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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF COUNTRY
We acknowledge the Traditional Owners of the Country on which we work throughout Australia and recognise their enduring connection to the land, waters, and culture. We pay our respects to their Elders, both past and present, and acknowledge emerging leaders. Furthermore, we express our gratitude for the knowledge and insights that Traditional Owners and other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples contribute to our collective work in Australia.
This project is jointly funded by the Australian and NSW Governments under the Storm and Flood Industry Recovery Package
DISCLAIMER: The authors this manual make no representations and expressly disclaim all warranties (to the extent permitted by law) regarding the accuracy, completeness or currency of the information provided. Users should seek independent advice relevant to their specific circumstances before acting on any information contained within this manual.
Use or reliance on the information is entirely at the user’s own risk. Berries Australia and the contributing authors accept no liability for any loss, damage, cost, or expense (including legal costs) arising directly or indirectly from the use of or reliance on any information in this manual, including but not limited to errors, omissions or changes in circumstances after publication.
Although funding for this product has been provided by both Australian and NSW governments, the material contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of either Government.
Images: 12, 18, 48, 60, 65: Jane Richter; 61: Glenda Riley; 83: Fran Flynn
As one of the fastest-growing sectors in Australian horticulture, the berry industry plays a vital role in regional economies, supply chains, and healthy diets across the country.
Good Practice in Berries
Good practices in sustainability, production and social responsibility play a fundamental role in shaping the future of Australia’s berry industry.
This Berry Good Practice Guide has been developed to support Australian berry growers in adopting sustainable, responsible, and resilient farming practices. As one of the fastest-growing sectors in Australian horticulture, with production value rising from $567 million in 2013 to an estimated $1.3 billion in 2024, the berry industry plays a vital role in regional economies, supply chains, and healthy diets across the country.
With this growth comes greater expectations from consumers, retailers, regulators, and the broader community. Responsible water use, healthy soils, fair treatment of workers, energy efficiency, and protecting biodiversity are not just “nice to have” - they’re part of doing good business and securing long-term success.
This guide is intended for Australian berry growers, their advisors, industry bodies, and supply chain partners. It also provides a reference point for researchers, policymakers, local government and others seeking to understand the practical steps the industry is taking toward sustainability and good farming practice.
This guide brings together the knowledge and experience of growers, industry leaders and sustainability experts to outline what good practice looks like in today’s berry industry. It covers practical steps across key areas including site selection, agronomy, production systems, environmental management, labour practices, and community engagement. While many growers are already leading the way, this guide provides a benchmark for others to follow and build on.
Importantly, this is not just about meeting compliance or ticking boxes. It’s about being part of a forward-looking, values-driven industry that cares for the land, its people, and its future. Aligned with the Australian-Grown Horticulture Sustainability Framework, this guide is designed to be useful, relevant and achievable whether you’re an established producer, just starting out, or want to learn more about the industry.
By working together to adopt and promote good practice, the Australian berry industry can continue to thrive, delivering high-quality fruit, building consumer confidence, and supporting resilient farming communities for generations to come.
Rachel Mackenzie Chief Executive Officer Berries Australia
1 Introduction
This section provides an overview of Australia’s berry industry, including key production regions, seasonal supply patterns, and the current structure of the strawberry, blueberry and Rubus (raspberry and blackberry) industries.
At a Glance
♦ Berries are grown in nearly all Australian states and territories, with Queensland, Victoria and NSW accounting for ~80% of national production
♦ Seasonal production spans the year, with different regions complementing each other to supply domestic and export markets
♦ Strawberries are the largest berry crop by volume, followed by blueberries and Rubus berries (raspberries and blackberries)
♦ Protected cropping systems (e.g. tunnels, netting) are increasingly used to manage climate variability and improve fruit quality
♦ Growing domestic demand and strong export opportunities are driving innovation and investment in the sector
1.1 Berry Overview
Berry production in Australia spans a wide range of geographic and climatic zones, reflecting the adaptability of different berry types to diverse growing conditions. While strawberries, blueberries and Rubus berries are cultivated in nearly all states and territories, most production is concentrated in key regions along the Eastern seaboard, as well as established growing areas in Western Australia and South Australia (Figure 1-1).
Queensland, Victoria and New South Wales together account for around 80% of Australia’s total berry production, contributing roughly one-third, one-quarter and one-fifth, respectively. Some growing regions are strongly associated with particular berry types, for example, Coffs Harbour/ North Coast in New South Wales for blueberries and the Sunshine Coast in Queensland for strawberries, while other regions support a more diverse mix of berry crops.
Figure 1-1 Major growing regions and share of production for all berries across Australia1
Atherton
1.2 Strawberry
Strawberry Industry Snapshot
FARM GATE VALUE: ~ $500 million annually
PRODUCTION VOLUME:
90,000 tonnes per year
DOMESTIC MARKET FOCUS:
Majority sold fresh in Australia, with growing export demand into Asia and the Middle East
Strawberries, members of the rose (Rosaceae) family, are not technically true berries. Botanically, they are considered accessory fruits, with the fleshy part comprising numerous tiny individual fruits, or achenes, embedded on the surface.
The Australian strawberry industry is one of the country’s most valuable horticulture sectors, contributing over half a billion dollars annually. Most strawberries are sold fresh to domestic consumers, although exports to Asia and the Middle East are expanding as Australia’s reputation for clean, safe and high-quality fruit grows in premium markets.
Queensland and Victoria dominate national production, contributing close to four-fifths of the total supply. Queensland supports yearround supply with winter/spring production on the Sunshine Coast and Bundaberg, and summer/autumn production inland around the Granite Belt. Victoria supplies from spring into summer and autumn and Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania provide the remainder of production (Figure 1-2 on the following page).
TOP PRODUCING STATES:
Queensland & Victoria supply nearly 80% of national production
CONSUMPTION:
Among the highest of all berries, exceeding 2.5 kg per capita
Growers take advantage of regional climates to achieve almost year-round supply. For example, the Wanneroo and Gingin regions north of Perth complement cooler winter and spring harvests, while the Adelaide Hills supports summer production ( Table 1-1 on the following page).
Strawberry consumption in Australia averages nearly 2.5 kilograms per person and is expected to rise steadily with population growth and strong domestic demand.
Traditionally grown in open fields in-ground, strawberries are increasingly produced under protective cropping systems and hydroponics, enabling greater control over quality and extending the growing season.
Although the industry includes around 200 commercial growers, there has been a trend towards consolidation, with fewer, larger businesses supplying the market. Challenges such as rising production costs, labour shortages and climate variability have driven this shift and placed pressure on growers to adopt innovative practices and technologies.
Despite these hurdles, the Australian strawberry industry is well-positioned to adapt and grow. With a focus on innovation, sustainability, workforce development and expanding access to international markets, growers are building a resilient and competitive sector ready to meet future challenges and opportunities.
Figure 1-2 Major growing regions and share of production for strawberries2
Table 1-1
Colours indicate relative supply levels: high moderate low
Bundaberg
Granite Belt
Sunshine Coast
Greater Perth Great Southern
Adelaide Hills
Yarra Valley
Mornington Peninsula
Northern Tasmania
Southern Tasmania
Seasonality of strawberry fruit across states
1.3 Blueberry
Blueberry Industry Snapshot
FARM GATE VALUE:
~ $500 million annually
EXPORT GROWTH:
Fastest-growing export segment within berries, doubling fresh volumes in recent years
PRODUCTION VOLUME:
~ 27,500 tonnes per year
SHELF LIFE ADVANTAGE:
Longest shelf life of all berries, supporting strong domestic and export opportunities
Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) are perennial shrubs in the Ericaceae family, with numerous species cultivated for their distinctive sweettart fruit. In Australia, the blueberry industry has grown rapidly in recent decades, driven by strong consumer demand, improved varieties, and advances in production systems.
Valued at over $500 million at the farm gate, Australian growers produce more than 27,000 tonnes annually. Per capita consumption in Australia has risen to amongst the highest volume per capita at almost 1 kg, reflecting blueberries’ popularity as a fresh, healthy snack. They are also one of the fastest-growing berry export segments, with shipments to premium markets like Hong Kong and Singapore more than doubling between 2022 and 2024.
Production is highly concentrated in northern New South Wales, which accounts for over 80% of national output, followed by smaller but significant contributions from Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia (Figure 1-3 on the following page).
TOP PRODUCING STATE:
Over 80% of production comes from northern New South Wales
CONSUMPTION:
Risen to almost 1 kg per capita reflecting popularity as a fresh, healthy snack
The Coffs Harbour, North Coast and Northern Rivers regions in New South Wales supply fruit from winter to early summer, while Tasmania’s cooler climate extends availability into the summer months, helping to deliver near yearround supply ( Table 1-2 on the following page).
Australian production systems range from open-field plantings to protected cropping under netting and tunnels. There is a growing trend toward growing blueberries in potted substrate systems under polytunnels, which helps improve yield and fruit quality, and enables better run-off management practices.
Australia is a world leader in blueberry genetics, with variety selection varying by region: Northern Highbush types dominate cooler climates such as Tasmania and the southern highlands of NSW, while Southern Highbush and Rabbiteye varieties are preferred in warmer areas like mid-north NSW and southeast Queensland. These varieties differ in their chill requirements and flowering responses, making variety selection critical to success.
Figure 1-3 Major growing regions and share of production for Blueberries3
Blueberry production is labour-intensive and requires careful management of pest and disease pressures. While water and fertiliser inputs are needed, blueberries are often considered relatively low-input compared to other horticultural crops. Plants typically take 18 months to 3 years to reach their first commercial harvest, after which regular pruning becomes essential for maintaining productivity.
Table 1-2 Seasonality of blueberry fruit across states
With a strong domestic market and growing international demand, the Australian blueberry industry has a bright future. Blueberries’ long shelf life, up to three weeks under ideal conditions, gives growers a significant advantage in export markets, where maintaining fruit quality during transport is critical.
Colours indicate
Greater Perth
Adelaide Hills
Atherton
Bundaberg / Munduberra
North Coast / Northern Rivers
Yarra Valley
Tumbarumba
Northern Tasmania
1.4 Rubus Genus (Raspberry and Blackberry)
Rubus Industry Snapshot
$
FARM GATE VALUE: ~ $290 million annually
PRODUCTION VOLUME: ~ 13,400 tonnes per year
DOMESTIC MARKET FOCUS:
Exports are minimal due to perishability; strong local demand is driving growth
Rubus spp. are woody-stemmed perennial plants in the rose (Rosaceae) family. The genus includes a wide variety of soft berry fruits, with raspberries and blackberries dominating Australian production, approximately 68% and 31% of the crop, respectively. Other Rubus varieties, such as boysenberries and silvanberries make up less than 1% of total output.
Although the Rubus category remains smaller than other berry sectors, it has seen steady growth in recent years. National production rose from just over 9,600 tonnes in 2022 to more than 13,000 tonnes in 2024, with a current farm gate value of approximately $290 million. Per capita consumption has also increased, reaching 0.45 kg in 2023/24. Export volumes remain low at under 1%, reflecting the highly perishable nature of Rubus berries, but domestic demand continues to grow.
Production is concentrated in temperate regions, with Tasmania (29%), Victoria (26%), and New South Wales (23%) accounting for nearly 80% of output (Figure 1-4 on the following page). Key production zones include
TOP PRODUCING STATES: TAS, VIC & NSW account for nearly 80% of supply
CONSUMPTION:
Per capita intake continues to rise, reflecting increasing popularity in Australia
northern Tasmania, Victoria’s Yarra Valley, and the North Coast of New South Wales.
The cooler climates of Tasmania and southern Victoria support summer production, while growers in warmer regions such as Queensland focus on supplying fruit during the cooler months ( Table 1-3 on the following page).
Australian Rubus production is dominated by protected cropping systems, with most production occuring under protective structures such as polyhouses and tunnels, enabling growers to better manage pests, diseases, and climate variability.
Traditionally, Rubus berries were grown in cooler regions to meet chilling requirements for floricane production systems (which fruit on the previous year’s growth). However, expansion into warmer areas has been supported by primocane and longcane production systems (fruiting on the current year’s growth), allowing multiple harvests throughout the year.
While Rubus berries’ delicate structure limits export potential, domestic consumption is increasing steadily, with per capita intake growing by nearly 100 g in recent years. This trend signals opportunities for further industry development, particularly through improved production systems and greater supply chain efficiency.
1-4 Major growing regions and share of production for Rubus berries 4
Figure
Table 1-3 Seasonality of Rubus berry fruit across states
Granite Belt North Coast Sunshine Coast
Greater Perth
Great Southern
Yarra Valley Northern Tasmania
1.5 References and Further Reading
• Berries Australia (2019). Irrigation Water Quality for Strawberries: A Grower’s Guide
URL: https://berries.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Irrigation-water-quality-for-strawberries. pdf
• Horticulture Innovation Australia (2023). Australian Horticulture Statistics Handbook 2023–24: Fruit.
Berry growing is a highly technical and dynamic process that demands thoughtful planning, adaptive management, and continual innovation to deliver consistent, highquality fruit. Every decision on farm, from site selection and planting system through to irrigation, nutrition and pest control, has a lasting impact on productivity, fruit quality, and long-term farm resilience.
This section sets out the key agronomic and production practices that underpin sustainable berry farming in Australia. It explores:
• How site selection, soil preparation and water access influence long-term viability
• The evolution of production systems including open-field, protected cropping and soilless approaches
• Integrated strategies for managing nutrients, water, pests, diseases and weeds
• The importance of biosecurity planning during site establishment and ongoing operations
• The role of effective agronomy, pruning, pollination and canopy management
• Emerging technologies that are reshaping how berries are grown, including digital tools, automation and precision farming.
The information in this section provides both a benchmark and a guide for berry growers looking to refine their practices, adopt new systems, and position their farms for long-term success in a changing environment.
At a Glance
♦ Select sites carefully based on climate, soil, water and biosecurity risks
♦ Match varieties and systems to market timing and environmental conditions
♦ Adopt precision irrigation and fertigation to optimise water and nutrient use
♦ Implement Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) to reduce chemical inputs
♦ Use innovation and technology to improve efficiency and sustainability
2.1 Site Establishment
Selecting the right site is a key decision in berry production. Site factors such as climate, soil, water access and biosecurity influence plant health, yield potential, and long-term farm sustainability. Careful evaluation and planning at establishment can help reduce risks, optimise production, and ensure operations are aligned with environmental and market requirements.
2.1.1 Climate
Berry crops are highly adaptable and can be grown in diverse climates, from cool temperate zones to subtropical regions. However, site suitability depends on the berry type, specific variety requirements, and intended production windows. Key factors to consider include:
• Temperature and Chill Hours: Chill hours, the number of winter hours between 0°C and 7°C, are critical for many perennial fruit crops. High-chill varieties, such as certain raspberries and Northern Highbush blueberries, require cooler climates like Tasmania and Victoria to break dormancy and promote flowering. Low-chill varieties, including some strawberries and Southern Highbush blueberries, allow production in warmer regions such as Queensland, northern New South Wales, and parts of Western Australia. This enables year-round supply with staggered planting and harvest strategies.
• Rainfall and Irrigation: Annual rainfall in berry-growing regions typically ranges from 600 to 1,000 mm. However, due to the shallow, fibrous root systems of berries and their sensitivity to water stress, reliable
irrigation infrastructure is essential even in high rainfall zones. Rainfall distribution and intensity should also be considered to minimise disease risks from prolonged wet periods, and when making decisions about the installation of protected cropping structures like polytunnels.
• Seasonal Production Windows: Regional climates can be leveraged to extend supply into different seasons. Cooler southern regions are well suited for summer production, while subtropical zones favour winter cropping of low-chill varieties to meet market demand during off-peak periods.
• Other Climatic Considerations: Frost risk, heat extremes, and prevailing winds should be evaluated during site selection. Windbreaks may be needed to protect delicate fruit from damage, while shaded or ventilated systems can mitigate heat stress during flowering and harvest.
Careful site assessment and matching production systems to climatic conditions are critical for consistent yields and high-quality fruit.
2.1.2 Soil Health and Preparation
Healthy, well-structured soils are the foundation of productive berry systems. They support strong root growth, improve water infiltration and retention, enhance nutrient cycling, and reduce the risk of erosion and disease. Careful management of soil properties prior to planting is critical for long-term success. Key factors to consider include:
• Soil Structure and Drainage: Most berry crops thrive in well-drained soils with good aeration. Poor drainage increases the risk of root diseases such as Phytophthora root rot. Raised beds or subsurface drainage systems may be necessary on imperfectly drained sites. On poorly drained soils, in-ground production is generally unsuitable.
• Soil pH: Most berries perform best at a soil pH near 6.5 (with a tolerable range of 5.5–7.5). However, blueberries are an exception, requiring strongly acidic soils between pH 4.5 and 5.5 for optimal nutrient uptake. Pre-planting amendments such as elemental sulphur (to lower pH) or lime (to raise pH) may be needed depending on soil test results.
• Organic Matter and Soil Biology:
Increasing soil organic carbon improves aggregation, nutrient retention, and microbial diversity. Practices such as cover cropping, compost applications and reduced tillage can help build and maintain organic matter. Soils that are biologically active support plant root health and reduce the susceptibility to some pathogens.
• Soil Testing and Amendments:
Comprehensive soil testing (physical, chemical and biological) should be undertaken prior to site establishment to assess soil fertility, compaction, and pathogen presence. Regular on-going monitoring allows growers to make informed decisions on fertilisers, pH adjustments, and soil conditioners to optimise conditions for berry growth.
2.1.3 Water Access and Quality
Berry crops are highly sensitive to both water stress and over-irrigation due to their shallow, fibrous root systems. Reliable access to highquality water is essential for maintaining plant health, optimising yields, and ensuring longterm site viability. Regular water testing and monitoring throughout the season can help maintain crop health and avoid risks from variable water quality or availability. Other considerations include:
• Water Requirements: Annual water needs for berry crops vary by species, growing system and climate but typically range between 3–7 ML/ha, refer to Table 2-1 below. Strawberries are the most water-intensive (4.5–7 ML/ha), while blueberries and Rubus berries (raspberries and blackberries) require slightly less (3–5 ML/ha).
