2022_Overcoming the barriers to Transit-Oriented Development

Australian Planner

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Overcoming the barriers to Transit-Oriented Development

Julian Alexander Bolleter, Zoe Myers & Paula Hooper

To cite this article: Julian Alexander Bolleter, Zoe Myers & Paula Hooper (2022): Overcoming the barriers to Transit-Oriented Development, Australian Planner, DOI: 10.1080/07293682.2021.2017992

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2021.2017992

Published online: 08 Feb 2022.

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https://doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2021.2017992

OvercomingthebarrierstoTransit-OrientedDevelopment

JulianAlexanderBolleter ,ZoeMyersandPaulaHooper AustralianUrbanDesignResearchCentre,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Perth,Australia

ABSTRACT

Despitethelong-termapplicationofTransitOrientedDevelopment(TOD)policyinAustralian citiesfullimplementationhasprovenachallenge.Indeed,intheWesternAustralianstate capitalofPerth,residentialdensitiesacrossmosttrainstationprecinctsremaintypicallylow. Moreover,theuseofpublictransporthasdeclinedoverthelastdecadedespiterepeated attemptstoboostpatronage.Inresponsetothissituation,thispaperreportsonasuiteof semi-structuredinterviewsconductedwithrelevantexpertstoelicitknowledgeconcerning (1)thebarrierstodeliveringsuccessfulTOD;and(2)potentialstrategiesgovernment plannerscanemploytomitigatethesebarrierstocreatesuccessfulTODs.Thepaper concludesthatthesuccessofstationprecinctsmustprioritisediverse,creative,and genuinelyappealingplacesandtraveloptionsovertransportplanningstandardisationand fixedpractices.

Introduction

Transit-OrientedDevelopment(TOD)planningseeks toconcentratecompact,mixed-useurbandevelopmentinprecinctsaroundmasstransithubstoincrease publictransportpatronageandurbandensity(Curtis 2012).ProponentsclaimthatTODdeliversaplethora ofbenefits.Theseincludeboostingtheviabilityof publictransportation(Hagan 2017),improvingthe mobilityoflow-incomehouseholds,improvinglocal servicesandemploymentopportunities,andreducing cardependency,greenhousegasemissionsandurban sprawl(CongressofNewUrbanism 2016).

TODimplementationchallengesinAustralian cities

ReflectingtheascendencyofTODtheory,allAustralianFederal,StateandTerritorycapitalcitiesarestrivingtoachieveurbandensificationaroundmasstransit nodes.Nonetheless,thereexistsa ‘divergencebetween thecompactcityimaginedinmetropolitanplansand whatisoccurringonthegroundinAustraliancities’ (Gray,Gleeson,andBurke 2010,336).TheTOD visionoftenconflictswiththerealityofurbandevelopmentthat ‘remainsdifferentiatedanddispersedrather thanneatlymulti-nucleated’ (ForsterinGleeson,Dodson,andSpiller 2010,5).Indeed,theapplicationof TODthinkinginallcapitalcitieshasprovenachallenge(GoodmanandMoloney 2004;Gillen 2006; KellyandDonegan 2015;Burton 2017;Goodman 2017;Randolph,Freestone,andBunker 2017),despite suchpoliciesbeingoperationalinsomecasessincethe

ARTICLEHISTORY

Received20August2020

Accepted8December2021

KEYWORDS

Transit-oriented development; precinctdesign;urban design;urbanplanning; publictransport

1980s(Murphy 2012).Indeed,acrossAustralia’ s majorcities,thereremainsvastswathesoflow-density,suburbandevelopment(Dodson 2010)and thesecitiesaresomeofthelowestdensityontheplanet(Hurley,Taylor,andDodson 2017).Reflecting this,the2016CensusofPopulationandHousing foundthatonly10%ofAustraliansspentCensus nightinanapartment(AustralianBureauofStatistics 2017).

Prevalentprivatevehicleownershipandprofligate useprovidemoreevidencefortherelativefailureof TODplanning.In2016,nearlyhalf(47%)ofhouseholdslivinginapartmentshadoneregisteredmotor vehicle – generallyparkedon-site,and16%of apartmenthouseholdshadtwovehicles(Australian BureauofStatistics 2017).Whilethetotaldistance drivenandthenumberofcartripstakenaregrowingmoreslowlythaninpreviousdecades,caruseis stillgrowingoverall(KellyandDonegan 2015). Flexibilityandexpediency,combinedwiththe car-friendlystructureofourcities,meansprivate vehiclesstillaccountforaround90%ofpassenger kilometrestravelled(InfrastructureAustralia 2018).

SowhyhasachievingTODinexistingurbanareas been suchastruggleinAustraliancities?Literatureon thetopicindicatesthatbarrierstoTODtypicallyrelate tothreebroadyetinterrelatedcategories:(1)community,(2)governance,and(3)development feasibility(Bolleter 2019).

