦◦ You cannot adverse possess a highway so as to claim ownership after 12 years ◦◦ There are no limitation periods on unlawful encroachments of a highway (Buckles, 2016). With that being said, here are the 3 main ways highways are usually extinguished in the UK:

Section 116 Highways Act 1980

Formal application to local court for an order to extinguish public highway "on the grounds of such highway is unnecessary"

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Section 256 Highways Act 1980

Section 247 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990

Allows the application directly to the Secretary of State for an order to "extinguish any Allows the exchange of land highway that is necessary so as to implement a by landowner agreement for a new highway for planning permission." This does not guarantee the "purposes of adjusting the highway successful application. If successful, this would not boundary." The highway land would be eliminate the highway in its totality, but remove some extinguished upon such agreement taking effect. encroachment. The most common example would be home extension or improvements upon the lands of the existing highway.

166

167

BRENT HAYNES

Using the Motorway - On Site Looking at the site in comparison to the major roads and motorways, it becomes clear that the M58 has a low usage. In addition to this, the motorway is physically quite short, and it has various other major and minor roads surrounding it. The line charts below quantify these numbers, proving that the M58 has less users than any other Motorway in close proximity. In addition to this, as car ownership and usage has increased in the past two decades, the M58 has stayed fairly stagnant. Based on the data showing types of vehicles used on the site, represented as a pie graph at the bottom of the map, it becomes clear that majority of users are domestic (75% of vehicles on the M58 are cars). These two data sets combine to question the impact of the M58 on users. How many people would be negatively impacted if they could no longer use the M58, and how much of an negative impact would this be? Users would have to utilize other road networks, perhaps increasing time on their commute, but by how much?

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M58

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BRENT HAYNES

Bickerstaffe

Travel Condition with M58

Rainford

7 minute

Skelmersdale

0 minute

Wigan

7 minute

INFRASPACE 20/21

5 minute

170

Travel Condition without M58

e increase

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BRENT HAYNES

The Wiganian (not) Problem In the scenarios shown in the page above, it becomes clear that a commute for neighborhoods surrounding the M58 do not greatly suffer from it extinguishing. Take for example, Wigan, a community that straddles the edge of the M58 and had a direct route to Liverpool; residences who are to take the M6 to the A580 or, the M6 to the M62 would only increase their 41minute travel to 46 minutes. It is understandable that even this delay could result in backlash for relevant commuters, but that is why utilizing shock is so important. Take for example the shock of Covid-19; when comparing the global pandemic with a highway closure, the latter seems quite minuscule. Imagine the first day back in offices after Covid-19 lock-downs and a resident from Wigan, who works in Liverpool, starts complaining about his additional 5 minute commute... for most, it would be hysterical!

PS1 Conclusion This marks the end of PS1, where site analysis of stagnation leads to a provocation of the M58’s elimination. The highway does not provide the value it was intended to, and utilizing this corridor for another use makes more sense. Based on Shock Doctrine political theories, now (during the Covid-19 pandemic) is the time to act on legislation that allows for the M58’s conversion. What the motorway becomes is still to be considered, and this is where PS2 begins: examining the vertical atelier research completed at the beginning of the year to provide a possible solution.

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The Wiganian Hysteria

173

BRENT HAYNES

VERTICAL ATELIER - CURRENT CONDITIONS OF WATER

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Questioning Water

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176

* Questions are based on general United Kingdom search engine submissions related to the word ‘water’. It was extracted through a Search Listening program where the process of searching data via search engines is completed for consumer research (Coley, 2017). This related search shows the most common questions and concerns relating to water in the UK; thus providing a starting point into research topics. Highlighted questions interested me the most, and are the questions that lead me into this water ‘tangent’ that is shown in the following pages. 177

BRENT HAYNES

Water Use: Past + Present + Future The advances in technology and changing industrial/political landscapes has overseen the transition of water from one of the main drivers in city’s growth in terms of settlement size and wealth into a recreational and cultural landscape. Liverpool has followed the trends in the changing way in which the public relates to waterfront areas. Like most docks, Albert docks was lined with warehouses in the mid 1800s, welcoming sailing ships to unload and turn around valuable cargo such as brandy, tea, cotton, silk, tobacco and sugar (Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2008). Within the past 40 years the docks have declined in use, where its revival stemmed from recreational activity and tourism thanks to being labeled a UNESCO heritage site and the conversion of warehouses into the Merseyside Maritime Museum, the Beatles Story and the Tate Liverpool. As the waterfront becomes increasingly used by the general public, housing development has been proposed; creating a new life-cycle vision for the docks (Liverpool waters, 2018).

Liverpool Docks 1942

Industry INFRASPACE 20/21

Albert Docks 2013

Recreation 178

Liverpool Water +/- 2050

Residential

179

BRENT HAYNES

“LIES UNDER LAYERS OF ROCK AND SAND, WHICH CREATE A NATURAL FILTER, PROTECTING IT FROM THE AIR AND OTHER POLLUTANTS”

“SLOWLY FILTERED BY VOLCANIC ROCK”

“VAPOR-DISTILLED THROUGH A PROCESS INSPIRED BY THE CLOUDS”

“CAPTURED FROM THE PUREST SKIES ON EARTH”

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PREMIUM WATER (BOTTLED)

£1.80/L

£1.60/L

£4.27/L

£5.85/L

*Average tap water price in UK = £0.01/L

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BRENT HAYNES

Gold. Oil. Water. Water has joined other commodities on Wall Street, such as gold and oil, as of December 2020 (Chipman, 2020). “Water stocks are not entirely new to investors... but water as a sheer commodity like oil, gold or wheat has never been traded on Wall Street until now” (Spector, 2020). Contracts represent 10 acre-feet of water (equivalent to 3.26 million gallons or 12.34 million litres) with the intent for farmers to utilize the fluctuating prices. But of course not only farms, but any investor can now, if played right, get rich off the scarcity of the one thing that all life on earth needs to exist.

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Chart of the Nasdaq Veles Water Index, which is now tied to its purchasing price as a commodity

183

BRENT HAYNES

Resource Privatization In 1989, drinkable water and wastewater services were moved from the public to private sector as part of a broader government strategy under Margaret Thatcher. This has lead to 11 main companies dealing with the problems and growth of water and wastewater management (9 additional ‘water only’ companies, and 6 local water companies). Although privatized, regulatory frameworks were placed to ensure quality and bills are stabilized. This was achieved mainly from a system of ‘comparative competition’ (Martin, 2017).

Key ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

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AFW Affinity Water BRL Bristol Water CHL Cholderton & District Water DVW Dee Valley Water ESK Essex & Suffolk HPL Hartlepool PRT Portsmouth Water SBW Bournemouth Water SES Sutton & East Surrey Water SEW South East Water SSC South Staffs Water

Getting Every Drop

The privatization of water has meant that individual companies are being made responsible to fight some nationwide (and sometimes global) issues such as climate change. United Utilities, run by CEO Steve Mogford, has stated some of the negative impacts climate change has, and will continue to have on the industry. Due to expected increase in daily temperatures, and a shift in rainfall patterns, severe droughts are predicted in the summer months, and creates a concerns about water shortage in the years to come (United Utilities, 2020). Plans have been made up to the year 2045 in a 2019 Water Resources Management Plan Report. The report acknowledges the problems currently being faced and provides solutions such as a lowering of water consumption, leakage repairs, and trade with other UK water companies (United Utilities, 2019). A key criticism would be if looking 25 years ahead is looking far enough into the future.

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BRENT HAYNES

Creating Water Water companies categorize their water use in three sections: Household consumption, Non-household consumption (industry), and Leakage. Together, these areas make up the quantifying factors in which resource demand is calculated (United Utilities, 2019). United Utilities is the company providing water to the Infra-Space Atelier site of Merseyside, and surrounding areas including: Cumbria, Lancashire, Greater Manchester and more. Water supplied by United Utilities comes mainly from rivers, reservoirs and groundwater equaling, on average, 1.7 billions liters of water per day (equivalent to 5.2million square meters of water per year, as demonstrated in the visual to the right). Reservoirs are not always naturally available for exploitation of resources, and in the case of the Llyn Celyn Reservoir, it had to be engineered. Once the town of Capel Celyn, now a fully functioning reservoir, this body of water was made by purposely flooding the Tryweryn Valley in the 1960s. This body of water supplies Liverpool and Wirral with water originally to sustain the need of industrial use (Crocket, 2020). This body of water is over 60miles away. In total, about 800 acres was submerged, flooding a post office, school, chapel, cemetery, houses and farms. Today, over 600 million litres of water is taken by River Dee, and the reservoir when needed, to quench the population under United Utilities management.