• Water Sources: Australian berry growers use a combination of surface water (rivers, creeks, dams), groundwater (bores and aquifers), and in some regions, recycled Class A water. It is critical to ensure water rights and entitlements are secured in line with state and regional regulations, particularly in areas with high competition for resources.
• Water Quality: Berries are highly sensitive to water quality issues. Salinity, sodicity, and specific toxicities (e.g., high chloride or boron levels) can impair plant growth and damage irrigation infrastructure. Pre-plant water testing is recommended to assess electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and potential contaminants. Only water of excellent quality should be used for irrigation to avoid long-term soil degradation.
Table 2-1 Indicative annual water requirements for berry categories (ML/ha)
BERRY
2.1.4 Biosecurity Planning
Berry crops are vulnerable to pests, diseases and invasive weeds. Incorporating biosecurity practices during site establishment can reduce the risk of future problems. Good practices for biosecurity management include:
• Avoid planting in sites with a history of soil-borne diseases (e.g., Phytophthora spp.) or nematodes
• Maintain buffer zones around the production area to limit pest and disease incursion
• Plan farm layout to include sanitation zones, designated washdown areas and clear access points for vehicles and personnel
• Implement entry controls and hygiene protocols for workers and visitors to reduce the risk of introducing pests.
Site Establishment Best Practices
♦ Match berry types and varieties to the site’s climate, ensuring adequate chill hours for high-chill crops and avoiding frost risk for sensitive varieties
♦ Prioritise well-drained soils and adjust pH levels before planting (acidify for blueberries if needed)
♦ Secure a reliable, high-quality water source and assess water entitlements and regulations early
♦ Evaluate previous site history for pest and disease risks and avoid replanting in recently cropped berry sites
♦ Design farm layout with biosecurity in mind, including sanitation zones, controlled access points and effective drainage to prevent waterlogging
2.2 Production Systems
Berry production in Australia uses a range of production systems adapted to different climates, markets, and grower preferences. These production systems influence crop health, yields, fruit quality, and labour requirements. Selecting the right system depends on factors such as capital investment, site conditions, and the need to manage environmental risks like pests, disease and climate variability.
2.2.1
In-Ground Production
In-ground production remains the most traditional system for berry crops, particularly in regions with mild climates and reliable rainfall. It involves growing berries directly in the soil without structural protection. In-ground production has several advantages but also increasing challenges for growers to consider.
ADVANTAGES:
• Lower capital investment compared to protected systems
• Simplified infrastructure requirements and ease of mechanisation in large-scale fields
Proactive biosecurity measures can save time and longer-term costs, protecting both the farm and the surrounding environment. Growers using in-ground production often adopt raised beds, plastic mulches, and drip irrigation to improve soil drainage, conserve moisture, and suppress weeds. However, reliance on these systems alone provides limited protection from extreme weather, leading to increasing adoption of protected cropping for higher-value production.
• Natural pollination by wind and insects.
CHALLENGES:
• Greater exposure to pests, diseases and adverse weather events (hail, wind, frost, heatwaves)
• Soilborne diseases and nematodes require careful rotation planning
• Weed control can be labour-intensive.
2.2.2 Protected
Cropping
Systems
Protected cropping is rapidly becoming the backbone of modern berry production in Australia in many growing regions. By shielding crops from extreme weather, pests and diseases, these systems enable growers to extend growing seasons, improve fruit quality, and meet the demands of premium domestic and export markets. As the industry adapts to climate variability and labour challenges, protected systems are emerging as a key pathway to future-proof berry production.
Protected cropping encompasses a range of approaches, each offering different levels of protection and environmental control, which can include:
LOW TUNNELS
Low tunnels are widely used in Australian strawberry production as a simple, costeffective form of protection. They create a microclimate that reduces rainfall exposure and helps to lower fungal disease pressure during wet periods. While they offer some shelter from wind and minor temperature fluctuations, their ability to regulate heat is limited. As a result, crops grown under low tunnels remain vulnerable to extreme weather events such as heat waves and frost, making them more suited to regions with relatively mild and predictable climates.
HIGH TUNNELS AND POLYHOUSES
High tunnels and polyhouses represent a significant advancement in protected cropping, offering greater protection and climate management capabilities for berry crops. These structures are particularly well suited to blueberries and Rubus species, allowing growers to control airflow, humidity, and temperature more effectively than low tunnels. The increased height supports improved ventilation, reducing heat buildup and fungal disease risks. By creating more consistent growing conditions, high tunnels help achieve uniform fruit quality and enable higher planting densities, supporting premium market supply and export opportunities.
GREENHOUSES
Fully enclosed greenhouses provide the highest level of environmental control, making them ideal for intensive berry production in high-value markets. Growers can fine-tune key variables such as temperature, humidity, and light levels to optimise plant growth and fruit quality year-round. These systems support production in regions with challenging climates, extending growing seasons and enabling off-season supply. However, the precision and scale of management required come with significant capital investment and technical expertise, positioning greenhouses as a choice for larger operations targeting niche or export markets.
NETTING
Netting systems are increasingly adopted as part of integrated crop protection strategies. They provide a physical barrier against birds, insects, and excessive sun exposure, which is critical in maintaining fruit quality. While netting alone does not offer rainfall exclusion or temperature regulation, it is often combined with tunnels or greenhouses for enhanced protection. Its flexibility and relatively low cost make it a valuable tool for growers seeking to balance crop protection with operational costs.
Protected Cropping - The Future for Berries
Protected cropping is reshaping berry production in Australia, offering growers a way to adapt to changing climates, market demands and labour challenges. Strengths of the production system include:
♦ Enables reliable production in marginal regions, extending berry cultivation into areas once considered unsuitable
♦ Supports near year-round supply, meeting the expectations of premium domestic and export markets
♦ Protects crops from extreme weather, reducing losses and improving fruit quality
♦ Drives innovation and sustainability, with smarter use of water, nutrients, and energy.
By adopting these systems, berry growers are future-proofing their farms and positioning the industry for a more resilient and sustainable future.
2.2.3 Soilless Growing Systems
Soilless growing systems are emerging as a transformative approach in modern berry production, offering growers solutions to soil-related challenges and opportunities to achieve higher yields and consistency. These systems are particularly suited to intensive production environments, where precision in water and nutrient management is critical. Soilless growing systems are increasingly adopted in strawberry production and now widely used for blueberries and Rubus crops, in combination with protected cropping structures.
Substrate production is the most common soilless approach for berries. In this system, plants are grown in containers filled with inert growing media such as coco peat, perlite, or rockwool. This method allows growers to fine-tune irrigation and fertigation, delivering water and nutrients directly to the root zone in precise amounts. Substrate systems also reduce the risk of soilborne diseases and enable berry production on sites with marginal or unsuitable soils.
Hydroponics takes this one step further by eliminating the use of any growing media. Instead, nutrient-rich soluble solutions are circulated around plant roots in fully controlled systems. Hydroponic production is highly efficient in water and fertiliser use but requires
significant technical expertise and capital investment to manage successfully.
These soilless systems, particularly when paired with high tunnels or polytunnels, are becoming standard practice in new blueberry plantings and are being trialled for Rubus crops. Their ability to deliver consistent, high-quality fruit makes them an increasingly attractive option for growers aiming to meet premium market expectations while minimising environmental impacts.
The Right Production System
♦ Match your system to climate, market demands and capital availability
♦ Use protected cropping to mitigate risks from pests and weather extremes
♦ Consider soilless systems where soilborne diseases or poor soil structure are a challenge
♦ Invest in technical expertise and training for intensive systems like hydroponics
♦ Plan for long-term sustainability by balancing production intensity with resource efficiency
2.3 Agronomy
Effective agronomy and crop management are essential for achieving consistent yields, high fruit quality, and long-term productivity in berry systems. From selecting the right varieties and planting systems, pruning and pollination, through to building strong relationships with trusted agronomists, growers must integrate technical knowledge with site-specific practices.
2.3.1 Variety Selection and Planting Systems
Selecting the right variety and planting system is critical to achieving high yields, excellent fruit quality, and alignment with market and climatic demands. Each berry type has distinct requirements in terms of photoperiod (day length), chill hours, and temperature, which influence flowering, fruit set, and overall crop performance. Planting systems also vary widely, from traditional open-field raised beds to highdensity substrate systems.
STRAWBERRIES
Strawberries are highly responsive to photoperiod and temperature, making variety choice and planting time crucial. Varieties are broadly grouped as short-day or day-neutral, each suited to different growing windows and regions.
• Short-day varieties initiate flowering under shorter daylight conditions and are ideal for production in regions with mild winters, such as Queensland. Typically planted in autumn, they fruit in winter and early spring. Extended production into late spring is possible but can result in declining fruit quality.
• Day-neutral varieties flower and fruit regardless of day length, provided temperatures remain within 12°C–25°C. These are best suited to cooler and temperate climates like Victoria and Tasmania, allowing production from spring through to autumn.
Key planting systems for strawberries include:
• Raised beds, which improve drainage and root health in open fields.
• Substrate systems in protected cropping, supporting higher density and extended growing seasons.
BLUEBERRIES
Blueberry production is highly dependent on matching the right cultivar to the local climate. Varieties differ significantly in their requirements for chill hours (the number of hours between 0–7°C needed to break winter dormancy), heat tolerance, and their response to photoperiod. Selecting a suitable variety and planting system is critical to achieving reliable yields, premium fruit quality, and the ability to extend production windows.
• Northern Highbush varieties are adapted to cooler climates like Tasmania and Victoria and require 750–1,000 chill hours. These high-chill varieties thrive in regions with cold winters but are more susceptible to heat stress.
• Southern Highbush varieties are bred for lower chill requirements (250–600 hours) and greater heat tolerance. These are ideal for warmer growing regions across Australia and have enabled production in areas previously considered unsuitable for blueberries.
• Rabbiteye varieties are highly tolerant of heat, require 450–600 chill hours, and are known for their firmer berries and thicker skin. They flower and ripen later in the season, making them well-suited for extending harvest windows, although their eating quality is generally considered lower.
Planting systems are shifting towards:
• Substrate systems under polytunnels, now the standard for new plantings, allow greater environmental control and suitability for non-traditional regions.
RUBUS (RASPBERRY & BLACKBERRY)
Raspberry and blackberry varieties are classified into primocane and floricane types:
• Floricane varieties fruit on second-year canes and require significant winter chill (raspberries often > 800 hours, blackberries 300 - 1,000 hours). These are suited to temperate regions like Tasmania and Victoria.
• Primocane varieties fruit on first-year canes, enabling cropping in milder climates with minimal chill requirements and even double cropping in some systems.
Innovations like long cane production have allowed growers to meet chill requirements in nurseries before planting in warmer regions, supporting winter harvests.
Rubus crops benefit from:
• Trellising systems for canopy management and air circulation
• Substrate production in polyhouses, which is increasingly common for high-value production.
PLANTING SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
Across berry types, planting systems vary based on localised site conditions and market goals, and can include:
• Raised beds to improve drainage and root health in open field systems
• Substrate production systems to allow higher planting densities and better control of water and nutrients
• Row orientation and spacing that are tailored to maximise sunlight interception and airflow, supporting fruit quality and reducing disease risks.
Effective agronomy and crop management are essential for achieving consistent yields, high fruit quality, and long-term productivity.
2.3.2 Pollination
Pollination is a critical process in berry production, directly influencing fruit set, size, and overall market quality. While strawberries are largely self-pollinating due to their flower structure, insect activity still enhances uniformity and reduces the occurrence of misshapen fruit. In contrast, blueberries and Rubus species are highly dependent on insect pollinators to ensure complete fertilisation. Poor pollination in these crops can result in uneven drupelet development, producing small or “crumbly” fruit that fails to meet market standards.
MANAGED POLLINATORS
Honeybees ( Apis mellifera) are the primary managed pollinators across Australian berry farms. However, their effectiveness can diminish in cool, overcast, or humid conditions when bee foraging is reduced. In Tasmania, feral populations of buff-tailed bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) are present and have demonstrated superior pollination for crops like blueberries due to their buzzpollination ability. On the Australian mainland, bumblebees are a declared pest and it is illegal to import them, so native pollinators such as blue-banded and carpenter bees play an important complementary role. For blueberries, recommended stocking rates are typically 5 to 8 honeybee hives per hectare, while strawberries often require lower densities due to their partial self-pollination.
HABITAT SUPPORT
Creating flowering strips, hedgerows, and native vegetation corridors encourages wild pollinators, increasing biodiversity and resilience. These measures are particularly valuable in periods when managed hive activity is limited or under netted systems. Hive placement should also be carefully planned to provide protection from wind while ensuring exposure to direct sunlight, especially during autumn and winter pollination.
POLLINATION CHALLENGES
Unfavourable weather during flowering, including high winds, rain, or cold temperatures, reduces pollinator activity and may compromise fruit set. Bird or insect exclusion netting can also restrict access for pollinators, requiring the installation of bee doors or timed openings to maintain movement. Careful scheduling of pesticide applications is also critical to minimise risks to both managed and wild pollinators. Building strong relationships with honey bee suppliers helps ensure consistent hive quality, and formal contracts are recommended to provide mutual protection and benefit for both growers and beekeepers.
Supporting Effective Pollination
♦ Introduce managed hives during peak flowering to improve fruit set and uniformity
♦ Maintain access for pollinators in netted or protected systems by using bee doors or timed openings
♦ Establish flowering strips or native vegetation corridors near crops to attract and sustain wild pollinators
♦ Avoid pesticide applications during bloom or apply only when pollinators are least active (early morning or late evening)
♦ Monitor pollination activity regularly and adjust hive placement to ensure even distribution across the crop
Further information is available in the Pollination Guide for the Australian Berry Industry
2.3.3 Pruning and Canopy Management
Pruning and canopy management are vital practices for maintaining plant health, supporting strong fruiting wood, and optimising airflow and light penetration in berry systems. A well-managed canopy reduces disease pressure, improves fruit quality, and enhances access for harvesting and spraying. The specific approach varies between berry types and cultivars, reflecting their different growth habits and production systems.
STRAWBERRIES
Regular removal of runners in commercial production prevents plants from diverting energy into vegetative growth. This practice helps maintain vigour and focuses resources on flower and fruit development, leading to higher yields and better fruit size.
Agronomy Essentials
berries.net.au/resource-library
BLUEBERRIES
Annual pruning involves removing older wood and encouraging new shoots, maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth. This ensures plants remain productive over their lifespan and supports good airflow through the canopy to reduce disease risks.
RUBUS
• Primocane varieties require summer tipping to promote lateral branching and cane thinning to prevent overcrowding.
• Floricane varieties demand removal of spent fruiting canes post-harvest to encourage strong regrowth and reduce carry-over of pests and pathogens.
• Trellising systems are often used to support upright growth, enhance airflow, and make canopy management and harvesting more efficient.
♦ Select varieties suited to local climate and market timing
♦ Support pollinator activity with flowering plants and managed hives
♦ Prune annually to maintain productive canes and improve airflow
2.4 Nutrient Management
Effective nutrient management underpins both the productivity and long-term sustainability of berry farms. Balanced supplies of key nutrients support healthy plant growth, optimise fruit quality, and improve resilience to pests and environmental stresses. At the same time, careful planning helps reduce input costs and prevent nutrients from being lost to waterways or the atmosphere.
Regular soil and leaf tissue testing is the foundation of good nutrient management. Soil tests reveal nutrient reserves and pH levels, allowing targeted amendments before planting, while tissue tests during the season show what the plants are actually taking up. Together, these tools guide fertiliser decisions to avoid deficiencies or excesses.
Macro and micronutrients play distinct roles in berry development, from driving strong vegetative growth to ensuring firm, flavourful fruit. As production systems intensify and environmental standards tighten, growers are adopting smarter nutrient strategies, which include fertigation and regular soil testing, to deliver the right nutrients at the right time and place.
2.4.1 Principles of Nutrient Management
Berry crops have highly specific nutrient needs that underpin healthy plant growth, optimal yields, and premium fruit quality. Australian soils often lack the full suite of essential elements, so growers must supplement carefully while managing environmental risks and production costs.
Each macro and micronutrient serves a unique purpose, which includes:
• Nitrogen (N): Promotes canopy growth but must be carefully managed late in the season to avoid soft fruit and reduced shelf life
• Phosphorus (P): Critical for root development, particularly during establishment
• Potassium (K): Influences fruit size, colour, sugar accumulation, and firmness
• Calcium (Ca): Improves fruit texture and storage life while preventing disorders like tip burn
• Micronutrients (e.g., boron, iron, zinc): Small amounts are vital for pollination, enzyme function and fruit quality.
As berry crops have shallow root systems and high nutrient demands during key stages, they are particularly vulnerable to nutrient imbalances and losses to the environment. Precision is critical to avoid negative impacts. Excess or poorly timed applications not only reduce fruit quality but also pose risks to waterways through leaching and runoff. Best practice approaches consider the crop’s growth stage, soil type, and climate to deliver nutrients where and when they are most needed. Understanding the role of individual nutrients and how they interact with plant physiology is essential for designing balanced fertiliser programs, as outlined in Table 2-2 on the following page.
