Elements of Cognitive Unity Across Islamic, Chinese and Western Architectural Traditions.

UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD

School of Art, Design and Architecture TMA 1502

Elements of Cognitive Unity across Islamic, Chinese and Western Architectural Traditions

A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Diploma in Architecture (International)

By M. Azfar M. Yusof U0368559025 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is their own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

20 JANUARY 2009

1

Abstract

Since the human civilisation began, there has been a constant need for refuge as a means of protection and comfort. Whether it is a building that grants basic shelter or a grand temple for worship, architecture has been a defining feature of human civilisation. In addition, architecture leads to regional differences resulting in buildings with specific, spiritual, symbolic and expressive contents. Through architecture as well, each civilisation thrives to form their idiosyncratic way and design that holds the keys of their origin.

The intent of this study is to present an argument on how some similarities in the architectural elements in Islamic, Chinese and Western architectural reflect instances of “cognitive unity� across these three cultures, that is, similarities of thought across these different cultures regarding culture, religion, social customs, philosophy and cosmology. Based on historical evidence and other fields of study, some similarities in the architectural elements will be discussed and argued in the dissertation.

Plus, the aim of this dissertation is to energise the idea of cross culture and transfers in architecture and to untie the knot of today’s complexities in architectural influences. Some theories are proposed to help understanding the mystery of these resemblances.

Some case studies were done in order to support my argument in this dissertation. Comparisons of some buildings typology from different cultures are studied and discussed. This dissertation will also look at the development of the Islamic, Chinese and Western architecture in the modern world. On the last phase, the crisis of identity in architecture will be discussed.

2

Conclusions are drawn with key findings and suggestions for future research. The similarities in the architectural elements in the Islamic, Chinese and Western architecture resulted from several causes such as knowledge transfer, zeitgeist and cognitive unity and cosmological thought.

3

Acknowledgments

During the research process, many people have influenced, supported, and facilitated my work. I would like to thank my supervisor; Dr Yun Gao whom supervising me throughout this dissertation.

I have been deeply indebted to my family members and friends, especially my late mother, Siti Rokhana Wagiman in giving me strength, courage, and spiritual motivation in developing my interest in religion, culture, and architecture and lead me to proceed with this research. I would particularly like to mention my father, Mohamed Yusof Roslan whom always gives the courage for me to travel in order to observe and learn about other culture; Alexandre Schaefer whom has been a good listener and debated topics throughout this research.

Many thanks also go to all the staff of the Department of Architecture of University of Huddersfield for their friendship and encouragement. Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to the God that kept faith in me despite my depriving time spending in this research.

4

Contents

Illustration

7

Introduction

19

Chapter 1- Cultural and Architecture

22

Faith and Architecture

22

Social, Culture and Custom

26

Gender and Architecture

28

Chapter 2- Theories on Cross-Cultural in Architecture Knowledge Transfer and Borrowing Views

31 31

-Interaction Berween Chinese and Islamic Architecture

32

-Interaction Between Islamic and Early Chinese Architecture

36

Zeitgiest and Cognitive Unity

41

-Unity and Multiplicity

42

-Sacred Geometry

47

-The Circle

53

-Number Nine

54

The Cosmological Theory

57

Chapter 3- Case Studies

61

Case Study 1- Ordering Space

61

-Concentric Composition

61

-Linear Composition

65

5

Case study 2- Comparison

69

-Palaces

69

-Place for Worship

73

Case Study 3- Fusion in Architectural Design and Elements

80

-Chinese Architecture with Islamic Purpose

80

-Chinese Influence in Islamic Architecture

82

-Early Western Architecture with Eastern Influence

84

Chapter 4- Eastern Architecture and the Modern Western World

87

Western an Eastern Architecture in the Modern World

87

Islamic and Chinese Architecture in the Avant-Garde

93

Western Architectural Movement and the Connection with Islamic and Chinese Architecture

99

Architecture and Crisis of Identity

100

Conclusion

103

Reference and Research List

106

Bibliography

110

Appendices

111

6

Illustration

Figure

Reference

Page

Chapter 1 Figure 1.1

Lao Tse leaves China on his water buffalo [drawing] In: Renard, J (2002) 101 Questions and answers on Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto. New York: Paulist Press, p. 16.

23

Figure 1.2

South Lake (formerly Moon Pond), Hong Village, Yi prefecture, Anhui Province, built in the early fifteenth century [photograph] In: Fu, X. et al. (2002) Chinese Architecture. London New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 256-257.

24

Figure 1.3

Marrakech Medina (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.shunya.net/Pictures/Morocco/Morocco. htm> [Accessed 7 December 2008].

25

Figure 1.4

Courtyard-style house of the Bai nationality in Dali, Yunnan province [photograph] In: Fu, X. et al.

(2002) Chinese Architecture. London New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 306.

25

Figure 1.5

Frich, A (1997) Tympanum of Chartres cathedral, Eure-et-Loire, France [online image] Available at: <http://www.arnaudfrichphoto.com/englishversion/cathedral-of-chartres-7.htm> [Accessed 7 December 2008].

26

Figure 1.6

Example of an Islamic House from Tunis [plan] In: Nevett, L. et al. (1994) Architecture & Order Approaches to Social Space. London: Routledge, p.

106.

29

Figure 1.7

Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own (2008) Harem Quarter, Topkapi Palace, Turkey.

29

7

Figure 1.8

Garden of the Concubines The Forbidden City (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://picasaweb.google.com/zacherm126/PeopleT oPeopleExchange#> [Accessed 7 December 2008].

30

Figure 2.1

The victorious Alexander the Great in the Battle of Issus against Persian King Darius in 333 B.C. (n.d.) [mosaic] At: Roman mosaic found in the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy.

31

Figure 2.2

Chinese Urban Courtyard House (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://hubpages.com/hub/Coutryard_Houses> [Accessed 20 November 2008].

33

Figure 2.3

Courtyard Home in Cairo- Courtesy of Islamic Art (n.d.) [online image] Available at <http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/archit ecture/Homes.html> [Accessed 20 November 2008].

33

Figure 2.4

Shah Zav Enthroned (1330s) [Ink, colours, and gold on paper] At: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

34

Figure 2.5

Id Kah Mosque in Kashgar (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://flickr.com/photos/cadamsimages/262313492 5/> [Accessed 8 December 2008].

35

Figure 2.6

Id Kah Mosque (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://flickr.com/photos/cadamsimages/262313452 9/in/set-72157605890359512/> [Accessed 8 December 2008].

35

Figure 2.7

Masjid Tengkara Melaka (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://flickr.com/photos/dethan/2657645019/> [Accessed 8 December 2008].

36

Figure 2.8

Edited from: A â&#x20AC;&#x153;one-fifthâ&#x20AC;? mukhammas arch [diagram]. In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space. Edinburgh: Floris Books,

37

Chapter 2

8

p. 24.

Figure 2.9

Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Jerusalem base of the Templar order. (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/galleries/templars/in dex.shtml> [Accessed 8 December 2008].

38

Figure 2.10

GT039: French Early Gothic/ Chartres Cathedral: West front, ÒRoyal Portals, Ó ca. 1145-1170 / Chartres (Eure-et-Loire, Ile-de-France), France (1990) [online image] Available at: <http://peregrinations.kenyon.edu/gilles_photoessa y/gillesimageresources.html> [Accessed 8 December 2008].

38

Figure 2.11

Doge’s Palace fronting the Grand Canal (2007) [online image] Available at: < http://www.flickr.com/photos/ilcondottiero/433914784/> [Accessed 30 November 2008].

39

Figure 2.12

San Marco Basilica (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topicart/625298/15380/San-Marco-Basilica-Venice1071)(261008> [Accessed 30 November 2008].

40

Figure 2.13

The City of the Dead (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://patronsainttravel.com/page11.htm> [Accessed 9 November 2008].

40

Figure 2.14

Author’s own (2008) Diagram showing the theory of transferring knowledge.

41

Figure 2.15

Edited from: Triplicity and quadrature underlying the order of universal manifestation [diagram]. In: Akkach, S. (2005) Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern in Islam: An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas. New York: State University of New York Press, p. 42.

43

Figure 2.16

Author’s own (2008) Being and non-being in the Chinese Thought, interpretation based on Ying Yang Symbol.

44

Figure 2.17

Edited from: Ichtus and Christian phythagorean symbol [diagrams]. In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space.

Edinburgh: Floris Books, p. 68.

45

9

Figure 2.18

Edited from: Ichtus and Christian phythagorean symbol [diagrams]. In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space.

Edinburgh: Floris Books, p. 68.

46

Figure 2.19

Jesus, surrounded by four apostles over the West Portal (2006) [online image] Available at: <http://www.paxworks.com/Chartres/more.html> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

46

Figure 2.20

Evangelistar von Speyer, um 1220, Manuscript in the Badische Landesbibliothek, Karlsruhe, Germany, Cod. Bruchsal 1, Bl. 1v (c1220) [online image] Available at: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Codex_ Bruchsal_1_01v_cropped.jpg> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

46

Figure 2.21

Edited from: Cube showing √2 diagonal of a square face and √3 diagonal of the cube itself [diagram].

In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space. Edinburgh: Floris Books, p. 57.

47

Figure 2.22

Section View (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.thehope.org/section.htm> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

48

Figure 2.23

Haram al-Sharif (2005) [online image] Availabe at: <http://flickr.com/photos/mdot/26284722/in/set563448/> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

48

Figure 2.24

Arida, S (2003) Floor plan of Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem [online CAD file] copyright of Nasset Rabbat / Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT. Available at: <www.archnet.org> [Accessed 30 November 2008].

Author’s own (2008) Geometrical analysis of a cube.

49

Figure 2.26

Author’s own (2008) Geometrical analysis of a cube.

50

Figure 2.27

Edited from: John James’ diagram [diagram]. In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space. Edinburgh: Floris Books, p. 62.

50

Figure 2.28

Chartres Cathedral (2005) [online image] Available at: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chartres _cathedral.jpg> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

51

Figure 2.25

10

49

Figure 2.29

Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own (2008) Pythagoras analysis.

51

Figure 2.30

Edited from:

52

Plan of Chartres cathedral showing how diagonals drawn from the central hexagons locate almost all the columns in the building. [plan]. In: Strachan, G (2003) Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space.

Edinburgh: Floris Books, p. 66.

Figure 2.31

Temple of Heaven (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.chinesearchitecture.info/PEKING/PE-023.htm> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

53

Figure 2.32

Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own (2008) Geometrical analysis of the Temple of Heaven.

54

Plan edited from: Plan of the Temple of Heaven complex [plan]. In: Fu, X., Guo, D., Liu, X., Qiao, Y., Sun, D., et al.

(2002) Chinese Architecture. London & New Haven: Yale University Press.

Figure 2.33a

Aeriel view of Temple of Heaven (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.cnetnews.com.cn/2008/0304/754340.s html> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

54

Figure 2.33b

Temple of Heaven (2006.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.chineseviolins.com/Show_visit.asp? id=108> [Accessed 1 December 2008].

54

Figure 2.34

Edited from: The Sufi Enneagram or Sign of the Presence of God [online Image] Available at: <http://www.sufienneagram.com/overview.html> [Accessed 3 December 2008].

55

Figure 2.35a

Templarsign (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Templarius.jpg> [Accessed 3 December 2008].

56

Figure 2.35b

Stained glass window of a templar knight in the hall at Rothley Court (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/leicester/content/image_gall eries/abolition_rothley_court_gallery.shtml?8> [Accessed 3 December 2008].

56

11

Figure 2.36

Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own (2008) Chinese Dragon.

56

Figure 2.37

Tunisian Cat 2 (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://flickr.com/photos/11469581@N00/21963659 70/in/set-72157600018025464/> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

56

Figure 2.38

Dome of the Rock (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16849 1/Dome-of-the-Rock> [Accessed 2 December 2008].

58

Figure 2.39

Temple of Heaven (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.chinesearchitecture.info/PEKING/PE-023.htm> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

58

Figure 2.40

Chartres Cathedral (2007) [online image] Available at: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chartres _cathedral.jpg> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

58

Figure 2.41

Ingram, A (n.d.) Istanbul Mosque [online image] Available at: <http://caingram.info/Turkey/Istanbul/page1.html> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

59

The formal order of centralised enclosed space model [diagram] In: Akkach, S (2005) Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas. New York: State University of New York Press, p. 153.