Tryweryn Valley (United Utilities, 2019)

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620.5 billion liters of water produced per year by United Utilities

Large Diameter Trunk Mains The infrastructure that physically moves water from their original location to city centers, such as Liverpool, are old and inefficient. Merseyside uses pipes first installed over 130 years ago, 42” in diameter, to transport over 200 million liters of water per day. These pipes are under constant repair and cleaning. In some cases, discoloured water has reached customers due to the “re-suspension of solids resulting from historic deposition of iron and manganese.” (Holme et, al. 2012). Due to the unique size and condition of the pipes, few cleaning and lining techniques are available, contributing to a prolonged trial process, feeding into a ten year construction schedule. (Kilsby, 2007)

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Storage: Water Towers A water tower is a structure that supports a tank of water at a tall height, in relative to its area of supply. These towers can work in conjunction with service reservoirs and are usually located in the center of the town and at its highest topographic point (William Kinnimond Burton, 1894, p.127). Water towers work by constantly pumping water to the top of them, creating a reservoir that can be used during peak times of the day, and refilled during times of low demand, which tend to be at night. The height of the towers mean that pressurization comes from gravity, and that water still flows to households during power-outages or unanticipated problems at the water filtration plant. The reserved pressurized water also helps in fire emergencies. For these reasons of resiliency, water towers are often designed to hold a 2-4 day capacity of water. A bonus function is the visibility of the towers, acting as a point of reference and have recently been used for branding purposes. In addition, telecommunication systems, which are often unsightly urban elements, can be hidden and function well on top of these towers (Gjerdingen, 2017).

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Title of Page Faceperum dolores dolum voluptium et ut aut quam aut etus repudaerro essum volorecus sincipsapid mint explam aut rem nat is eaque ommoloriatis sum adis quia con cor mo ma se eatusapiendi cus se et voloria vent aritae sequi ut la nia nem. Ment ipienectiis aut aliquisintis etus, sinus ma nihilis nonse nonsequidus audae con non pa sima nos nihicit que netur sitatur? Qui dolupta corro ex explabo repedignis maionse minvent. Anditat ecaerum iditatur, net rero et, non perspel iquiam, unt que volum utectiam sum, utat. Obiti doloritat opta solorum nonsed quo voluptatet aliquam labo. Esci quatectur, unt dit hil ea porias dolest fugitae mi, corae. Pic torecae plam, odipsum laccate quaero voluptatet arciet, cus solliae volupta ssendel mosa conet quatur Large, tall structures in aderrunt low density areas: like them or not, am voluptatur repudislocated ab inullissi aliandis quaerrum invenda volupta nis water towers act as a navigational aid to aviators, motorists and pedesvolorunt eatem. Nam ilique non con nat utem re eos reped quia volessi minvel trians. asre, of aliatem 2017 stands at autem height of 212ft ipsum The sunt,tallest conet water volorasphere sin rem ides dit, verum hiliqui cus. (65 m) (Moran, 2017), and since then it has been surpassed. Bore con rate ani occullo ratemperem quiatur? Qui dolupta temporum quibusandis alictat et ex ex es magni con non prerspienis autatis delignatur, apiciur sum lit et aborepe rferrum, quaturi atusandicia aut estrumqui ilitio omnisi ulpa quam et quam, que nossitat arume vene quam, omnient re ra conemodita possinciet volores siniant, ut aut ut min cumenducium a a as nobit molor modis nest a quas intiam, sunt aut officipsum fugitatae nonsequi to debis mi, illaccum et poratur? Cimusapidi blandusandam aut parum eaque renihilia volo blabo. Nam, volorem nos dolestem sint lacepellum quas quam di rest qui culloriate por ad que quat acepro quatium, nat quamet ut dit eaquiat estisci quamenis rerferis plaut aut adis ius, aces is doluptium atinus, sus ipiduntinum sitat. Tem. Nobit elenda sit ideliquam voloriatem eaqui dolore secabo. Officturio beatiam sandis ea ditissum et que num quo ea nem es ex ene voloris ipictemos endam que lam volorae caecum isim nimporae nosse consequod mossi omni-

Water Towers as Branding

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Water towers have been used for supplemental purposes for at least 100 years, if not longer. Orebro, Sweden was put on the map thanks to it’s mushroom shaped monolithic water tower that seconded as a restaurant at the top (Bongartz, 1971). Most of theses structures are not used for general public access, however they now almost all have a painted logo to brand their community. One, such as the tower in Centerville, Texas, flaunts a local high school mascot. Tourism and consumerism have made their way into water tower architecture as well. Due to the natural spheroid shape, Pequot Lakes, USA, decorated it after a fishing bobby; a statue that represents the town well. Perhaps even more humorous is a ketchup bottle shaped water tower that was used to supply a ketchup factory with water in 1949. The tower is no longer in use, but was donated to the city, but declined at first due to maintenance and painting costs. A Preservation Group raised funs nationwide to make sure it would stay.

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WATER SOURCE MAPPING

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Where we can get fresh water Water filtration plants are essential in cleansing fresh water and converting it into a drinkable/potable liquid ready for human use/consumption. These plants filter water at large scales to centralize, increase efficiency, maintain quality and reduce the price of potable water. Like most countries, the UK collects almost all of its fresh water from ground water and surface water sources. These are made up mostly of reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Most other fresh water on earth is found frozen in glaciers and is therefore not accessible. These methods are most straightforward, feasible and have been used for water filtration and consumption for decades, however, as shortages increase, other innovative collection methods will need to be adopted. ◦◦ Fog harvesting has been “successfully in the mountainous coastal areas of Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, and Peru. Because of a similar climate and mountainous conditions, this technology also can be implemented in other regions” including Europe (OAS, 1997). ◦◦ There are about 16,000 desalination plants world wide as of 2019, with about 50% of production located in the Middle East and North Africa region (Jones et al., 2019). ◦◦ Rainwater harvesting does still come from rainfall, but it is used for individually/domestically and water is not lost during ground absorption and evaporation. It has become mandatory in many Indian cities on new builds of a certain size. In other countries such as the UK, Canada, Sri Lanka, New Zealand etc, residents and companies use these systems by choice for their multiple benefits. ◦◦ Reclaimed water has a negative association to waste water, however its treatment is usually suitable for human consumption, but it also has other uses such as the irrigation of parks/gardens, street cleaning, colling, making concrete, dust control, golf course irrigation, snow-making, aquifer recharge, crops, industrial uses etc. (USGS, 2020). Countries such as Singapore, South Africa, Australia, Israel and America all rely on reclaimed water for some sort of use.

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Site Water Sourced (Extended) The North West, supplied by United Utilities, and most of England as a whole, collects fresh water from rainwater catchment. This includes water from rivers, lakes, groundwater (using boreholes) and hundreds of reservoirs. There is not a central system or body of water in which is extracted, but rather hundreds of locations, within the United Utilities boundary alone, that requires transportation to water treatment centers to remove debris, micro-organisms, bacteria, and viruses (United Utilities, 2020). The map to the right depicts all surface level water sources including salt water bodies (the ocean), creating a stark contrast of the water commodity. The maps on the following page indicate ground water sources (aquifers) based on two levels below ground. The Superficial Drift Aquifer is closest to the surface, and includes loose sediment such as gravel and sand and is directly connected to surface water systems (WaterPortal, 2015). Aquifers usually found below this are often known as Bedrock Aquifers, which has water traveling through cracks and fractures in hard rock.

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Surface Water

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Ground Water Superficial Drift Aquifer

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Ground Water Bedrock Aquifer

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Site Water Sources (Confined) When looking at the surface water sources nearby to the site, it becomes clear that there is very little. There are streams and a canal flow around the site, but reservoirs, lakes, rivers and larger fresh water bodies are not apparent. Fresh water actually reaches the site through pumping from Wales (for Liverpool), the Lakes District (Manchester) and the River Dee, boreholes and streams (Merseyside and Cheshire). Due to this large network, United Utilities uses about 1,400 kilometers of aqueducts to transport the raw water to their treatment plants. Boreholes play a role in the system as well, as they are the methods of extracting water from aquifers. There are principle Aquifers on site, meaning that they provide high levels of water storage, however they are far beneath the earths surface and can provide ecological and sustainable dangers if extracted too fast.

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Surface Water

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Ground Water Superficial Drift Aquifer

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Ground Water Bedrock Aquifer

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WATER CRISIS

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The - soon - Crisis Water covers about 71% of the Earths surface, with only 3% of that being fresh water. Of that fresh water, 80% of it is locked up in glaciers, icecaps, the atmosphere, soil highly polluted, or lies too deep in the Earth’s surface (USBR, 2020). This leaves only 0.5% of the world’s fresh water available for easy treatment and human use/consumption. These statistics, on top of climate change and rising populations make fresh water a vulnerable resource which is fundamental for social and economical prosperity. This has lead into questions of how to use freshwater going forward: conserve water to our fullest capabilities to meet sustainable measures, or, invest in better methods to extract water (through air, recycled wastewater, or saltwater).