Communitybarriers

TODinexistingurbanareashasoftenbeenchallengingbecauseofentrenchedcommunityresistanceto

infilldevelopment(Farris 2001;Wheeler 2001;Newton 2010;Kupke,Rossini,andMcGreal 2011;Arvola andPennanen 2014).Densityisoftenperceivedas anattackonsuburbanliveability(DoveyandWoodcock 2014).Indeed,apublic ‘sullenness’ existsabout urbandensificationinsuburbanareas(Kellyand Donegan 2015,129).Drivingthisareworriesabout increasedtrafficandparkingproblems(Holling andHaslamMcKenzie 2010),reducedproperty prices(Burke 1991),andaconvictionthattrains arealready ‘packed’ andthatTODwilljustcompoundthis(Rice 2016).Otherconcernsrelatetoa lossofprivacyandamenityforexistingresidents (ArvolaandPennanen 2014),thedestructionof urbanforestsandgreenspace(Searle 2004),andthe erasureofheritageandneighbourhoodcharacter (MaginnandFoley 2017).Moreover,somearecynicalthatTODisjustaboutpropertydevelopersmakingbucket-loadsofmoneyatthecommunity’ s expense(Rice 2016)throughaneoliberalplanning systemthatisatoolofdevelopers(Kwok,Johnson, andPojani 2018).

Governancebarriers

ChallengestoTODalsoemergefromthe planningsystemthatmerely ‘enables’ infilldevelopmentratherthanactivelyfacilitatingorpromoting it.Moreover,TODrequiresmanyrepresentatives andhappensinadeeplyfragmentedregulatory environment,addingcomplications,cost,timeand risktourbandevelopment(Dittmar,Belzer,and Autler 2004,10).Furthermore,stategovernmentsets infilldwellingtargetsforlocalgovernmentareas,yet localgovernmentslabourwiththeresponsibilityfor infilldevelopmentdelivery.However,localgovernmentsarefrequentlyhostiletoinfill(Farris 2001; DoveyandWoodcock 2014;Hurley,Taylor,andDodson 2017),andinmanycaseshavebeen ‘electedto enforcetheanti-developmentviewsoftheirresidents’ (Dovey andWoodcock 2014,68).Compoundingthis, localcouncilsareoftennottrainedtodealwiththe complexitiesofTOD(DoveyandWoodcock 2014) orfundedtopump-primeTODswiththelevelof investmentneeded(Gray,Gleeson,andBurke 2010). Concomitantly,alackofstategovernmentincentives toencourageashiftawayfrombusinessas usualdevelopment(Newton 2010),meansthereislittlereasonfordeveloperstoproactivelyseektransit adjacentsites.Finally,arelativeabsenceofstategovernmentleadershipandcommunicationstrategies meansthatdevelopersoftenfaceconsiderablecommunityresistanceindeliveringTODinexisting urbanareas(RowleyandPhibbs 2012).

Developmentfeasibilitybarriers

TODfacesaplethoraofdevelopmentfeasibilitybarriers.Trainstationsurroundingsoftenhavewell-

lovedheritagebuildings,complexknotsofroadand railinfrastructureandfragmentedlandownership patterns(Bolleter 2015).Assuch,themultifaceted arrayofvestedinterestsattachedtoexistinglandparcelsandinfrastructureisamajorconstraintonTOD (Murphy 2012).Compoundingthisisahighdemand forexpansivecarparksencirclingpublictransportso thattransituserscan ‘parkandride,’ whichdirectly conflictswithcreatingurbaneandwalkableplaces (HollingandHaslamMcKenzie 2010).Moreover, TODsitesoftenlackthenecessaryserviceinfrastructure,andtheprohibitiveexpenseoftherequired upgradescanunderminethefeasibilityofadevelopment(RowleyandPhibbs 2012).Relateduncertainties arounddevelopercontributionsisalsoasignificant obstacletoTOD(RowleyandPhibbs 2012).TODin existingurbanareasalsorunsintoothergeneralimpedimentstoinfilldevelopmentsuchasuncertain demand(Sharam,Bryant,andAlves 2015),difficulties ofobtaining financefordevelopment(Burke 1991; Sharam,Bryant,andAlves 2015),inflatedconstructionandlabourcosts,unattractivesites(Spira 2013), andalackofexemplars(Newton 2010).Thesechallengesarecompoundedbyashortageofeconomic incentivesfordevelopersundertakingmultiunitmedium-densityinfilldevelopment(Urban DevelopmentInstituteofAustralia 2011)eventhough the ‘financialoddsarestackedagainst’ suchprojects (Burke 1991).

GiventhisarrayofbarrierstoTODidentifiedinthe literature,thispaperexploresthesebarriersinrelation tothecasestudycityofPerth,whereTODhasbeen generally elusiveindelivery.Subsequently,itseeksto identifypotentialmitigatingstrategiestoovercome theseimpediments.

TODplanninginPerth

Perth’srailsystem,thebackboneofthepublictransportsystem,hasgrowntoconsistof fivemajorrail linesradiatingfromthecitycentreandconnecting othercentressuchasMidland,Mandurah,Armadale andButler(Figure1).Whilethecityhasextensive busservices,railservicescarrythemajorityoftransit users(DepartmentofTransport,PublicTransport Authority,MainRoadsWA,&WesternAustralian PlanningCommission 2016).BuiltbytheWestern Australianstategovernment,Perth’strainsystemis operatedbythePublicTransitAuthority(PTA), whotypicallyownthelandwithinthesubstantial railcorridors.