The geometry of concentric composition [diagram] In: Akkach, S (2005) Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas. New York: State University of New York Press, p. 153.

62

Figure 3.3

Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own (2008) Courtyard with vaulted doorways.

63

Figure 3.4

Edited from: The centralised open courtyard [diagram] In: Akkach, S (2005) Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: An architectural reading of Mystical Ideas. New York: State University of New York Press, p. 156.

64

Chapter 3 Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

12

62

Figure 3.5

Author’ own (2008) The centralised complex with courtyard. An archetypical in Chinese architecture.

64

Figure 3.6a

Author’s own (2008) The development of the courtyard houses diagrams.

65

Figure 3.6b

The geometry of linear composition [diagram] In: Akkach, S (2005) Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern in Islam: An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas. New York: State University of New York Press, p. 158.

67

Figure 3.7

Author’s own (2008) Linear Composition of Fez Medina, Morocco. Map source: Google earth.

67

Figure 3.8

Author’s own (2008) Linear Composition of Venice, Italy.

Map source: Google earth.

67

Figure 3.9

Author’s own (2009) Linear Composition of Beijing, China. Map source: Google earth.

68

Figure 3.10

Author’s own (2005) Forbidden City.

69

Figure 3.11

Muzeul Topkapi (2007) [online image] Available at: <http://realturkiye.blogspot.com/2007/09/history-oftopkapi-palace.html> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

69

Figure 3.12

Topkapi Palace, Harem, Black Eunuchs’ Courtyards. Istanbul. Turkey (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.superstock.com/stockphotos-images/1566-331718> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

70

Figure 3.13

Author’s own (2005) Forbidden City.

70

Figure 3.14

Satellite view of the Forbidden City (2008) Source: Google earth.

71

Figure 3.15

Satellite view of the Topkapi Palace (2008) Source: Google earth.

71

Figure 3.16

Author’s own (2008) Pyramid of social strata.

71

Figure 3.17

Satellite view of the Doge’s Palace, Venice (2008) Source: Google earth.

73

Figure 3.18

Suleymaniye Mosque(2008) [online image] Available at:

73

13

<http://www.turkishlibrary.net/content.php?cid=6> [Accessed 5 December 2008].

Figure 3.19

Temple of Heaven (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.chinese-architecture.info/PEKING/PE023.htm> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

73

Figure 3.20

Arapi. A. N. (2004) Floor plan of Süleymaniye Complex [online CAD file ] copyright of Gülru Necipoglu. Available at: <www.archnet.org> [Accessed 5 December 2008].

74

Figure 3.21

Author’s own (2008) Symmetrical analysis of the Temple of Heaven.

Plan edited from: Plan of the Temple of Heaven complex [plan]. In: Fu, X., Guo, D., Liu, X., Qiao, Y., Sun, D., et al.

(2002) Chinese Architecture. London & New Haven: Yale University Press.

74

Figure 3.22

Author’s own (2008) Axial geometry and symmetrical of the Dome of the Rock.

75

Plan edited from: Arida, S (2003) Floor plan of Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem [online CAD file] copyright of Nasset Rabbat / Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT. Available at: <www.archnet.org> [Accessed 30 November 2008].

Figure 3.23

Author’s own (2008) Diagram showing representation of atmospheric elements and earth merged inside the encircling universe.

76

Figure 3.24

Plan of Cologne Cathedral (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/JamesFergusson/Illustrated-Handbook-of-Architecture--Christian-Architecture/606-P.jpg> [Accessed 5 December 2008].

Cologne Cathedral (2007) [online image] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne_cathedral> [Accessed 5 December 2008].

77

Figure 3.26

Author’s own (2008) Diagram of building relationship.

78

Figure 3.27

Zhang, J (1982) Floor plan of the mosque complex [plan]. In: Mimar 3: Architecture in Development.

Singapore: Concept Media Ltd., p. 62. Available at:

80

Figure 3.25

14

78

<www.archnet.org> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

Figure 3.28

Zhang, J (1982) Aerial drawing of mosque, looking southeast towards the Drum Tower at top right. [sketch drawing]. In: Mimar 3: Architecture in Development. Singapore: Concept Media Ltd., p.

60. Available at: <www.archnet.org> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

80

Figure 3.29

Wang, D (2007) Islam in China: The Great Mosque of Xian [online image] Available at: <http://islaminchina.wordpress.com/2007/12/04/isla m-in-china-pictures-the-great-mosque-of-xian/> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

81

Figure 3.30

Karavanserais in CENTRAAL-AZIE (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://picasaweb.google.com/marijenube/Karavans eraisInCENTRAALAZIE#> [Accessed 9 December 2008].

82

Figure 3.31, 3.32 and 3.33

The Birth of The Prophet Muhammad, 1312-1315.

Ink, colours and gold on paper. At: Edinburgh University Library (MS Arab 20, folio 42r) Cat.6.

83, 83, 84

Figure 3.34

Mihrab, early 14th century. Frit ware, moulded, over glaze lustre-painted with touches cobalt blue. At: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Nasli M. Heeramaneck Collection, Gift of Joan Palecski M.73.5.1.

84

Figure 3.35

Pallazzo Ducale, cresting, and lozenge tiling, Venice [photograph] In: Howard, D (2000) Venice and the East. London New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 177.

85

Figure 3.36

Sultan Hassan Mosque, Cairo [photograph] In: Howard, D (2000) Venice and the East. London New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 177.

85

Figure 3.37

Mosque of Abdel Qader al-Gilani, Alexandria [photograph] In: Howard, D (2000) Venice and the East. London New Haven: Yale University Press, p.

177.

85

Figure 4.1

Rafidain Bank, Baghdad, 1971 [etching] In: Khan, H, U., (1984) Regional Modernism: Rifat Chardijiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Portfolio of Etchings. In MIMAR 14: Architecture in

88

15

Figure 4.2

Development. Singapore: Concept Medial Ltd., p.

67.

Asfour, K (1998) Aerial view: Tuwaiq Palace, Riyadh [online image] copyright of Aga Khan Award for Architecture, MIT. Available at: <www.archnet.org> [Accessed 30 November 2008].

89

Figure 4.3

Massar Discovery Centre (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.henninglarsen.com> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

89

Figure 4.4

Institute of the Arab World (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://picasaweb.google.com/jcunningham123/Bes tOfFrance#> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

89

Figure 4.5

Detail of the Arab World Institute building (2003) [online image] Available at: <http://www.geocities.com/darthdusan/PhotosofPari s.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

89

Figure 4.6

Davis, H (n.d.) Photo, exterior overview with the central domed roof [online image] Available at: <http://buildings.greatbuildings.com/Marin_Civic_Ce nter.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

90

Figure 4.7

HSBC Headquarters, Hong Kong (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.essentialarchitecture.com/STYLE/STY-M15.htm> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

90

Figure 4.8

Panorama looking north to northeast, to the Research Institute, Museum and south promontory (1998) [online image] Available at: <http://academic.reed.edu/getty/distant.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

91

Figure 4.9

Craven, J (n.d.) The Magney House [online image] Availabe at: <http://architecture.about.com/od/greatbuildings/ig/ Modern-and-Postmodern-Houses/The-MagneyHouse-.htm> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

91

Figure 4.10

Row House, Sumiyoshi, Osaka [photograph]. In: Jodidio, P (1997) Tadao Ando, London: Taschen, p.

51.

92

Figure 4.11

Row House, Sumiyoshi, Osaka [photograph]. In: Jodidio, P (1997) Tadao Ando, London: Taschen, p.

52.

92

16

Figure 4.12

Row House, Sumiyoshi, Osaka [photograph]. In: Jodidio, P (1997) Tadao Ando, London: Taschen, p.

55.

92

Figure 4.13

Mosque in Rome (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://www.nycerome.com/sights-ofrome/auditorium-area/mosque.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

93

Figure 4.14

Mosque and Islamic Cultural Centre (2007) [online image] Available at: <http://picasaweb.google.com/sufijourneys/Mosque sAroundTheWorld02> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

93

Figure 4.15

World Trade Centre (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.newyorkpersonalinjuryattorneyblog.co m/2008/04/port-authority-liability-upheld-in1993.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

94

Figure 4.16

Martin, L. A. (1993) Photo, exterior, looking across the plaza fountain [online image] Available at: <http://www.artificeimages.com/buildings/World_Tra de_Center.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

94

Figure 4.17

View of the World Trade Centre Plaza (n.d.) [online image] available at: <http://www.slate.com/? id=2060207> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

94

Figure 4.18

View of the World Trade Centre Plaza (n.d.) [online image] available at: <http://www.slate.com/? id=2060207> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

95

Figure 4.19

Hadid, Z (2000) Great Mosque of Strasbourg [online image] Available at: <http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/architecture/archi tecture_features/alternating_currents/contemporary/ mosque/index.html> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

95

Figure 4.20

Watercube night (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Watercube_nigh t.jpg> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

97

17

Figure 4.21

Night Piece of China National Grand Theatre (2008) [online image] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Night_Piece_of_ China_National_Grand_Theatre.jpg> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

97

Figure 4.22

Masjid Negara (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://worldmosque.blogspot.com/> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

98

Figure 4.23

Petronas Tower 2 (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.tallestbuildingintheworld.com/building_i d_4_Petronas+Tower+2.php> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

99

Figure 4.24

Jin Mao Tower during the day (2005) [online image] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Mao_Building> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

99

Figure 4.25

Tangs Plaza (n.d.) [online image] Available at: <http://www.panoramio.com/photo/5612464> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

101

Figure 4.26

Brent Mosque and Islamic Centre, Chichele Road, London NW2 (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/412691> [Accessed 10 December 2008].

102

18

Introduction

“As an architect draws the details of a house in whiteness and then brings it out into existence according to the drawn exemplar, so likewise the Creator of heaven and earth wrote the master copy of the world from beginning to end in the Preserved Tablet and then brought it out into existence according to written exemplar” (Al-Ghazali, Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn, 1983, 3:20-21).

This is an intriguing analogy between architect and the Creator. We can see how the notion of architecture somewhat related with spirituality and religion. In broad terms, this dissertation is concerned with the question of art, religion and culture, creativity and spirituality, with the doubt on how religious notion and ideas can provide a perspective for understanding the meanings of human design and acts of making.

In a smaller scope, this dissertation is a research, analysis, exposition, commentary and an attempt to explore the theoretical and philosophical context that give sense to such an analogy in the Islamic, Chinese and Western architecture. Plus, it is concerned with the question of culture, philosophy and architecture; how ideas and cosmological thought can provide a different perspective in architectural design.

This dissertation is structured into four chapters. The first chapter describes faith principles and the relationship of it with architecture. Plus, how social, culture and custom influence the architecture also been discussed in this chapter. Also, the topic of gender is briefly described in this chapter.

The second chapter explores a few proposed theories that lead to some similarities in the architectural elements in the Islamic, Chinese and Western

19

architectures. These theories are; (1) transferring knowledge and borrowing views, (2) zeitgeist and cognitive unity, (2) cosmology. This is probably the most intriguing chapter in the whole dissertation since it tries to reveal some resemblances in the architectural occurrence in a way that many of us most likely never thought of it.

Later, in the third chapter, there will be a case study of some buildings in order to prove most of the aforementioned theory in the chapter 2. The case study will be based on the space ordering of the building layout, comparison in the plan layout of palaces and place for worship and the fusion in architecture.

Here it will reveal the historical evidence about the correlation of these architectures. There will be some diagrammatic and written narrative in support of the above theories.

The fourth chapter will focus on Islamic and Chinese architecture in the modern Western world. It will look at how far they maintain the identity from the outside world. This chapter will be based on where these developments are.

Discussion about the Islamic, Chinese and Western architecture in the avantgarde and national identity will be added afterwards. In contrast, identity crisis within these architectures will be addressed to conclude the chapter.

At the beginning of the dissertation, I realised that the topic scope is really broad; therefore the scope of my research need to be narrowed to obtain the much-needed clarity. There are some domains of research that already exists with regard to this dissertation topic such as the history of Islamic architecture from the beginning of its civilisation to the Islamic Golden Age in Spain and to the Ottoman Period and Turkey. These include the detailed narrative of the well known mosque in Europe, Great Mosque of Cordova, Alhambra Palace in Granada and the famous Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey. Other area includes history of Chinese architecture from its beginning to the end of its dynasty reign. Consequently, architectures have received little attention on the analogical study connecting these three different architectures.