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Earths Water Fresh Water Available Fresh Water

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Calidrought The main aquifer in California, USA, the Central Valley Aquifer, has been over exploited at unsustainable rates. This unsustainability intensified between 20002008 largely due to irrigation in the agriculture sector (Marston et al., 2015). While the main cause may have been the overexploitation for agriculture, industrial and domestic uses have dependence on this aquifer; it’s drought had massive social and economic consequences. When aquifers deplete at a rate faster then they are replenished, multiple side effects occur, including: the lowering of the water table (requiring deeper wells and more expensive extraction procedures), reduction of water in streams and lakes (rapidly altering and destruction biodiversity of numerous natural habitats), deterioration of water quality (contamination of saltwater from deep groundwater), and land subsidence (soil compact/collapse and dropping) (Konikow and Kendy, 2005).

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Pipes and Infrastructure

Groundwater Recharge Index

Average Annual Precipitation

The California Drought

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Households and Public Service Water Typically, the most “visible” form of water is the water used domestically: water used for drinking, cleaning, washing and cooking (Richie, 2017). Of the water available, the UK uses majority of it for domestic use, with 2015 data sowing nearly 6 billion m3 of water consumption in this area alone. The UK is a unique example because countries generally use much more water for agricultural and industrial purposes. As of 2010’s, over 70% of total fresh water withdraw in the UK was used for municipal purposes. What this means is that when water shortage occurs, it will effect the local population much greater then industry or agriculture sectors. The effects will be seen quick and aggressively.

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Total water withdrawal for municipal (domestic) purposes, measured in cubic metres (m³) per year. Municipal water is the annual quantity of water withdrawn primarily for the direct use by the population. Europe

No data

0 m³

50 million m³ 500 million m³ 5 billion m³ 20 billion m³ 80 billion m³ 10 million m³ 100 million m³ 1 billion m³ 10 billion m³ 40 billion m³

Source: UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) AQUASTAT

CC BY Municipal water withdrawal, 2015 (Richie, 2017)

1965

2015

CHART

MAP

TABLE

SOURCES

DOWNLOAD

Municipal (domestic) water withdrawals as a percentage of total water withdrawals (which is the sum of water used for agriculture, industry and municipal purposes). It is de ned as the annual quantity of water withdrawn primarily for the direct use by the population. It is usually computed as the total water withdrawn by the public distribution network. It can include that part of the industries and urban agriculture, which is connected to the municipal network.

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No data 0%

Source: World Bank

10%

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Municipal Water as a share of total water withdrawals, 2015 (Richie, •2017) OurWorldInData.org/water-access-resources-sanitation/ CC BY

1965 CHART

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2015 MAP

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NEWS THIS YEAR www.newsthisyear.com

FROM THE UK’S FAVOURITE NEWSPAPERS

- Since now

Water Shortage Title Throughout the Country of Page Most of the blame it • “The Department should put onto policy to hold water companies to account by publishing annual league Faceperum dolores dolum voluptium et ut aut quam aut etus repudaerro essum improve water volorecus sincipsapid mint explam aut rem nat is eaque ommoloriatis adis tablessum showing their efficiency from leakage quia con cor mo ma se eatusapiendi cus se et voloria vent aritae sequi ut la nia performance on tackling andsinus encourage nem. Ment ipienectiis aut aliquisintis etus, ma nihilis nonse nonsequidus leakage against the targets set.” reduction in Qui dolupta corro ex expaudae con non pa sima nos nihicit que netur sitatur? labo repedignis maionse minvent. consumption, however Anditat ecaerum iditatur, net rero et, nonit perspel iquiam, unt que volum utec- should “The Department is not noted the cost • tiam sum, utat. urgently develop a plan, with of ripping up and Obiti doloritat opta solorum nonsed quo voluptatet aliquam labo. Esci funding, qua- to increase adequate tectur, unt dit hil ea porias dolest fugitaereplacing mi, corae. all Pic the torecae plam, odipsum public awareness laccate quaero voluptatet arciet, cus solliae voluptainssendel quatur of the need to pipework the UK,mosa conet water.” nis am voluptatur repudis ab inullissi derrunt aliandis quaerrum invendasave volupta if people are even “Ofwatminvel should write to us volorunt eatem. Nam ilique non con natnor utem re eos reped quia volessi willing useutem less water. ipsum sunt, conet volora sin rem re, aliatem idestodit, verum hiliqui cus.months setting out within three Bore con rate ani occullo ratemperem quiatur? Qui dolupta temporum quibuhow it will ensure water sandis alictat et ex ex es magni con nonThe prerspienis autatis delignatur, apiciur report does not ilitio companies sum lit et aborepe rferrum, quaturi atusandicia aut estrumqui omnisi take ulpafull account of carbon emissions how the UKrewill quam et quam, que nossitat arume vene state quam, omnient ra conemodita pos- in appraising the options available to them.” sinciet volores siniant, ut aut ut min cumenducium a a as nobit molor modis become sustainable in nest a quas intiam, sunt aut officipsum fugitatae to debis mi, illaccum it’s waternonsequi management, et poratur? Cimusapidi blandusandam aut parum eaque renihilia volo blabo. “The Department should but instead provides • Nam, volorem nos dolestem sint lacepellum quas quam di rest qui culloriate por A government report from July 10, write to us within ad que quat acepro quatium, nat quamet some ut ditrecommendations eaquiat estisci quamenis rerferis four months, 2020 “Water plaut supply aut adisand ius,demand aces is doluptium atinus, onsus howipiduntinum this problemsitat. setting out a timetable for when Tem. Nobit elenda sit ideliquam eaqui dolore secabo.it expects Officturio to implement product management” outlined the risk of fresh voloriatem should be addressed beatiam sandis ea ditissum et que num quo ea nem es ex ene voloris ipictemos labelling and any other changes, water availability in the U.K. within the going forward. They endam que lam volorae caecum isim nimporae nosse consequod mossi omniincluding to building include: next 20 years. The responsibility to fix regulations, designed to improve

THE REPORT

this problem is placed on the Department of Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, the Environment Agency, and Ofwat, with major emphasis on leaks and domestic water usage to be factors that should play a role in providing a solution.

• “The Department should

provide more guidance to water companies on the level of investment needed to ensure resilience by 2050 and how they should balance this in their business plans with pressure to reduce consumer bills.”

The statement of ‘running out of water’ was obviously shocking and blew up on news outlets across the country.

water efficiency.”

• “The Environment Agency

should write to us within three months setting out clear objectives, and its planned mitigation actions and associated timescales for eliminating environmental damage from over-abstraction and sewage outflow.”

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“For all our complaining about wet weather, we don’t have as much usable water as we think; we’re likely to get even less in the future, and will need more than we have.” (Heggie, 2020) “The jaws of death (is) the point at which, unless we take action to change things, we will not have enough water to supply our needs,” Bevan told a London water conference... Bevan said some of Britain’s rivers will halve in volume by 2050, causing water deficits in many parts of the country, particularly the heavily-populated southeast. (Taylor, 2019)

“The UK’s total water supply is forecast to drop by 7% by 2045 due to climate change and the limits of sustainable abstraction. Almost all of the public water supply in the UK is obtained through abstraction from ground and surface water sources, but abstracting too much water can have visible impacts on the environment and reduce biodiversity.” (Neill, 2020)

“MPs said due to the rising demand and falling supply of water, the Environment Agency now estimates England will need an additional 3.6 billion litres of water per day by 2050 to avoid shortages.” (Ng, 2020)

“Taking water from chalk streams was also heavily criticised. “The Environment Agency must balance the need to preserve the environment by maintaining flows with meeting the demand for water,” MPs said.” (Laville, 2020)

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Size Comparison of Future Needs

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4 billion litres “additional water supply needed per day by 2050 to counter the growing risk of drought from climate change.” (NAO, 2020)

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INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS

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Future Needs via Harvesting Rain Harvesting is becoming a popular method of water collection for domestic use. Sometimes this works for grey-water systems, but more often this becomes useful for yard work. Harvesting water requires a large surface to collect rain, and a gutter of sorts to direct the flow into a storage container. Simply collecting water directly from the sky does create issues at a large scale, as this is water that goes into aquifers which is then extracted and filtered. With that being said, directly collecting water in this manner does result in less waste, as the rain would not be flowing into streams that end up in the ocean, or being absorbed in unsought locations (such as parking lots, motorways, or evaporated back into the atmosphere). Based on an average annual rainfall of about 1.3 meters per year (Eldorado Weather, 2000), it would take an additional area of 1,130km2 of land dedicated strictly for the harvesting of rain water. This would be a diameter of nearly 38kms which is the distance from Bolton to the Liverpool docks.