Table 2-2
NUTRIENT FUNCTION/IMPORTANCE
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulphur
Boron
Iron
Copper
Manganese
Zinc
Promotes vigorous vegetative growth, chlorophyll synthesis, canopy development and supports yields
Essential for root development, flowering and fruit initiation; key component of energy transfer in plants
Enhances fruit size, sugar content, firmness, flavour and shelf life; regulates water and enzyme activity
Maintains strong cell walls; prevents disorders like tip burn; critical for fruit firmness and postharvest life
Supports photosynthesis and fruit quality; central to chlorophyll synthesis
Essential for protein building, amino acids, and nitrogen metabolism
Crucial for cell wall formation, pollen viability, fruit set, and sugar transport
Key for chlorophyll formation and energy transfer; deficiency leads to interveinal chlorosis in young leaves
Important for enzyme systems, lignin formation and reproductive development
Protects against oxidative stress and supports photosynthesis
Regulates hormone balance, shoot elongation, and fruit development
2.4.2 Crop Nutrient Requirements
Nutrient demand in berry crops fluctuates significantly across the growth cycle and varies by berry type, cultivar, and production system. Tailoring fertiliser programs to match these changing requirements is critical for optimising yields, fruit quality, and plant health while minimising waste and environmental impact. At different phenological stages, the plant’s
KEY APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
Apply in split doses to reduce leaching; excess can reduce fruit firmness and quality
Immobile in soil; availability depends on pH; overuse risks environmental runoff
Highly immobile; apply in multiple doses across growth stages
Root uptake sensitive to pH and other cations; foliar sprays can improve fruit quality
Balance with calcium and potassium to avoid antagonism
Apply small, consistent doses to reduce leaching losses
Narrow margin between deficiency and toxicity; apply carefully in small doses
Use chelated forms in alkaline soils for better uptake
Low crop requirement; apply small doses to avoid excess
Foliar application most effective in high pH soils
Foliar sprays particularly effective at early crop stages
focus shifts between root development, canopy growth, flowering, fruit set, and postharvest recovery. Precision in timing and quantity ensures nutrients are available when plants can use them most effectively, which as a general guide, includes:
• Establishment (Planting to Vegetative Growth):
» Prioritise phosphorus to stimulate strong root systems and nitrogen for early canopy development
» Increase potassium and calcium to enhance fruit size, firmness, and shelf life
» Ensure nitrogen levels are moderated to avoid excessive vegetative growth, which can reduce fruit set and quality
• Fruit Development and Ripening:
» Maintain potassium for sugar accumulation, colour development, and flavour
» Continue calcium to minimise fruit breakdown and improve post-harvest storage
• Post-Harvest (Recovery and Dormancy Preparation):
» Apply nutrients sparingly to replenish reserves and support plant recovery for the next season
» Focus on potassium and phosphorus to strengthen plant tissues before dormancy in perennial systems.
2.4.3 Fertigation and Application Methods
In modern berry production systems, fertigation has become the preferred method for delivering nutrients efficiently. By applying soluble nutrients through drip irrigation systems, growers can supply plants with a consistent and customised supply of nutrients that align with specific crop growth stages. This approach reduces waste, improves uptake, and supports precision management of inputs. Fertigation systems offer several key advantages, which include:
• Precision and Flexibility: Nutrients can be delivered in small, frequent doses that match plant demand, minimising the risk of leaching or runoff
• Improved Uptake: Soluble fertilisers applied directly to the root zone support rapid absorption and allow adjustments based on real-time monitoring
• Labour and Efficiency Gains: Integration with irrigation systems reduces labour requirements compared to manual applications.
However, effective fertigation relies on several critical management practices to ensure success. Access to clean, high-quality water is essential, as poor water quality can lead to clogging of drip lines and emitters, reducing system efficiency and uniformity. Nutrient concentrations must also be carefully balanced to avoid over or undersupply and to prevent chemical incompatibilities between fertilisers that may cause precipitation or blockages. Regular maintenance of the irrigation system, including filtration, monitoring, and flushing, is required for consistent nutrient delivery and maintenance of infrastructure.
Other nutrient delivery methods and considerations can play a supporting role:
• Pre-plant soil amendments such as composts and lime are critical for building organic matter, adjusting pH, and improving soil health prior to planting.
• Maintaining soil pH within the optimal range for berry crops enhances nutrient availability and uptake efficiency. Blueberries, for example, thrive in more acidic soils (pH 4.5–5.5), while strawberries and Rubus crops perform best in slightly acidic conditions (pH 5.5–6.5). Lime or sulphur can be applied pre-planting to adjust pH accordingly.
• Foliar sprays are valuable for supplying micronutrients (e.g., boron, zinc, iron) midseason when deficiencies are detected, allowing for rapid correction.
2.4.4 Environmental and Economic Considerations
Nutrient management is not just about maximising yields; it also has significant environmental and financial implications. Overuse or poorly timed applications of nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to leaching into groundwater and runoff into surface waterways, contributing to eutrophication and algal blooms that damage aquatic ecosystems. Such losses also represent wasted inputs, increasing production costs without benefiting the crop.
Adopting the 4R Nutrient Stewardship Principles as outlined in Figure 2-1; using the Right Source, at the Right Rate, applied at the Right Time and in the Right Place, provides a practical framework for optimising fertiliser use. These principles enable berry growers to meet crop nutrient demands more precisely, reduce environmental impacts, and align with regulatory and market expectations around sustainability.
By applying nutrients efficiently and with a clear plan, growers can improve profitability by reducing unnecessary fertiliser purchases, minimise environmental risks, and strengthen their farm’s reputation as a responsible producer.
Figure 2-1 The 4Rs, key principles of nutrient stewardship
N P K
Right Source
Matches fertiliser type to crop needs
Right Rate
Matches amount of fertiliser type to crop needs
Right Time
Makes nutrients available when crops need them
Nutrient Management for Berries
♦ Conduct regular soil and leaf tissue testing to guide fertiliser plans
♦ Match nutrient applications to growth stage and weather conditions
♦ Use fertigation to deliver small, precise doses directly to the root zone
Right Place
Keeps nutrients where crops can use them
♦ Maintain soil pH in the optimal range for nutrient availability (4.5–5.5 for blueberries; 5.5–6.5 for other berries)
♦ Avoid applications before heavy rain or excessive irrigation to minimise losses
2.5 Water Management
Water management in berry systems underpins crop performance and long-term soil health. Shallow root systems make berries highly sensitive to both drought stress and over-irrigation. Modern approaches combine efficient irrigation technologies, water quality management and scheduling tools to optimise resource use and minimise environmental impacts.
2.5.1 Irrigation systems
Drip irrigation is the preferred system for most Australian berry farms. By delivering water directly to the root zone, it reduces evaporation, minimises leaf wetness (thereby lowering disease risk), and enables fertigation to deliver nutrients efficiently.
Other irrigation systems include:
• Subsurface Drip Irrigation: Installed below the soil surface to reduce evaporation and surface sealing. This system maintains consistent soil moisture but requires careful design to avoid root intrusion and ensure uniform water distribution.
• Overhead Irrigation: Occasionally used for establishing young plants or for cooling during heat events. It carries a higher risk of disease and water loss through evaporation and should be used sparingly.
The choice of system depends on site-specific factors, including soil type, terrain, water quality, and crop requirements. For most farms, a well-designed drip system is the standard due to its precision and suitability for highdensity plantings and protected cropping environments.
Maintaining Soil Structure in Irrigated Systems
Healthy soil structure is the foundation for efficient water use and resilient berry crops.
♦ Avoid over-irrigation, which can compact soils and displace air from the root zone, reducing water infiltration and soil health
♦ Match application rates to soil infiltration capacity to minimise ponding and erosion
♦ Use drip irrigation and mulches to reduce surface sealing and maintain soil porosity
♦ Incorporate organic matter (e.g., composts, cover crops) to enhance aggregate stability and waterholding capacity
♦ Limit heavy machinery traffic on wet soils to prevent compaction
2.5.2 Water Quality
Water quality is as important as quantity in berry production. Poor-quality irrigation water can harm plants, degrade soil structure, and damage irrigation infrastructure. Before production is established, available irrigation water sources should be tested for key parameters as outlined in Table 2-3 below, including salinity, pH, and sodium levels. Regular water testing, ideally through an accredited laboratory, helps identify and manage these risks.
SALINITY AND SODICITY
• Salinity is measured by electrical conductivity (EC). Even low levels can stress berry plants and reduce yields, especially under high evapotranspiration conditions.
• Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) indicates the risk of soil structure decline. High SAR levels reduce permeability and can cause compaction and drainage issues.
ALKALINITY AND PH
• High alkalinity affects nutrient availability and can lead to deficiencies in calcium, magnesium, and trace elements such as zinc and iron.
• Water pH outside the range of 5.5–8.5 may require treatment to avoid long-term impacts on soil and crop health.
Above 4 mg/L may cause leaf or tip burn under high evapotranspiration
Avoid wetting leaves on hot dry days if > 0.7 dS/m
Avoid wetting leaves if > 450 mg/L
Above 3 mg/L may cause leaf burn under stress
High SAR reduces soil permeability; apply gypsum if needed
Low pH can corrode equipment; high pH (>8.5) can lead to scaling
High carbonate may interfere with magnesium and trace elements
High levels affect nutrient balance and soil pH
Outside range increases risk of scaling or corrosion
Soft water is ideal; hard water may cause precipitation issues
Table 2-3 Key water quality parameters for berry production
2.5.3 Scheduling and Efficiency
Precise irrigation scheduling ensures crops receive the right amount of water at the right time to avoid stress and optimise fruit development. Modern practices rely on a combination of soil moisture monitoring, weather-based models, and smart irrigation controllers.
Matching irrigation rates to soil infiltration capacity prevents runoff and erosion, while regular maintenance of filters and emitters ensures uniform delivery and prolongs system life.
Key scheduling tools, with a comparison of their respective advantages and limitations in Table 2-4 below, include:
• Soil moisture sensors (e.g., tensiometers, capacitance probes) to measure water availability in the root zone
• Weather-based scheduling using local evapotranspiration (ET) data to align irrigation with crop demand
• Canopy monitoring tools, such as sap flow sensors, to detect early signs of plant water stress
• Smart controllers that automate irrigation based on real-time data.
Easy to install; continuous monitoring; grower-friendly
Less accurate in sandy soils; limited to shallow depths
Gypsum Block
Neutron Probe
Capacitance Probe
TDR Probe
Low cost; minimal maintenance; continuous data
Highly reliable; portable; accurate profile data
Continuous real-time data; accurate across soil types and depths
Accurate measurement of volumetric soil water content; less affected by salinity then gypsum blocks; suitable for different soil types
Water Efficiency in Berry Production
Sensitive to temperature and salinity; shorter lifespan
Not suited for continuous monitoring; requires licensing
Needs calibration and skilled interpretation; higher cost
Higher cost; requires skilled installation and data interpretation
♦ Prioritise drip irrigation for precise water delivery and reduced disease risk
♦ Use soil moisture monitoring tools to avoid under- or over-watering
♦ Develop a seasonal water budget tailored to crop stage, soil type, and climate
♦ Schedule irrigations for early morning or evening to minimise evaporation
♦ Regularly service irrigation infrastructure to maintain uniformity and efficiency
Table 2-4 Comparison of Soil Moisture Monitoring Systems
2.6 Pest, Disease and Weed Management
2.6.1 Pest Management
Pests are a constant challenge in berry production, capable of damaging leaves, flowers and fruit or acting as vectors for diseases. Even low pest populations can compromise fruit quality, reduce yields, and trigger biosecurity restrictions that limit access to premium export markets. Effective management requires a strategic and integrated approach that balances cultural, biological and chemical controls, that comply with labels and permits, to minimise reliance on pesticides and mitigate resistance risks.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the foundation of sustainable pest control in berry crops. By combining proactive monitoring, cultural practices, biological controls, and carefully targeted chemical interventions, IPM keeps pest populations below damaging levels while protecting beneficial insects and minimising environmental impacts.
IPM reduces chemical dependency and supports healthier, more resilient production systems that are increasingly valued in both domestic and export markets. Core IPM principles include:
• Monitoring: Regular scouting and the use of tools such as sticky traps and pheromone lures to detect pest presence and determine thresholds for action
• Prevention: Cultural practices such as weed management, sanitation, and pest-exclusion netting to reduce habitats and entry points
• Biological Control: Encouraging natural predators and parasitoids (e.g., lady beetles, lacewings, predatory mites)
• Targeted Interventions: Applying control measures only when monitoring indicates economic risk
• Resistance Management: Rotating insecticides with different Mode of Action groups to slow resistance development.
Two-spotted mite
Thrips
Fruit fly (e.g., Qfly)
Aphids
Lightbrown apple moth
Broad mite
Helicoverpa armigera
Spodoptera litura
Leaf damage, reduced photosynthesis
Feeding damage, vector for viruses
Direct fruit damage, export barriers
Sap sucking, virus transmission
Fruit damage
Leaf cupping, stunting in protected cropping
Fruit boring, feeding damage, reduced yields
Defoliation, fruit damage, rapid population build-up
Berry crops attract a variety of insect and mite pests that can damage foliage, flowers, and fruit or act as vectors for viral diseases. Their impact varies across berry types, production systems and regions, but even low pest populations can compromise fruit quality and marketability. In addition to direct feeding damage, pests like fruit flies pose significant biosecurity risks and can restrict access to premium export markets.
IPM approaches that combine monitoring, cultural practices, biological controls and targeted chemical applications are essential for managing these threats effectively. Some key pest species affecting Australian berry production and relevant best practice management strategies are outlined in Table 2-5 on the previous page.
Further information on berry pests can be found in the Berry Plant Protection Guide available at www.berries.net.au/ resource-library
CULTURAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS
Cultural and biological approaches are central to sustainable pest management, forming the backbone of IPM programs. These methods reduce reliance on pesticides, preserve beneficial insect populations, and help Australian berry growers meet increasingly stringent export market requirements for lowresidue fruit. By creating an agroecosystem that favours natural enemies and prevents pest establishment, growers can build long-term resilience into their production systems.
Key practices include:
• Companion Planting & Flower Strips: Planting diverse flowering species within or alongside berry crops provides habitat and food for beneficial insects such as hoverflies, lacewings, and parasitic wasps, which prey on pest populations
• Pest-Exclusion Netting: Fine mesh netting physically prevents the entry of larger pests
like fruit flies and moths, though careful design is essential to maintain airflow and allow access for pollinators when required
• Commercial Biological Control Agents: Predatory mites, parasitoids (e.g., Trichogramma wasps), and microbial biocontrol products (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis [Bt]) are increasingly deployed to suppress specific pest outbreaks effectively.
CHEMICAL USE AND RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT
Chemical controls remain a valuable tool in berry pest management, but their use must be strategic to avoid unintended impacts on beneficial insects, environmental health, and export market access. By integrating pesticides within an IPM framework, growers can achieve effective control while minimising resistance development and chemical residues on fruit. Key principles to consider include:
• Judicious Use: Apply pesticides only when monitoring indicates pest populations have exceeded economic thresholds
• Resistance Management: Rotate insecticides across different Modes of Action groups to delay resistance and maintain product efficacy
• Soft Chemistry Options: Prioritise biopesticides and selective products that target pests while preserving beneficial insect populations
• Residue Compliance: Adhere strictly to withholding periods (WHPs) to ensure compliance with Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for both domestic and export markets
• Check for Permits: Some berry crops still rely on APVMA minor use permits for access to specific products. Always check permit conditions before use and keep up to date with current approvals.
Overuse or repeated reliance on a single chemical group accelerates resistance in pest populations, leading to more difficult and costly control. Thoughtful planning of chemical rotations and integration of non-chemical tools can extend the life of available products and supports long-term sustainability.
Pest Management Key Practices
♦ Regularly monitor crops using traps and field scouting
♦ Encourage beneficial insects with habitat plantings and avoid broad-spectrum pesticides
♦ Ensure compliance with label and permit requirements
♦ Rotate insecticide Mode of Action groups to slow resistance
♦ Use pest-exclusion netting where practical to reduce reliance on sprays
♦ Stay informed on emerging threats and new control options through industry networks
2.6.2 Disease Management
Diseases are one of the most significant challenges in berry production, particularly in Australia’s humid and variable climate. Fungal pathogens such as Botrytis (grey mould) can devastate crops during flowering and harvest, while soilborne diseases like Phytophthora root rot threaten long-term plant health. Poorly managed diseases can lead to major yield and quality losses, and in some cases, total plant loss.
Effective disease management requires a proactive, integrated strategy that combines prevention, monitoring, cultural practices, and carefully timed chemical applications to maintain healthy, productive crops and minimise environmental impacts.
INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Integrated Disease Management (IDM) combines multiple tools to prevent and control disease outbreaks while reducing reliance on fungicides and mitigating resistance risks. This holistic approach supports sustainable production and helps growers meet market expectations for low-residue fruit. IDM recognises that healthy, well-nourished plants under minimal stress are more resilient to disease pressures, with core principles for IDM including:
• Prevention: Start with certified clean planting material, maintain field hygiene, and design plantings for optimal airflow and drainage
• Monitoring: Conduct regular crop inspections to detect early signs of disease and enable timely interventions
• Cultural Practices: Use raised beds, drip irrigation, and canopy management to minimise humidity and leaf wetness
• Chemical Rotation: Apply fungicides only as needed and rotate products across different Mode of Action groups to prevent resistance.
PRIORITY DISEASES
Berry crops in Australia are susceptible to a range of fungal and soilborne diseases, as outlined in Table 2-6 on the following page, particularly under high humidity or poor airflow conditions. Disease management requires a proactive approach, including good canopy and water management, and timely fungicide applications within a resistance management framework.
Further information on berry diseases can be found in the Berry Plant Protection Guide available at www.berries.net.au/ resource-library
CULTURAL AND PREVENTATIVE PRACTICES
Cultural and preventative measures form the first line of defence in disease management. These practices are essential for creating an environment less conducive to disease development and are often more effective and economical than reacting to outbreaks. Proactive management builds resilience and reduces reliance on fungicides, with key practices including:
DISEASE CAUSAL AGENT
Botrytis (Grey mould)
Powdery mildew
Phytophthora root rot
Anthracnose fruit rot
Charcoal crown rot
Botrytis cinerea
Podosphaera spp
SYMPTOMS
Flower and fruit rot, grey spore masses
White fungal growth on leaves and fruit
Phytophthora spp. Plant wilting, root decay
Colletotrichum spp.