Therefore this topic is proposed, providing more scope for originality and novelty.

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The domain of the proposed research is nevertheless still broad. Hence, a few topics have to be excluded to fine-tune my dissertation. These topics are townscape analysis, although I did mention briefly about several city layout in chapter 3 and detail research on the role of woman in influencing the architecture. Apart from that, a study and research on architects with Islamic and Chinese background and the analysis of garden is not going to be covered too. Other studies that are intriguing me but need to be excluded are literature, poetry and mysticism and the connection with architecture.

My historical research will be encompassed by the seventh to sixteenth century. Elsewhere in chapter four it will rely on the early twentieth century to present architecture, which is from modern, post-modern and deconstruction movement. Some designed of the well-known architects that used Islamic and Chinese thought will be examined. Again, my research will rely on the aforementioned theories.

The dissertation concludes with a summary of key findings and suggestions for future research and I do hope that this dissertation will help to unravel the bind of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intricacies in the architectural world that leads into some mysterious similarities. The outcome of this dissertation research will reveal the conclusion.

21

1 Cultural and Architecture

Faith and Architecture Prophet Muhammad once said, “Allah has prescribed certain obligations for you, so do not neglect them; and He has defined [or forbidden] certain things, do not do them; and he has kept silent concerning other things out of mercy for you” (Al-Qaradawi, 1960, p.60) Religion plays a main role in influential Islamic 1 Architecture. There is guidance and rules to follow by the Muslims’ architects need to be pragmatic in designing buildings. Nonetheless, the interpretation of religion in terms of architecture is full of ambiguity, indistinctness and requires critical thinking to adhere to the Shariah2.

“We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel; But it is on the space where there is nothing That the usefulness of the wheel depends We turn clay to make a vessel; But it is on the space where there is nothing That the usefulness of the vessel depends We pierce doors and windows to make a house; And it is on the spaces where there is nothing 1

Adj. of or relating to Islam. Islam is the religion to Muslims, a monotheistic faith regarded as revealed through Muhammad as the Prophet of Allah.

2 Islamic Law that provide Muslims with a guide to what are allowed and forbidden in religion.

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That the usefulness of the house depends Therefore just as we take advantage of what it is, We should recognise the usefulness of what is not.”

(Tao te-Ching3, Chapter 11, translated by Walley)

Figure 1.1. Lao Tse Leaves China on his water buffalo.

From this poetry of Taoism4 and looking at ancient Chinese Architecture, one can understand how emptiness (non-solid and void) has the power of giving life to architecture. In addition, it shows how the building (solid) and the garden (non-solid and void) are in tune and create a beautiful piece of architecture.

It does show the need of natural balance on a building. It has been established that the building needs to be sited and constructed in harmony with nature to maximise the benefit the site can offer (Lip, 1995). In other words, traditional Chinese buildings seem to follow the principle of Feng Shui 5.

3

The central Taoist text; in Chinese literally mean “the Book of the Way and Power” Chinese philosophy based on the writings of Lao-Tzu (including the Tao te-Ching) advocating humility and religious piety.

5 A system of laws considered to govern spatial arrangement and orientation in relation to the flow of energy, and whose effects are taken into account when sitting and designing building.

4

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Figure 1.2. Houses in China that balance with nature and avoid exaggeration.

Similar with Islamic ideas, many Quranic verses and prophetic Hadiths 6 teach Muslims not to abuse or damage plants and animals (Mortada, 2003).

One verse from the Quran7, which highlights this issue, “Allah tells us that all creatures are of his domain, and not leaf falls buy by his will” (Quran, V 6:56) This verse manifestly shows that Islam is truly concerned about preserving natural balance. Therefore most Islamic architecture is based and constructed on this principle.

Another teaching that played a part in shaping the Chinese architecture was Buddhism8. In Buddhism, humbleness should dominate a human’s daily life and actions and human beings must exercise moderation, be natural and avoid exaggeration (Fisher, 1993). In architecture, Buddhism lifestyle did shape and influence Chinese architecture and guided ancient Chinese architect to balance the building with nature and avoid exaggeration.

Similar looking buildings may function for either secular or religious needs in Chinese architecture and there were some, which were built to show pride and power (Fisher, 1993). But, that has more to do with the Taoism and Confucianism secular philosophy rather than religious teaching of Buddhism.

6

A collection of Islamic traditions containing sayings of the prophet Muhammad.

The Islamic sacred book, believed to be the word of God as dictated to Muhammad and written down in Arabic.

8 A widespread Asian religion or philosophy, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha; c.563c.460 BC) in NE India in the 5th century BC, which teaches that elimination of the self and earthly desires is the route to enlightenment.

7

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Figure 1.3. Blank exterior wall in a Medina. It ensures privacy to those within.

Figure 1.4. Courtyard-style House in China. Bad façade is to ensure privacy to those within and courtyard is a communing place.

In the Western architecture, the biggest impact on it started in the beginning of the 12th century. This era was known as the era of Christian Humanism9.

During this period, the varying nature of the faith and its

architectural design demonstrated to be extremely influential to the world of sacred architecture.

“Let us not give up meeting together, as some are in the habit of doing, but let us encourage one another—and all the more as you see the Day approaching”.

(Hebrew 10:25, the New Testament) In this biblical quote, we can see the importance of congregational and worshipping to the God. Therefore it is essential to have a building that can house these activities. Most of the first churches were built in splendid grandeur for a reason. The iconography of these churches was expressed on the design 9

Belief that human freedom and individualism are intrinsic (natural) parts of, or are at least compatible with, Christian doctrine and practice. It is a philosophical union of Christian and humanist principles. - Christian World. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1970, p. 42.]

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in order to represent Heaven on Earth and so that the illiterate could experience the greatness of God and as well as the basic notion of Christianity (Seasoltz10, 2005).

Figure 1.5. The iconography at the tympanum of Chartres Cathedral.

Social, Culture and Custom “Architecture addresses our metaphysical, philosophical and cultural identities within a material context.”

(Foster, 2004, p.5) Architecture always leads to regional differences and a building form with meaning, spiritual, symbolic content and above of all human faces.

Through architecture as well, each civilization thrives to create their characteristic style and design that embraces the key of their origin.

Winston Churchill once said, “We shape our dwellings, and afterwards our dwellings shape us” (House of Common, 28 October 1944) 10

is perhaps the leading Roman Catholic liturgical scholar in the English-speaking world. Editor of Worship for 18 years, professor of liturgy at the Catholic University of America for 25 years, and now professor of liturgy at St. John’s University, Collegeville, he is the author of 4 books and over 200 academic articles and has lectured extensively throughout the English-speaking world.

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From this quote, it can be clarified that we communicate with our buildings in parallel and communally. This thought was supported by Crouch and Johnson (2001) in their book; ‘Traditions in Architecture: Africa, America, Asia and Oceania’.

This clarification can be seen in Islamic and Muslim architecture with in their own manifestation.

Most Arabic and Chinese and houses have blank walls and bad façades (Crouch and Johnson, 2001). From the western eye-view, streets with a series of these bad façades would give a disturbing experience while walking along them. For the Chinese and the Arabic, there are reasons for it to be constructed as such which are: •

To encourage indication to the point of secrecy in the façade toward the public.

•

To hide the character of compositions of the family inside.

•

A matter of social unity- wealth and status are not openly showed as it may lead to pride and extravagance which are unlawful for the Muslims (Mortada, 2004).

•

For the Chinese, privacy derived from Confucian prescripts for the way of life and protect from evil spirit (Crouch and Johnson, 2001).

This phenomenon can be seen in much Islamic cities in the Arab Land,

North Africa and Central Asia. In China this feature is commonly seen everywhere. Plus, it shows us that privacy and protection were very important and they influenced the architecture of both cultures heavily.

However, these features and occurrences of houses in the ancient Islamic and Chinese cities can also be seen in the Medieval Venetian townscape. However, these occurrences were more to do with the cultural collision of centuries of trade with the Islamic world (Howard, 2000; Carboni, 2007). Apart from that, the processes of cultural diffusion which were;

27

transmission, propagation and reception played a major role in influencing the Venetian townscape. These processes will be discussed in later chapter.

Gender and Architecture In Arabic culture, women are secluded and segregated from the sight of stranger. For that reason, seclusion and special designated areas were provided for them. Therefore, courtyards are prominent in Islamic architecture providing an outdoor space for women to relax and socialise unobserved and this separated them from contact with unrelated males (Nevett, et al 1994).

Elsewhere in China, courtyards were used as a communal and social area for families as series of houses around courtyard (Fu et al, 2002). Plus it also provides an outdoor space within the internal building for women.

Referring to figure 1.6, the house is designed to prohibit the possibility of outsiders entering the domestic-family/private areas, through the prerequisite of the lobby areas and separate guest quarters.

Figure 1.6. Typical plan of an Arabic courtyard house.

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In Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, there was a special sector for females known as the harem11 and set around a small courtyard (Unsal, 1970).

Comparable with Forbidden City in China, there was a special area for the Emperorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concubines.

Figure 1.7. Harem quarter of the Topkapi Palace, Turkey.

Figure 1.8. Concubines garden Forbidden City, Beijing, China.

in

the

There are some instances of gender segregation in traditional western architecture especially in religious buildings. Architectural organisation in a church and convent was supplemented by detailed conventions attempting to control access, keep visitors separated from nuns, nuns separated from each other (Hills, 2000).

11

A house or a section of a house reserved for women members of a Muslim household. Also known as wives, concubines, female relatives and servants occupying such a place.

29

In conclusion, faith, culture, custom and gender played key roles in influencing these architectures. Some architectural elements such as courtyards, garden and spatial use of water were included in both architecture in order to create a private environment and promote gender segregation.

2 Theories on Cross-Cultural in Architecture

Knowledge Transfer and Borrowing Views In our globalised society, knowledge transfer from one culture to the other is ubiquitous. However, this transfer is not new, especially in architecture.

In some cases, the knowledge of technology from other civilisations were adapted and manipulated into other local culture and customs, re-emerging as something unique and becoming part of the identity of the later civilisation. This could apply in the architectural world, and has started since the earliest human civilisation.

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Figure 2.1. Alexander the Great.

He was well-known in the history for spreading the Hellenistic culture where it was assimilated and diffused to other culture.

Interaction between Chinese and Islamic Architecture Prophet Muhammad once said, “Seek knowledge even as far as China”, (Majlisi, 1982, p.180) From this quote, it shows the important of seeking knowledge and education among Muslims. At that time, China was a great civilisation with great knowledge and technology. Hence many Muslim were obliged to acquire knowledge and bring back to their people as far as they can reach. As a result of this prophetic quote, Baghdad 12 flourished as a centre for artistic and scientific inspiration. It prospered under the rule of caliphs’ al-Mansur, his son 12

This city became the epicentre of an empire and a vibrant culture that was undoubtedly the most sophisticated in known world outside of China. It was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time (George Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 2-00309-499-4).

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al-Mahdi (775-85 CE) and then his nephew Harun al-Rashid (786-808 CE) 13.

Later, when He became caliph the Abbasid14 empire reached it peak.

Established the ‘House of Wisdom’ or known as ‘Bait al-Hikma’ 15. The subject of theology, law, history, geography, poetry and architecture burgeoned as never before (Wallace-Murphy, 2006, p.97).

One of the famous examples of technology transfer between Chinese and the Muslim world was the adopting papermaking from China and further advanced invention of paper mills many centuries before paper was known in the West (Lucas, 2005). The knowledge of gunpowder 16 was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries (Al-Hassan, 2008).

Similar architectural elements between Islamic and Chinese architecture such as courtyards, symmetrical axial and others came from the transfer of knowledge either by written records or the mutual thinking of the people at that time.

Figure 2.2. Traditional courtyard house in China.

Figure 2.3. Typical Arabic courtyard house.

13

He is one of the famous Abbasid caliphs. He was portrayed in famous literature A Thousand and One Nights 14 A member of a dynasty of caliphs who ruled in Baghdad 750-1258. Named after Muhammad’s uncle Abbas, founder of the dynasty.