TheprincipleschampionedinTODplanning,to somedegree,havebeenthebackboneofPerth’splanningforalmost50years.Forexample,the1970sCorridorplanpromotedastructurecomprisingfour corridors,definedbyraillines,radiatingfromthecentralbusinessdistrictwithregionalcentresatthe

Figure1. Perth’srailsystemconsistsof fivemajorraillinesradiatingfromthecitycentre.ThepotentiallytransformativeMetronet projectinvolves72kilometresofnewraillines.Figurebytheauthors.

terminations,toreducecloggedtrafficarteriesinthe centralcity(Curtis 2010,261).Inasimilarvein,in the1990s ‘Metroplan,’ policymakerssoughtto

concentrateemployment-generatingactivitiesand higherresidentialdensitiesaroundmasstransitroutes (Curtis 2010).Perth’s2004 ‘NetworkCity’ (Western

AustralianPlanningCommission 2004)and2010 ‘Directions2031’ plansalsofaithfullyretainedsuch TODdrivenapproaches(WesternAustralianDepartmentofPlanning 2010),asdoesthecurrent plan ’PerthandPeel@3.5million’ (Departmentof PlanningLandsandHeritage 2018).

Thecurrentpolicyandimplementationplanning for ‘Metronet’,apotentiallytransformativerailand stationprecinctprojectunderthestateLaborgovernment,alsoembracesTOD.Indeed,theMetronet projectrepresentsthesinglelargestinvestmentin publictransportthatPerthhasexperienced(Metronetteam 2021)andaimstoreduceroadcongestion bycreatingactivated,compact,walkableurbanprecinctsaroundthestationsbeingupgradedordeveloped(GovernmentofWesternAustralia 2019a, 2019b, 2019c).Fourkeypassengerrailproposals compriseStageOneoftheproject.Theyincludea raillinetotheairport,anextensionoftheThornlie LinetoCockburn,anewlinetoEllenbrook,andan extensionoftheMidlandLinetoBellevue(Metronet team 2021).

TODimplementationchallengesinPerth Notwithstandingthelong-termapplicationofTOD policy,publictransportpatronageinPerthhasdeterioratedsince2012despiterepeatedrecentattempts toincreaseridership(Figure2)(PublicTransport Authority 2021).Explainingthis – tosomedegree –isrecentmappingofaccesstopublictransport(train andbus)whichrevealedthatonly64%ofallresidentialaddressesacrossmetropolitanPerthwerewithina 400mwalkofabusstopor800mofatrainstation

(CentreforUrbanResearch 2018).Inpart,thisreflects thatresidentialdensitiesacrossmostofPerth’sstation precinctsremaintypicallylowoutsideofcentressuch asCockburn,ClaremontandSubiaco,whichcontainedswathesofgovernment-ownedlandandhave beencomprehensivelyredeveloped.Difficultiesin achievingTODinexistingurbanareasarealsoevident inthemodestpercentageofinfilldevelopment achieved.Theinfillratewas43percentin2019,up fromjust38percentin2018.These figuresare belowthecomparativelymodesttargetfor47% urbaninfill(DepartmentofPlanningLandsandHeritage 2017).

Indeed,outsideoftheseaforementionedexceptions, therehasbeenagenerallackofcoordinatedredevelopmentinTODsitessincePerth’shigh-levelstrategicplan forachievingTOD, ‘NetworkCity,’ waspublishedin 2004(WesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2004).Indeed,mappingofdevelopmentsince2004 aroundkeyTODsitesrevealsthatdevelopmentgenerallydoesnotheedActivityCentreboundaries(Figures 3–5).Inmanycases,thisdevelopmentisdispersed,adhocresidential,backgroundinfilldevelopmentscatteredacrossthemiddleringsuburbswithlittlerelation tomasstransithubs(Bolleter 2016).While comprehensiveTODrequiressustainedpolicyattention overdecades,these figuresprovideasoberingsnapshot oftheextentofnon-TODdevelopmentsince2004.

Methods

Inthispaper,weaimtounderstandspecificallywhat barrierstoTODexistinPerthand,importantly,how

RailpatronagehasdeclinedinPerthsince2012.GraphbytheauthorsbasedondatafromthePublicTransport Authority.

Figure2.

Figure3. TheMorleyActivityCentre(adesignatedPrimaryCityCentre)overlaidwithinfilldevelopmentbetween2004and2019. Comparatively,littleofthisdevelopmenthasoccurredwithintheActivityCentre.Mapbytheauthorsbasedoncadastraldatafrom Landgate.

Figure4. TheCanningtonActivityCentre(alsoadesignatedPrimaryCityCentre)overlaidwithinfilldevelopmentbetween2004 and2019.MapbytheauthorsbasedoncadastraldatafromLandgate.

Figure5. TheStirlingActivityCentre(againadesignatedPrimaryCityCentre)overlaidwithinfilldevelopmentbetween2004and 2019.MapbytheauthorsbasedoncadastraldatafromLandgate.

theycouldbemitigated.Thepaperaddressesagapin theliterature,asthereisnocontemporary,PerthfocusedresearchonthebarrierstoTODandpotential mitigatingstrategies.Thisspecificgeographicfocusis importantbecausePerth,themostisolatedcapitalcity intheworld,variesinsocietalpreferences,development economicsandbuildingpracticesfromothercities nationallyandglobally.Theresearchquestionsthat structurethispaperare:

(1)Whatarethebarrierstodeliveringsuccessful TODinPerth?

(2)Whatstrategiescanbeemployedtomitigatethese barrierstodeliversuccessfulTODinPerth?