Macrophomina phaseolina
• Hygiene: Promptly remove and destroy infected plant material to reduce inoculum levels
• Water Management: Avoid overhead irrigation during flowering and harvest. Drip systems minimise leaf wetness and reduce fungal spread
• Canopy Management: Prune and train plants to improve airflow and light penetration, lowering humidity around fruit and leaves
• Soil Health: Use raised beds and ensure well-drained soils to prevent waterlogging and root diseases.
FUNGICIDE USE AND RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT
Fungicides remain an important tool in berry production, but overuse or misuse can lead to resistant pathogen populations and reduced product efficacy. Key factors to consider in the effective use of fungicides include:
• Protectant Fungicides: Form a barrier to infection (e.g., copper, sulphur). Best applied preventatively during high-risk periods
• Curative/Systemic Fungicides: Effective after infection, but should be used sparingly to avoid resistance development
• Rotation: Alternate fungicides from different FRAC groups to slow resistance build-up
Sunken lesions, orange spore masses
Wilted leaves, dark necrotic tissue in crown and roots
• Application Timing: Focus on high-risk crop stages (e.g., flowering for Botrytis)
• Permit Compliance: Some fungicides used in berry crops are accessed under APVMA minor use permits. Always ensure products are approved for your crop and check compliance with label and permit requirements before application.
Disease Management Key Practices
♦ Source certified disease-free planting material
♦ Design plantings for good drainage and airflow
♦ Monitor crops closely during high-risk periods (flowering, wet weather)
♦ Ensure compliance with label and permit requirements
♦ Rotate fungicide Mode of Action groups and limit applications per season
♦ Integrate biological and cultural controls to reduce chemical reliance
2.6.3 Weed Management
Weeds are one of the more persistent challenges in berry production, competing with crops for water, nutrients, and light. Left unmanaged, they can reduce yields, compromise fruit quality, and create habitats for pests and diseases. In addition, dense weed growth can restrict air movement around plants, increasing humidity and disease risk, while also making harvesting more difficult and labour-intensive.
In high-value berry systems, preventing weed establishment is often more effective and cost-efficient than reactive control measures. Successful weed management requires a systems approach that integrates cultural, mechanical, and chemical strategies tailored to the crop and production system.
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
Integrated Weed Management (IWM) uses a combination of strategies to reduce weed pressure and minimise herbicide dependence. This approach builds resilience into the system and protects the long-term effectiveness of chemical tools. Key practices in an IWM system include:
• Prevention: Start clean by using weed-free planting material and sanitising machinery and equipment to prevent the introduction
2-7
Wireweed
Marshmallow
Nutgrass
Couch grass
Blackberry nightshade
of weed seeds and propagules into production zones
• Cultural control: Promote strong crop growth through optimal nutrition, canopy closure, and use of ground covers to outcompete weeds
• Mechanical control: Techniques such as mulching, hand weeding, mowing, and shallow cultivation can manage weeds effectively between rows or in early crop stages
• Herbicide rotation: Rotate herbicide groups (Modes of Action) to avoid resistance buildup
• Shielded or directed sprays: Should be used to minimise off-target damage in sensitive berry systems.
PRIORITY WEEDS
Weed pressure in berry systems varies by region, production method, and crop type, but certain species are consistently problematic across Australia. Some weeds, like nutgrass and marshmallow, are particularly challenging due to their persistence, rapid reproduction, or natural tolerance to common herbicides. Identifying and understanding these weeds is the first step in developing effective management strategies. Some key weed species affecting berry crops and an outline of their characteristics and recommended control measures are highlighted in Table 2-7 below.
Prostrate perennial with fibrous taproot; persists in hot, dry conditions
Tall weed with taproot; natural glyphosate tolerance; thrives in low-calcium soils
Extremely invasive sedge; spreads via underground tubers (nuts) that persist for years
Aggressive perennial grass; spreads via stolons and rhizomes
Annual with toxic berries; can act as host for pests like thrips
Mulching, pre-emergent
herbicides, cultivation to deplete seed bank
Use selective herbicides, improve soil fertility, hand weeding
Cultivation, targeted herbicides, integrated cultural methods
Hand removal before seed set, mulching, herbicides
Table
Priority berry weeds
CHEMICAL USE AND RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT
Herbicides remain an important tool for managing weeds in berry systems, but overreliance can lead to resistance and environmental concerns. To sustain their efficacy and reduce off-target risks:
• Rotate herbicide groups to delay the evolution of resistant weed biotypes
• Avoid repeated reliance on glyphosate alone; integrate alternative Modes of Action into spray programs
• Apply pre-emergent herbicides judiciously to prevent germination of known problem species
• Monitor fields for weed escapes and remove resistant individuals to prevent seed spread
• Incorporate “softer” control options such as organic mulches, cover crops, and crop rotation to reduce herbicide pressure over time
• Check for approved uses: where herbicide options are limited, growers may need to rely on minor use permits for some berry crops. Check the APVMA permit register regularly to stay compliant and ensure adherence to label and permit requirements.
Weed Control Practices
♦ Start clean: manage weeds before planting
♦ Use mulches or ground covers to suppress germination
♦ Ensure compliance with label and permit requirements
♦ Rotate herbicide groups to protect their efficacy
♦ Combine cultural, mechanical, and chemical tools for long-term control
2.6.4 Biosecurity
Biosecurity is the first line of defence against pests, diseases, and invasive weeds in berry production. Preventing the introduction and spread of harmful organisms protects individual farms and the wider industry. A strong on-farm biosecurity plan not only reduces risks but can also help growers maintain market access and meet regulatory and certification requirements.
Proactive planning and regular monitoring are key to identifying threats early and minimising their impact.
DEVELOPING A BIOSECURITY PLAN
Every berry farm should consider having a documented biosecurity plan tailored to its operations. Key components to consider in an on-farm biosecurity plan include:
• Farm Zoning: Designate production, visitor, and quarantine zones with clear signage and physical barriers to reduce movement of pests and pathogens
• Hygiene Protocols: Establish procedures for staff, contractors, and visitors, including hand and foot washing stations, clean clothing, and equipment sanitation
• Monitoring and Surveillance: Regularly inspect crops for signs of pests, diseases, and weeds, and keep detailed records of observations and management actions
• Emergency Preparedness: Identify highrisk pests and diseases for your region and have contingency plans for rapid response if detected.
Farm Biosecurity Entry Protocols
♦ Require all staff, contractors and visitors to sign in and receive a biosecurity briefing on arrival
♦ Provide clean footwear or disposable boot covers and ensure all vehicles and equipment entering the farm are washed down
♦ Restrict access to production zones and designate clear pathways for movement
♦ Install handwashing stations and signage reminding visitors of hygiene requirements
♦ Monitor high-risk periods (e.g., post-harvest) and enforce stricter entry controls when pest or disease threats are heightened
Strong biosecurity practices protect your crop, your business, and the wider industry from invasive pests and diseases.
FARM INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
Farm inputs and outputs are potential pathways for introducing or spreading pests and diseases. Key management practices to adopt include:
• Source clean planting material from accredited suppliers
• Test water sources for potential contaminants and pathogens
• Store fertilisers, composts, and other inputs securely to prevent contamination
• Ensure harvested fruit and waste materials are handled carefully to avoid reintroducing pests into production areas.
MONITORING AND ADAPTING
Biosecurity plans should evolve as risks and industry practices change. Subsequently, it is important that berry growers:
• Regularly review protocols and update them in response to emerging threats
• Engage with industry networks and stay informed about pest alerts and biosecurity guidelines.
Farm Biosecurity Essentials
♦ Restrict access to production areas with clear zoning and barriers
♦ Provide hygiene stations and enforce footwear and clothing protocols
♦ Clean vehicles and machinery before entry
♦ Use only certified, pest-free planting material
♦ Monitor and record all visitors, inspections, and biosecurity actions
Berry growers can refer to the Farm Biosecurity Planner for more detailed information to support producing a detailed Biosecurity plan. Find the Planner in the Resource Library at www.berries.net.au/resource-library/
2.7 Innovation and Technology Adoption
Innovation is reshaping berry production in Australia, enabling growers to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and respond to challenges such as labour shortages, climate variability and sustainability expectations. Adopting the right technologies can give growers a competitive advantage while supporting long-term farm resilience.
2.7.1 Automation and Mechanisation
Emerging automation technologies and mechanised tools are transforming how key tasks are performed in berry production, improving labour efficiency and reducing repetitive manual work, including:
• Robotic Harvesters: Emerging technologies for strawberries and blueberries use sensors and cameras to identify ripe fruit and harvest gently, minimising damage. These systems are best suited for large-scale operations or processing-grade fruit where speed is critical
• Mobile Picking Platforms: Widely used in strawberry and Rubus systems, these improve picker efficiency, reduce bending and handling, and allow better field organisation
• Automated Fruit Sorting: Using highdefinition cameras, advanced lighting, realtime controls, and machine learning to sort berries based on colour, size and defects
• Automated Weeding and Spraying Systems: Robotics for weed management and precision spraying can reduce chemical use and improve worker safety.
2.7.2 Digital Agriculture Tools
Digital tools are enabling growers to collect, analyse and apply data for more precise and informed farm management decisions. Emerging examples include:
• Sensors and Monitoring: Soil moisture probes, weather stations and canopy sensors provide real-time information for irrigation, fertigation and pest management decisions
• Drones and Satellite Imagery: These tools enable growers to map variability in crop health, identify water stress areas and plan interventions more accurately
• Farm Management Software: Digital platforms help schedule operations, track inputs and monitor harvest logistics for better record-keeping and compliance with food safety and quality standards.
2.7.3 Protected Cropping Innovations
Innovations in protected cropping systems are helping growers achieve greater climate control, reduce disease risks, and extend production into non-traditional regions. Specific practices in protected cropping include:
Adopting the right technologies can give growers a competitive advantage while supporting long-term farm resilience.
• Climate-Controlled Greenhouses: Fully enclosed systems provide optimal temperature, humidity and CO₂ levels, enabling production in non-traditional regions and reducing off-site impacts of production
• Smart Tunnels: Automated ventilation and irrigation systems within tunnels reduce disease pressure and improve fruit consistency
• Light Management: LED lighting technologies extend daylight hours and promote flowering in photoperiod-sensitive varieties.
2.7.4 Sustainability-Focused Innovations
Sustainability-focused technologies are supporting berry growers to reduce environmental impacts, meet market expectations, and build resilience into production systems, including:
• Biodegradable Mulches: Reduce plastic waste while maintaining soil moisture and suppressing weeds
• Renewable Energy Systems: Solar-powered pumps and cool rooms reduce on-farm energy costs and emissions
• Agrivoltaics: Combines farming with solar panels, enabling crops and electricity to be produced on the same area of land
• Water Recycling and Filtration: Capture and treat runoff for reuse, supporting water efficiency and regulatory compliance.
Technology Adoption in Berry Production
♦ Invest in automation to reduce labour bottlenecks and improve efficiency
♦ Use precision tools for smarter irrigation, fertigation and pest management
♦ Adopt renewable energy and water-saving technologies to meet sustainability targets
♦ Start small with pilots before scaling up new systems across the farm
• Berries Australia (2025). Irrigation Water Quality for Strawberries: A Grower’s Guide. URL: https://berries.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Irrigation-water-quality-for-strawberries. pdf
• Berries Australia (2025). Polish Raspberries Conquering the World. URL: https://berries.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ABJ-Ed-23-WINTER-25-RUB-Polishraspberries-conquering-the-world-can-one-variety-thrive-across-diverse-climates.pdf
• Bugs for Bugs (2025). Commercial Biological Control Agents URL: https://www.bugsforbugs.com.au/
• ChemCert (2025). Safe AgVet Chemical Storage Guidelines. URL: https://www.chemcert.com.au/
• Coss, R.G. et al. (1999). Effects of Straw Mulch on Fruit Quality. Scientia Horticulturae. URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304423899001430
• EcoHort (2024). Guidelines for Managing the Environment (4th Edition). URL: https://nurseryproductionfms.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/EcoHort-4th-Edition2018-Preview-for-FMS.pdf
• Holmes, G.J. et al. (2020). Strawberries at the Crossroads: Management of Soil-Borne Diseases in California Without Methyl Bromide. Phytopathology 110, 956-968.
• NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (2025). Berry Plant Protection Guide 2025–2026. URL: https://berries.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Berry-plantprotection-guide-2025-web.pdf
• Hort Innovation (2017). Strawberry Good Practice Guide
• Irrigation Australia (2025). Certified Irrigation Designer Program URL: https://www.irrigationaustralia.com.au/
• Michigan State University (2024). How pesticide resistance develops, Extension Bulletin.
• NSW Department of Primary Industries (2024). Determining Soil Texture Using the Ribboning Technique. URL: https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/164615/determining_soil_texture_ using_-ribboning_technique.pdf
• NSW Department of Primary Industries (2015). Blueberry Establishment and Production Costs URL: https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/57238/blueberry-establishmentand-production-costs.pdf
• North Carolina State University Extension (2024). Southeast Regional Caneberry Production Guide.
• RMCG (2025). Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry National Waste and Resource Recovery Roadmap. URL: https://agrifutures.com.au/product/agriculture-fisheries-and-forestry-nationalwaste-and-resource-recovery-roadmap/
• Rx Green Technologies (2025). Plant-Substrate Interactions
• Shannan, C. & Muramoto, J. et al. (2018). Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation is an Alternative to Soil Fumigation for Control of Soil-Borne Pathogens in Strawberry Production. Plant Pathology (67).
• Soil Wealth ICP (2025). Alternatives to Metham Sodium Factsheet.
• University of Minnesota Extension (2024). Day-neutral Strawberries. URL: https://extension.umn.edu/strawberry-farming/day-neutral-strawberries
3 Harvest and Post-Harvest Management
Fresh berries are among the most delicate horticultural products. Their high moisture content, soft texture and fragile skins make them particularly vulnerable to damage, decay and rapid deterioration after harvest. Shelf life is naturally short, ranging from 3 to 21 days depending on the berry type, variety and handling practices. Raspberries and blackberries are especially perishable, often lasting just 3 to 7 days even under optimal conditions.
For berry growers, how fruit is harvested, cooled, stored and transported has a direct impact on marketable yield, consumer satisfaction and business reputation. Getting these steps right is essential to reduce waste, protect quality, and maintain confidence in Australian berries in both domestic and export markets.
This section outlines good practice across each stage of harvest and post-harvest management, including:
• Agronomic and hygiene practices that influence fruit quality at harvest
• Best-practice picking techniques, maturity standards and field handling systems
• Rapid cooling, cold storage and cold chain logistics
• Packaging choices and disinfestation treatments to meet market requirements
• Food safety systems and residue testing
• Emerging technologies that extend shelf life, support compliance, and reduce post-harvest losses.
Whether supplying local markets or exporting to premium buyers, post-harvest care is a key part of delivering consistent, high-quality fruit and positioning the berry industry as a trusted supplier of fresh produce.
At a Glance
♦ Harvest and post-harvest care directly affect berry quality, shelf life and market success
♦ Cool berries rapidly after harvest (0–1°C) and maintain consistent cold chain conditions
♦ Use ventilated, tamper-evident packaging to protect fruit and reassure consumers
♦ Avoid exposure to ethylene gas to prevent softening and decay
♦ Meet regulatory requirements and build consumer confidence
♦ Sustainable practices like compostable packaging and nonchemical treatments support consumer expectations and reduce environmental impact
3.1 Harvest Management
Harvest is a critical stage in berry production, where decisions and practices directly influence fruit quality, shelf life and market success. From nutrient management to the way fruit is picked and transferred into the cool chain, every step requires careful planning to balance productivity with care to minimise damage and meet customer expectations.
3.1.1 Agronomic Practices
Good agronomy in the lead-up to harvest sets the foundation for firm, flavourful fruit with strong storage potential. Other key agronomic considerations include:
• Balanced nutrition is essential to support crop demands. Calcium and potassium promote firmness and shelf life, while excessive nitrogen late in the season can reduce quality.
• Irrigation management during ripening affects fruit quality. Avoiding overwatering reduces fruit splitting and fungal pressure. However, excessive water stress can harm yield and post-harvest outcomes; subsequently scheduling must strike a careful balance.
• Protective cropping systems such as high tunnels help manage rain and humidity, improving pollination and reducing disease pressure. The design and ventilation of polytunnels are key to maintaining stable microclimates.
• Emerging practices such as pre-harvest melatonin sprays, e.g. 100 µmol L – 1 two weeks prior to harvest in blackberries, show promise for reducing oxidative stress and enhancing post-harvest antioxidant levels.
3.1.2 Hygiene
Good hygiene during harvest is essential to reduce microbial contamination and maintain fruit quality. Damaged or overripe fruit should be removed from the field promptly and disposed of responsibly, as it can harbour pests and pathogens and increase the risk of spoilage in healthy fruit. Dedicated workers should handle this task using separate, clearly marked containers to avoid crosscontamination.
Unlike many other crops, berries are not washed prior to packing because of their delicate skins and high perishability. Exposure to water increases the risk of surface damage, mould growth, and faster spoilage. This places even greater importance on field hygiene and food safety practices to minimise contamination risks.
3.1.3 Harvesting Techniques
The timing and care taken during harvest are critical. Berries bruise more easily when warm, so picking should be done during the coolest part of the day where possible. Wet fruit from dew or irrigation increases fungal contamination risk and should be avoided.
Frequent harvesting is important because berries ripen quickly but not uniformly. Short intervals between picks help maintain fruit firmness and reduce the risk of overripe, soft fruit entering the supply chain. During peak season, daily or every-other-day harvests are common.
Training harvest crews to identify the correct ripeness stage and handle fruit gently can significantly reduce damage. For many growers, labour turnover presents a challenge to maintaining high standards, but investment in training and clear expectations can deliver measurable improvements. Some growers have introduced incentive-based payment systems to reward careful handling and minimise bruising.