15 It was a library and translation institute in Abbasid era (Iraq: The 'Abbasid Caliphate, Encyclopedia Britannica). It preserved and disseminate the accumulated learning of the Greek, Persian and Indian Antiquity, ( Hattstein, Marcus and Delius, Peter (eds), Islam Art and Architecture , p.90) 16 The formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.

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Chinese architecture did influence the Islamic architecture in some unexpected ways. These two architectures were virtually contrasting, yet they share some similarities in a mystifying way. In the ancient China, this theory flourished during the Yuan 17 dynasty around 127918-1368 A.D. It was during this period that foreigners experienced a friendlier relationship with China.

(Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003; Fung, 2005).

Although the history witnessed the Mongols as cruel natives, craftsmen had a privileged position in society. They believed that craftsmen were Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gift for their talents and were the important persons in this period of unprecedented grandeur of the Chinese architecture. The emperor supported and protected them even when their kinsmen were assassinated (Fu et al, 2002). They were even freed from ordinary corvĂŠe labour and taxes (Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003).

17

Was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of presentday China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368.

18 Yuan was officially established in 1271. It however didn't control all of Southern China until 1279.

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Figure 2.4 Shah Zav Enthroned. Painting with Chinese and Islamic influence showing evidenced of cross-cultural during this period.

The Mongols also kidnapped artisans from the furthest area of their empire including Eastern Europe and majority of them were neither Chinese nor Mongols, but peoples of North Asia, Central Asia and the region of Nepal Tibet. These included people of the Arab or Persian descent (Fu et al, 2002; Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003).

In Yuan dynasty, openness toward foreign religions allowed affairs between China and other Islamic world to prosper and Muslims offered scientific and cultural expertise to Kublai Khan and his successor (Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003; Bulliet et al 2007). One of the principal supervisors of the construction of the capital of Dadu 19 was a Muslim (Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003).

The Mongols ruled a vast empire that led many Europeans and Asians merchants and missionaries crossed the continent from all over direction. This has led to transfer of knowledge from other parts of the world to the Chinese land. In some places of the ancient Silk Road like in Bukhara, Uzbekistan or Xinjiang Province in China, we could see the Middle East and Central Asian

19

In Chinese language it means great metropolis or great capital. Also known as Khanbaliq, he ancient Mongol name for the city that stood at the present location of Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China. Also sometimes transliterated as Ta-tu.

34

architecture intertwine with Chinese architecture resulting in a unique hybrid architectural style.

Figure 2.5. Id Kah Mosque, Kashgar, China.

Figure 2.6. Id Kah Mosque Interior.

Via trade as well, we can witness how the religion of Islam spread in South East Asia. With the religion, the traders brought the architectural technology with them and later infused with the vernacular architecture. Hence, the early â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Islamic Architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; at this part of the world is distinct than the rest of the world.

Figure 2.7. Tengkera Mosque in Malacca, Malaysia. Chinese influence from its pagoda style minaret and the locally adapted roof.

In this case, I would say that Islamic principles of architecture were integrated in the Chinese architecture in a striking way. Consequently, the architecture style of the Yuan dynasty attained unprecedented grandeur. This

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would later germinate the Ming architectural innovations, a great example being the Forbidden City.

Interaction between Islamic and Early Western Architecture.

The interaction between Islamic and Western architecture was first started during the gothic architecture 20 era in Europe. William Anderson 21, the gifted English architectural historian and Jean Boney, claim that the Gothic arch was first introduced from Islamic culture (Wallace-Murphy, 2006; William, 1988; Bony, 1985).

Furthermore, Gordon Strachan 22 convinced that the origin of the Gothic arch lies outside Europe and agree that its origin is Islamic and it came from the Holy Land (Wallace-Murphy, 2006, Strachan, 2003). He believes that Gothic arch derives from, â&#x20AC;&#x153;a unique blending of indigenous building skills with the architectural genius of Islamâ&#x20AC;? (Wallace-Murphy, 2006, p.125).

During the middle age, the Templars 23 met members of the Sufi24 orders who were undergoing resurgence in their fortunes at that time (WallaceMurphy, 2006; Shah, I, The Sufis, pp.166-193). Strachan claims that as a result of this contact, the Templar learnt the geometric method used to design the pointed arch or the Islamic Mukhammas (see figure 2.8). This can be seen today in Jerusalem, a three-bayed doorway with pointed arches on the Temple Mount25 when they put this technique to a test (Wallace-Murphy and Hopkins, 2005; Wallace Murphy, 2006).

20

Is a style of architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. Originating in the 12th to 16th centuries and revived in the 18th and 19th centuries.

21 English architectural Historian.

22 He is a lecturer in the Department of Architecture and the Centre for Continuing Education at the University of Edinburgh, and is a Church of Scotland Minister. He is the author f the highly acclaimed Jesus the Master Builder, is back with a ground-breaking new work and Chartres: Sacred Geometry, Sacred Space.

23 A member of the Knights Templars, a powerful religious and West Christian military order.

The organization existed for approximately two centuries in the Middle Ages, founded in the aftermath of the First Crusade of 1096, with its original purpose to ensure the safety of the many Christians who made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem after its conquest.

24 A muslim ascetic and mystic.

25 is a religious site in the Old City of Jerusalem. Due to its importance for Judaism and Islam it is one of the most contested religious sites in the world.

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Figure 2.8. Mukhammas- this word is derived from (hamsatun- ‫ )خمسة‬means five.

The arch was constructed by dividing the span into five equidistance points and then draws the arch from points 2 and 3. In my own thought, five points on a span could probably represent five pillars of Islam.

This arch was constructed by dividing the span into five equidistance points and then draws the arch from points 2 and 3. In my own opinion, these five points in a span represent five pillars of Islam. Therefore, a straight line is dividing into five and the pointed arch is drawn in reaching god.

Moreover, some victorious crusaders brought back captured masons from the Islamic lands to their homeland (Strachan, 2003). One example was Lalys26, a native of Palestine, and an prominent architect to Henry I 27, whom Richard de Granville brought over with him on his return from the Holy Land, and employed to build the abbey of Neath in this county (Strachan 2008; British History Online, 2008).

26

He is a native of Palestine, and an eminent architect, whom Richard de Granville brought over with him on his return from the Holy Land, and employed to build the abbey of Neath in this county.

27 Was the fourth son of William I the Conqueror, the first King of England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. He succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100 and defeated his eldest brother, Robert Curthose, to become Duke of Normandy in 1106.

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Consequently, the integration of Islamic geometry and Christian architecture resulted in a unique design of sacred building (Wallace-Murphy, 2006).

Figure 2.9. Al Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.

The three central bays which were actually built by the templars, or at least under their supervision, in the early twelfth century.

Figure 2.10. Chartres Cathedral: West façade, begun 1145 using “one-fifth” arches, the same as those identified ad Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Howard (2000) and Goss (1986) stated that during the architectural transmission from east to west in the period of crusades, they identified three necessary conditions •

Selective eye of the travellers- able to recognise the beauty and applicability of a foreign appearance.

•

Presence of an artist- entrusted with remembering new ideas and taking them into home.

•

A cultured public able to understand and accept the imported elements.

Apart from war of the crusades, the knowledge transfer from the East to

West occurred in the city of Venice mainly by trade. The cultural impact falls into numerous distinct phases. During the period 1300-1500, numerous Islamic elements were integrated into the framework of the city (Howard, 2000; 2007).

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At this era, Venetian Republic was an entrepot and opened a European door to the Islamic culture that created those goods (Covington, 2008).

It is not difficult to track the Islamic influence and Muslim connections in this city. This can be seen in figure 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13.

Figure 2.11. The Dogeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s palace with three tier merlons has a heavy ornamental which can be seen in most arabesque design. This palace was modelled on battlement of the Cairoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ibn Tulun Mosque. Howard (2006), stated that Venetian envoy Nicolo Zen brought home this bold architectural plan after his 1344 visit to Cairo, where he saw the Iwan alKabir, the official hall of justice, and the Citadel Mosque of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad.

Figure 2.12. The San Marco basilica cupolas resemble the mosques in the City of the Dead in Cairo.

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Figure 2.13. The City of the Dead in Cairo.

.

In addition, 17th century architect of St. Paulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cathedral in London and 19th century art critics, John Ruskin agreed to the view that Venetian architecture was highly influenced by the Muslim world (Covington, 2008).

Rationally, the Islamic architectural elements and technology infused into the Western architecture in many ways based in the aforementioned historical evidences. Hence, the Islamic architecture helped early western architecture to develop and form a distinctive style of its own that later flourished the European architectural innovations.

More understanding about the theory in these architectural views are shown in figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14.

Diagram showing how knowledge was transferred inin three Figure 2.14.

Diagram showing how knowledge was transferred three civilisations. civilisations.

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Zeitgeist and Cognitive Unity Mankind has always sought to know what unites us as one. History, art, religion and philosophy are the measureless world yet to be created and understood by us today. Such perspective would allow us to untie the knot of nowadays complexities of the world cultures back to its simplest basis. Even in architecture, there must be something that leads into some mysterious resemblances between the Islamic, Chinese and Western architectures and the aesthetic values behind them. This is what my research will try to reveal in this subtopic.

In order for one culture to implement certain qualities or motifs from another, similarity of mind must exist to let the receiving culture to find within those qualities something that is evocative and useful to it (Tylor, 1874).

According to Adolf Bastian

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he argued that the mental acts of all people

everywhere on earth are the results of physiological mechanisms features of the human species. Each mankind have the same thought of basic ideas.

Hence the minds of each mankind, despite of their race or culture, operate in the similar way.

That means the Islamic, Chinese and Western civilisation shared common characteristics of mind and spirit as to influence each other. The theories of similarity of human mind or spirit of time are known as zeitgeist and cognitive unity. Furthermore, a concept of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;mutual regardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; or fusion between scene and sentiment co-arises in the poetic encounter between human being and building (Tan, 2002).

Architecture was a medium for patrons and builders to express their favourite philosophical inclination during their time (Haider, 1988). Many of

28

He was a 19th century polymath best remembered for his contributions to the development of ethnography and the development of anthropology as a discipline. Modern psychology owes him a great debt, because of his theory of the Elementargedanke, which led to Carl Jung's development of the theory of archetypes.

41

them the Chinese, Muslims or Westerners were trained in the master-disciple system of the Tao and Confucian, Sufi or Templar orders respectively.

These common characteristics could be found in the ideologies that shaped thinking in these different cultures. This was reflected in the building design and architecture at that time. Some indication that strengthened these theories will be elaborated below.

Unity and Multiplicity For the Islamic mind, there is a unity behind all things that divide the world. The world could be divided into different objects and things (Ardalan and Bakhtiar, 1973; Haider, 1988; Cansever, 2004; Akkach, 2005). In term of architecture, this could be understood from the diagram in figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15. Being and non-being in the Islamic thought.

From this diagram illustrated around thirteenth century, there is a unity in all the attributes which link to the Islamic thought. Apart from that, it does shows how architecture related to this notion. Architecture is an associate of knowledge and art. Knowledge, which is â&#x20AC;&#x153;beingâ&#x20AC;? form in the soul of the knower 42

and art, is the “non-being” form (Akkach, 2005). Thought process is the mediator between knowledge and art that leads to the architectural thinking.

Architecture design is an outcome from “non-being” to “being” through several mediating processes.

This concept is comparable with Chinese thought philosophy as depicted in the diagram of Ying and Yang 29 in figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16. Being and non-being in the Chinese thought.

This diagram illustrates how positive and negative elements are the attributes unity as a whole. In term of architecture, the concept of dualopposites is very important in striking a perfect balance between architecture design and nature. It shows that concept of unity underlying the notion is similar with the Islamic thought.

Just to point out, the underlying major similarities in the Islamic and Chinese thought are: 29

Is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together, intertwined, and interdependent in the natural world, giving rise to each other in turn based in Chinese philosophy.

43

â&#x20AC;˘

The concept of unity.

â&#x20AC;˘

The concept of dual-opposite.

Comparable with the early Christian thought in medieval Europe, there is God the mediator between heaven and earth (Strachan, 2003). The diagram depicting this notion is shown in figure 2.17a.

Figure 2.17. The Ichtus and the Christian Pythagorean.