Makeshift Rainwater Harvesting

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Future Needs via Fog Collection Fog collection is becoming a popular method of water extraction that does not require precipitation. It is an old practice that archaeologists have concluded it’s existence prior to the modern era (Cho, 2011). It is becoming popular in desert climates where the average rainfall per year is low. It is a passive system that collects water droplets from fog passing through a vertical mesh using condensation (known as ‘dew’). To solve the UKs future water shortage, how much surface area of fog nets would be needed?

(*note: this math is based on multiple assumptions and simplified averages. It is used to make a point, not for complete accuracy)

The variables: 34.7 foggy days per year (Manchester average) (Collier, 1970) 11 miles/hr wind speed average (Weatherspark, 2020) 212,000 litres of water per cubic mile of fog (Weather Guys Editor, 2011) 10% maximum efficiency of fog nets (Cho, 2011) The Math: 11mph*24hrs per day * 34.7 foggy days per year = 9161 cubic miles of fog passing through 1 square mile of surface 9161*212,000 litres of water * 10% efficiency = 194,213,200 litres of water produced for 1 square mile of fog net. 4,000,000,000 litres of water needed per day*365 days/194,213,000 litres

= 7,517 square miles of fog nets needed

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Future Needs via Desalination There are two main types of desalination: Thermal and Reverse Osmosis (IDE Technologies, 2018). Reverse Osmosis is a relatively new technology (70 years old) that uses a membrane to remove salts and other impurities. It is more efficient then thermal desalination which evaporates salt water and collects the condensation, however it still requires a much higher demand of electricity then other forms of fresh water collection. Reverse Osmosis uses membrane elements wrapped in a cylindrical tube to extract water and leave the salt behind. Multiple products can be found for both domestic and commercial purposes. For example, the Filmtec SW30-4040 Sea Water RO Membrane Element can filter as much as 1950 gallons of water per day (7,381 Liters) out of a tube measuring 4.5 inches in diameter and 40 inches long. At the previously stated 4 billion litres per day, for 365 days, the UK would require 197,790,356 of these Reverse Osmosis membranes; making it the most spatially efficient innovative system currently available. This is equal to

0.0026km3 of Reverse Osmosis Membranes needed *This would measure about 137m x 137m x 137m

Filmtec SW30-4040 Sea Water RO Membrane Element

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Desalination Worldwide Desalination is the process of removing salts and minerals from a target substance, in this case: water. Rainfall is the most prominent source of fresh water, but in certain climates, this is not substantial. Desalination plants, using reverse osmosis, came into operation in the mid 1970s, particularly prevalent in the Middle East and North Africa.

Due to energy consumption, the desalination process is more costly than extraction by surface or ground water, however these resources are not always available which is becoming a critical problem around the globe. As of 2018, only 1% of the world’s population depended on desalinated water, however the UN expects that “14% of the world’s population will encounter water scarcity by 2025”(Kumar et, al. 2018). Desalination of water is one of the only rainfall-independent water sources making it an incredibly low risk option to fulfill any demand. Even the UK, an area that is known for its constant rain, has areas at risk of water shortage. The Thames Water Desalination Plant, in Beckton, London, is the first major desalination plant to set ground on UK soil. Although there is only one major plant, the Scilly Isles facility has been in operation since the 1990s. It is predicted that there will be 3 more “Major municipal plants by 2050 and up to 800 smaller units” (Freyberg, 2013). As droughts increase and populations expand, the risk becomes larger in meeting water demands and desalination plants become a viable solution.

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Major Desalination Plants World Wide

16,000 Desalination Plants

(Jones et al., 2019)

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DESALINATION

PROBLEMS/OPPORTUNITIES + BRINE USES

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High Energy Consumption

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Desalination does have a down side of being expensive. Standard water collection methods cost about $2 USD per 1000 gallons, where as desalinated process cost at least $2.50, and up to $5 USD (Bienkowski, 2015). The fluctuating cost has to do with multiple variables, but the largest cost factor is usually power. Where conventional water treatment plants use under 1 kWh per cubic meter, desalination can use anywhere from 3-10 kWh. Given a rough estimate of 5 kWh for this theoretical desalination plant would require 20,000,000,000 kWh to run daily. Because of this, many plants are utilizing green energy through solar panels and wind turbines, however others consciously place themselves next to a powerplant that can meet the high energy demands. It is important to note the perspective of this power usage. Based on the average household water consumption of 446 litres per day (onaverage, Year unknown), or 0.446m3, knowing it takes 5 kWh of energy to produce 1m3 of desalinated water, the household would be using 2.23 kWh. This is about 815 kWh per year which is less then the average fridge energy consumption of 1000-1500 kWh annually (AMTA, 2016). Lowering energy requirements for desalination is not detrimental to their performance, but it is a factor for environmental and future sustainability goals.

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+/- 50% Permeate Brine (approx. 7% salinity)

1st Stage Reverse Osmosis

2nd Stage Reverse Osmosis

100% Feed 1st Stage Reverse Osmosis

Feed (sea) Water

+/- 50% Fresh Water Concentrate (approx. 0% salinity)

Fresh Water

(Lenntech, 2021)

Brine Water

4 BILLION LITRES FRESH WATER = 4 BILLION LITRES BRINE WASTE

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Brine (high salt liquid concentrate) is the waste product of desalinated water. Often this product gets dumped back into the ocean which can be destructive to marine life. Sustainable ways of diffusion are possible, and common in the industry, however there are also ways to use brine in a productive manner as it is a key ingredient in the preservation of meats, pickling and also cooling steel. Utilizing these other methods can reduce some waste, and create a new revenue stream. The amount of brine is between 40-60% the amount of fresh water produced.

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Uses for Brine : Pickles! Pickling is the process of preserving a fruit or vegetable in a vinegar and brine, or similar liquid solution. The most common pickled item is a cucumber, in which is known as a ‘pickle’ however there are an endless amount of other items that are also preserved through a pickling process. For instance, food block epicurious says these other fruits and vegetables are also suited for pickling: asparagus, beets, bell peppers, blue berries, cauliflower, carrots, cherries, fennel, ginger, grapes, green beans, mushrooms, onions, parsnips, peaches, peppers, radishes, ramps, rhubarb, strawberries, squash, tomatoes, turnips, watermelon etc. (Sacks, n.d.). Pickled eggs also happen to be some of the most popular pickled items found in the UK. Most types of salt is suitable for pickling, as long as there are not other chemicals in the salt such as iodine and ant-caking additives. Sea salt works as long as it has not undergone other mineralization processes, so an already mixed salt brine that has been filtered is most definitely usable. Most people do not use sea salt for pickling due to the price, but the quality does not change (if anything sea salt would be classified as a higher quality product). In 2019, the average English person consumed 128g of pickles and sauces. Multiplied out to a UK scale, this means about 5.6 million kg were consumed throughout the year. (Statista, 2021)

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Uses for Brine : Cured Meat Cured meat may be even more common than pickling, as these are products we eat as mains every day. Meat like pepperoni is the start of a pizza; prosciutto makes for a great sandwich, and bacon as the perfect breakfast side. The salt in the curring process is important as it draws water out of the meat, and kills microorganisms. By moisture being drawn out, the meats ‘shelf-life’ is prolonged and can last longer before being eaten. While dry-curing’ is what most people think of, ‘wet curing’ is also popular and is a method to cure meat in a “sweet pickle solution” (Teys, 2017). Meat is either soaked, or has the mixture injected to start the process. Afterwards, the meat sits in a cool place or refrigerator. In the UK alone, processed meat, consisting mostly of cured meats, is worth over £ 7 billion industry. Cured meat is incredibly diverse due to its popularity in both developing and developed worlds. Prices and quality of products range significantly; think of a nice charcuterie board with salami, sopressata and proscuitto vs an equally popular alternative of a ham sandwich, corned beef sandwich, or canned tuna and crackers (though sea food is an entirely different category of brined produce!). Brined meats continue to be a popular option in food-markets and grocery stores, and are not looking like they will be disapear anytime soon.

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Uses for Brine : Salt Battery Batteries have been around for a couple hundred years now, quickly becoming more versatile, smaller, and increasingly important for our daily needs. The most common battery types are lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries. Their chemistry have been found to be most effective however they are not the only elements that can store and discharge energy. Salt water batteries have this storage ability by utilizing sodium rather than lithium. (Marsh, 2020) This major change had many advantages including its non-flammable nature, not toxic like other batteries, easily recyclable, and they even have a longer life-cycle than lithium-ion batteries. This concept is necessarily new, but its little attention means manufacturing procedures are more expensive, making the batteries at a higher cost then most people are willing to purchase them at. Most importantly is this size of salt water batteries - the energy density is much lower than lithium-ion and therefore the physical battery is much larger. This means that the use for these batteries are more niche, and less applicable for small applications. Although limited, there are still many uses for salt-water batteries, and with having ‘free’ brine as desalination waste, the industry could benefit substantially.