3.1.4 Crop Maturity and Quality Standards
Berries are non-climacteric, meaning they do not ripen significantly after harvest. Picking at the right stage is vital for balancing shelf life and flavour. Surface colour remains the primary indicator for maturity, complemented by firmness and ease of separation from the plant. To ensure acceptable flavour, the fruit should meet a minimum level of soluble solids, stay within acceptable limits of titratable acidity, and have a minimum maturity index or ratio of total soluble solids to titratable acidity as outlined in Table 3-1 below. Flavour is also influenced by a range of other factors such as variety, crop load, fertiliser program and weather conditions (sunshine hours).
Optimal harvest timing varies between berry types, with colour development, firmness, and flavour all guiding when to pick for the best balance of shelf life and eating quality.
• STRAWBERRIES: Harvest when fully coloured but firm, avoiding mixing ripeness stages in one punnet
• RASPBERRIES: Picking at 50% colour may improve storage, but flavour and sugars develop fully at later stages
• BLACKBERRIES: Best harvested at 100% colour for maximum flavour and anthocyanin content
• BLUEBERRIES: Harvest at full blue coloration; earlier stages lack optimum sugars and flavour
3.1.5 Harvesting and Picking Methods
Australian berry growers use a variety of harvesting systems depending on their crop type, scale and labour availability. Hand-picking remains the standard for fresh market fruit due to its gentleness, but labour shortages and cost pressures are driving innovation. Harvesting systems used include:
• Direct to Punnet (field packing): Fruit is picked straight into punnets on mobile trolleys, minimising handling but requiring careful supervision of pickers
• Bucket to Punnet (field transfer): Fruit is collected in buckets and later packed into punnets on mobile platforms
• Tray to Punnet (pack shed): Fruit is transported in trays to packhouses for grading and packing, which allows more controlled handling but increases touchpoints.
Some large-scale blueberry growers are now using mechanical harvesters for processing and grading fruit. This mechanisation has been supported by new varieties bred specifically for machine picking. In strawberries, robotic harvesters that use cameras and sensors, are being trialled, although commercial uptake remains limited.
Table 3-1 Standards for minimum soluble solids and maximum titratable acidity for berries
3.1.6 Transfer to Shed
Once harvested, berries must be moved quickly out of the field and into the cool chain. Shade is essential to protect fruit from heat build-up; darker berries can rapidly exceed ambient air temperatures in direct sunlight. Every hour of delay in cooling can shorten strawberry shelf life by a full day.
Efficient transfer systems – using conveyors, pallets and shaded holding areas – can make a big difference in preserving quality and extending marketable life.
3.2 Post-Harvest Management
Harvest Key Practices
♦ Harvest during the coolest part of the day to reduce bruising
♦ Avoid picking wet fruit to minimise fungal risks
♦ Train crews to recognise optimal ripeness and handle fruit gently
♦ Move harvested fruit into shade and cool rooms within one hour
♦ Monitor fruit maturity carefully – berries don’t ripen further after harvest
Post-harvest care is critical for berries, which are among the most delicate horticultural products. Their high moisture content, thin skins, and soft texture make them highly vulnerable to mechanical damage, microbial decay, and rapid deterioration. Even under optimal handling, storage, and transport conditions, shelf life is short, with strawberries, raspberries and blackberries typically in the range of 3-5 days (up to 7 under optimal cold storage conditions), while blueberries can extend to 2–3 weeks.
Careful management of the entire post-harvest process, including from cooling and storage to packing and transport, can help growers maintain berry quality, minimise losses and meet market expectations.
3.2.1 Storage Handling
Once harvested, berries begin to lose quality almost immediately. Their high respiration rate, delicate skins, and sensitivity to handling make them particularly vulnerable to rapid deterioration. Effective storage handling is therefore critical to slow these natural processes and preserve fruit quality for as long as possible.
The key to maintaining berry freshness lies in managing temperature, humidity, and airflow at every stage. Rapid cooling after harvest reduces respiration and microbial growth, while carefully controlled storage conditions help retain firmness, colour, and flavour. Small lapses in storage practices can have a major impact on shelf life, marketability, and consumer satisfaction.
COOLING
The high respiration rates of berries influence their perishability through accelerated weight loss, softening, and spoilage. Every 5°C reduction in storage temperature halves the respiration rate, making rapid cooling essential after harvest.
Two primary cooling methods are used to slow the respiration rates:
• Room Cooling: Slower and less energyefficient, with a higher risk of condensation
• Forced-Air Cooling: Up to 10 times faster and preferred for berries because it reduces the risk of fungal growth.
Emerging techniques like vacuum cooling show promise for rapid temperature reduction but require further refinement for use with delicate berries.
Table
COLD STORAGE
Once cooled, berries should be stored at near-freezing temperatures (0.1 - 1°C) and ~95% relative humidity to preserve freshness, as outlined in Table 3-2 above. Most berries tolerate these temperatures without chilling injury, provided fruit does not freeze. In practice, growers and packers generally target a safe holding range just above 0°C to balance shelf life extension and risk of freezing damage.
3.2.2 Ethylene Production and Sensitivity
Berries produce very low levels of ethylene after harvest, and most are not highly sensitive to it. However, prolonged exposure to ethylene, even at low concentrations, can accelerate softening, colour changes, and decay in some varieties. Key factors for consideration include:
• Keep berries away from high ethyleneproducing fruits (e.g. apples, bananas) during storage and transport
• Avoid storing berries in areas where decaying plant material could release ethylene gas.
Innovative technologies are emerging to help manage ethylene levels in berry storage environments. Ozone systems, for example, work by breaking down ethylene gas while also destroying mould spores present in the air. This dual action helps to slow fruit ripening and reduce decay, ultimately prolonging freshness. However, ozone must be carefully controlled to avoid damaging packaging materials and to ensure safe levels for workers. Ethylene scrubbers are another solution, available as passive filters or active systems, designed
to maintain low ethylene concentrations in cool rooms and refrigerated trucks. These technologies support a more stable storage environment and help extend shelf life, especially during long-distance transport or in mixed produce storage facilities.
3.2.3 Packaging Materials
The choice of packaging plays a major role in protecting berries from mechanical damage, moisture loss and microbial growth during storage and transit.
Hinged-lid clamshell punnets are most common in Australia, with standard sizes of 250g for strawberries and 125g for other berries. These punnets are often placed into cartons or returnable plastic crates for transport.
Features of effective berry packaging include:
• Gas-permeable materials (PET, RPET, PP) that help maintain internal humidity and gas exchange
• Vents for airflow, reducing condensation and supporting efficient forced-air cooling
• Padding for delicate berries like raspberries to prevent bruising
• Tamper-evident closures to protect against deliberate contamination and reassure consumers of food safety.
Growers are trialling compostable cardboard punnets and bio-based plastics, though these require careful handling to avoid moisturerelated issues. At this point clamshell punnets remain the most viable option for reducing spoilage and many of them are recyclable.
Sustainable PostHarvest Practices
♦ Explore compostable or recycled packaging where feasible
♦ Optimise energy use in cold storage through efficient insulation and smart cooling systems
♦ Reduce food waste by diverting unsaleable fruit into value-added products like puree or freezedried snacks
3.2.4 Transportation
The journey from farm to market is one of the most critical stages for maintaining berry quality. Even small breaks in the cold chain during transport can lead to condensation, fungal growth and a rapid decline in shelf life. Careful planning and monitoring are essential to ensure berries arrive in premium condition.
The journey from farm to market is one of the most critical stages for maintaining berry quality.
REFRIGERATED TRANSPORT
Refrigerated trucks maintain temperature during transport but do not remove field heat, so berries must be fully pre-cooled before loading to preserve quality. Berries should be transferred directly from cold storage into pre-cooled trucks or ‘reefers’ (refrigerated containers) to maintain consistent temperatures. Loading areas that are climate-controlled, or shaded where possible, help prevent exposure to warm ambient air that can cause condensation and increase decay risk.
TEMPERATURE LOGGING IN TRANSIT
Continuous temperature monitoring during transport enables growers and supply chain partners to track conditions, identify cold chain breaches and resolve any quality disputes with evidence-based records. Real-time data loggers send alerts if temperatures move outside the optimal range, recording and transmitting data via Bluetooth, cellular, or satellite. These small, portable devices give growers, transporters, and retailers clear visibility across the cold chain, allowing quick responses to maintain product quality. By providing continuous oversight from harvest to delivery, they verify compliance, reduce losses, and build trust across the supply chain. Cost-effective real-time options are now widely available.
THERMAL BLANKETS
Reflective thermal blankets wrapped around palletised loads offer additional protection during brief exposures, such as during loading, unloading or in mixed-load deliveries where temperature fluctuations are more likely.
Post-Harvest Practices
♦ Pre-cool berries as soon as possible after harvest to slow respiration
♦ Use ventilated packaging to minimise condensation and protect delicate fruit
♦ Keep berries separate from ethylene-producing fruits during storage and transport
♦ Monitor temperature and humidity throughout the supply chain to maintain the cold chain
♦ Explore compostable packaging options and energy-efficient storage systems to reduce environmental impact
3.3 Post-Harvest Disinfestation Treatments
Post-harvest treatments may be required for interstate trade or export to meet quarantine and market access rules. These measures meet compliance standards by controlling pests and pathogens, while also preserving fruit quality and shelf life.
3.3.1 Irradiation
Irradiation is a non-chemical post-harvest treatment approved in Australia for several berry types to control quarantine pests such as Queensland fruit fly. When applied at low doses (≤1 kGy), irradiation is effective at sterilising pests, while preserving fruit quality and leaving no chemical residues. It is safe and has been endorsed by international food safety authorities.
3.3.2 Cold Disinfestation
Cold disinfestation treatment involves holding fruit at a prescribed low temperature for a defined period to eliminate quarantine pests such as Queensland fruit fly. It is an approved pathway under some Interstate Certification Assurance (ICA) protocols and for specific export markets. While effective, its application in berries is limited because extended exposure to low temperatures can reduce fruit quality, particularly for strawberries and blackberries.
Post-harvest treatments control pests and pathogens while also preserving fruit quality and shelf life.
3.3.3 Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide fumigation remains one of the most widely used post-harvest disinfestation treatments for berries in global trade. It is highly effective against quarantine pests and has extensive efficacy data to support its use. Although phased out for many non-agricultural applications under the Montreal Protocol, its use has been retained in agriculture for quarantine and pre-shipment purposes. For berry growers, methyl bromide provides a proven, accessible option in markets where it is approved, though considerations include worker safety, cost, and ongoing regulatory oversight.
3.3.4 Interstate Certification Assurance (ICA)
The ICA system outlines approved pre-harvest treatments and post-harvest inspection protocols for interstate movement of produce, shown in Table 3-3 below. Accredited businesses can issue Plant Health Assurance Certificates (PHACs) but must comply with regular audits. Growers are advised to check with the relevant jurisdiction to ensure they meet current ICA requirements.
Table 3-3 Common ICA protocol treatments applied to berries for interstate movement
3.4
Quality Assurance
Australian horticulture has a proud history of robust quality assurance schemes. Strong quality assurance systems (such as Freshcare) are essential for maintaining market access, protecting consumer confidence, and supporting the premium positioning of Australian berries. By managing chemical residues, verifying food safety practices, and adopting certification schemes, berry growers can demonstrate their commitment to safe, high-quality produce. All berries supplied into Australian supermarkets are covered by a Quality Assurance scheme.
In addition to the industry schemes, under the FSANZ Primary Production and Processing Standard 4.2.7, berry growers must:
• Register with their state food safety regulator
• Keep records to trace produce from source to customer
• Manage inputs (soil, fertilisers, water) to prevent contamination
• Maintain hygiene in staff, premises, and equipment.
Growers should check with their state or territory food safety regulator for details on implementation and compliance requirements. It has been acknowledged that existing certification holders go above and beyond these regulatory requirements and the focus is on the small number of growers who operate outside these schemes.
3.4.1 Maximum Residue Limits (MRLS) and Withholding Periods (WHPS)
MRLs set the maximum level of pesticide residue permitted on food products. They are designed to protect consumers from harmful exposure and are strictly enforced both in Australia and in export markets. WHPs specify the minimum time between pesticide application and harvest to ensure residues fall below legal limits.
Pesticide regulation in Australia is a dual system, with the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) handling national product registration and setting label and permit conditions, and state and territory governments regulating the actual use and sale of pesticides through their own legislation and agencies. The APVMA assesses pesticides for human health, environmental impact, and efficacy before registration, while state bodies enforce compliance with use and record-keeping requirements for commercial users.
It should be noted that the legislation governing the APVMA does not allow for commercial implications to be considered
when undertaking chemical reviews or setting WHPs and MRLs. A robust, science based and independent regulator is vital to the success of the Australian berry industry.
Growers must:
• Follow label directions carefully and comply with WHPs
• Stay informed of MRL variations between domestic and export markets, which can differ significantly.
MRL App
To help growers navigate these requirements, Berries Australia provides a dedicated MRL app that allows users to check export market tolerances against Australian standards.
Growers should speak to their Berries Australia IDO if they need further advice on legal obligiations regarding chemicals.
Download the app Berries MRLs for your device.
berries.net.au/berries-australiamrl-app
3.4.2 FreshTest
FreshTest® is Australia’s largest horticultural testing program, supporting growers and wholesalers to uphold food safety standards and meet market requirements. It provides affordable, confidential testing for pesticide residues and microbial contaminants, helping growers verify compliance with Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), maintain certifications such as Freshcare and HARPS, and demonstrate due diligence to regulators and customers.
By submitting produce samples for testing through participating wholesalers or designated collection points, growers can identify potential risks early and take corrective action before their berries reach consumers. Results are analysed by accredited laboratories and reported confidentially, offering a reliable way to safeguard public health and protect market access. Growers do not have to use Freshtest to undertake their residue testing, however, they are recommended due to their strong focus on technical accuracy.
Regular testing is strongly recommended as part of a grower’s food safety program, including pre-season to identify risks, in-season for ongoing assurance, and post-harvest to verify that produce complies with domestic and export standards.
FreshTest® provides affordable, confidential testing for pesticide residues and microbial contaminants, helping growers verify compliance with MRLs, maintain certifications and demonstrate due diligence to regulators and customers.
3.4.3 Accreditation and Certification
Key food safety certifications that support Australian berry growers in meeting both domestic and export market requirements include:
• Freshcare: This on-farm assurance program covers food safety, chemical use, hygiene, and environmental management. It is designed specifically for Australian growers and is benchmarked against the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), making it widely accepted in export markets as well as by local retailers.
• GlobalG.A.P.: An internationally recognised farm assurance program that sets standards for safe, sustainable agricultural production. It covers food safety, environmental management, worker health and safety, and animal welfare, using a set of auditable control points and compliance criteria.
• SQF (Safe Quality Food): A globally recognised food safety management system that helps producers, processors, and suppliers meet international and retailer requirements. It covers hazard analysis, risk management, hygiene, traceability, and continuous improvement across the supply chain.
• HARPS (Harmonised Australian Retailer Produce Scheme): HARPS streamlines compliance for suppliers to major Australian supermarkets by aligning the food safety, trade and legal requirements of multiple retailers into one audit framework. It reduces duplication and cost for growers
who previously faced separate audits for each retailer. HARPS is not a certification scheme.
Adopting these programs demonstrates a commitment to producing safe, high-quality berries while strengthening traceability systems. Robust traceability enables berries to be tracked from paddock to punnet, allowing swift action if a food safety issue arises and protecting market access and the reputation of individual growers and the wider industry.
Why Certification Matters
♦ Builds market confidence: Certification signals to retailers, exporters and consumers that your berries meet rigorous food safety and quality standards
♦ Strengthens traceability: Certified systems track berries from paddock to punnet, enabling rapid response to food safety incidents
♦ Drives continuous improvement: Accreditation processes encourage better on-farm practices for hygiene, chemical use and environmental stewardship
♦ Reduces audit fatigue: Schemes like HARPS streamline compliance, reducing duplication and saving time
Best Practice Quality and Compliance
♦ Understand and comply with MRLs and WHPs to avoid market disruptions
♦ Participate in regular residue testing through FreshTest
♦ Maintain food safety certification (Freshcare, HARPS) to access markets and ensure consumer confidence
♦ Adopt strong traceability systems to manage risks and build trust
♦ Consider non-chemical disinfestation treatments to meet evolving market expectations
3.5 References and Further Reading
• Berries Australia (2024). Boosting raspberry storage life
A healthy environment underpins every aspect of berry production. Responsible management is not only about meeting regulatory or market requirements, it is about protecting the natural systems that sustain production of high-quality fruit, season after season. Good practice also means being good neighbours, actively minimising off-farm impacts and supporting the communities where growers live and work.
Australian berry farms operate in diverse and often sensitive landscapes, including near waterways, native vegetation and growing regional communities. This creates both challenges and opportunities. By adopting good environmental practices, growers can reduce risks, protect their licence to operate, and strengthen the industry’s position as a leader in sustainable horticulture. A key principle is to keep natural assets on your farm, and reduce off-site impacts.
This section sets out practical approaches that help berry growers balance productivity with environmental stewardship. It covers:
• Water management, including erosion control, runoff treatment and licensing
• Maintaining healthy soils through structure, cover, organic matter and drainage
• Safe use and storage of chemicals and fuel to reduce off-farm impacts
• Efficient energy use and emission management, including tracking and reporting
• Strategies to reduce dust, noise and odour in peri-urban and regional settings
• Protection of native vegetation, biodiversity and pollinators on and around farm
• Effective waste management aligned with national recovery and recycling priorities
• Climate resilience planning and steps for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Managing off-site impacts is core to running a good berry business. These practices help safeguard farm productivity, reduce input losses, and demonstrate that the berry industry is serious about caring for land, water and community into the future.