This symbol shows some resemblances to the aforementioned diagrams. However, the central overlap or known as vesica piscis 30 representing something which is born out of the opposites, the Jesus and Mary.

Mary who is ever virgin must also viewed as an androgynous representation and this diagram shows how architecture related to this theological diagram (Strachan, 2003).

Similar to the Islamic thought, knowledge and art is the main connections in architecture. Therefore, the mediator (Jesus) represents the 30

Is a shape which is the intersection of two circles with the same radius, intersecting in such a way that the centre of each circle lies on the circumference of the other. The name literally means the bladder of the fish in Latin. The shape is also called mandorla ("almond" in Italian).

44

overlapping process that leads to architectural thinking. The concept of dualopposite (the Heaven and Earth) is important in striking the balance of perfect harmony between human being and the Creator in achieving the greatness of God. In the architectural sense, the perfect harmony between design and environment is essential in attaining splendid result.

More understanding about this notion is shown in figure 2.17b.

Figure 2.18

Interestingly, this shape has been used in many medieval Christian arts as a halo to surround a sacred figure. Some of the images are shown below in figure 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20.

Figure 2.19. The famous sculpture of the West Portal of the Chartres Cathedral.

Figure 2.20. Vesica pisces in the Christian art.

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Sacred Geometry.

The Kaaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ba31: The First House and the Evolve of Cubes For Muslims, it is a centre where they have to face during prayer no matter where are they in this world. This gives the sense of unity and centre of the world to the Muslims. In architecture, Kaaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ba is not only a cube, the focal structure of the mosque and liturgical centre for Muslims. From this, it can evolve into an octagon and leads up to circular dome. Plus, it is the fundamental geometric figure that can be developed and shaped into many Islamic patterns which is unique and distinct (Strachan, 2003; Burckhardt, 1976). The cube alone articulated the great Oneness because it had the ratios of 1:1:1.

31

Is a cubical building in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam, containing a sacred black stone.

46

Figure 2.21. Cube showing √2 diagonal of a square face and √3 diagonal of the cube itself.

47

Figure 2.22. Cross-section of the Dome of the Rock showing √2 + √3 proportions.

By means of the ratio, 1:√2 and 1: √3, Dome of the Rock was modelled (Strachan, 2003). This can be proved by analysing the elevation of this building geometrically as shown in figure 2.22.

Figure 2.23. Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.

From the ratio 1:√2 and 1: √3, or from

the

cube,

it

can

evolve

into

pendentive and later into a vault. A graphic geometrical analysis is shown figure 2.25.

Figure 2.24. The plan of the Dome of the Rock- hexagon in shape. The hexagon is an evolvement of cube in two-dimension48view as shows in the geometrical analysis in figure 2.25.

Figure 2.25. Geometrical analysis of a cube.

For the early Western Europe Christian, they have an exceptional way of using the cube as an essential of an architectural system. It was by looking at an angle of 45o or axonometrically. This geometrical analysis is shown in figure 2.26.

Figure 2.26. Geometrical analysis of a cube.

It was these which formed the basis of the main proportional system used in the early gothic, known as ad triangulum 32.

32

Literally, mean â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;by the triangleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. It was used for calculating height and proportion for a gothic cathedral based on equilateral triangle.

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Figure 2.27. John James’ diagram.

From the John James’ diagram (figure 2.27), it shows the circle which encloses hexagon passes through columns at point A, B, C and D. Given that distance; AB = CD = radius, Figure 2.28. Chartres Cathedral.

Therefore, distance; AC = BD = diameter = 2*radius.

Derived from theorem Pythagoras AD2 = AC2 + CD2 AD2 = 2 + 1 AD2 = 3 AD = √3

Figure 2.29. Pythagoras analysis.

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Thus, it shows how six equilateral triangles that form a hexagon, outline the geometrical frame for 1: â&#x2C6;&#x161;3 rectangle that is the fundamental unit of the ad triangulum system of building (Strachan, 2003).

In the case of the Cathedral of Chartres, this geometry defines the general shape of the building. It can be revealed by expanding the longer side AD and BC and we will see that it match the columns lines of the building.

Hence, it proves that the simple geometrical figure of a hexagon within the hexagon and extended out in all way is the key layout and pattern of the cathedral. This can be seen on figure 2.30.

Figure 2.30 Plan of Chartres.

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From all these evidences, I can say that the Gothic architecture based on the ad triangulum ratio of 1 to √3 was probably brought to West Europe via Crusades from the Islamic Land. On the other hand, there was a conspicuous connection between Sufi wisdom which is one sect of the Islamic thought and the mysticism of Dionysius the Areopagite 33 that lead to some resemblances in the architectural notion.

The Circle From the aforementioned geometrical analysis, it does shows how a cube can evolve into a hexagon within a circle. In ancient Chinese architecture, geometry played a main role in shaping their buildings. On of the prominent example is the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. According to UNESCO World Heritage site in 1998, “It is a masterpiece of architecture and landscape design which simply and graphically illustrates a cosmogony of great importance for the evolution of one of the world’s great civilizations and the symbolic layout and design of the Temple of Heaven had a profound influence on architecture and planning in the Far East over many centuries”.

In Chinese culture, circle symbolises unity and wholeness reflecting the continuity, cycle of life in which everything is pure potential. Therefore, in my own thought, I propose the idea that this building complex was designed based on several concentric circles and each has a multiple of nine.

33

also known as Pseudo-Denys, is the anonymous theologian and philosopher of the late 5th to early 6th century. His surviving works include Divine Names, Mystical Theology, Celestial Hierarchy, Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, and various epistles. Some other works are no longer extant, such as Theological Outlines.

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Figure 2.31 Temple of Heaven, Beijing.

Figure 2.32 Plan of Temple of Heaven, Beijing.

Figure Figure 2.33a.

2.33b.

Aerial Aerial viewview of Temple of Temple of of Heaven, Heaven, Beijing.

Beijing.

Number Nine

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In Sufi teaching, there is a concept of nine enneagram represented by a nine-edged star-like picture that touches a circle at nine equidistant points coming from its cosmological and psychological system . Each of these nine points represents nine different states of human beings.

Figure 2.34. The sufi enneagram.

Its significance and efficiency can be measured by the fact that it is still in use today by the Christian circle apprehensive with psychological and spiritual development (Strachan, 2003). Plus number nine is important in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nine Degrees of Wisdomâ&#x20AC;? of mysterious Shiite Ismailis in the 12 th century in Persia and Syria whom were encountered by the Crusaders (Wasserman, 2001).

For the ancient Chinese, number nine carried a special significance. It is convincingly related with the dragon, symbol of magic and power. Plus, it symbolised the Chinese Emperor (Fu et al, 2002). Hence, number nine or its multiples is often in use in architectural elements and structure. A noticeable abovementioned example is the Temple of Heaven.

Furthermore, if we look more deeply through numerology 34 there are more things that related to number nine in Islamic, Western and Chinese culture. However, this issue is well beyond the scope of this dissertation.

34

Numerology is any of many systems, traditions or beliefs in a mystical or esoteric relationship between numbers and physical objects or living things.

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Historically, there were only nine members of the Templar for the first nine years. Was it some kind of a code?

Figure 2.35a

Figure 2.35b

Figure 2.36. Chinese dragon is normally described in terms of nine attributes and usually has 117 scales - 81 (9x9) male and 36 (9x4) female. It is also said that the Dragon has nine children, all mythical creatures.

Another aspect of nineness?

Figure 2.37

As a whole, Islamic, Chinese and western world have a similarity of thought that lead to some similarity in their architectural elements. From here, we can see how these cultures using geometry in their architectural element, the notion of unity and multiplicity and the concept of nineness that occurred in 55

mystifying way. My views underlying these likenesses in elements are known as zeitgeists or cognitive unity. More elaboration regarding this theory will be show in the next part of this research.

The Cosmological Theory On one hand, cosmology is a science of cosmos that relate to the origin, structure, components, order and governing laws. On the other hand, Architecture is the art and science of building design and structures. Therefore, cosmological architecture from my own thought can be understood as an art and science of the building design basis on the notion of cosmos.

Tan (2002) in her article in Architectural Design stated that Chinese culture has developed within the non-dualist cosmology and thus does not maintain a subject-object opposition. Likewise, Akkach (2005) stated that there were two literally sources that appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth century Ottoman genre of architectural writings: “Risâle-I Mi’mâriyye, the treatise on architecture opens with a cosmological recount on the creation and structure of the world, followed by poetic reflections whereas the Selimiyye Risâlesi includes many references to the correspondences between a building and cosmos.” (Akkach, 2005, p.4) In this case we could testify that cosmology did guide both the Islamic and Chinese architecture. The connection between cosmology and architecture were studied by the modern theorists working with view of symbolism (Haider, 1998; Akkach, 2005). Nevertheless, there was very little information about it with regards to similarities between two cultures.

In the early Western Europe Christian, Christian Platonism known as Quadrivium was taught. According to Strachan (2003), there were four subjects that relate to numbers. Those subjects were: •

Arithmetic which was pure number.

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•

Music which was number in time.

•

Geometry which was number in space.

•

Astronomy-astrology which was number in space-time.

These subjects relied on the notion of cosmology since it’s all related to

origin, structure, components, order and governing laws.

To illustrate this point, we may compare the planning of Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem, The Temple of Heaven in Beijing and Chartres Cathedral in France. These buildings functioned as a worship place for human being to the Divinity.

Figure 2.38. Dome of the Rock.

Figure 2.39. Temple of Heaven.

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Figure 2.40.Chartres Cathedral.

These buildings were expressions of the human being based on the cosmological idea. A unified secluded space of the Dome of the Rock includes all architectural spaces that are characterised by a geometrically standard base and domical, conical, or other form of centralised roofing. The roof underlines unity and centrality whilst the plan tends to highlight the directionality and spatial use (Akkach, 2005). Elsewhere, Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul is an open ended ornate unity of architectural tectonics and the interior is a furtherance of the endless space (Cansever, 2004). Indeed, it was a ledge of the Islamic cosmology to beautify the world.

Figure 2.41. Suleymaniye Mosque.

The major complex of Temple of Heaven consists of dominant shapes of circle and square that symbolises the harmony of heaven above and earth below (Fu et al, 2002).

In general, most gothic churches and cathedrals were planned deliberately in the shape of a cross to remind the Christians of the crucifixion of 58

Jesus and the idea of the tall spires was a projection of pointing to heaven.

These conceptions can be seen on the Chartres architectural design. However, there are scholars who do not agree with this idea. For instance, Strachan (2003) commented that a nasty accident from the highest scaffolding might have ended in the construction of Chartres.

In my opinion, cosmology is an important notion in the early Islamic, Chinese and Western Europe Christian Culture. This idea contributed to shape the Islamic, Chinese and Western European Christian architecture in a specific way. More research regarding these buildings will be discussed in the case study in the next chapter.

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3 Case Studies

Case Study 1- Ordering Space In many pre-modern Islamic buildings, there was a tendency to organise space symmetrically around a central point (Akkach, 2005). This was based on a notion of the divine god. Whereas the traditional Chinese buildings were always laid out based on certain orientation, usually along north-south axis and constructed symmetrically on this axis (Fu et al, 2002). This reflected the strong Confucian ideology in the Chinese architecture, as mentioned briefly in chapter 2. In the case of early Western Europe architecture specifically the Gothic architecture, there was as well an affinity to organise space based on geometrical idea and ad triangulum ratio. As mentioned in the previous chapter that the ratio of the cube 1:1:1 represents unity. In my own thought, this ratio reflected the concept of trinity which is one of the fundamental of the Catholic faith.

Concentric Composition This is a part of the concept of unity. It could be understood that all architectural designs are laid out in a stationary centre and stating the spatial order of the three-dimensional intersect in a static manner (Akkach, 2005).

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Figure 3.1. The formal order of the centralized enclosed space.

Figure 3.2. The geometry of the concentric composition.

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Figure 3.1 and 3.2 show an example of symmetrical elements prevalent in many Islamic building types, both religious and secular buildings. The elements consist of formal composition of a dome on a geometrically regular base or a central courtyard with fountain as its stationary point and four vaulted doorways (Akkach, 2005).

Figure 3.3. Courtyard with vaulted doorways.

Courtyard is a part of the concentric composition form. Image below shows the proliferation of unity into quadrature (Akkach, 2005). Many Islamic courtyards and gardens following this model have influenced entire architectural structures.