Interviews

Thirteensemi-structuredinterviewswereconducted in2019.Participantswerepurposefullyrecruited fromarangeof fieldsandhadextensiveexperience intheconceptualisation,planning,designordevelopmentofTODsinPerth.Thebreakdownofintervieweescomprised;threetransportprofessionals,three landdevelopers;threedesignprofessionals;two-state governmentplanners;onelocalgovernmentplanner; onecommunityconsultationprofessional,andone communitygroupmember.

Eachinterviewlastedbetween30and60minutes, andwasaudiorecordedwiththeparticipants’ permission.Interviewswerebasedonsetquestionsbut wereadaptedtorespondtotheparticipant’sparticular professionalbackgroundandfruitfuldeviationsinthe discussion.Theresultingdatasetformedover10 hoursofinterviews.Theseweretranscribedverbatim, yieldingalmost100,000wordsoftranscribedinterview data.Theinterviewtranscriptswerethensubjectto manualtextualandinterpretativeanalysistoidentify keybarrierstoTODandmitigationstrategies.We employedwordandphrasesearchesandclosereading to findsimilaritiesanddifferencesinperspectivesto achievethis.Allidentifyinginformationregardingparticipantsandspecificprojectswereremoved,withour aimtoextractthemesfromtheresponses.Responses havebeeneditedforclarity.

Results

ThebarrierstoTOD

The figurebelowpresentstheeightdominantbarriers tosuccessfulTODinPerthidentifiedbytheinterviewees(Figure6).

TransportinfrastructuredeterminingTOD precinctdesign

Throughoutmanyoftheinterviews,arecurringtheme wasfrustrationwiththedominanceoftransport agenciesandinfrastructurepriorities – suchas

transportspeed(TransportProfessional1) – over thelocationanddesignofstationprecincts.Thisexasperationresultedfromformulaic,inflexibletransport planningoverridingurbandesign;forinstance, ‘ you donotstandahopeinhellintermsoftransport agencies’ standardisedapproachtoroads,roadspeeds, urbandesignandpedestriancrossings’ (LandDeveloper2).Thepredominanceoftransportinfrastructure overcreatinga ‘place’ wasechoedbyotherinterviewees(LocalGovernmentPlanner1;TransportProfessional2;Communitygroupmember).Theimpact ofthesecontrolsonstationdesign(includingthe interfacebetweenstationandprecinct)wascitedas beingespeciallyproblematic.Otherscommentedon thespacerequirementsofcurrentstationdesigns thatconflictwithgoodplacedesign:forinstance,the widthofroadwaysneededforbusturnsandstopping (LandDeveloper3,DesignProfessional2).Suchan operationalfocus,believedtobebasedonsometimes inaccuratetrafficmodelling,wasperceivedascontradictingthequalitiesneededtocreatea ‘greatplace’ whichismorethanamere ‘connectorbetweenbus, trainandticketmachine’ (LandDeveloper2).

Mostintervieweesalsoidentifiedthatgovernmentownedlandinroadandrailreserveswasdominated bytheinterestsoftransportagenciessuchasMain RoadsorthePTA.Thisdominancewasexpressly notedwithregardstothecontinuedrequirements forparkingonprimesitesaroundthestation,whereby ‘wehaveaseaofcarparking,soifyoudriveacar,you getbetteraccesstothestationthanifyouwalk’ (Land Developer3)(Figure7).Thelossofdevelopablesites tocarparkingwascompoundedbythestandardpracticeofdeliveringat-graderatherthanmulti-storey parking(LandDeveloper2).Transportagencies’ decision-makingdominanceandtheir fixedinfrastructurerequirementswereperceivedasthesingle biggestbarriertocreatingthekindofprecinctswithin whichpeoplewantedtoliveinorvisit.

SeparationbetweenproposedTODandexisting activity

ThesecondbarriertoTODinPerthwasidentifiedas theplacementofnewrailstations.Manyinterviewees viewedpastandproposedstationlocationchoiceas ‘missedopportunities’ wherebyastationwasnotoptimallyplacedtointegratewithexistingurbanactivity ordensity.Indeed,thechoiceofsuchrailstation locationsbaseduponPTAcostandoperational requirementswasseenasamajorbarrierto creatinggoodplanninganddesignoutcomes(Land Developer3).

Suchsentimentswereexpressedconcerningthe lackofconnectionbetweentheRockinghamand Mandurah(Figure8)stations(onthesouthern suburbsrailway)totheirexistingtowncentres (TransportProfessional1),andthecreationoftransit

Figure6. ThedominantbarrierstosuccessfulTODsinPerthasidentifiedbyourinterviewees.Thepercentage figurereferstothe percentageofintervieweeswhoreferencedaparticularbarrier.Graphbytheauthors.

Figure7. Cockburn,adesignatedSecondaryTownCentre,revealsthedominanceoftransportagenciesandinfrastructureprioritiesasillustratedbyexpansiveat-gradecarparking.Figurebytheauthor.

stopsininhospitablelocationssuchasGlendalough aninner-cityareawithsubstantialindustry(Design Professional2).

Thisdetrimentaldisconnectbetweentransitand urbanactivitywasalsohighlightedregardingthesiting ofstationswithinfreewayreserves.Whiletherhetoric

of ‘pedestrians first’ dominatesdiscussionsofTOD, manyintervieweeslamentedthephysicalandspatial barrierstothisinpractice,suchaslongpedestrian waitingtimesatintersections(TransportProfessional 3)andthepresenceofspeedingcarswhichrenders stationsunpleasant(LandDeveloper2).AsoneTransportProfessionalremarked, ‘itisveryhardtogetthe residentialandcommercialdevelopmentoutcomes youlikewhenyouhavegotsuchahostileenvironment causedbyamajorfreeway’ (TransportProfessional1).