At a Glance
♦ Protecting water, soil and biodiversity is essential for long-term berry farm productivity
♦ Good water management prevents runoff, erosion and contamination of waterways
♦ Maintaining soil health builds resilience to drought and supports sustainable production
♦ Responsible chemical use and storage minimises risks to people, crops and the environment
♦ Supporting native vegetation and pollinators enhances natural pest control and crop yields
♦ Efficient fuel and energy use lowers costs and reduces environmental impacts
♦ Managing farm waste and emissions safeguards market access and supports community trust
4.1 Water
Water management is central to sustainable berry production. How water is captured, stored, applied, and managed on-farm has direct impacts on crop productivity, soil health, and the surrounding environment. For berry growers, good water management practices not only meet regulatory obligations but also reduce risks to waterways, protect natural resources, and improve operational efficiency.
4.1.1 Runoff and Erosion
Runoff occurs when rainfall or irrigation exceeds the soil’s capacity to absorb water. Excess water flowing over the surface can transport soil, nutrients, crop treatments, and waste into waterways, causing erosion and pollution.
Factors influencing runoff can include:
• Rainfall intensity, duration, and distribution
• Soil condition, moisture levels, and infiltration rates
• Vegetation cover and site topography. Identifying high-risk areas on your farm allows you to implement targeted management strategies.
Tips for Reducing Runoff and Erosion
♦ Maintain soil cover and living roots to slow water movement and improve infiltration. Cover crops, mulches and vegetated drainage lines are effective
♦ Create or maintain contour banks to reduce flow velocity and direct water to safe collection points
♦ Match irrigation volumes to soil type to prevent waterlogging and surface runoff
♦ Buffer zones along waterways act as filters for runoff, trapping sediments and excess nutrients before they enter streams
♦ Keep up-to-date with industry projects focused on novel solutions like the use of bioreactors
4.1.2 Nutrient and Chemical Runoff
When nutrients or crop treatments are lost from the field due to runoff, they reduce the effectiveness of inputs and harm the environment. Nutrients entering waterways can trigger algal blooms, while some crop treatments may disrupt aquatic ecosystems.
Good practice includes measures that minimise nutrient and chemical losses while supporting plant health and protecting surrounding ecosystems. These actions help growers make the most of their inputs and reduce the risk of off-farm impacts. Examples include:
• Apply fertilisers at the right rate and timing, aligned to crop needs, so nutrients are taken up efficiently by plants rather than lost to runoff
• Avoid crop treatment and fertiliser applications before forecast rainfall or irrigation events, which can wash products away before they are effective
• Maintain vegetated buffers along drainage lines and waterways to filter runoff, trap sediments, and absorb excess nutrients before they reach water systems.
4.1.3 Water Recapture and Treatment Systems
Water that leaves production areas during rainfall or irrigation events often carries sediment, nutrients, and chemical residues. If left unmanaged, this runoff can impact nearby waterways and diminish the farm’s reputation for responsible production. In some states and territories, growers are legally required to capture and treat runoff before it leaves the property, to ensure it is free of contaminants. Even when it isn’t mandatory, incorporating treatment systems reflects good practice and complements other on-farm management strategies.
Water treatment systems use natural processes and engineered designs to slow the movement of water, trap sediments, and filter out pollutants. The right solution for a berry farm depends on factors such as:
• The types and quantities of pollutants likely to be present
• Farm topography, soil type, and drainage patterns
• Prevailing weather and likely risk of rainfall
• Available space for treatment infrastructure
• Construction and ongoing maintenance costs.
Runoff can impact nearby waterways and diminish the farm’s reputation for responsible production.
Importantly, no single system can remove all pollutants effectively. In many cases, a combination of approaches, known as a “treatment train”, is required to achieve the best results. For example, vegetated drains may remove coarse sediments, while wetlands or bioreactors are needed to address finer particles and dissolved nutrients. Minimising inputs and tailoring them to farm requirements reduces the likelihood of off-site impacts and lowers costs.
Working with a hydrologist or engineer during the planning and design stages is a good strategy to ensure treatment systems are appropriately sized and targeted to farm conditions.
Several treatment options and their relative suitability for different pollutants and site requirements are outlined in Table 4-1 below.
low
to design and maintain
Table 4-1 Water treatment systems for farm water management
4.1.4 Irrigation and Water Use Regulations
Accessing and using water for berry production is subject to a range of laws and licensing requirements that vary across Australia. These rules are designed to balance agricultural needs with the protection of environmental flows, water quality and the rights of other users in the catchment.
For berry growers, understanding and complying with these regulations is critical to securing water access, avoiding penalties, and demonstrating the industry’s commitment to sustainable resource use.
Key considerations for growers in relation to water use include:
• Water Licences and Allocations: Depending on your state or territory and the source of water (surface water, groundwater, recycled or harvested rainwater), you may require a licence or allocation to extract and use water for irrigation
• Catchment-Specific Rules: Local watersharing plans may impose restrictions on extraction volumes, timing and methods, especially during droughts or low-flow periods
For berry growers, understanding and complying with regulations is critical to securing water access, avoiding penalties, and demonstrating the industry’s commitment to sustainable resource use.
• Water Metering and Reporting: In many jurisdictions, metering is required to track usage. Accurate records help growers demonstrate compliance and plan for efficient irrigation
• Use of Recycled Water: If using treated wastewater or stormwater, additional approvals and management plans may be necessary to meet health, food safety and environmental standards
• Cross-Boundary Considerations: Berry farms in peri-urban areas often operate close to residential zones and public water infrastructure, requiring extra attention to offsite impacts.
Water Management
♦ Prevent runoff and erosion with soil cover, buffers and contouring
♦ Apply nutrients and crop treatments responsibly to avoid waterway impacts
♦ Consider water treatment systems to manage runoff and meet legal obligations
♦ Understand your water access rights and keep accurate usage records
4.2 Soil Health
Healthy soils are the foundation of productive and resilient berry farms. They support strong plant growth, retain water and nutrients, and reduce the risk of erosion and offsite impacts. Managing soil health requires a balanced approach that builds organic matter, protects soil structure and supports the biological life that underpins nutrient cycling.
Key practices for soil health in berry production include:
• Maintain soil cover with mulches or living ground covers to protect against erosion and improve water infiltration
• Minimise soil disturbance to preserve structure and avoid compaction, especially in interrow areas and high-traffic zones
• Incorporate organic matter such as composts or green manures to feed soil biology and enhance water-holding capacity
• Regularly test soils to monitor pH, nutrient status and biological activity, adjusting management as needed
• Avoid over-irrigation or poor drainage, which can lead to waterlogging and loss of soil function.
Healthy soils are the foundation of productive and resilient berry farms.
4.3
Agrichemicals
Crop treatments and other chemicals are important tools in berry production, but they come with responsibilities. Safe use protects worker and consumer health, minimises offsite impacts, and helps maintain the industry’s social licence. Good practice also ensures compliance with legal requirements and market expectations.
It is strongly advised that growers and staff involved in handling agrichemicals hold current ChemCert accreditation, Australia’s recognised training standard for chemical use in agriculture. This is a requirement in some states. This ensures a working knowledge of product labels, safe handling, application, and environmental risk management.
4.3.1
Essentials of Safe Chemical Use
Safe chemical use starts with understanding the responsibilities that come with handling, applying and storing agrichemicals. The following principles are essential for reducing risks to people, the environment and your business.
• Always Read the Label: Labels approved by the APVMA are legal instructions. Follow directions on usage rates, PPE, withholding periods, and environmental protections. This same principle applies to minor use permits.
• Refer to Safety Data Sheets (SDS): Keep accessible copies outlining health risks, first aid, storage, and spill response.
• Use Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, goggles, respirators, coveralls and chemical-resistant boots must be clean, fit-for-purpose and available.
• Transport and Store Safely: Chemicals should be stored in secure, ventilated areas away from food and water, with clear signage and spill containment.
Safe chemical use starts with understanding the responsibilities that come with handling, applying and storing agrichemicals.
MINOR USE PERMITS – KNOW YOUR OBLIGATIONS
Some products used in berry production are permitted under APVMA minor use permits rather than full registration. These permits are legally binding and outline how, where and when the product can be used.
Always check current permits at: portal.apvma.gov.au/ permits
4.3.2 Mixing and Storage
Mixing and washdown should only occur in dedicated areas, away from drains and water sources. Best practice includes:
• Backflow prevention during filling
• Chemical storage separate from fertilisers and reactive agents
• Spill-proof flooring and bunding
• Regular checks of containers, labels and inventory.
4.3.3 Minimising Offsite Impacts
Chemicals must not affect neighbouring farms, water systems or the broader environment. Managing spray drift is central to this responsibility. Spray drift is not only a risk to crops, people and the environment, it is illegal under State and Territory legislation.
SPRAY DRIFT MANAGEMENT
Growers are legally required to minimise the risk of spray drift. This includes following label directions and observing all buffer zone requirements. Good practice involves:
• Only spraying in suitable weather conditions (e.g. wind speeds of 3–15 km/h, Delta T of 2–8) and avoiding temperature inversions
• Using the largest practical droplet size and ensuring equipment is well maintained and calibrated
• Planning applications carefully and avoiding spraying before rain or irrigation events
• Observing all mandatory no-spray zones and buffer distances stated on product labels.
BUFFER ZONES
Buffers are critical in protecting sensitive sites such as waterways, residences and neighbouring crops. It is important to distinguish between different types of buffers:
• Non-vegetated buffers – typically a specified distance (e.g. 10 m) left unsprayed. These are specified on the label.
• Vegetated buffers – planted strips that can trap spray droplets, dust and nutrients, providing an added layer of protection. These are good practice but not necessarily a legal requirement.
Growers should always check product labels for specific buffer requirements and remember that spray drift buffer obligations are legal conditions of use, not recommendations.
4.3.4 Spill Response and Emergency Preparedness
Even with good planning, accidents can happen. Being prepared to respond quickly to chemical spills or emergencies is essential for protecting people, property and the environment.
• Spill kits must be located at all mixing and storage sites and include absorbent material, waste containers and PPE.
• Large spills or contamination of water sources must be reported to your state environmental authority immediately.
4.3.5 Record Keeping
Accurate spray application records are a legal requirement. Record:
• Date, time, location and weather
• Product name, rate, and active ingredients
• Name of person applying
These records support audits, traceability, and continuous improvement.
Chemical Management
♦ Always follow APVMA label instructions, minor use permit details and Safety Data Sheets
♦ Use PPE and store chemicals safely
♦ Prevent spray drift with weather monitoring and buffer zones
♦ Maintain clean, contained storage and washdown areas
♦ Keep up-to-date records and encourage all users to be ChemCerttrained
4.4
Fuel Usage and Storage
Fuel is essential to running a berry farm, but it comes with risks if not managed carefully. Storing and using fuel safely protects people, property and the environment, while efficient fuel use reduces costs and supports sustainability goals.
4.4.1
Safe Fuel Storage
Both petrol and diesel are highly flammable. Vapours can travel long distances and ignite if exposed to static electricity, sparks, or open flames. Storing fuel correctly minimises these risks and helps meet legal obligations. Good practice for fuel storage includes:
• Keep an up-to-date Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for each type of fuel stored on-farm
• Store fuel away from waterways, drains and farm water supplies. Ensure the storage area has a waterproof barrier and an impervious floor (e.g. concrete)
• Display visible warning signs if storing:
» More than 250 L of petrol
» More than 1,000 L of diesel
• If storing more than 2,000 L, install a backup tank with capacity for 110% of the largest tank’s volume
• Maintain a three-metre clear zone around fuel storage free of rubbish or obstructions
• Ensure tanks are in good condition, free from rust and damage and are inspected regularly
• Keep fire extinguishers appropriate for the fuel type within 30 m of the storage area or on vehicles transporting mobile tanks
• For transporting more than 450 L of diesel, vehicles must display:
» Class placards
» Emergency information panels
» Proper shipping name and environmentally hazardous substance information
• Develop an emergency response plan for spills or fires.
4.4.2 Efficient Fuel Usage
Reducing fuel use lowers input costs and supports environmental stewardship and profitability. Efficient use is about matching equipment and operations to the task at hand.
Good practice for efficient fuel use includes:
• Minimise idling by switching off engines during long breaks
• Plan farm operations to reduce unnecessary trips
• Match horsepower to the job, i.e. avoid using high-power machinery for light tasks
• Maintain equipment regularly for optimal performance and worker safety
• Check tyre pressures and adjust ballast to suit field conditions.
Why Efficiency Matters
♦ Lower costs – save money by reducing unnecessary fuel use
♦ Environmental benefits – fewer emissions and less impact on local air quality
♦ Machine longevity – well-maintained equipment operates more efficiently and lasts longer
4.5 Energy Use
Using energy efficiently saves money, reduces emissions and helps build a more sustainable berry business. The first step is to understand when, where and how energy is used on-farm so that opportunities for efficiency gains can be identified. Monitoring energy use at different levels, from whole farm to individual machines, allows growers to make informed decisions about scheduling, maintenance and investments in energy-saving technologies.
MONITORING ENERGY USE
Understanding how energy is used on a berry farm is the first step toward improving efficiency and reducing costs. Energy use can be tracked at three levels:
• Farm Level: A high-level overview of total energy use across the farm from utility bills. Useful for spotting seasonal trends.
• Operation Level: Tracks energy use in specific areas, such as irrigation or packing sheds, to pinpoint high-demand systems.
• Equipment Level: Focuses on individual pieces of equipment (e.g. pumps, cool rooms) to identify efficiency gains or maintenance needs.
Smart meters make detailed energy tracking easier. Clamp-on meters are well-suited for motors and pumps, while submeters measure the consumption of individual equipment. Circuit-breaker meters, depending on placement, can monitor either operation or equipment.
Regularly reviewing energy data can help growers spot unusual spikes that might indicate equipment problems, identify energyintensive activities that could be rescheduled to off-peak times, and plan investments in more efficient technologies.
Practical Steps For Energy Efficiency
♦ Maintain equipment to ensure it runs efficiently
♦ Reduce idling time on tractors and pumps
♦ Plan operations to avoid unnecessary trips and energy use
♦ Compare energy plans using:
Energy Made Easy (NSW, QLD, SA, TAS) energymadeeasy.gov.au
Victorian Energy Compare (VIC) compare.energy.vic.gov.au
Energy Policy WA (WA) wa.gov.au/organisation/ energy-policy-wa
Using energy efficiently saves money, reduces emissions and helps build a more sustainable berry business.
4.6 Dust, Noise and Odour Pollution
Berry farms often operate close to residential areas or environmentally sensitive sites. Managing dust, noise and odour emissions is important for protecting the health of workers and neighbours, maintaining positive community relationships, and meeting legal obligations. Proactive management also reduces the risk of complaints and regulatory action.
4.6.1 Dust Management
Dust can be generated by vehicle movement, soil cultivation, fertiliser spreading and wind erosion from bare soil. Left unmanaged, dust contributes to air pollution, loss of valuable topsoil, and can affect the health of people and nearby environment.
Dust emissions are regulated at the state level, and growers are responsible for ensuring their activities comply with these requirements.
Good practice for managing dust includes:
• Establish windbreaks and vegetation buffers around fields, roads and exposed areas
• Surface high-traffic farm roads with gravel or stabilising materials to minimise dust generation
• Keep vehicle speeds low on unsealed roads
• Avoid cultivating, fertilising or mowing during strong winds.
Proactive management reduces the risk of complaints and regulatory action.
4.6.2 Noise Management
Noise is an inevitable part of farm operations, but excessive or poorly timed noise can disturb neighbours, particularly in peri-urban settings. Common sources of noise include tractors, mowers, alarms and pumps.
The impact of noise depends on farm layout, topography, weather conditions, and the presence of natural or artificial sound barriers. Evening and night-time operations often cause the most disruption because background noise levels are lower.
Noise pollution is regulated under state environmental laws, and growers should be familiar with their obligations.
Good practice for managing noise includes:
• Enclose noisy equipment such as pumps and generators in sound-insulated sheds or casings
• Use vegetation buffers, landscaping and sound barriers to absorb and deflect noise
• Position noise-generating infrastructure away from neighbours where possible
• Schedule deliveries, equipment use and maintenance for daytime hours to minimise impacts
• Fit farm vehicles and machinery with effective mufflers and replace older, louder models with quieter alternatives
• Mount equipment on rubber pads to reduce vibrations and noise transmission.
4.6.3 Odour Management
Odours can arise from applying organic fertilisers, composting organic material onfarm, or poorly drained, waterlogged soils. While odours are a normal part of horticultural production, they can lead to complaints if not managed proactively.
Often, complaints are linked to visible sources of odour. Vegetation screens and buffers can reduce visual impacts and help filter odorous air before it leaves the farm boundary.
Good practice for managing odour includes:
• Maintain adequate buffer zones between fertiliser application areas, composting sites or waste storage and neighbouring properties
• Enclose odour-producing materials in storage facilities where practical
• Manage wastewater to prevent the formation of stagnant pools, which can generate unpleasant smells
• Avoid applying organic fertilisers during high winds, especially when blowing towards neighbouring residences.
Why It Matters
♦ Health and wellbeing – reduce risks to workers and neighbours from dust and odour exposure
♦ Community trust – proactive management fosters goodwill and reduces complaints
♦ Regulatory compliance – avoid fines or enforcement action by meeting state environmental requirements
While odours are a normal part of horticultural production, they can lead to complaints if not managed proactively.
4.7 Native Vegetation, Wildlife and Ecosystems
Native vegetation, wildlife and biodiversity corridors are integral to healthy farming landscapes. When managed well, they enhance ecosystem services that support berry production – including pollination, pest control, water filtration and soil health. Beyond vegetation alone, creating connected habitats and supporting beneficial insects and other species strengthens resilience on-farm and across the landscape. At the same time, growers have a responsibility to balance environmental stewardship with protecting crops and ensuring compliance with biodiversity laws.