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Figure 3.4. The centralised open courtyard.

Figure 3.5. The centralised complex with courtyard. An archetypical in Chinese architecture.

In many cases, internal courtyards are the predominant spatial element, where these geometric configurations are manifest. This form was common in traditional Chinese architecture, whether common residential houses, temples for worship or the imperial palaces, it normally consists of many building groups or complexes quadrature from a central point (Fu et al, 2002).

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Looking at Early Western Europe Architecture, this phenomenon can be seen in the Venice architecture. Where most houses and buildings were constructed based on this conception. A prominent example is the San Marco Square and the Dodgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Palace where the building layout following this concentric composition.

Figure 3.6a. The development of the courtyard houses diagram.

Normally, on the central axis, lies the main building. Later, secondary buildings will be situated in front of it to form a square or rectangular courtyard (See above figure). When a courtyard is not enough, more will be built. This can be in front of the main building, behind or symmetrically on both sides of the buildings. An eastern example of the multiple courtyards complex is the Forbidden City in Beijing that will be discussed in the case study later on.

Linear Composition This is a variation of the concentric composition involving repetition and conveying motion and extensionality (Akkach, 2005). Figure below showing this

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notion diagrammatically. In other words, linear composition is a variable of â&#x20AC;&#x153;movingâ&#x20AC;? or copy and paste in a series of concentric compositions. This occurrence can be seen in most of traditional courtyard houses and the Imperial palaces, places of worship, pre-modern bazaars or souks, and medina. From my own observation, the Venice city layout and the Medina of Fez were urbanized based on this hypothesis as well.

Figure 3.6b. The development of the courtyard houses diagram.

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Figure 3.7. Linear composition of the Fez Medina, Morocco.

Figure 3.8 Linear composition of the Venice, Italy.

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Figure 3.9 Linear composition of Beijing, China.

To summarise, there are important similarities across Islamic, Chinese and Western buildings in terms of space ordering. Although from a visual point of observation these architectural styles are entirely diverse, the conception of the space ordering is similar. Some of the examples are the courtyards and patios. This suggests that these civilisations had a similarity of thought. Hence, zeitgeist and theory of cognitive unity can probably be taken as a fact in the architectural context. The case study comparing several buildings between these architectural worlds will be revealed in the next research.

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Case Study 2- Comparison Palaces Both Topkapi Palace and Forbidden City were not really palaces in the occidental sense but a series of buildings and courtyards. These complexes were built in the same period of time during the fifteenth century. Apart from that, both were surrounded by high walls, entered through one major formal gate and consist of many complexes. These are reflection of ‘fortification’ architecture and an expression of power.

Figure 3.10. Major gate of the Forbidden City.

Figure 3.11. Major gate of the Topkapi Palace.

Figure 3.10 and 3.11 are the formal gates of these palaces. From here, we can see that the expression of power and ‘fortification’ is reflected from it.

Apart from that, it shows the impression of the ‘hidden architecture’ which was very common in the Islamic and Chinese architecture that express the beauty forms by looking inward.

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Figure 3.12 and 3.13. Beauty forms by looking inward that common in Islamic and Chinese architecture.

Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14 and 3.15 show the plan of both palaces. The Forbidden City was formed on an axial planning basis, whereas the Topkapi Palace was not.

The reason behind this was because the Topkapi Palace was constructed on the existing foundation of the Byzantine City and the foremost builder made used of the retaining walls. Contrary, Forbidden City was constructed on a base of the typical Chinese building principal where buildings had to be aligned along the straight axis.

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Figure 3.14. Satellite view of the Forbidden City.

Figure 3.15. Satellite view of the Topkapi Palace.

Nevertheless, there are similarities between the palaces. Both composed of clusters of buildings surrounded by retaining wall and it was not only a home for sultan and emperor; also functioned as administrative and art centre.

Apart from that, the planning of both palaces was similar according to pyramid of social strata shown in figure 3.16.

Figure 3.16. Pyramid of social strata.

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In both cultures, imperial garden represent heaven on earth and it was the highest praise of divinity or karma. Since Islam was originated from the Middle East which always associated with dessert, water was used to illustrate the greatness of Creator in the garden and symbolize heaven. Similarly, water was the essential elements in the Chinese garden, which they believe was the spiritual heart of the garden.

Underneath the top stratum are the third Courtyard and Palace of Heavenly purity. It shows that Sultan and the emperor was the sovereign under the divine spirit.

Below this stratum, it is the harem and the ‘Harmony Complexes’. It was where the Sultan associated with the wives and his family member. That means family was the precedence in Sultan’s life. For the emperor, this was the area to meet the administrator and socialise with them.

Underneath this area are the second courtyard and the Imperial Court, it was the administrative for the Sultan and the Imperial Court could accommodate nine thousand people in imperial ceremony occasions. At the bottom were the service area in the Topkapi Palace and the Meridian Gate and the golden stream acted as monumental features for the palace.

It is interesting to compare these two palaces with the Doge’s Palace in Venice because it shows some resemblances in the plan layout; based on the concentric composition and buildings surrounding the main courtyard. Apart from that, as mentioned earlier this building was influenced by Citadel Mosque of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, therefore it had a reflection of ‘fortification’ architecture and an expression of power. If we looked this building in a bigger context with other buildings surrounding it, it is actually a series of buildings and courtyards. In a strange way, it follows the architectural conception similar to Topkapi Palace and Forbidden Palace.

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Figure 3.17. Satellite view of the Dogeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Palace, Venice.

To recapitulate, if we look at these architectures, there are some similarities in the design elements of the palaces, though from an optical point of view we could say that both palaces were distinctive.

Place for Worship The Dome of the Rock, Suleymaniye Mosque, Chartres Cathedral and the Temple of Heaven are monumental pieces of architecture. Even though the Islamic principle, Chinese culture and the Christian thought oppose lavishness and everyone must practise humility, in the construction of places for worshipping Divinity, things were different. It has more to do with the human race devotion towards their Creator; to show the greatness of the creator on earth.

Figure 3.18. Suleymaniye Mosque

Figure 3.19. Temple of Heaven

Main characteristics between these buildings which were built during the medieval period can be noticed from the plan layout. Both were built based on the axial and geometry concept. This can be seen from the images below.

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Figure 3.20. Plan of Suleymaniye Figure 3.21. Plan Mosque. of Temple of Heaven.

Plan of Suleymaniye Mosque and the Temple of Heaven. Both were planning based on axial geometry and symmetrical.

The idea of axial geometry planning was based on the cosmological notion. For Suleymaniye Mosque which was constructed in the 1550s, the dome was seeing as God as the centre of the universe, represent by a circle (Goodwin, 1971). The dome represents the unity and centrality. This mosque was built by Sinan35 by order of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent 36. The design of this mosque shows his intention of portraying himself as the second Solomon. Therefore, this mosque was probably adapted from the Dome of the Rock, which was constructed on the site of the aforementioned Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. The plan that shows the axial geometry as the basis of its planning is shown below.

He was the chief Ottoman architect and civil engineer. He was born from 15 th April 1489 and died in 9th April 1588. He was, during a period of fifty years, responsible for the construction or the supervision of every major building in the Ottoman Empire. More than three hundred structures are credited to his name, exclusive of his more modest projects, such as his Koran.

36 He has been known as one of the greatest rulers of the Ottoman Empire. He is mostly remembered as a fierce conqueror of the Islamic religion. In Middle Eastern cultures, however, he is often referred to as a great builder. During his rule as sultan, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak in power and prosperity.

35

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Figure 3.22. The plan of the Dome of the Rock that shows the axial geometry and symmetrical.

On the Temple of Heaven which was first constructed from 1406 to 1420 and was extended circa 16th century, the dominant shapes of circle and square symbolised heaven above and earth below and the conical dome signified the harmony of two different structures. In other words, the layout exemplified the aphorism “Heaven is round, earth is square” (Fu et al, 2002). This notion of geometrical representation corresponds with Plato’s cosmological ideas on figure 3.23.

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Based on the Pythagorasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; theorem for right-angled triangle refers to number 3, 4 and 5, the equation can be expressed as follows: 32 + 42 = 52 From this, it also showed how the atmospheric elements and earth merged inside the encircling universe (see right for figure 3.23).

Figure 3.23.

Looking at the Medieval European Architecture, the best example would be the Cologne Cathedral in Germany. From the plan layout, we can see that it was constructed based on geometry and symmetrical. The plan is cross in shape which was typical in most gothic cathedrals and churches. This was a manifestation of Christâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crucifixion and the tall spires represent a finger pointing to heaven. The design of Cologne Cathedral has some resemblances with the Chartres Cathedral in term of its plan layout and style. Moreover, most medieval cathedrals had these characteristics (see image in the appendix 3).

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Figure 3.24. Plan of Cologne Cathedral.

Hiscock (2000) stated that “when the Carolingian cathedral burnt down in 1020, it was Fulbert 37 therefore who set about replacing it”. Therefore, the technology of building Chartres has been transferred in building the Cologne Cathedral. Apart from Fulbert, whom his name was prominent in these cathedrals constructions, the Chartres school of thought played a major role influencing the architecture of Cologne Cathedral specifically. At Chartres school, apart from being a centre of religious education, the emphasis was on quadrivium of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy (Ball, 2008).

37

Fulbert of Chartres was the bishop of the Cathedral of Chartres from 1006 till 1028. He was a teacher at the Cathedral school there, he was responsible for the advancement of the celebration of the Feast day of “Nativity of the Virgin”, and he was responsible for one of the many reconstructions of the Cathedral. Most of the information we have about him is found in the letters he wrote from 1004-1028, to both secular and religious figures of the day.

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Figure 3.25. Cologne Cathedral, Germany.

Looking back at some of these aforesaid buildings examples, it is all correlated back to the architectural masterpiece of the Dome of the Rock. The diagram shows how these all related is shown in figure 3.26.

On aFigure whole, Islamic, Chinese and Early Western worship places have same 3.26. concept in general. The cosmological theory that was mentioned in chapter 2 can be considered as a piece of information in influencing each other in the 77

architectural world. In addition, architecture has such a divine lexis which deserves praise.

Case Study 3- Fusion in Architectural Design and Elements.

Chinese Architecture with Islamic Purpose

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In some cases, Islamic principles fused harmoniously with Chinese architecture resulting in a very unique Chinese-Islamic architecture. One of the greatest examples is Great Mosque of Xi’an that was built during the seventh century.

Figure 3.27. Plan of Xi’an Great Mosque.

Figure 3.28. Aerial view of Xi’an Great Mosque.

This mosque follows the patterns of traditional Chinese architecture, in which buildings are arranged along strict axial lines and positioned around courtyards (Fu et al, 2002). Besides, it has geometrical principles and used bright colours like in the Chinese temples. For those who are unaware, they would assume that the minaret is the pagoda or pavilion of a Buddhist or Confucius temple.

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Figure 3.29. Minare of the Great Mosque of Xi’an.

Some of these elements were widespread in the Islamic architecture too.

Here, we can see that Chinese architecture is a pleasant host for Muslim worship. Then again, this can be called as Chinese architecture with an “Islamic purpose”.

Thus, I would say there was a similarity of thought in the ancient time between Chinese and Islamic and that was what made the construction of these eastern mosques tunefully achievable. In this case, the aforementioned theory in chapter two regarding connection of contemplation can possibly be taken as a point.

Chinese Influence in Islamic Architecture.

“The Yuan dynasty’s openness toward foreign religious allowed relations between China and Iran to flourish” (Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003, p.25).

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From this quote we could understand that during this era, Muslims from Iran and Central Asia played a major role in the Chinese empire. The result towards this diplomatic openness adds a vast contribution in administration, construction, art and architecture. Yet, the construction supervisor in building capital Dadu was a Muslim although his origin was unclear (Kamarrof and Carboni, 2003).

Furthermore,

the

Mongols

supported

cultural

exchange

and

manifestations of great variety and at this time the Chinese calendar became more accurate since Kublai Khan hired Persian astronomer, Jamal al-Din and the Chinese astronomer Guo Shoujing to devise it.