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Uses for Brine : Steel Cooling Cooling steel, also known as “quenching” is an important part of the steel manufacturing process. Forming steel required extremely hot temperatures, and quenching the metal is required to bring the metal back to room temperature. Slow quenching processes, such as air quenching, makes for a “greater opportunity to change the microstructure, and this often can be a bad thing if that change in the microstructure weakens the metal” (Wojes, 2019). Cooling with quenching liquids is most common to bring steel down to room temperature quickly and the three commonly used quenching liquids are: brine, water and oil. Of the three liquids, brine cools steel the quickest. This is because the salt mixtures discourages air bubbles to form when in contact with the hot metal surface, thereby resulting in more surface area being covered with liquid instead of air. (Media, 2019) Eventually, the liquid being used to cool steel will heat up, so the liquid will need to be cooled down using some sort of refrigerant, or time, to get back to room temperature at least. By utilizing the brine in the desalination process, new brine would be able to be used. This would essentially required one pipe redirecting some waste brine as a detour before being set back to sea. This is contingent that a steel plant is located in somewhat close proximity to the desalination plant on the M58.

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Uses for Brine : Sea salt Sea salt has been produced since pre-historic times., and is a common seasoning for many dishes. The process of getting salt from the sea is very simple but time and/or energy consuming. Solar evaporation is a common method in warm climates (especially where evaporation rates exceed precipitation rates). Shallow ponds are put out in front of the sun to evaporate most of the water, and create a salt concentration as residue. In cooler or wet climates it is still possible to process salt from sea water through coiling the liquid until only a salt solution is left, however this is very energy consuming. (Morton Salt, n.d.) Brine would be a great substitute for sea water in this process, because half of the water has already been extracted, making the process less time/energy consuming. There is an advantage to sea salt over other salts due to it’s minimal method of processing, however the mineral compositions is only slightly different to other salts and is not recognized as having superior health advantages. What some do prefer is the coarse and crunchy texture that sea salt exhibits, making it popular in chef cuisines. Some also prefer it over table salt due to a stronger taste (Caporuscio, 2019).

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Uses for Brine : Recycled Energy Instead of considering brine as a commodity that can be used for other purposes, most desalination plants see brine wasted energy that can be instantly put back into the desalination plant. Because of the pressure needed to push the filtered sea water though Reverse Osmosis membranes, the brine ends up coming out of the waste area also at high pressures. Instead of having this highly pressurized water flow back into the sea, plants such as the Fujairah 2 have an energy recovery turbines that recover most of the brine pressure. This, then in return helps drive the high pressure pump motors. (Fujairah 2 Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant, 2015) This energy recovery can obviously be used to power any number of elements within a desalination plant. For a plant that runs the length of the M58, perhaps it would make sense to provide a mode of transportation within the plant, such as a river, that is accessible to both workers and visitors.

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MASTER-PLANNING A MACHINE

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The Supply Chain

Although the UK is sectored off into various water supply areas, overseen by individual companies, the piping system is connected. Some companies already sell excess water t other companies in need, this is especially important during droughts. Water trades between regions is continuing to gain in popularity and acceptance because of the resilience and sustainability it brings to water supplies (Verve, 2018, p.4). A company with surplus water, usually North West/ Wales, would become labeled as ‘donor’ regions to those areas hit with a water deficit, such as London and the South East. Some concerns usually involve donor regions wanting confirmation that their supply won’t run short. But this, of course, is a nation-scale problem, not just regional. What would possibly happen is that regions using ‘donated’ water could see slight increases in their bills as trading water does result in maintenance and administration costs that would not usually exist, not to mention that the average water bill per region is currently different as water production per region varies. Ironically, this should actually balance out the variance in pricing because the companies with surplus also end up being the largest providers (such as Severn Trent) and thus are able to keep costs at the lowest. A study from 2017 found that the average UK water bill was £396 per year, with Severn Trent area paying £333 on average, and customers in the south-west paying more than £540 (Brignall, 2017). It is not just theoretically possible, but momentarily achievable to provide water in any given location within the UK, and have the current piping infrastructure system to transport/share this water to the region that desires it.

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The System

MIND MAP OF ‘THE WATER MACHINE’

The system works like this: In the upcoming years, the UK will be short on fresh water, and will need new ways to get it. Because of this need, governmental acts could convert the under-utilized M58 into a water treatment centre. The utility company that supplies water in the area (Untited Utilities) could benefit by obtaining ‘donated’ land because innovative methods of fresh water collection is expensive, which is one of the largest deterrents from using them at the moment.

The innovative water treatment plant would use existing methods of ground and surface water collection however, it would also use additional methods such as fog collection and direct rain harvesting funnels to offset some of the remaining water that aquifers cannot sustainably supply.

Now would be the time to implement this change, as the ‘Shock’ from Covid-19 provides the ideal timing to make large social and infrastructural changes; resulting in less backlash from current M58 users.

In addition to this, since sustainable levels will shortly not be met, desalination processes using reverse osmosis will be included. The system thus uses desalination more when there are droughts, and less when there is a lot of rain.

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To continue improving the system, an innovation hub is included to provide research positions with the purpose in creating more efficient Reverse Osmosis Membranes, while hosting annual festivals of desalination processes.

Lastly, continuing to help offset the costs of desalination, the system could have an additional mineralization process placed in unique water bottles to be marketed, and sold internationally as premium water and premium prices. The flagship store is located here!

The system would utilize pressurized brine to transport workers and visitors throughout the long site via a human-made brine-river. Brine can also be sold for cheap to assist in other processes such as cooling steel, making pickles, curing meat and making solidified sea salt.

All these processes would be interesting and unique therefore visitors could come experience the processes while riding a ‘brine river’ and tasting the fresh water along the way. Instead of a wine tour, its a water tour! 249

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20,000m2 x 6.4 = 128,000m2

500m2 x 6.4 = 3,200m2

2,100m2 x 6.4 = 13,440m2

Sorek - Case Study Israel

The Sorek Desalination Plant is known as the most advanced desalination plant in the world and holds the title as the largest currently in function (IDE Technologies, 2018).

4,100m2 x 6.4 = 26,240m2

It provides 20% of municipal water demands in Israel by providing 624,000m3/day. Although massive, this only provides approximately 15% of the UK demands to provide potable water resilience, meaning a UK desalination plans of similar methods of water collection would require about 6.4x this plant size.

300m2 x 6.4 = 1,920m2

Based on these building sizes, with a 6.4 multiple increase in plant size, a UK scaled up version would need about 357,000m2 of land just for buildings alone, not including the space between buildings for operational and maintenance purposes. 10,000m2 x 6.4 = 64,000m2

The Variables: UK plant size requires 1.460 billion m3 per year Sorek plan sizes outputs .22776 billion m3 per year UK plant size is required to be 6.4x larger

490m2 x 6.4 = 3,136m2

The Math Sorek Buildings = 20,000 + 500 + 2,100 + 4,100 + 300 + 10,000 + 490 + 14,050 + 590 + 855 + 810 + 500 + 1,480 Sorek Buildings = 55,775m2 UK plant = Sorek Plant x 6.4

UK plant = 356,960m2 of buildings 14,050m2 x 6.4 =89,920m2

(590+855+810+500)m2 x 6.4 = 17,632m2

1,480m2 x 6.4 = 9472m2

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Surface area of the site

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780 m

608,000m2

780 m

19,000 m 32 m

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Title of Page

The View From The Road The site analysis was initially used to establish characteristics of the landscaped space of drivers experiencing the route at high speed using Kevin Lynch’s methods from “The View From The Road”. The process begins by recording the space through sequences based on a video drive-through completed in September 2020. Lynch further analyzes roads from these sequences through categorization including: landmarks, paths, edges, nodes, points of decision etc (Appleyard et al., 1964). This diagram is known as an Orientation Diagram and it directly compliments his analysis of The Image Of The City. A similar study for the M58 was completed, making spatial elements easily distinguished. This will aid in the way The Water Machine will be designed by providing a way for the conceptual system of a machine to be designed similar to that of a city. I have further distinguished where paths intersect one another in this diagram; where the line thickness relates to the size of the occurring intersection. These intersections become an important way to combat the criticism that often comes with Lynch’s analysis, where critics argue that equally important to the view ‘from’ the road is the view ‘of ’ the road. As a project that functions as a system, using architecture designed with urban theories in mind, and proportioned at a landscape scale, it became clear that the project should no longer be thought of as a road. With that in mind, I consciously decided to exclude Lynch’s “Space-motion” diagrams. No longer will users on the site experience it as high speeds, but rather as one of two other ways: on foot as a tourist or worker, or as a passerby intersecting the space. The next step will be to place the components required to meet water demands on the site in a way that complements the existing conditions of the site. Naturally occurring spectacles from the system should be places for a passerby to witness, maintenance entrances should be located where existing roads are already positioned, and residences should be able to easily access neighbouring towns without interruption (all intersecting paths should remain).