Insufficientstategovernmentguidance regardingTODtolocalgovernment Intervieweeslargelyagreedthattherelationship betweenstategovernment,localgovernment,and developersneededmoreinterventionandoversight tostreamlineprocessesandensureaholisticdesign. Someintervieweeshadlittlefaithintheabilityofthe localgovernmenttodelivercomprehensiveTOD; ‘If youwanttobuildTODs,keepthelocalgovernment outofit.Theydonothavetheabilityorprofessional skillstogetthere’ (Designprofessional1).Tothis end,manybelievedthatthestategovernmenthada largerroletoplayinTODplanninganddelivery: ‘Youneedsomeonethatcancoordinate,organise, bringawholegovernmentattitudetowardsitand havetheauthoritytomakethosedecisionsbecause itjustdoesnothappen’ (Designprofessional1). Inconsistencies,localpolitics,andalackofresourcing atalocallevelwereperceivedimpedimentswhere stategovernmentassistancecouldgreatlybenefit TODdelivery,as ‘franklylocalgovernmentisa mixedbag’ (Transportprofessional2).

Specifically,entitieslikeLandcorpandtheMetropolitanRedevelopmentAuthority(nowbothDevelopmentWA)werepraisedfortheirroleinsubstantial, coordinateddevelopments.Asoneintervieweenoted, manylocalgovernmentsdonothavealong-termvision aboutwheretheyaregoing,whichiswhytheState’ has gottoplaymoreofanassistingrole’ (Landdeveloper3). Thisrolecouldincludeprovidingplanningguidanceon howtodelivercontext-appropriateinfill(LocalGovernmentplanner1)andaddress ‘agrosslackofuniformity intermsofthewillingnessoflocalgovernmentsto develophigherdensityareas’ (Transportprofessional2).

Manyintervieweesexpressedthatasignificant impedimenttoTODwasalackofcontroloverprivate land,curtailingaholisticvisionfordevelopment.As onedesignprofessionalstated: ‘Subiacoworked becausethestategovernment-controlledthedirt’ (Designprofessional1).Furthermore,thedifficulties inachievinglandamalgamation – andleavingtoo muchtotheprivatesector – haveresultedinpoor developmentinmanyTODsites: ‘veryordinarysubdivision,duplexesandtriplexes,ratherthananyother sensiblehighrise’ (Transportprofessional1).Intervieweesexpressedthisfrustrationintheterms: ‘ wecan

onlyputtheplanninginplace,itisthenuptothelandownerstodosomething.Thereisonlysomuchwithin ourcontrol’ (Local Governmentplanner1).Comprehensiveredevelopmentbystategovernmentagencies wasregardedaspotentiallyunlockingthissituation.

DeficientTODprecinctdesign

Asignificantbarriermentionedbymostinterviewees invariousformswasthedeficiencyofthetransitprecinctdesign.Thisbarrierconcerneddifferentoverlappingfactors:interestandamenity,safety,and exposuretotheelements,andtheinterfacebetween thestationandsurroundingurbanfabric.Thisbarrier wassummedupbyoneintervieweeasaqueryabout creatinggenuinelyinvitingplaces: ‘howdoyoumake thesedynamicandinteresting?Excitingplacesattract us.Howdoyoumakethisaplacewherepeoplewant togo?’ (CommunityConsultationProfessional)

Thebarrierstoattractingtransitusers,residents, andvisitors,alsowereexemplifiedinobservations aboutalackofattentiontoexposuretoheat,rain, andwind.Forexample, ‘ifitisabland,hot,barren, uglytransition,thatisdeadly.Weneedtomakesure thatwe finishitoff andmakeitniceholisticallyasa designpiecesothatpeople – theminutetheygetoff thetrain – areintrigued,delighted,andareenjoying it’ (LandDeveloper2).Anotherintervieweecommented, ‘Youwantmetocatchthetrain,butwhereisthe shade?Whereisthesafefootpath?IfIampushinga pram,wherearethecrossovers?’ (LandDeveloper3).

AnotherbarriertothesuccessofTODswasafailuretoaddressisolationandlackofactivationinthe designofstations,interfaces,andprecincts,resulting inunsafeenvironments,particularlyatnight(Land Developer3).Suchfactorswereexpressedasbeing commonlyoverlookedbutsignificantreasonsin peoplechoosingnottolivenearorusetransit(Land Developer3).Indeed,itwasregarded thatinattentiontothedesignofthe finegrainexperienceoftheprecinctcreatesasignificantbarriertoits overallsuccess(Figure9).

AttemptingtoomanyproposedmajorTOD redevelopmentcentres

Anotherbarrieridentifiedbynumerousinterviewees wasthedrivetoachieve ‘toomany’ majorTOD centresinPerth.Thisimpedimentwasemphasised byintervieweesfromallsectors,whofeltitdiluted resourcesandfailedtoacknowledgethelackofsustainedpopulationgrowthtomakethemwork.As onestategovernmentplannerstated, ‘Itisgoing, whichx,yandzstrategiccentresorothersub-centres dowewanttoinvesttimeinoverthenext fiveyears?’ (Stategovernmentplanner2)

Alltransportprofessionalsinterviewedechoedthe failuretobeselectiveinthismanner;asoneexplained, ‘IfeelthatwearetryingtodoTODintoomanyplaces.