Plus, the social and economic policies and arts have led the Chinese motifs and techniques going westwards. One of the examples is the faรงade of Nadir Divanbegi Medressa in Bukhara. The image of peacock and floral ornamentations was visual quotation from motifs found in Chinese painting and pottery exported to the Islamic world. See figure 3.30.

Figure 3.30. Faรงade of Nadir Divanbegi Medressa in Bukhara.

Subsequently, there were connections between the ancient Chinese civilisation and the Islamic world. The evidences that discussed in this chapter showed that there was a transferring knowledge processed between these two civilisations at that period of time. This can be witnessed not just in architecture, but as well in other various form of art such as literature, painting and others. Some examples are shown in figure 3.31, 3.32, 3.33 and 3.34.

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Figure 3.31. The Birth of the Prophet Muhammad.

Figure 3.31 is the illustration of The Birth of the Prophet Muhammad.

The figural depiction of the prophet in this manuscript may have been the result of the Mongolsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; familiarity with Buddhism and the Chinese culture and probably Christian, which had adapted them to religious images. This shows a clear Chinese and/or Christian influence, given that Islam forbids pictorial representation of the prophet and human being.

With deep observation, this image was probably adopted from the Christian Scene of Nativity.

Figure 3.32. The three women on the left replace the three wiseman.

Figure 3.33. The Prophetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father, Abdul Mutallib replace Joseph.

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Another example is the Mihrab (figure 3.34). This is a typical Islamic art with its decorative design. The floral forms were an adaptation from Chinese art combine with Arabic calligraphy.

Figure 3.34. Mihrab,

Early Western Architecture with Eastern Influence (see also chapter 2) Evidence on how the early Western architecture adopted some elements and motifs from the Islamic world can be witnessed in Venice.

Figure 3.35. Pallazzo Ducale

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Observing at the cresting and lozenge tiling of Palazzo Ducale, it has some resemblances with the cresting on Sultan Hassan Mosque. Plus the colour scheme has some similarity with Sultan Hassan Mosque in Cairo and Mosque of Abdel Qader al-Gilani, Alexandria.

Figure 3.36. Sultan Mosque, Cairo.

Hassan

Figure 3.37. Mosque of Abdel Qader al-Gilani, Alexandria.

The most prominent feature of Palazzo Ducale is its openness, elevated on beneath croft of great pointed arches. This feature evokes the eastern archetype such as the Mosque of St Athanasius in Alexandria. The site of the mosque associated with an important Christian martyr much sacrosanct in Venice (Howard, 2000). Plus, the impressive and notable Iwan- al-Kabir in Cairo which was the official hall of justice and the centre of state ceremonial of the Mamluk38 Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad to the Venetians traders brought back 38

was a slave soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military cast often defeating the Crusaders. On more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves; for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from 1250â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1517.

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the vision to Venice and must have justified the Doge for his new term of ducal authority.

Consequently, there were relations between the Early European culture and the Islamic world. Evidence showed in this section suggests that there was a transmission of architectural knowledge between these cultures.

To summarise, there were interactions between the Islamic, Chinese and Western architecture in the pre-modern world. Whether it was from the view of transferring knowledge, cognitive unity and zeitgeists or cosmological influenced, some of them were revealed in the case study that I had done. A detailed research showed that two contrasting architectures had a striking similarity suggesting some psychological overlaps between Islamic, Western and Chinese ancient architecture.

4 Eastern Architecture and the Modern Western World

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Western and Eastern Architecture in the Modern World “…Now the massive cultural exchange is between the Islamic world and the West. The Challenge is ‘modernity’.”

(Ozkan, 2004, p. 26).

From this quote, we can understand that the main challenge for Islamic architecture is modernity. The same applies to the Chinese architecture in order to sustain their identity. Although, the golden age of traditional Chinese and Islamic architecture has past, its legacy in impacting other architecture is significant. Plus, record had publicized that Islamic architecture had influenced the world since the Islamic Golden Age in Spain that led to the renaissance architecture in Europe.

Modernity as a way of life and Modernism as an architecture movement, have changed lives and cultural language in the entire globe and cultures under Islamic and Chinese influence have naturally not been indifferent to these changes.

Around 1900s, Modernism has protected itself within two mottos which more or less in my opinion dictate itself. These two mottos are: •

“Ornament is crime”, Adolf Loos.

•

“Form follows function”, Louis Sullivan.

Tackling the visuals of industry and mass production, Modernism rose

and grew and transformed into a largely unchallenged language of architecture.

It marked itself in many works of art and became politically identical with being ‘progressive’. Modernist architecture ordered straightforward, functional, industrially producible, inspiring and truthful expressions in built form. Even though it is unreasonable to fault Modernism for the worldwide spread for

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unvarying, tedious and monotonous buildings, some may see modernism as neglecting cultural identity, historical connection and climatic significance.

However, there are examples of modern architecture that successfully inserts historical and cultural elements in its design. Some examples are the work of Rifat Chadirji39. His name might not be as renowned as the mainstream western architects, but he is a pioneer in the realm of contextualism and Geoffrey Bawa, a prominent advocate of an architecture that is environmentally in tune with tropical contexts (Ozkan, 2004).

Figure 4.1. Rafidain Bank, Baghdad.

Other examples are works by German architect, Frei Otto. He is an expert in adapting tensile structure to the harsh climate of the Arabian Peninsular. Other than that is Henning Larsen, the Danish architect who developed innovative modern architectural language by modernising courtyards and the passage of the souks.

Figure 4.2. Tuwaiq Palace in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Designed by Frei Otto.

Figure 4.3.

Massar Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Discovery centre in Damascus, Syria

by Henning Larsen. Adaptation of 39 He istypical an Iraqi architect, critic and teacher, hasinsearched for an appropriate contemporary courtyardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture architectural expression that synthesises elements of the rich Islamic cultural heritage with key North Africa. principles of the 20th century. He believes that the future of architecture lies in the lessons learned from its past. His designs are transformations of regional form that seek to express, by.

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In France, Jean Nouvel, took the idea of the mashrabbiya (window sun screen) and the lattice which is a typical element in the Islamic architecture and reinterpret it in the modern technology in designing the Arab World Institute in Paris.

Figure 4.4. The Istitut du Monde Arabe, Paris by Jean Nouvel and completed in 1988. “Franco-Arabian” style.

Figure 4.5. The window sun screen.

Some examples of Islamic architecture has influenced the buildings in the modern western world are shown in figure 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9. Figure 4.6 is The Marin Centre in San Rafael, U.S. It was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and completed in 1957. The Islamic influence can be seen from the arches façade and the central domed roof.

Figure 4.6. The Marin Centre in San Rafael.

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Analogous with

Chinese

architecture, several

modern

buildings

embraced the principle of Ying and Yang and the idea of geomancy known as Feng Shui. Apart from that, some ornamentations and Chinese depictions are added to enhance the splendour and bring the effect of the contemporary ethnic design. One prominent example that adopted the Feng Shuiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s philosophy is HSBC Headquarters in Hong Kong, designed by Sir Norman Foster (See figure 4.7). The building facing the Victoria harbour fits with the belief that direct view of a body of water brings prosperity.

Figure 4.7. HSBC Headquarters, Hong Kong.

Figure 4.8 is the Getty Centre in Los Angeles designed by Richard Meier and opened in 1997. This is another piece of architecture that has direct view of a body of water (the Pacific Ocean) and fits with the Feng Shui philosophy.

Figure 4.8. Panaromic view of the Getty Centre.

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Figure 4.9 is the Magney House designed by Glenn Murcutt, Bingi Point, Rural Australia. The house has the elements of centrality in response to the site and has very strong Feng Shui influence.

Figure 4.9. Magney House, Austratlia.

From the example given, it is clear that the Islamic and Chinese architecture influence the modern architectural world. Plus, we could see how modern and contemporary design borrowing the ancient concept in building design. In addition, we could see how a building that does not look characteristically Chinese has the influence of the Chinese notion.

From my own observation, one of the modern architects that are highly influenced by the Eastern philosophy in most of his works is Tadao Ando.

Generally, his works connected with circle and other rigorous geometric forms, related to the as much the Western architecture as much as to any Eastern thought (Jodidio, 1997). Some of his designs are shown in figure 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12. The open central courtyard of the Row House in Osaka permits the dweller to live in harmony with nature while excluding the chaotic urban street.

Figure 4.10. The central courtyard of the Row House

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From figure 4.11 we can see that the house is aligned with another house and have a plain and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;badâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; façade. This is probably the reflection of the Buddhist thought toward humility and avoids exaggeration.

Figure 4.11. The Row House, Osaka.

Apart from that, the figure 4.11 and 4.12 shows how the house adapts to the surrounding of the area while rejecting its particular style.

Figure 4.12. The central courtyard of the Row House, Osaka.

To sum up, both Chinese and Islamic architecture had an important impact in modern and contemporary architecture. Consequently, both architectural elements can be innovated into modern and contemporary building in forming such a grand piece of architecture.

Islamic and Chinese Architecture in the Avant-Garde

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Architecture in the Islamic lands and China are always linked with nostalgic revival of the golden legacy and the greatness of the emperor dynasty rather than avant-garde. However, many modern architects; either from western or eastern background adopt the Islamic and Chinese principles in their design. Alternatively, there were mosques designed by teamwork of Muslim and non-Muslims architects applying concepts brought from Islamic principles. One of the examples is The Roman Mosque designed by Porthoghesi, Gigliotti and Moussawi. The interior is the real masterpiece of the mosque (see figure 4.13), with its surreal atmosphere created by diffusion of light from openings of the dome and the idea of it was from the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;anic verse about light.

Figure 4.13. The interior of the Roman Mosque.

Figure 4.14.

Roman Mosque.

The

One of the evocative and controversial examples would be the former World Trade Centre in New York. The architect, Minoru Yamasaki has a keen mathematical mind and a taste for ornamental patternwork, this clash with the complex geometries of Islamic architecture was inspiring, and made him use the Islamic geometry into his design (Kerr, 2001).

Figure 4.15, 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18 showed some images and concept relied on the World Trade Centre.

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Figure 4.15. The World Trade Centre.

The plainness of World Trace Centre was based from the Islamic belief that it is the inside that counts and the notion of beauty by looking inward.

Figure 4.16. Central square of the World Trade Centre.

Figure 4.17. Central square of the World Trade Centre.

The courtyard is another important element of Islamic architecture. Yamasaki

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mimicked the Makkah in this building, an enormous square isolated by the colonnaded structures and capped by two towers representing the minaret (Kerr, 2001; Cureil, 2004).

Figure 4.18. World Trade Centre Faรงade.

Here Yamasaki tries to follow the Islamic tradition by covering a powerful geometric form with dense filigree, typical pattern work and ornate work reminiscent of the Islamic architecture.

Buildings that used to be the landmark of New York City were borrowing ideas from Islamic principles in building design. Here, we can see how big was the influence of Islamic principle in the avant-garde architecture and in such iconic buildings. In spite of this, how ironic that the World Trade Centre, buildings were designed based on the Islamic notion and mimicked the Makkah were destroyed by terrorists claiming to fight for Islam.

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Figure 4.19.

Mosque.

Zaha

Hadid’s

Strasbourg

Bernard Lewis40, an expert in Middle East study pointed out that world might have been developed in a different way if the Ottoman succeeded in conquering Italy at the nadir of renaissance. He also indicated that if Charles Martel41 had lost Poitiers in 732 to the Muslims, would Oxford Schools have been devoted to interpretations of the Qur’an? In consequence, if Zaha Hadid’s Strasboug mosque (see figure 4.19) had been built, this could probably open to vast speculations. One of the speculations is there actually a need for a Muslim ritual place housed in a contemporary avant-garde mosque? Or could this project give Europe’s most notable mosque since the Great Mosque of Cordova, a connection that existed right away through the middle ages (Melvin, 2004).

My opinion is that it would put Islam in par with the avant-garde, remembering that for centuries many creative and ground-breaking cultural triumphs in the land of Europe came from the Islamic world.

40

British-American historian, Orientalist, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman Empire.

41 Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Latin: Carolus Martellus, English: Charles "the Hammer") (ca.

688 - 22 October 741) was proclaimed Mayor of the Palace and ruled the Franks in the name of a titula King. He is best remembered for winning the Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers) in 732, which has traditionally been characterized as an event that halted the Islamic expansionism in Europe that had conquered Iberia. "Charles's victory has often been regarded as decisive for world history, since it preserved western Europe from Muslim conquest and Islamization."