4.7.1 Managing Native Vegetation
Retaining and restoring native vegetation on berry farms provides a range of valuable on-farm and environmental benefits. Native plantings can support pollinators, helping to improve fruit set and yield. They also play a role in building healthier soils by encouraging organic matter and promoting the building of soil organic carbon matter. By attracting beneficial insects and birds, native vegetation can also help strengthen natural pest control, reducing reliance on chemicals.
Biodiversity corridors and shelterbelts linking patches of native vegetation can allow pollinators, beneficial insects, and small mammals to move through the farm landscape safely. Incorporating flowering species into inter-row areas or field margins can also encourage predatory insects and reduce pest pressure naturally.
Exclusion Netting
Noise Deterrents
Lighting
Decoy Crops / Native Plantings
Well-managed native vegetation further helps protect run-off water quality by filtering water leaving the property and trapping diffuse sediments before they reach waterways. It also reduces the impacts of wind and water erosion on exposed soils. In the longer term, these areas can buffer farms against dryland salinity and rising water tables, supporting the resilience of production systems.
4.7.2 Managing Native Wildlife
While native wildlife supports ecosystem health, some species, such as birds, can cause significant damage to berry crops, especially when natural food sources are scarce. Most native species are protected under environmental laws, so growers must use legally approved methods to deter them. Several crop protection strategies, including respective strengths and weaknesses, are outlined in Table 4-2 below.
Highly effective at preventing access by birds and insects; reduces water use under netting
Low-cost, easy to implement; suitable for short-term or emergency use
Effective for deterring nocturnal species; low maintenance once installed
Provides alternative food sources and supports biodiversity; environmentally friendly approach
Expensive to install and maintain; excludes wild pollinators; requires regular inspections and upkeep
Can disturb neighbours; wildlife may habituate over time, reducing effectiveness
Light pollution may disturb neighbours; some animals adapt to constant light exposure over time
Requires space, long lead time to establish; may inadvertently attract more wildlife to the area
Table 4-2 Crop Protection Strategies
4.7.3 Invasive Weeds and Animals
Weeds threaten farm productivity and biodiversity by competing for water, light and nutrients. Blackberry is one of 32 Weeds of National Significance (WoNS). Growers are responsible for preventing cultivated blackberries from spreading into natural areas.
In addition to weeds, invasive animals such as rabbits, foxes and feral cats can damage native habitats, disrupt ecological balances, and reduce the effectiveness of biodiversity efforts on farm. Managing these threats is an important part of maintaining healthy and productive farming landscapes.
Good practice for weed management:
• Monitor and control WoNS on your property as required by law
• Work with neighbours and local groups, such as a Landcare Group, to manage infestations
• Protect remnant native vegetation and biodiversity corridors to support beneficial species.
See the full list of WoNS here: weeds.org.au/weeds-profiles
4.7.4 Supporting Pollinators and Beneficial Species
Pollinators and beneficial insects are vital allies in berry production, helping to improve fruit set, support natural pest control and maintain a healthy crop. Farms with diverse, well-managed ecosystems are more resilient to pests and environmental stresses. By encouraging these species, growers can reduce reliance on chemical inputs and enhance overall productivity.
Good practice for berry growers can include:
• Planting flowering species in inter-row areas or along field margins to provide food for pollinators year-round
• Reducing broad-spectrum pesticide use to protect beneficial insects
• Incorporating beetle banks or insect hotels to provide shelter for predatory insects
• Maintaining wetlands and dams as habitats for frogs and insect predators.
Why Native Vegetation Matters
♦ Supports pollinators and beneficial insects for crop health
♦ Protects soil and water quality
♦ Enhances farm resilience to climate variability
♦ Builds positive community and environmental credentials for your farm
4.8 Waste
Berry farms produce a variety of waste streams, from organic crop residues to plastics, workshop materials and chemicals. Managing these responsibly protects human health, safeguards the environment and aligns with national waste and recycling priorities.
The waste hierarchy provides a useful framework for growers to work towards when managing waste on farm, this includes:
1. Avoid generating waste in the first place (e.g. choose reusable materials)
2. Reduce waste by extending product lifespans through maintenance and careful use
3. Reuse and recycle materials wherever possible to keep them in the production cycle
4. Recover energy from waste where appropriate
5. Dispose of waste responsibly as a last resort.
4.8.1 Key Waste Streams on Berry Farms
Berry farms generate several distinct waste streams that require tailored management approaches. These include:
• Organic waste, such as growing substrates, pruning residues and discarded berries, which can often be composted or reused on-farm but also pose risks of pests and diseases if left unmanaged
• Plastic waste, from mulch films and packaging to irrigation components, which makes up a significant proportion of agricultural plastics and requires careful handling to prevent environmental pollution
• Workshop and chemical waste, including scrap metal, used oil, and unwanted agrichemicals, which often require access to approved collection and recycling programs.
Understanding the specific challenges and opportunities of each stream helps growers adopt practical solutions that reduce waste, recover value and protect the environment. An overview of available waste stewardship recycling programs is provided in Table 4-3 below.
Waste Management on Farm
♦ Avoid single-use materials where possible
♦ Maintain infrastructure (e.g. polytunnels, drip lines) to extend lifespan
♦ Participate in national waste stewardship schemes for plastics and chemicals
♦ Store unwanted chemicals securely until safe disposal can be arranged
Table 4-3 Available waste stewardship programs
4.9 Climate Risk and Farm Resilience
Weather patterns are changing, and Australian berry growers are already seeing the effects through hotter summers, shifting rainfall, and more frequent extreme events. These changes can create challenges for crop yields, water availability and farm infrastructure.
For berry farms, understanding these risks and planning ahead is essential for protecting productivity, managing costs and maintaining access to markets.
CLIMATE RISKS
Berry production is highly sensitive to climate variability and extremes, and based on climate projections growers are anticipated to experience:
• Higher Temperatures: Rising temperatures reduce yields and fruit size in strawberries and limit chill days required for blueberry production. Heat stress can also lower fruit quality and nutritional value.
• Pests, Weeds and Diseases: Warmer conditions allow pests and diseases to expand into areas previously unsuitable, while global trade increases the risk of incursions.
• Water Availability and Rainfall: National rainfall averages are projected to decline by 3–30% by 2050. Reduced water availability will increase irrigation costs, while intense rainfall events may lead to flash flooding and soil erosion.
• Extreme Weather: Bushfires, heatwaves, droughts and storms are expected to become more frequent and severe, impacting infrastructure, crops and worker safety.
Some key adaptation strategies that growers may consider exploring can include:
• Explore heat-tolerant berry varieties and protected cropping technologies
• Strengthen soil health to improve water retention and reduce erosion
• Prepare farm infrastructure and emergency plans for extreme weather events.
4.10 Emissions Management and GHG Reporting
Berry farms contribute to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions through fuel use, fertilisers, energy consumption and supply chain activities. Understanding and managing these emissions is critical for compliance, market access and climate resilience.
Relevant emissions categories (Scopes) are illustrated in Figure 4-1 below.
Figure 4-1 Annual Berry GHG Emissions Profile
Scope 1
DIRECT ON-FARM EMISSIONS
Fuel use in tractors, nitrous oxide (N₂O) from fertilisers and manures, soil emissions from tillage and residue breakdown, refrigerant leaks from cool rooms
INDIRECT EMISSIONS
Scope 2
Scope 3
INDIRECT UPSTREAM EMISSIONS from Supply Chain
Manufacture and transport of fertilisers, seedlings and packaging, contractor services (freight, spraying, harvesting)
Sequestration Opportunities
Increase soil carbon with cover crops, reduced tillage, maintain shelterbelts and riparian vegetation, plant new trees or biodiversity corridors
4.10.1 Emissions Reporting Requirements
Under updates to the Corporations Act, large businesses and financial institutions will need to disclose climate risks and emissions profiles from July 2024. While small and medium growers are not yet directly affected, many supply chains and financiers are already requesting emissions data to meet their own obligations.
Key actions growers can take now include:
• Calculate emissions using the Horticulture GHG Accounting Framework (H-GAF) (Download the tool here)
Steps for Climate Resilience and Emissions
♦ Monitor farm vulnerabilities to heat, drought and extreme weather
♦ Optimise energy and water use to reduce costs and emissions
♦ Maintain records of farm practices and inputs to support future reporting needs
• Monitor emissions intensity (CO2e/tonne of berries) as a benchmark for improvement
• Engage with advisers to prepare for potential disclosure requests from buyers or lenders.
4.11 References and Further Reading
• Agriculture Victoria (2025). Reducing Spray Drift Using Buffer Zones and Vegetative Barriers
• Grains Research and Development Corporation (2025). Delta T and Spray Application Guide. URL: https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grownotes/technical-manuals/sprayapplication-manual
• NSW Department of Primary Industries (2025). Energy Efficiency and Farm Vehicles. URL: https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1315286/energy-efficiency-and-farmvehicles.pdf
• RMCG (2025). Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry National Waste and Resource Recovery Roadmap. URL: https://agrifutures.com.au/product/agriculture-fisheries-and-forestry-nationalwaste-and-resource-recovery-roadmap/
Strong governance underpins the resilience and reputation of Australia’s berry industry. For growers, it goes beyond compliance, it’s about making informed business decisions, meeting community and market expectations, and contributing to a fair and sustainable sector.
This section explores the systems, structures and responsibilities that support good governance onfarm and across the industry. It includes:
• The role of Berries Australia and Research and Development Corporations (RDCs)
• Navigating legal and regulatory requirements across food safety, chemical use, WHS and environmental protection
• Understanding plant licensing and intellectual property obligations
• Selecting appropriate business structures and operational models
• Engaging with sustainability frameworks and emerging ESG reporting requirements
• Managing workforce obligations, including ethical employment and modern slavery risk
• Respecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural heritage in farm planning.
Good governance helps growers build trust, reduce risk and demonstrate leadership in a changing regulatory and market environment.
At a Glance
♦ Berries Australia provides national representation for berry growers
♦ Research and Development Corporations (RDCs) drive innovation through grower levies matched by government investment, with Hort Innovation managing berry industry R&D funds
♦ Legal and regulatory frameworks cover plant licensing, food safety, WHS, employment standards and environmental protection. Compliance protects your business and reputation
♦ Business structures and models shape ownership, risk and operations; growers should choose structures that align with long-term goals and review them as circumstances change
♦ Sustainability frameworks and reporting (e.g. Hort Sustainability Framework, AASF, ESG) help growers meet global market expectations and strengthen supply chain relationships
5.1 Industry Organisation
5.1.1 Berries Australia
Berries Australia is the national peak body representing berry growers across the country. Formed in 2018 as a joint venture between the Australian Blueberry Growers’ Association, Raspberries and Blackberries Australia, and Strawberries Australia, the industry body reflects the shared goals and challenges of the major berry industries.
The Berries Australia Strategic Plan 2022–2025 sets out five priorities:
• Success in domestic and export markets
• Building more resilient berry businesses
• Securing a reliable workforce at all skill levels
• Strengthening community support for berries
• Managing natural resources effectively.
5.1.2 Research and Development Corporations
RDCs are a unique partnership between industry and government, driving innovation through research, development and extension. Funded through grower levies matched by Australian Government investment, they deliver projects that improve productivity, sustainability and profitability.
HORT INNOVATION
Horticulture Innovation Australia (Hort Innovation) is the grower-owned RDC that supports horticulture sectors, including fruit, vegetable, nut, nursery and turf industries. In the berry sector, grower contributions to research and development (R&D) levies are allocated to three specific funds with a levy collection of:
• Blueberry Fund – 5c/kg (voluntary)
• Rubus – 2c/kg
• Strawberry Fund – $7.87/1,000 runners.
Berries Australia, the national peak body, reflects the shared goals and challenges of the major berry industries.
Investment decisions are guided by the Berry Industry Strategic Investment Plan 20222026, ensuring alignment with industry goals. Although growers contribute to three separate funds, there is substantial value that arises when the funds come together, which has been demonstrated under the united ‘berry basket’ banner, which launched the first-ever whole-of-industry marketing campaign in 2024.
5.2 Legal and Regulatory Considerations
Operating a berry growing enterprise in Australia requires navigating a range of national, state and local regulations. These laws are designed to ensure food safety, protect workers, safeguard the environment, and uphold ethical business practices. While compliance is essential, understanding the intent behind these requirements helps growers embed good practice into their everyday operations.
Key Compliance Priorities
♦ Plant Licensing - Check plant variety rights before purchase. Use Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR) protected varieties under licence and keep accurate records.
♦ Food Safety - Implement documented food safety systems and ensure workers are trained in hygienic handling. Meet requirements under Standard 4.2.7 for berries.
♦ Chemical and Biosecurity Management - Use only APVMA-approved chemicals and follow label and Minor Use Permit instructions. Maintain on-farm biosecurity plans to monitor and control pests and diseases.
♦ Workplace Health and Safety (WHS) - Identify and manage physical and psychosocial risks. Provide training and maintain a safe workplace for all workers, contractors and visitors.
♦ Fair Work and Ethical Employment - Comply with minimum wage and employment conditions under the Horticulture Award 2020. Prevent modern slavery risks by checking labour hire providers and supporting fair, inclusive workplaces.
♦ Environmental and Cultural Heritage Laws - Seek approvals before clearing land, changing water systems, or undertaking works that may affect native vegetation or cultural heritage sites.
5.2.1 Plant Licensing and Royalties
Before selecting varieties to plant, growers must check whether they are publicly available or protected under Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR)
PBR grants exclusive commercial rights over new plant varieties, allowing breeders to control reproduction, propagation and sale. Under the Plant Breeder’s Rights Act 1994, growers are legally obligated to:
• Purchase plants from licensed suppliers
• Pay royalties where applicable
• Maintain accurate records of plant material purchased and propagated.
Ignoring PBR can result in significant financial penalties and damage to the farm’s reputation. Responsible variety selection also supports ongoing innovation in berry breeding programs.
5.2.2 Agricultural Food Safety
Australian berry growers must comply with several regulations to ensure berries produced are safe, traceable and grown responsibly.
Key frameworks include:
• Biosecurity Act 2015 – Growers have a legal duty to manage biosecurity risks by:
» Monitoring crops for pests and diseases
» Implementing on-farm hygiene practices to prevent the spread of contaminants
» Maintaining records of pest management and crop treatments.
• Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Code Act 1994 (AgVet Code) – Overseen by the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA), this regulates chemical use on farms. Growers must:
» Only use approved chemicals
» Follow label directions and withholding periods
» Store and dispose of chemicals safely to protect workers and the environment.
• Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FSANZ) – FSANZ sets national food safety standards under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code. All berry growers must ensure fruit is safe for sale and suitable for human consumption.
• Production and Processing Standards for Berries (Standard 4.2.7) – Introduced in 2022 and is being implemented progressively on a state-by-state basis. While intended to be mandatory from February 2025, actual enforcement timelines may vary between jurisdictions. The standard applies to all primary producers and processors of berries nationwide. It includes:
» Requirements for traceability systems
» Sanitation protocols during harvest and post-harvest handling
» Evidence of staff training in food safety.
5.2.3 Work Health and Safety (WHS)
Agriculture is one of Australia’s most high-risk industries. Under the Work Health and Safety Act and related state laws, berry growers are responsible for:
• Providing a safe workplace for employees, contractors, family members and visitors
• Consulting with workers on safety issues and training them in safe work practices.
Embedding WHS into daily operations protects people and reduces the risk of legal liability.
Psychosocial risks such as fatigue, stress, and isolation must also be managed. Examples include:
• High job demands and poor role clarity
• Inadequate support or recognition.
5.2.4 Fair Work and Ethical Employment
Growers must comply with workplace laws under the Fair Work Act 2009, including:
• Paying at least the minimum wages and entitlements outlined in the Horticulture Award 2020
• Providing safe, fair and discrimination-free workplaces.
Additional responsibilities include:
• Respect@Work Legislation (2022): Places a positive duty on employers to prevent sexual harassment, sex-based harassment and discrimination.
• Modern Slavery Act 2018: Requires employers to take steps to ensure workers are not subject to exploitation. Risks are higher among migrant and seasonal workers on schemes such as:
» Pacific Australia Labour Mobility (PALM)
» Working Holiday Maker visas
» Student or skilled temporary visas.
Growers can reduce these risks by:
• Ensuring workers are recruited legally and paid correctly
• Closely monitoring labour hire providers for compliance
Berry farming relies on healthy soils, clean water and functioning ecosystems. Environmental laws aim to safeguard these resources for future generations.
• National Frameworks
» Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) –Protects nationally significant species, habitats and water resources. Any farming activity likely to impact these requires federal approval.
• State and Territory Laws – Each jurisdiction has its own rules covering:
» Land clearing and vegetation management
» Water access and use
» Pollution, waste disposal and noise management.
Best practice: Before clearing land, altering water systems or undertaking large developments:
• Check which approvals are required
• Engage early with local environmental officers to avoid compliance issues.
What Else To Consider
5.2.6 Cultural Heritage
Australian farmers have a responsibility to protect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural heritage.
• State and territory laws regulate heritage management on private land
• National laws, such as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984, provide additional protections
Growers should:
• Identify any heritage sites on their property
• Engage respectfully with Traditional Owners if cultural heritage is present
• Seek advice before starting activities that could disturb heritage areas.
♦ Water Rights and Access – Check licensing requirements and water sharing plans in your state or territory. Keep accurate records of water use to meet regulatory and sustainability expectations.
♦ Record-Keeping – Maintain clear and up-to-date records for biosecurity, chemical use, employment, and food safety. Good record-keeping demonstrates compliance and protects your business in audits.
♦ Privacy and Data Protection – Understand obligations under Australian Privacy Principles when storing employee and supplier data, particularly if using digital farm management tools.
♦ Transport and Chain of Responsibility (CoR) – If transporting berries or engaging contractors for freight, ensure compliance with heavy vehicle laws, including load limits and fatigue management.
♦ Emerging Supply Chain Standards – Be aware of evolving retailer and exporter requirements around sustainability, ethical sourcing, and workplace practices. Staying ahead of these expectations can protect market access.