Figure8. InMandurah,adesignatedStrategicMetropolitanCentre,thetrainstationandthewaterfronttowncentreareseparated by2.5kilometres,requiringtrainpassengerstousebusservicestoaccesseither.Figurebytheauthors.

Therefore,itiserodingwhatwecandoinanyone place.EverymajorcentreisseenasahugeActivity Centre,butthegovernmentcannotaffordtoundergroundrailandbuildalltheinfrastructureneeded everywhereinthehorizonthatwearelookingat’ (Transportprofessional3).

Tothisend,astrategicfocusonthespecifichubsthat couldgenuinelybecomebothoriginanddestination wouldstreamlineresources,bemorelikelytoattracta criticalmassofresidentsandfundingandcreateprecinctidentitydistinctfromothercompetingcentres.

Inadequateintegratedpublicandactive transportoptionsforTOD

WhilesuccessfulTODisoftenlinkedtoadecreasein vehicularuseandtheabilitytoaccesspublictransit, almosttwo-thirdsofintervieweesstressedthatthe currenttransportnetworkwasinadequatetomeet people’sactualeverydaytravelneeds.Asoneputit, ‘Weareputtingahellofalotofmoneyintothe TODsandtherailnetwork,butactually,whatwe needisanintegratedtransportstrategythatlooksat howyoucangetaround’ (LandDeveloper1).This sentimentwasechoedbyothers,whoarguedafocus beyondheavyrailwasvital: ‘Whatisthatnexttierof publictransport?ThatiswhenIthinkwewillstart toseethecardependencyinthecitygodown’

(TransportProfessional3).Ashifttoadecentralised anddiffuseactiveandpublictransportnetworkthat reflectsfutureemploymenttrendsandcurrentreallifeneedsofpotentialusersandresidentswasregarded ascrucialtothesuccessofTOD.

LackofTODdwellingdiversity

Morethanathirdoftheintervieweesidentified ‘the lackofdiversityinthedwellingsbeingbuiltinTOD precincts’ asimpedingthesuccessfuldeliveryof TODs.Asoneintervieweeexplained, ‘wecannot evendeliverdiversityinapartmenttypology.Itisthe samelayoutandthesamedesign;itisthesame floor toceilingheight.Everythingisidentical,andthey willtellyouitisdiverse’ (LandDeveloper2).Moreover,intervieweesregardedthatchallengestodeliver TODresultedfromfailuretomarketthese apartmentproductstoabroadercross-sectionofthe community(LandDeveloper1) – particularlyagrowingcohortofolderadults(LandDeveloper3).

Lackofeffectivecommunicationtoexplain trade-offstoincreasecommunitysupportfor TODdensification

Finally,communityoppositiontodevelopmentwas anotherbarriermentionedbyseveralinterviewees, but – contrarytotheperspectivethatthecommunity

Figure9. Leederville,adesignatedSecondaryTownCentre,isdisconnectedfromthesurroundingurbanprecinctbydeficient precinctdesigncompoundedbythepresenceofamajorfreeway.Figurebytheauthors.

wasgenerallyresistanttodevelopment – thisbarrier wassympatheticallyspecifiedasalackofclear communicationaboutdevelopmentthatunderstandablyaggravatedsomecommunitymembers.Inthis regard,theemphasiswason ‘bringingthecommunity withyou’ ratherthanfrustrationwiththecommunity voicingconcerns.Asonelanddeveloperexpressed aboutTOD,

Ifyouarearesident,youwouldbegoing, ‘Whatisin thisforme?Whereistheupgradetotheparks? Wherearethestreettrees?Whereisthenewcommunitycentre?’… Anditisnotenoughtosay, ‘Youare gettinganupgradedstation’ (LandDeveloper3)

Thisfeelingthatthereisalackoftrueengagementwith communitiesregardingTODwasechoedbyothers, whofeltthatexcludingresidentsfromtheplanning processheightenedthemisunderstandingsandoppositionthatcouldfollow.Forinstance,theemotiveoppositiontoheightinmanydevelopmentswascitedasthe mainconcernofcommunitymembers.However,the failureofcommunitymemberstoenvisagepositive scenarioswasperceivedtostemfromthefailureofgovernmenttoprovide ‘realdiscussionanddiverse options.’ Asoneintervieweeexplained, ‘Idonot thinkpeopleareinvolvedearlyenough.Idonot thinktheyunderstandthatyouhavetohavetradeoffs ’ (CommunityConsultationProfessional).

Inparticular,notaddressingtheconcernsthat designneglectedthelocalcontextwasconsidereda genuinebarrier.Someintervieweesregardedthatrollingoutsimilarstationdesignsregardlessoflocation causeda ‘hugeuproarinyourcommunitybecause whywouldthiscommunity – completelydifferent fromthatcommunity – getthesamedevelopment?’ (DesignProfessional2).Thisfailuretosellacontextuallyspecificplantothecommunity(LocalgovernmentPlanner1)wasconsideredasignificant impedimenttoTOD.

MitigationstrategiesforachievingTOD

Optimistically,theintervieweesconsideredthis plethoraofbarrierssurmountable. Figure10 presents thesixdominantmitigationstrategiesforsuccessful TODinPerth,asidentifiedbyinterviewees.