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The Master Plan THE WATER MACHINE

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PLAN FOR STUDIO 3 OUTPUTS

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The Water Machine - Spatialization

Collection Methods

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Process as Experience

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Brine for commerce/pickling

R.O. Powering site transit

The Water Machine Experience 1/2

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The Water Machine - Spatialization

Premium Bottled-Water Flagship

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Passing from outside

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Re-mineralization boat tour

Contrasting Atmosphere

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STUDIO 3

INSPIRATION AND STYLE

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Original Comic

Lichtenstein Transformed

“Don’t restrict yourself to your own medium. It is just as possible to be inspired by a film-maker, fashion designer, writer or friend than another artist. Cross-pollination makes for an interesting outcome.” - Polly Morgan (Artist)

Artist to Artist

Comics, Visual Art, Urban Design, Music, Film

In this section, I want to explore how artists use each other to augment their own work, and as a result, create something new and enriched. I want to use this method to enhance The Water Machine as an architectural experience. The idea is not necessarily to use these artists as inspiration, but to see their method of inspiration, using a unique blend of styles and ideas, to create their distinguished outcomes.

Lichtsenstein Comic Panels American Pop Artist, Roy Lichtenstein, is perhaps one of the most clear examples of one artist using another artist/style to produce a new work of art; so much so that he was harshly criticized by the media and art critics alike about his originality. Lichtenstein was influenced by the comic book style, and much of his work was taken directly from existing comic book strips. Critic David Barsalou made a blunt comparison of Lichtenstein’s work with original compositions to challenge his originality, as seen with the images on the left (teh_manis, 2013). In a way, the argument became an ideological argument on the nature of art. Lichtenstein replied to such commentary from critcs with “ “The closer my work is to the original, the more threatening and critical the content. However, my work is entirely transformed in that my purpose and perception are entirely different. I think my paintings are critically transformed, but it would be difficult to prove it by any rational line of argument”. The argument that his work is not copied stems from a change in scale, colour, treatment and intent. His work, though controversial, is undeniably valuable in its own right. If not just for art sake, visual interest, and social engagement, then at least in monetary value. Some of his pieces alone have gone for well over $100 million USD (Frank, 2017).

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Broadway, NYC

The Broadway Boogie Woogie Piet Mondrian’s art changed after moving to New York City in 1940. Although his style was always that of basic horizontal and vertical lines, his work in the Broadway Boogie Woogie started segmenting into smaller elements.

Piet Mondrian

The name itself is telling of the inspired gridded streets of Manhattan, which is also indicated in his work a couple years earlier titled “New York City”. As with the city, Mondrian also quickly fell in love with Boogie Woogie music which he was also introduced to in New York. He soon began “to put a little boogie-woogie into his paintings” (MOMA, n.d.) Although more abstractly linked to its inspirations then Lichtsenstein, Mondrian utilized Urban planning and specific forms of music to enhance his work.

Boogie Woogie Music

Hitchcock Spellbound In the film, Spellbound, Hitchcock was not just inspired by surrealist artist Salvidor Dali, but actually commissioned him to work on a scene. A sequence in the psychoanalytic thriller film, the dream scene, capitalized on Freudian psychology. Hitchcock “wanted to convey the dream with great visual sharpness and clarity, sharper than the film itself ” (Carrigan, 2017).

Hitchcock and Dali Collaboration

Hitchcock hired Dali because of “the architectural sharpness of his work”. It resulted in a box office hit, and many raved reviews. Although the scene was cut shorter then originally hoped to be, resulting in some spite from Dali, the merging of film with (surrealist) art was acknowledged as a great success.

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Structural Expressionism aka High-Tech Architecture

Because an element of the project hopes to engage with people through showings, tours, tasting and innovation conference festivals, the collection of buildings should not hide, but instead celebrate the elements, systems and materials required. The Centre Pompidou

Inspiration of architectural style for this function pairs well with architecture from Structural Expressionism. Structural Expressionism, also known as High-Tech Architecture, is the last architectural style and movement of the 20th century (Hopkins, 2019). Some of the most well known examples such as The Centre Pompidou, and (now know as the) HSBC Building showcases the thrilling open interior spaces that encourages interaction among people while making powerful contributions to the cities they are placed (Hopkins, 2019). Perhaps the most obvious feature of the architecture style is the inside-out exposure of systems, which is sometimes referred to as “Bowellism”. It is where a buildings expresses its services as a main visual element, while opening up the buildings interior and improving maintenance work during future repairs/alterations (Astbury, 2019).

HSBC Building

Turning Torso

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I believe a mega-strucuture water plant would align well with structural expressionism in the sense of prioritizing feasibility ideologies to complement an exposure of true materiality. Large scale projects also benefit financially by utilizing repeated components, which works well with creating an interesting urban condition for neighborhoods nearby, as well as for visitors exploring the interiors of such spaces.

“It is production-engineering for finite buildings. It is the logic of doing the most with the least. Not trivial, but ephemeral, lie life itself.” (Pawley, 1991)

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Lloyd’s Building 271

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Inherent Style Expressed High-Tech Factory

Unlike office buildings, factories and large plants have always been expressing their function and systems as part of their design. Keeping with this design strategy is not a new concept. The difference of The Water Machine to its architectural counterparts is the human experience being added to the program. This is where the correlation of High Tech Architecture, seen in office and public buildings alike, is most meaningful. Instead of most high-tech architecture, where design choices are made to showcase systems within a human centric building, The Water Machine reverses the approach where design choices are made to include human centric activities within a building full of exposed systems. Instead of the project becoming a design of a desalination/water treatment plant, which would be highly technical and engineering based, it will become an architectural exercise in merging an amusement park style tour inside an industrial setting. In addition to this, because of its physical location along an existing motorway, the urban relationships intersect at various densities and settings. This means the factory will have to address the urban environment in a different way then what would typically take place in an industrial setting. This fusion of industry and human centric activity will result in a bespoke architectural typology; only possible by pushing the limit on these two opposite extremes.

Sorek, Isreal Plant - Dual Media Gravity Filtration

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Coimbatore, India Plant - Reverse Osmosis Pass 1 + 2

Fisia Italimpiani Plant -Remineralization

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The film goes into an extreme version of creating an experience for the guests who win a golden ticket, including: vibrant and festive colours, iconic elements including a top hat and tour boat, as well as extravagant typography and ornamental building components such as bridges and elevators. Taking inspiration of these elements can help contribute to the experience one could have in The Water Machine. This will be explored in the pages that follow. Colours:

Pipes/Flow Pipes/Flow

Water/River

Pipes/Flow

Because of the important role colour plays in the film, I decided to extract the poster swatch and utilize the colours for specific purposes. Similar to the rational of the Pompidou Centre colour coding system of blue (air flow), yellow (electricity), green (water circuits) and Red (pedestrian flow) (The Architectural Review, 1977), other codings could be incorporated into this design. For instance, purple being the most iconic colour in the film can be the most prominent elements of the water plant: pipes. Blue can be exposed water such as brine. Red can be structure and surfaces, where yellow can be used for smaller architectural features and brown for walls and used as needed for random anomalies.

Struct/Elements

The fantastical experience of getting in a boat and exploring a massive factory, and all it has to offer, has obvious parallels to Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory. Of course, the chocolate river is a consumed product in the film, where a brine river would be a waste product in The Water Machine. In addition, workers all wear uniforms in a desalination plant for safety purposes; this matches quite well with oompa loompas seen in the film.

Arch. Elements

Using inspiration from architecture styles mentioned in the previous pages will be beneficial in creating a unique architectural typology, but the project could further be enhanced by addressing film styles and visual techniques.

Walls/Anomalies

Inspiration from Film

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W.W.S.H.T.A.E

Willy Wonka Stylized High-Tech Architectural Experience

The images presented here are not a finalized concept of merging industry and human centric tour/amusement. What it does do it start to break down the colour coding system inspired by the Willy Wonka Film. By overlaying the colour on top of existing desalination plants, a new architectural style begins to emerge. Taking this further into the design of the elongated facility will be the final step in creating the new architectural typology. This is the accumulated process of taking inspiration from other places, as noted at the beginning of the section. Where Lichtsenstein uses comic strips for initial stylized inspiration, this project utilized high tech architecture. Where Hitchcock uses Salivor Dali in his film, this project used the Willy Wonka film to inspire colours and architectural components. The next section will show the architectural components designed, all with having a direct correlation to the Willy Wonka film. Before getting there, the next couple of pages show how the initial drawings, intended to represent various parts of The Water Machine, could be enhanced by utilizing this colour palette and strategy.