5.3 Business Structures
Selecting the right business structure is a critical decision for any berry enterprise. It shapes how your farm operates, how profits are shared, and the level of personal liability you take on. The structure you choose should reflect your business goals, key people involved and available resources, and it should support long-term success.
While structures can be adapted over time, making informed decisions early can reduce complexity and provide certainty as your farm business grows.
• Farm business structures relate to ownership, control, and liability arrangements
• Farm business models are more operational in nature, outlining day-to-day activities and how income is generated
An overview of common farm business structures and models is provided in Table 5-1 (below) and Table 5-2 (on the following page) respectively.
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
Sole traders
EXPLANATION
Conduct business in their own name, without the involvement of a separate legal entity
Discretionary trusts A trustee with discretion over what income and capital are distributed among beneficiaries
Partnerships
Companies
Arrangements between two or more individuals or entities carry on a business together, usually under a formal agreement outlining each partner’s rights and responsibilities
Privately owned entities with a separate legal identity, suitable for larger or more complex businesses that require a formal management structure
Table 5-1 Farm business structures
MODEL
Family farming
Leasing land
EXPLANATION
Land is owned and operated by the family, with resources being provided internally. These farms typically operate without formal business structures or agreements, allowing for flexibility in management and operations.
Leasing involves a separation between land ownership and business operations. The landowner and lessee are distinct business entities. The lessee is granted exclusive rights to use the land for the duration of the agreement.
Share farming
Contracting
Equity partnership
The landowner and share farmer operate as separate business entities. The operating costs and management of the farm business are shared between the landowner and share farmer. Both parties occupy the land during the agreement.
Based on an agreement between the contractor and the client, which are separate business entities. The contractor is rewarded for contribution of machinery, labour and/or management.
This arrangement is based on an agreement between a contractor and a client, who are separate business entities. The contractor is compensated for providing machinery, labour, and/or management services.
Key considerations for growers regarding business models and structure:
♦ Select a structure and model that supports your goals and protects your assets
♦ Review structures periodically as your farm grows and circumstances change
♦ Seek advice from legal, financial and business professionals before making changes
♦ Formalise agreements to avoid misunderstandings and protect relationships, particularly in family businesses.
The business structure you choose should reflect your business goals, key people involved and available resources, and it should support long-term success.
5.4 Sustainability Frameworks
Australian berry growers operate in an industry increasingly shaped by global and domestic expectations for sustainable, ethical and transparent production. Sustainability frameworks provide clear guidance on how growers can align their practices with these expectations, while strengthening market access, community trust and long-term resilience.
These frameworks also connect Australian horticulture to international benchmarks, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) standards, which are becoming the common language for measuring and communicating sustainability performance across supply chains.
5.4.1 Hort Sustainability Framework
The Australian-Grown Horticulture Sustainability Framework (2023/24) was developed to help growers and industries assess their sustainability progress and share their story with stakeholders. It outlines four key pillars, as illustrated in Figure 5-1, that guide sustainable production:
• Nourish & Nurture: Feeding and greening our world
• People & Enterprise: Vibrant farms, rewarding careers, thriving communities
• Planet & Resources: Treading lightly on the planet and safeguarding production
• Climate & Waste: Capturing carbon, cutting waste and adapting to a variable climate.
This sector-wide tool helps growers:
• Measure and track sustainability outcomes
• Align with global frameworks, including the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
• Simplify data collection for supply chain and retailer requirements
• Strengthen transparency and relationships with customers.
Hort360 is an industry-led benchmarking and risk assessment platform designed to help Australian horticulture growers assess and enhance their farm operations. It allows you to report sustainability efforts against global, national and state-based goals. With a comprehensive, whole of farm business approach, it helps you identify potential risks, seize business opportunities and optimise practices for long-term success and sustainability in berry production. www.growcom.com.au/hort360
Framework
5.4.2 Australian
Agricultural Sustainability Framework
(AASF)
Led by the National Farmers’ Federation, the AASF sets out an overarching vision for sustainable agriculture in Australia. It focuses on:
• Environmental Stewardship: caring for land, water and biodiversity
• People, Animals and Community: ensuring the health, safety and prosperity of farm workers, animals and local communities
• Economic Resilience: supporting profitable and sustainable businesses into the future.
The framework (version 5), illustrated in Figure 5-2 below, provides guiding principles and criteria for improving sustainability outcomes at both farm and industry levels.
5.4.3 Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Reporting
While ESG reporting is not yet mandatory for small to medium enterprises in Australia, it is already shaping the expectations of supply chains and financial institutions. From January 2025, large businesses and banks are required to complete mandatory emissions reporting, which may have flow-on effects for growers.
Key features of ESG reporting:
• Focuses on environmental sustainability, social responsibility and ethical governance
• Encourages transparency and clear communication of current practices and future improvement plans
• Helps growers strengthen relationships with retailers, investors and the broader community.
Figure 5-2 Australian Agriculture Sustainability Framework
5.5 References and Further Reading
• Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (2024). AgVet Chemical Use Guidelines URL: https://www.apvma.gov.au/about/use-agvet-chemicals-australia
• Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) (2025). Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code. URL: https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/
• Horticulture Innovation Australia (2025). Berry Industry Strategic Investment Plan 2022–2026. URL: https://www.horticulture.com.au/
• National Farmers’ Federation (2025). Australian Agricultural Sustainability Framework. URL: https://aasf.org.au
• Safe Work Australia (2025). Work Health and Safety Act Guidelines. URL: https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/
6 People
People are at the heart of every successful berry operation. From engaging local communities to building strong farm teams, how growers manage relationships has a direct impact on social licence, workforce stability, and long-term business success.
As the sector grows more complex, often relying on seasonal, migrant and multi-generational teams, growers must navigate evolving expectations around employment, inclusion and leadership.
This section highlights the practical steps berry growers can take to create safe, fair and highperforming workplaces. It covers:
• Building trust with local communities and maintaining a strong social licence to operate
• Managing neighbour relationships in shared or peri-urban landscapes
• Supporting a safe, inclusive and respectful workplace culture
• Navigating workforce compliance, seasonal labour and visa programs
• Strengthening leadership, communication and succession within farm teams
• Developing cultural awareness and supporting diverse workforces.
Good people management doesn’t just benefit workers, it builds business resilience, strengthens the industry’s reputation, and helps farms adapt in a changing environment.
At a Glance
♦ Building trust with communities and maintaining a strong social licence to operate
♦ Managing relationships with neighbours to minimise conflict and support shared landscapes
♦ Creating high-performing workplaces through good people management and leadership
♦ Navigating seasonal workforce challenges, including visa requirements and cultural diversity
♦ Strengthening farm teams with clear communication, family dynamics management and succession planning
6.1 Community Engagement
6.1.1
Social Licence
Operating a berry farm is about more than just producing fruit. It’s about earning the trust of the community and showing that farming practices align with broader social and environmental values, or what can be referred to as a social licence to operate.
A social licence isn’t granted by government or regulators. It’s intangible and comes from how the community perceives a grower’s actions. It’s built through transparency, genuine engagement and doing the right thing but it can be lost quickly if people feel their concerns are ignored or dismissed.
By prioritising trust and connection with the community, berry growers can strengthen the industry’s reputation and create the conditions for long-term success for the industry for the benefit of all.
Maintaining a strong social licence means:
♦ Proactively engaging with neighbours and the wider community
♦ Being open and clear about farming practices and why they are used
♦ Taking responsibility for environmental and social impacts
♦ Listening to concerns and responding constructively.
6.1.2 Neighbour Management
Berry farms often operate in peri-urban areas or close to residential properties. In these settings, even routine activities like spraying, machinery use or increased vehicle movements can over time create tension with neighbours if not managed well.
Being a good neighbour is about more than just meeting legal requirements; it reflects the values of the berry industry and underpins long-term community trust.
What does good neighbourhood management look like?
• Communicate proactively about planned activities that may cause noise, odour, or traffic. For example, spraying schedules, harvesting at night, or large vehicle movements.
• Establish clear contact points so neighbours know who to reach with questions or concerns.
• Be responsive and respectful when concerns are raised, even if they seem minor.
• Manage impacts on shared infrastructure, such as local roads or water supplies to avoid conflict.
• Invest in buffers and mitigation measures where possible, such as vegetation screens for noise and dust or adjusted work hours in sensitive areas.
Neighbourhood Management
♦ Social licence is earned, not guaranteed
Shared
roles and responsibilities
Neighbourhood relationships are a two-way partnership:
• Berry growers are responsible for operating in ways that minimise offsite impacts and maintaining open lines of communication
• Neighbours and local communities are encouraged to raise concerns constructively and work collaboratively with growers to resolve issues
• Local councils and planning authorities play a role in supporting dialogue, setting clear expectations and helping mediate where needed.
Strong relationships with neighbours are more than goodwill, they create space for the berry industry to grow sustainably and demonstrate its commitment to being a valued part of the community.
Being a good neighbour is about more than just meeting legal requirements; it reflects the values of the berry industry and underpins longterm community trust.
♦ Good neighbours communicate proactively and minimise offsite impacts
♦ Positive relationships reduce conflict and support the long-term viability of berry farming in shared landscapes
♦ Responsibility is shared between growers, neighbours and planning authorities
6.2 Workplace Practices
6.2.1 Becoming an Employer of Choice
Good people management is central to running a successful berry business. While fair wages matter, workers are often motivated by other factors, including supportive leadership, flexible working conditions and a positive team culture. The environment growers create as employers strongly influences the ability to attract and retain skilled people to their business.
Key elements of a high-performing workplace include:
• A safe, inclusive and respectful culture
• Open communication that builds trust
• Flexible arrangements where practical
• Clear roles, responsibilities and recognition.
Employers of choice lead their teams to achieve their potential. Strong practices in recruitment, engagement and retention don’t just support workers, they also improve productivity, safety and business resilience.
Horticulture Workplace Information Hub
Need clear advice on wages, entitlements, or employment obligations?
Visit: horticulture.fairwork.gov.au
This official site from the Fair Work Ombudsman provides tailored information for horticulture employers and workers, including guidance on piecework rates, record keeping, and seasonal workforce compliance.
6.2.2 Human Resource Management
Actively managing people is essential for longterm success. In Australian horticulture, strong human resource management practices play a key role in worker satisfaction and retention.
People are one of a grower’s most valuable assets. It’s worth asking: What does good people management look like on this farm? What small, practical changes could better support the team?
Central principles to good human resource management include:
• A clear vision and business strategy
• A defined and understood workplace culture
• Practical HR systems and processes
• Clear communication of expectations
• Transparent decision making
• Well-resourced teams with the tools and equipment to succeed
• Regular check-ins to monitor team wellbeing and performance
• Succession planning that develops future leaders.
Fair Farms Program
Developed by Growcom, Fair Farms is a national training and certification program focused on workplace laws and regulations in horticulture. It gives growers a clear pathway to third-party audit and certification, demonstrating commitment to fair and responsible workplace practices. From family-run farms to larger enterprises, many in the berry industry are adopting Fair Farms to strengthen their reputation and workforce practices. fairfarms.com.au
6.3 Seasonal Workforce
Berry production is highly labour-intensive, particularly during peak harvest periods when there is a surge in the demand for workers. To meet this demand, many growers rely on a seasonal workforce, including Australian and international workers engaged through various visa and mobility schemes.
A well-managed seasonal workforce is critical to maintaining productivity and fruit quality. It also requires growers to navigate regulatory requirements, workplace standards and the unique challenges of managing a diverse team.
Key considerations for growers include:
• Understanding Visa and Labour Programs: Migrant and seasonal worker programs, such as the Working Holiday Maker visa and the Pacific Australia Labour Mobility (PALM) Scheme, are essential in meeting labour needs across Australian horticulture. Growers must stay informed about program requirements, entitlements and employer obligations to ensure workers are engaged legally and fairly.
• Compliance with Regulations: Using the correct visa types and meeting workplace laws is critical. Non-compliance can result in significant penalties, reputational damage and disruptions to farm operations. Clear systems for recordkeeping and checking visa conditions are essential.
• Engaging Labour Hire Companies Responsibly: If using labour hire companies, growers should ensure they only engage licensed providers and confirm workers are being paid correctly and treated fairly. As the farm operator, growers may still be held responsible for breaches by their contractors, so due diligence is required.
• PALM Scheme Requirements: The PALM Scheme supports Australian employers to access workers from Pacific Islands and Timor-Leste for short-term and long-term roles. However, growers must meet specific eligibility criteria to participate in the scheme and demonstrate the capacity to provide a safe and supportive workplace. Understanding these requirements and maintaining compliance is necessary for continued access to the program.
• Planning for Fluctuating Labour Needs: Identifying seasonal peaks early and developing a workforce plan helps reduce the risk of labour shortages. Advance planning also supports better onboarding and training of workers.
• Supporting a Culturally Diverse Workforce: Seasonal workers often come from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Building cultural competence within the team helps create an inclusive environment, reduces misunderstandings and enhances productivity. Practical steps include providing translated materials, using visual aids, and fostering respectful communication across the workforce.
Navigating Visa and Workforce Requirements
The Australian visa system can be complex, particularly for growers unfamiliar with migrant workforce rules. Ensuring workers hold the correct visas and meeting all legal requirements is essential to avoid compliance issues.
Growers are encouraged to:
• Seek advice on visa and workforce programs to ensure obligations are understood and met
• Stay informed about updates to government schemes and requirements.
6.3.1 Cultural Awareness in the Workforce
A culturally diverse workforce brings fresh perspectives and skills but can also present challenges. Cultural competence helps growers work effectively with people from different backgrounds, while cultural sensitivity ensures workplace interactions are respectful and inclusive.
Practical steps to support cultural awareness in the workplace can include:
• Providing visual aids or translated materials where needed
• Encouraging open communication and valuing different cultural perspectives
• Offering cultural competency training to managers and team leaders.
Many growers rely on a seasonal workforce, including Australian and international workers engaged through various visa and mobility schemes.
6.4 Building Strong Teams
6.4.1
Leadership and Communication
A strong farm team is the foundation of a productive and resilient berry business. Whether your team includes employees, family members or contractors, effective leadership and clear communication are essential to keeping operations running smoothly.
Good leadership shapes workplace culture and team morale. It is worth asking: What can I do today to have a positive influence on the people around me? Leadership styles matter and should be regularly reflected on to identify any areas for growth and improvement.
Communication is equally critical. Miscommunication is a common source of inefficiency and conflict in agricultural workplaces, but it can be addressed through deliberate practices, including:
• Make time for people by listening and showing they matter
• Explain the ‘why’ behind instructions so workers understand their importance
• Encourage open dialogue and feedback to strengthen trust
• Recognise that team members may have different communication styles
• Use tools like WhatsApp groups to keep workers informed
• Provide visual aids (e.g. colour coding or maps) to clarify tasks and reduce errors
• Create informal opportunities for connection, such as shared break times.
6.4.2 Working With Family
Farming is often a family affair, which brings both strengths and challenges. Family members bring trust, shared values and a deep commitment to the business, but overlapping personal and professional relationships can create tension.
Steps can be taken to help minimise the risk of conflict and foster healthy, productive relationships in the family business, which can include:
• Defining clear roles and responsibilities
• Setting boundaries between work and home life where possible
• Agreeing on expectations and maintaining respectful, open communication.
6.4.3 Succession Planning
A clear succession plan is essential for transitioning the farm business and supporting both family harmony and business continuity. Each farm is unique, so plans should be tailored to the family’s needs and circumstances.
Key principles for effective succession planning include:
• Seek external advice and professional support from accountants, lawyers, and facilitators
• Start early and invest in developing the next generation of leaders
• Encourage transparent and frequent communication
• Give all parties an opportunity to share what they see as fair
• Once decisions are made, communicate them clearly and fairly to everyone involved.
6.5 References and Further Reading
• Australian Government Fair Work Ombudsman (2025). Horticulture Virtual Hub: Workplace Information and Resources.
URL: https://horticulture.fairwork.gov.au/
• Australian Multicultural Foundation (2025). Cultural Competence Resources
URL: https://www.amf.net.au/
• Beasley Intercultural (2025). Cultural Competency Training Services URL: https://intercultural.com.au
• Centre for Multicultural Youth (2025). Supporting Culturally Diverse Workforces URL: https://www.cmy.net.au/
• Diversity Australia (2025). Diversity and Inclusion Training URL: https://diversityaustralia.com.au/
• Family Business Australia (2025). Succession Planning Toolkit URL: https://familybusiness.org.au/
• Young Farmer Business Program (2025). Succession Planning Toolkit URL: https://www.youngfarmer.nsw.gov.au/
7 Growing Towards a Sustainable Future
The Australian berry industry is well positioned to lead in sustainable horticulture. From careful water and soil management to energy-efficient practices, biodiversity protection, and post-harvest innovation, each stage of the production cycle offers opportunities for growers to achieve a balance between productivity, profitability and environmental care.
Sustainability is no longer an aspiration – it is the pathway to long-term farm viability, market access, and consumer confidence and community trust. Adopting the good practice approaches outlined in this guide will help berry growers strengthen resilience, reduce risks, and contribute to an industry recognised globally for quality, safety, and environmental leadership.
This guide is a step towards embedding sustainability in every stage of the production cycle, ensuring Australian berries remain a premium choice today and for generations to come.
Key Takeaways for Sustainable Berry Production
♦ Healthy soils and clean water are the foundation of resilient berry farms – protect these resources through good agronomy and runoff management
♦ Efficient energy and resource use reduces costs and lowers environmental impacts across the supply chain
♦ Strong post-harvest systems preserve fruit quality, minimise waste and maintain market confidence
♦ Biodiversity and ecosystem care support natural pest control, pollination and long-term farm sustainability
♦ Quality assurance and traceability are essential for food safety, market access and consumer trust
♦ Empowering people and contributing to local communities builds a skilled workforce, safer workplaces and strong social licence to operate