IntegratestationwithsurroundingTODprecinct Ourintervieweesstressedtheimportanceofmaking thestationandprecinctaunified,delightful,active placethatwassafe,protectedfromtheelements,and integratedintothesurroundingfabric.Asoneintervieweeexplained,theaimshouldbemakingspaces ‘dynamicandinteresting’ (CommunityConsultation Professional).Asanotherexpounded,thediversity

MitigatingstrategiesfordeliveringsuccessfulTODprecinctsinPerth.Graphbytheauthors.

andintriguethatsuchplacesgenerate,andtheneventuallyself-perpetuate,reliesonadesireforpeopleto bethere(LandDeveloper2).Accordingtoourinterviewees,thedesignfocusshouldbethe criticalinterfacebetweenthestationandprecinct, andthecreationofcontinuityandinvitingelements throughouttheextentoftheTODprecinct.

Planstrategicallyforspecificoriginsand destinationswithinthetransitnetwork

Ourintervieweeshighlightedthatgovernmentplannersneedtoprioritisefewerkeycentresandrefocus energyonsmallerhubs.Thisstrategyinvolves ‘bringingtherailtodensityandactivity,notdensityand activitytorail.’ Asseveralintervieweessuggested, theheritageraillinesoffermuchinthewayof examplesofsuccessful,organicTODs,whereby existingstationsarecomprehensively ‘embedded intocommunities’ (TransportProfessional3)and the ’communityiscloser’ (TransportProfessional1). Theseexamplespromptafocusonareducednumber ofmajortransportactivityhubsandamorediffuse, finergrainnetworkofplacesthatareconsidered destinations.

Strengthenstategovernmentleadershipand introduceTODredevelopmentareas

OurintervieweesindicatedtheneedforgreateroversightofTODthroughthestategovernmentplanning apparatus.Ratherthanthisbeingadriverof

overridingneighbourhoodcharacter,theyregarded thatitwouldenableaholisticvisionandstreamline processestoenabletheuniquenessofeachareato flourishasdevelopmentoccurs.Asoneinterviewee explainedhavingoversightensuresthedevelopment ofdesignguidelines,enforcementofdesignstandards forDevelopmentApplications,andadherencetoan integratedvisionfortheprecinct(LandDeveloper 2).Ourintervieweesexplainedthatstategovernment leadershipwouldshifttheburdenoff localgovernmentsandensurethatnosingletransportagencydictatesadesignagenda.Asonelanddeveloperstated,

‘Weneedahigherlevelofgovernmentwhenyouare dealingwiththeissuesaroundaTOD.Thenyoucan say, ‘Listen,thereisahigherstrategicoutcomethatwe needtotryhardertoachieve.’ Itismoreaboutleadershipandahigher-updirective(LandDeveloper2).

Intervieweesstatedthatgreaterstategovernmentleadershipensuresthathagglingoverpolicyinterpretationandcontradictionsatalocallevelisavoided, enablingefficientdevelopmenttoaccompanyexcellentdesignoutcomes.

Diversifygenuineactiveandpublictransport optionsforTODprecinct

Ourintervieweeshighlightedtheneedforacomprehensiveanalysisoftravelconnectivityoutsidethe railnetworkatahumanscale.ItwasfeltaTODthat onlyprovidesaccesstothecitycentrewillnot

Figure10.

incentivisereducedcaruseorincreasedpublictransportusebeyondsingletripactivitieslikegettingto andfromwork.Inturn,severalinterviewees feltsuchlimitedtransportoptionsmaynotbeenough toattractpotentialresidentstoaTOD.

Ourintervieweesexplainedthatwhatisrequiredis awholeofjourneyapproach,whichincorporates motivationsandexperiencesofactivetravel.For example,mundaneandunshadedbikepathscan detersomeonewhomightotherwisebekeentocycle tothetrainstation.Asonedesignprofessionalaptly explained,

ForaTODtoworkyouneedtothinkofthebefore andaftertransport.Forexample,Iliveinmysuburbanhouse,gettingintomycartogettothetrain stationnexttothefreeway,whywouldIstop? TODsarenotjustthatlittleprecinct;itisthewhole networkthatyouneedtoconsider(DesignProfessional2).

AttractcriticalmassofcommunityintotheTOD precinct

Ourintervieweesstressedtheneedtocreateprecincts thatofferinteresting,affordable,anddiversedwelling typesandde-coupletheassumptionthatTODsequal high-risedevelopment.Asonelanddeveloperstated, ‘Ithinkwehavegottobereallycarefulthinkingthat densityhasgottobehigh-riseapartments.Weare goingtoneedtobealotclevereraboutthewaywe domediumdensity(LandDeveloper3).

Creatingathriving,diverseprecinctmeansattractingvarieddemographicstogivethearealayeredculturalandsocialcomplexity.Inpracticalterms,such precinctscanoffercreativespatialarrangementsfor residents,wherebyco-livingbecomesmorecommon forpeoplenottraditionallyviewedaswantingto sharehousing:olderadultsiblings,co-workers,grandparents,familieswithveryyoungchildren(Land Developer1).Therefore,tooffergenuineopportunity, apartmentsneedtovaryinsize,notjustinthenumber ofbedrooms,andprovidemorebespokeelements (LandDeveloper2).