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By the time this dissertation research is progressing, the controversial Beijing Summer Olympic just took place few months ago. Many buildings were constructed in order to house this event and most of it reflecting China in the avant-garde. One of the buildings that received critical acclaim is the Beijing National Aquatic Centre or better known as the Water Cube. Its connection to the Chinese cultural context is debatable. I think it is because this building is lack of cultural and historical context.

Figure 4.20. The Water Cube, Beijing.

However, the Chinese partners who worked on this project thought that the square shape is an important symbolic to Chinese culture. After a second thought about the building layout, I could see that the symmetrical and geometrical ideas have are comparable with the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven and the Great Wall of China. New technology of construction technique and the use of new available material make this building outstanding and aligned China in the avant-garde architecture. This is the same with Beijing National Grand Theatre (see figure 4.21) which was built on the new technology of construction technique in the delicate urban fabric of China.

Figure 4.21. The National Grand Theatre, Beijing.

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I would say that these buildings are lyrical apotheosis of the architecture in the modern China. It is also symbol of modern China and represents its policy in the globalisation.

Architecture as a Symbol of National Identity and Landmark Observing in a current Islamic architectural world, mosques are a part of national identity and symbol of patriotism showing the faith of the nation in general. Apart from mosques, secular buildings based on Islamic principles and motifs were also constructed in order to represent national landmarks.

Figure 4.22 is the National Mosque of Malaysia. It was built for national identity of Malaysia. Its bright blue jagged rooftop, designed in the shape of an eighteen pointed star, symbolising the 13 states of Malaysia and the Five Pillars of Islam.

Figure 4.22. National Mosque, Malaysia.

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Another example in Malaysia is The Petronas Tower (see figure 4.23).

The design was based on the geometric pattern that typical in the Islamic art and eighty-eight floors. In the Chinese culture, number eight is associated with prosperity and good luck. This building symbolising unity, harmony, stability and rationality of the multi-cultural Malaysia.

Figure 4.23. The Petronas Tower.

In China, one of the examples is the Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP. The design complexity was an adaptation of Chinese pagoda, smoothly stepping back to form a rhythmic archetype as it rises.

Figure 4.24. The Jin Mao Tower, Shangai.

Figure 4.24 showing the Jin Mao Tower of Shanghai. It attempts to integrate new technology successfully incorporates with old-style Chinese influence. It has eighty-eight floors and number eight is always associated with prosperity and good luck in the Chinese culture.

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This building has won an award for its innovative use of metal exterior cladding which is â&#x20AC;&#x153;an extraordinary use of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s technology and building materials to create a fabric, texture and detailing that relate to the historic and cultural values of the contextâ&#x20AC;? according to the juror of the AIA Chicago 2001 Design Awards. This building shows the Chinese national identity with its economic growth, yet this building is distinctly Chinese and Modern.

Western Architectural Movement and the Connection with Islamic and Chinese Architecture By studying the history of Western architectural movements, we would find that there are mandatory orders to live within a given zeitgeist.

Traditionally, the classical forms and styles were used in architectural elements in order for human being to express and portray their devotion towards the Creator. Afterwards, structural principals and abstract form dominated the architectural expressions in the modern movement. Then, it became conventional and common and leading to the post-modernism movement.

Nowadays, deconstruction is attacking these traditions to liberate architecture from the restrictions of the frequent traditional forms. Plus, there are some architects going back to the core of basic human needs and preserving the environment in order to create sustainable architecture.

This is not a key problem in the Islamic and Chinese architecture. They have no paradigms that are mandatory except for the syntactic and structural principles with the character of each environment that needs to be followed.

Western architectural movement is fascinated and mesmerised by concrete images, icons, symbols and expressionism. It seems that there are paradigms to follow such as modernism, post-modernism, deconstruction and many other movements that rise afterwards. From my point of view, these movements are opposed to the past architectural world as mentioned

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previously in this dissertation. It is because the ideas of spiritual and divinity found in the architectural world of that time are rarely found nowadays in current western architectural movement.

Architecture and Crisis of Identity Looking at some recent examples, many architects argue that nowadays the building features have driven towards symbolism and sometimes pastiche.

Simply integrated features like symmetry and typical patterns are generally considered sufficient conveyors of the religious significance. Some elements such a dome, minarets, courtyards and the use of geometry are known as a symbol in the Islamic architecture. Where else, the Chinese architecture is idiosyncratic by use of vibrant colours, unique ornamentation, courtyards and many more. Nonetheless, all these elements are used in recent building just as a matter to show the identity that the building is ‘Islamic’ or ‘Chinese’. In fact there is nothing to do with the interpretation of the culture and the religion itself, this occurrence rose in some post-modernism buildings.

Many architects agree that at least in the United Kingdom, too many new mosques are designed by people from within the community who are too often technicians rather than architects (Melvin, 2004). With no experience in the architectural world, it is easy for them to accept the expectations of both their elders and their funding sources (often Saudi Arabia). The outcome is imitation towards the past. On the other hand, we could find Chinese ‘looking’ buildings that are characterised by the ornamentation and the colour used in order to notify everyone that those building are probably owned by Chinese. For example, figure 4.25 shows the imitation, traditional ‘hat’ placed on top of a standard international style.

Figure 4.25.Tang’s Plaza, Singapore.

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Figure 4.26. Brent Mosque and Islamic Centre, Chichele Road, London.

Another example is from figure 4.26. It shows an out of context replica of the mosque typically seen in Middle East and South Asian. It would be the result of to expect the acceptance of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;eldersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of the community.

From the aforementioned paragraph, it is understood that all these phenomena are embracing architectural elements without the complete understanding of the notion of it. In my point of view, these noticeable facts are the dilemma and the identity crisis of the Islamic and Chinese architecture in the modern world.

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Conclusion

Conclusively, there were huge similarities that occurred mysteriously in the pre-modern Islamic, Chinese an early Western architecture. The first chapter revealed that the mystery was a result of similarities of faith, social, gender, class and culture. Furthermore, the essentials of privacy and protection led to resemblance in the architectural elements between these cultures.

The theories in second chapter were demonstrated from the case study in the third chapter. These theories: (1) the theory of knowledge transfer and borrowing views; proven from the historical evidence and the case study on the architecture fusion. (2) Zeitgeists and cognitive unity, it is the spirit of time that leads to similarity of thought and philosophy; verified from the case study on ordering space and comparisons between buildings. (3) The cosmological 102

theory, denote as architecture that basis on the notion of cosmos; evidently show in the comparative study between the Dome of the Rock, Chartres Cathedral, Suleymaniye Mosque and the Temple of Heaven. Hence, the aforementioned theories that led to resemblances in architectural analogy can be taken as a point.

The third chapter revealed evidence in favour of the aforementioned theories in the second chapter. The case study on the ordering space shows that there was a similarity of thought in the Islamic, Chinese and Western mind that led to the resemblance of the architectural elements. The comparative studies between these buildings suggest that there was a zeitgeist and cognitive unity at that period. Lastly, the case study on the fusion architecture notifies that there was a process of transferring knowledge. Here, the mystery of the similarities on these architectures has been answered on several aforesaid theories.

The fourth chapter unveiled the development of the Islamic and Chinese architecture in the modern world. Many modern and contemporary buildings adopt the philosophy and architectural elements from Islamic and Chinese buildings. These influenced the architectural world in general. For example, countries like Malaysia and China, constructed their own national identity and iconic building based on the Islamic and Chinese principles. Yet, these influences have become global and leading to some crisis of identity. The outcomes of this crisis of identity are imitation of the past. In contrast, with Western mind towards architecture, the eastern mentality has no paradigm or movement to follow from its own traditional notion and principles. In addition, there were discussions on some contemporary western examples.

There are many sources of references about the Islamic and Chinese architecture, but hardly any basis to study the interaction between these two.

The outcomes of my research could be used in relating these celebrated architectures and yet bridge the divides between them. In addition, this dissertation will be the head start, and turning point for me to do more detail

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research and study on different architecture, traditions and relate it to each other.

Obviously, more research would have been done if there were no limitation of length on this dissertation. Related topics that were not approached in this dissertation for lack of space are (1) the similarity of the Indian and ancient Mayan architecture in Mexico with Chinese architecture (2) More detailed research on the history and the contents of Sufi Islamic, Western Christian and Chinese philosophy interest me too. (3) The critical analysis about the Islamic and Chinese garden and the spatial use of water in architecture. Also, interviews with well known architects would have helped in expanding the contents of this research. To end my conclusion, I would like to say that I am open for debates concerning this research. More input from experts would be great to expand this study.

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Appendices

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Appendix 1- Forum

Azfar Yusof

Islamic Architecture Interaction between Islamic and Chinese architecture I am doing a dissertation about this topic. Would be great if someone have some ideas how this two types of architecture influence the western civilization through architecture.

Are there any evidence in the history that both civilization learning from each other in term of architecture? Since Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said in the hadith: "Seek knowledge even as far as China".

Beginning my observation, there are similar elements in this 2 types of architecture such as courtyards, fountains, preservation of natural balance (ying and yang in Chinese), geomancy and feng shui and etc.

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From researched that I had done, there is a big influence from the Chinese civilization in astronomy and mathematic of the Muslim scientists and physicists during the golden age of Islam in Baghdad and Spain. Are they any evidence or study about architecture that relate to this?

Admiral Zheng He (great Muslim Chinese navigator) had been to many Muslim countries. Accompanied with him in the navigation was Ma Huan (Mohamed Hassan) the writer whom recorded all about his navigation (are there any record about architecture in this navigation journal???). Apart from that, Admiral Zheng He was a very important person for Emperor Yung Lo. He was the person whom in charged of the construction of the Forbidden City. Are they any possibilities that some aspect of the architecture of the Forbidden City was adapted from Arab palaces? (Similarity can be seen in the use of courtyard and spatial expression through water.)

Any opinions or ideas about this topic are almost welcome.

Thanks.

-- Azfar Yusof, December 5, 2005 Contribute a response Responses Interaction between Islamic and Chinese architecture Dear Azfar, You may be interested in the historic monuments section of the digital library, which documents a variety of mosques built through the centuries in different parts of today's China: http://archnet.org/library/ images/sites.jsp?key=cn&collection_id=23&select=country.

The choice of style (imported Central Asian Islamic styles vs. local Chinese styles) depended greatly on the cultural attitude towards Muslims at the time, which varied from dynasty to dynasty. It was also affected by the local climactic conditions and availability of materials. You may find the following article in the Digital Library of some interest: Islamic Architecture in China. I'm sure you know this, but you may find some valuable information if you focus on commerce and cultural exchange along the Silk Road, which is the reason why many Arab and Persian Muslims came to and settled in China in the first place.

(Now their descendants are ethnically distinguished from the Han Chinese as the 'Hui'.) The Silk Road Project is a good place to begin, and so is the Silk Road Seattle website.

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Appendix 2- Images

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Several examples of the plan layout of cathedrals.

Image Reference Plan of Lincoln Cathedral: Floor plan of Lincoln Cathedral (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://www.london-architecture.info/ENGLAND/ENG-037.htm> [Accessed 20 December 2008].

Plan of Durham Cathedral:

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Floor plan (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/image/England/Durham/Cathedral/Plans/Maindu rhamcathplans.html> [Accessed 20 December 2008].

Plan of Cathedral of Notre Dame: Plan of Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris [plan]. In: Fergusson, J (1855) Illustrated Handbook of Architecture - Volume II - Christian Architecture.

London: John Murray, p. 669.

Plan of St Pierre Cathedral: Floor plan (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://www.dkimages.com/discover/DKIMAGES/Discover/Home/Geography/E urope/France/Southwest-France/Poitou-and-Aquitaine/Churches-andCathedrals/Cathedrale-St-Pierre-Angouleme/Floor-Plan/Floor-Plan-1.html> [Accessed 20 December 2008].

Plan of St Amien Cathedral: Amiens_Cathedral_plan (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://www.shafe.co.uk/crystal/images/lshafe/Amiens_Cathedral_plan.jpg> [Accessed 20 December 2008].

Plan of York Minster: YorkMinsterPlanDehio (n.d) [online image] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YorkMinsterPlanDehio.jpg> [Accessed 20 December 2008].

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