Sorek, Isreal Plant - Dual Media Gravity Filtration (Coloured)

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Coimbatore, India Plant - Reverse Osmosis Pass 1 + 2 (Coloured)

Fisia Italimpiani Plant -Remineralization (Coloured)

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The Water Machine Experience 1/2

Collection Methods

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Brine for commerce/pickling

R.O. Powering site transit

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The Water Machine Experience 2/2

Premium Bottled-Water Flagship

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Re-mineralization boat tour

Contrasting Atmosphere

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ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS

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Component: Font + Signage Signage plays an important role in orientation of a given place, especially when this place is new to the observer. Signs are especially important in tourist locations because of this. The Water Machine will utilize the function of signs for navigation of tourists when they are off the brine river that is automatically orienting them throughout the water treatment plant. In addition to this, the signs will inform what part of the plant they are in and become an educational tool. Most importantly, these signs are navigational elements used by workers for continual maintenance and daily routines of working activities. Signage are normal architectural components in a building, yet they are often considered utilitarian. Choosing to create ornamental features of the signs via mounting systems and font choice will add to the ‘fantastical’ experiential design of The Water Machine. Font is inspired by the Willy Wonka film from its whimsical style, yet its more liquid-like where the water droplets typography creates an obvious link to the water plants design.

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Component: Brine River

The brine river consists of most of the waste brine that goes back into the ocean. A separate pipe brings the rest of the brine to other manufacturing processes such as cooling steel, pickling vegetables, curing meats etc. The brine river utilizes the pressurized brine coming out of both the first and second reverse osmosis processes to create a continually flowing motion. In addition to this, some extra brine flows through fountains to add water features at various points throughout. Saftey is important as tours will allow people to get on and off boats at various points along the river. A rounded edge along the river reduces sharp edges, where a anti-slip edge creates a visual threshold from factory floor to river while also making it easier to get on and off the boats. The river is sunk into the factory floor to resemble a river found in the natural enviornment, but this also makes accessing boats easier from floor level.

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Brine Rounded Safety Edge Anti-Slip Edge Brine Fountain Feature Sunken Structure

Pressured Brine Output

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Component: Boats The boat is the main feature of the brine river that transports both tourists and workers around the site. It is coloured to be easily visible from the factory floor. The boat cover has a main function to visually helps the boats stand out, but because the boats do also go outside at various points throughout the site, it also covers users from the outdoor elements. Seating is grouped together to maximize the number of people able to fit onto a boat, and is easily accessible from either side of the boat. A raft-like floating surface, used as a flat under-surface, makes it possible to have the brine river shallow. Integrated into the floating surface is a battery powered motor that is only used in rare occasions on an ‘as-needed’ basis. Because the battery is rarely used, only small amounts of energy needs to be stored. This makes perfect use for a salt-battery powered motor. To keep with the dramatic experience of the project, the boats incorporate ornamental designs at the front and end of the boats, similar to that of Viking ships of 800-100AD. These features also second as a visual aid to increase the boats length and visibility. Safety is also integrated into the design in two ways. 1: there is a large flat surface at the front of the boat to make getting on and off easier. 2: safety ring Buoys are attached to the boat incase anyone may fall into the river. As an additional safety requirement, users will be required to wear Life Jackets or PFDs when on the boats.

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Ornamental Boat Cover

Group Seating

etail Features at front and back Safety Ring Buoy Stepping Platform Battery Powered Motor

Floating Surface

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Component: Bridges The placement of the brine river varies in different facility buildings, but for the most part, it is located in the middle of the floor. This means that each side of the river has equipment and water treatment devices such as pipes, pressurizing motors, valves, various degrees of filters etc. Because of this, workers will have to move from either side of the floor plate by crossing the brine river.

Multiple bridges are placed above the river to allow for this crossing. The heights of the bridges allow for the boats to travel below. Pipes that are needed to transport pressurized water are located around the river and their crossings simultaneously happen at the bridges. An additional safety feature are the railings around the brine river that ensure workers and tourists do not fall in accidentally. These railings are ornamentally shaped to look like water droplets.

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Safety Railing

Standing Platform

Stair Crossing Pressure Pipes River Railing

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Component: Worker Hats

The worker hats are made to be recognizable and are to be part of the worker uniform. The top hat style is a nod to Willy Wonka’s hat. Incorperated on the outside of the hat is a reflective strip to further enhance its visibility from afar. Visibility is important in a large plant such as this as large components are often being moved around such as reverse osmosis filters or other part replacements. During times that large machinery is in use, tourists will not be allowed near the specified work area, so employees will be the only people in the area and they will need to be visible for safety. Inside the hat are additional safety elements such as a hard shell in the case that an accident were to occure. There are times during the maintence of a deslanation and water treatment plants were on-site work can be dangerous. Adjustable Straps make the hat universally sized for any head size shape. Instead of having a walky-talkie or mobile device, these hats include a radio transceiver in a headset for easy communication. The head set means that their is a high quality of audio for workers, which is important as many areas of the desalination plant can be loud.

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Recongizable Hat

Reflective Strip

Hard Shell

Adjustable Strap

Integrated Smart Speakers

Microphone

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Component: Elevators

Just like the water pipes are coloured and become a feature in the water machine, and the brine river becomes a centre point to the design, it is important to ensure that the vertical transportation is also designed in accordance the the design ethos of the project. Although elevators are not needed in every building part of the Water Machine, they are important in ones that need to meet accessibility requirements. They are especially imporant in the control room and maintenance rooms where employees are not factory floor workers and do not need to do labour for their daily tasks. To embody the high-tech architecture style, these elevators are transparent via glass enclosures, and they expose the steel structure. They also utilize a door that resembles the Willy Wonka elevator to add an experiential element to the transportation device.

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Component: Salt Shaker Columns

Steel structures are common in large factory floor settings as they can span across large distances and can comprise of many matching components that can be made off site, requiring only assembly to happen on site. Cladding steel structures obviously help in creating a water tight interior environment, but they also help reduce steel corrosion and make the structure last longer by eliminating environmental factors. Encasing the vertical steel structure helps in these protective measures, but it also gives the opportunity to express the columns in a unique way. Instead of creating an ornamental capital of the ancient Greek Corinthian column, the columns could instead be shaped as an entirely different thing. Expressing the salt aspect of desalination, encasing the columns in scaledup salt grinders play into the narrative of The Water Machine. They additionally play a role in the informing passer-byers of the building’s use through its facade.

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Component: Fog Nets Fog nets are often hidden in foggy hills and not expressed in a public, or commercialized setting. Including them in The Water Machine is a strategic decision to get the most water out of the environment as possible, but because of their enormous size, they can become part of the architectural expression of the site, and also become a marketing opportunity. Because the project hopes to become a tourist attraction at the same time as supplying the additional water needed for the entirety of the UK, large signs promoting the attraction seems fitting. Coloured meshes can display text and logos across these fog nets for advertising purposes. Promotion can also be used for the premium water bottles that are also produced on site, or even the pickled made with the brine. Different shapes were also explored to distinguish the nets from the factory surroundings. Shapes such as water drops may be slightly less efficient in material use to fog collection measures, however they play into the design language found elsewhere in the project and helps create a cohesive formal style.

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Component: Pickle Stores

A pickle store made to look like a pickle jar. In and around the pickle stores is where manufacturing takes place, so having a direct line to the premium brine used in the pickling process is highly convenient. The stores get brine from the site, vegetables from the farmland nearby, and sell the products on-site as well. The process is probably one of the most efficient pickling business models out there. The storefront is designed similar to most, with a front entrance, rain/sun canopy, windows, visible signage, and equipped with HVAC systems for air quality and temperature control. The only change is its shape to mirror a standard pickle jar, including a lid as the roof. The stores combine to create a unique urban pickling district (both in function and in architectural style).

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Removable Filter

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Component: Water Collection Funnels The water funnels have two functions: collect rain water and move the water to be treated. The funnels are scattered across the site to collect the most rain as possible. Because of their height, few leafs or pieces of garbage will get stuck and clog up the vertical pip, however a removable filter is in place incase a situation presents itself. The pieces of the filter come separate and click into one another making assembly easy for such a large structure, and alternate in colour to give a cohesive visual representation found in the rest of the project.

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Component: Premium Water Bottle Creating a premium water bottle stems from the business plan to create additional income to offset the cost of desalination. By simply putting some of the water through an additional filtration process, and using a different ratio of fog, rain and desalinated water, marketing the water bottle as ‘premium’ becomes easy. There is a market for premium water, as bottled water is a nearly $1.7 billion USD industry, and premium water is a product consumed internationally. The flagship store will be located on site, where the manufacturing process is highlighted for visitors to observe. The water bottle itself is inspired by hard liquor bottles, due to their high worth for such small substances. Reflective materials are used for the lettering and cap to create a precious metal appearance, where the plastic bottle is double layered for the air in-between to act as insulation, helping the water stay cold longer after taking out of the fridge.

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A JOURNEY THROUGH THE SPECTACLE

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Place Making Planning + Composition

The process of designing this infrastructure scaled project was done through image making. Creating an image of specific parts of the site allows for a manageable portion of the site to be explored. This process remains the same for every completed poster image, which is sequenced to mirror how one may chronologically experience the site. The example used here is of the Pickling District poster image. Planning: This planning process was done to create a pickling district in The Water Machine. It keeps the reverse osmosis and pickling/brine storage and distribution building on the M58 site. Along the banks of the site is where the pickling High Street takes shape. This is a wide street to allow vehicular distribution around the site. On the other side of the M58 is where a new Skelmersdale water tower is located. These three main areas are connected by pedestrian streets and an existing pedestrian bridge. Cutting through these areas are the brine rivers running east and westbound along the length of the previous M58. Composition: 1. Initial drawing that shows a perspective view from a pedestrian walking over a bridge, merging with a plan view of the site. 2. Initial model incorporating components (already produced) and massing out new pathways/buildings. 3. Detailing the brine/pickling distribution building, adding connection pipes, and colour coding. 4. Slight composition adjustment including the existing pedestrian bridge in foreground. 5. Adding plan view to replace the sky. 6. Rendering image to be used as base file for further colouring and atmospheric adjustments. Brine/Pickle Storage and Distribution

Planning

Reverse Osmosis Facility

Fog Nets

Brine River West Bound Brine River East Bound

Skelmersdale Water Tower Previous M58 Road Pedestrian Path Pickle High Street

Pickle Store

Water Collection Funnels Above Existing Pedestrian Bridge

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Story Telling Colour, Depth, Texture

Using poster images as a method to design the experience of the project meant that a cohesive style was needed not just in its architecture, but also stylized representation. A process was determined to be replicated on each sequence as to explain The Water Machine in its entirety. The finalized choice (version 6) came from combining colour coding systems found in high tech architecture examples, noted on previous pages, with the colours coming from the original Willy Wonka film. These are various renditions that lead to the final outcome.

Renditions: 1. Every object was coloured to be unique and vibrant as a way to give homage to the Willy Wonka theme. It felt as this theme far enough, nor did it feel like a ‘machine’ that produces water. 2. By going with a blue theme, it seemed like the ‘water’ correlation started to come through, but it lost the vibrancy of Willy Wonka. 3. Overlaying the blue with colour coded objects to Willy Wonka colours merged the two themes together, but its muted palette did not give off a ‘fantastical’ theme that was initially hoped for. 4. There was a thought that a purple overlay instead of blue would speak more to Willy Wonka due to the vibrancy given to the colour in the film, especially to Willy Wonka’s jacket, however this resulted in the same problem as version 3. 5. The purple was made more pronounced to give off a more vibrant feeling. While this started to get closer to the Willy Wonka theme, it still was not fantastical! 6. Going back to the basic idea that every object had it’s own vibrant colour, however colour coding it based on a few distinct colours from the film, gave this final outcome. This result came into effect after realized that trying to give visual weight to two entities (water and a Willy Wonka fantasy) created a confusing visual outcome. This final image flaunts a fantastical atmosphere utilizing Willy Wonka colours, but on a Master Plan put in place to function as The Water Machine.

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Sequence 1: Towards it Sequence 1 showcases what the experience may be driving to the site for a tour, or how an everyday road user would interact with the site. Instead of approaching a dull dark underpass to the M58, one now gets to go through a vibrant underpass with funky signage directing them. Looking up, passengers will see maintenance crew working away, while tourists walk through designated areas and stand on lookout points (looking over the vast farmland, Liverpool in the distance, and of course the juxtaposed Water Machine in-between). Above that, the viewer will see, in this case, a pre-treatment building utilizing coagulation and flotation techniques in its first cleaning process. Other underpasses may be below the initial pumping station, the Reverse Osmosis plant, or even perhaps the control center and re-mineralization plant later down on the site. When the viewer looks all the way to the sky, they will see massive funnels, an obvious infrastructure scaled landmark of The Water Machine, that collects rain water to help produce a unique line of premium water bottles that are shipped internationally to wealthy markets (this process is shown in sequence 5).

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Sequence 2: Reverse Osmosis Sequence 2 highlights the river boat as the transportation system. Visitors will climb into a boat, and get off at various locations that interests them. One of the most exciting locations is the Reverse Osmosis facility, where salt water becomes fresh water after going through special membranes at high pressure. What also makes this an exciting experience is the location of the facility being wedged between massive amounts of farm land on each side. As a boat travels into, and through the facility, a wonderful juxtaposition between highly dense technical industry machine and low tech large agriculture land is seen. This view also acts as an explanatory poster image that highlights the (once was) M58 below, as well as all the other components of The Water Machine coming together, such as: water collection funnels peppered across the site, fog collection along the perimeter, and Liverpool in the background (where water for desalination is collected from the sea) The foreground shows an existing pedestrian bridge, one of many crossing the M58, in which not just allows, but encourages public engagement from local communities of the water treatment process.

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Sequence 3: Brine + Pickling District Sequence 3 was the example used to explain the design process of The Water Machine through poster/image making including; planning, modeling, composition, colour and atmosphere to tell a story. This is the next sequence of the process, as it comes right after the Reverse Osmosis facility, where some pressured brine is put back into the river to keep it moving , some is transported for various secondary industry uses, and some is utilized to create various pickled foods. This poster highlights the pickling district which includes a picking making building, including areas for distribution, as well as a high-street dedicated to various pickle stores. To explain the connection of the desalination plant to this distribution and pickling making process, with the actual street, a plan view is seen on the top half of the poster. The bottom half shows another pedestrian bridge which is located here, close to Skelmersdale, which provides the perspective view of the site. Although water towers are not part of the water treatment system, they are common and efficient ways for municipalities to store and use gravity for water usage at peak times (noted in studio 2). Water from The Water Machine would eventually end up in various water towers. By working with local towns and villages along the site, these water towers can become integrated into the experience of The Water Machine, while also creating a landmark for the community.

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Sequence 4: Remineralization Sequence 4 is going through the remineralization process. This is were mineral content is added back in the water to help with taste and health, such as magnesium and calcium. This process mostly happens in multiple sets of large containers, some houses outdoors, and some indoors. This is the last major process that occurs in water treatment facilities, other than water storage, which is held in massive containers or reservoirs. Unlike the previous poster images, this view is one would have from the boat itself, where visitors are in constant arms lengths from the brine river below. Visitors are right next to the machinery producing the fresh water that eventually ends up in going throw their own personal tap, and at designated points they can get off the boat and walk around to learn more about the process. Perhaps the most unique element of a tourist’s experience is having workers constantly getting in and out of the boat as they too use the boats to get around the site for various duties.

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Sequence 5: Premium Water Flagship Store Sequence 5 is located at the end of the process (except for large storage units). This is where premium water is bottled. This water goes through some additional remineralization processes, as well as uses different ratios of fog and rain water to produce the best tasting water. This water, being premium, and unable to be massed produced because of it’s specialized ratios, is sold internationally to wealthy markets. It is a large income stream for The Water Machine, which makes it possible to offset some of the more expensive costs of desalination, meaning the average UK consumer isn’t paying more money for the water coming out of their tap. This bottling process is exciting because of the number of bottles constantly moving across conveyor belts. Here, a boat docking station allows people to get off the boat to: view the process up close, purchase a premium bottle of water, and visit the gift shop before getting on their last boat ride back to the beginning of the site

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The Water Machine Summary and Acknowledgments

Thank you for taking a ride through The Water Machine today! I hope you had a fun journey, learned a little bit of the growing risks of fresh water availability, and the potential ways in which it can be solved. As a student of architecture, I am continuously excited to learn about new building typologies and this was a great chance for me to create a new building type of my own; one that merges industry, tourism and film styles on an infrastructure scaled site. The project ends with a montage of three various, and important parts of the site (pretreatment, revrse osmosis, and remineralization). I imagine it to be like the end of a good roller coaster, when riders get to see pictures of themselves half way through a large drop. I would hope visitors get the opportunity to purchase a montage of photos of themselves taking a journey in The Water Machine; a keepsake, and memory never to be forgotten every time they take a sip of water.

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Bibliography *Accumulated from Studio 1, Studio 2 and Studio 3

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