Ourintervieweesexplainedthatthisstrategy requiresengagementwithpotentialandexistingresidents; ‘Idonotfeellikewegetanybuy-infromeverydaypeople’ (CommunityconsultationProfessional). Askingcommunitymemberswhatgenuinelywould attractthemtoliveinaTODcanofferalottothese discussions.Genuinediversityofdwellingtypes withinaTODprecinctiscriticaltoattractingthis diversityofresidents.However,inpractice – as expressedbyourinterviewees – thisdiversityisgenerallynotoccurring.Indeed, ‘diversity’ isdilutedtoconstituteasingletypeof ‘different’ dwellingsfora particulardemographicratherthanagenuinemixof housingchoices.

Communicateuniquebenefitsandtrade-offsof TODdensity

Ourintervieweesstressedtheneedtoofferunique additionalfeaturestosellhigherdensityTODtoa communityratherthanjusttransitservices.Asone intervieweeasked, ‘whatdoesdensityletyoudothat youcouldnotdoanywhereelse?’ (LandDeveloper 3)Threemaincreativesuggestionsweremadeto shiftthisfocustoadesirablydifferentprecinctand attractabroadercross-sectionofthecommunity.

The firstisenergysharing,wherebypowergenerationisincludedintheprecinct,creatinganovel optimisationofresources(LandDeveloper3).The secondisatruecommitmenttosustainableprecincts, inwhichTODsbecomeexemplarsofgenuinecarbonneutralliving(LandDeveloper1;CommunityConsultationProfessional).Thirdly,theopportunityformakingstationprecinctstest-casesforexperimental housingwhichcouldtransformtheattractivenessof oftenunappealingsitesadjacenttostations(Design Professional2).

Discussion

ThispaperhasidentifiedthebarrierstoTODdevelopmentinexistingurbanareasandconsideredseveral strategiesthatplannerscouldpursuetomitigatethese barrierstodeliversuccesfulTOD.Theintervieweesconveyeddeepfrustrationandfeelingsoflostopportunities arisingfromthestruggletoachievecomprehensive TODinPerth.ThisangstrelatestohowTODsare shapedbyinfrastructureandoperationalrequirements overexperienceandlocationandtheunmetpotential ofprecinctsthatresult.Nonetheless,themitigation strategiesillustratepossibilitiesfordesign-leddevelopmentthroughshiftsinperspectiveandprocesses. Theseprioritisediverse,creative,andgenuinelyappealingplacesandtraveloptionsoverthespeedofdevelopment,standardisation,and fixedpractices.

Policyimplications

GiventhescaleoftheMetronetprojectunderwayitis paramounttoidentifystrategiestoovercomethebarriersandensurecomprehensiveTODsaredeveloped. Inthisrespect,itisconcerningthatthestrategiesfor achievingTODthatintervieweestabled,insome cases,contradictPerth’scurrentplanning.Belowwe notethesecontradictionsandsuggestpolicy responses.Firstly,theproposedrefocussingofTOD effortsonalimitednumberofsiteshavesignificant implicationsonPerth’soverarchingplanningdocument,whichsetsoutasubstantial93ActivityCentres (mostofwhichareTODs)(DepartmentofPlanning LandsandHeritage 2018) – aswellastheMetronet railprojectwhichaimstointroduceahostofnew centres(Metronetteam 2021).Policymakersneedto

developaclearhierarchytoestablishwhichcentresare theprioritysothateffortsandcapitalarenotspread toodiffuselyoverthisextendednetwork;suchaswas thecasewiththe ‘Melbourne2030’ planandits hordeof114proposedcentreswhichElliot(2017, 107)describedas ‘ superficialtothepointof ridiculousness.’

Moreover,theproblematicseparationofproposed TODfromtheexistingurbanactivity,whichourintervieweesrecognisedasamajorproblem,isbeingperpetuatedincurrentplanningforMetronet(Metronet team 2021).Indeed,ahostofnewstationswillbe deliveredinfreewaymedians,suchasalongtheMorley-Ellenbrookline,andinlocationsremotefrom existingtowncentres,suchastheMorleystation, whichistwokilometrestotheeastoftheexisting towncentredefinedbythegargantuanGalleriashoppingcentre.SuchdecisionswilllikelyleadtoseparationbetweenTODsandexistingactivity – which willmakethedeliveryofasuccessful,vibrant TODprecinctsextremelydifficult.Assuch,future Metronetplanningmust findcreativewaysofuncouplingfreewayandrailinfrastructure.

Nonetheless,the findingsofourresearchresonate withsomeoftheplanningfortheMetronetproject. Forexample,ourintervieweesidentifiedtheweakness ofamonocentricCBDfocussedrailnetwork,andthe Metronetprojectpotentiallywillintroduceagreater levelofpoly-centricityintoPerth’surbanstructure. Moreover,theMetronetstationprecinctguideadvocatesfortheMetronetrelatedTODstobe ‘finely grained’ (Metronetteam 2018,16)and ‘thriving, active,safeandinclusiveplacesforthecommunity’ inwhichtheimpactofparkingandservicesisappropriatelyconsideredandintegrated.However,giventhe dominanceoftransportplanningoverurbandesignin Perth,wehaveconcernsthatsuchpolicyaspirations willbelostintheheadlongrushintoMetronet implementation.

Thecontinuedrequirementforextensiveparking aroundmasstransithubswillbenchmarkhowwell stationsareintegratedwiththeirurbanprecincts.A recentlyreleasedPrecinctDesignGuideprovidesguidanceintermsofefficientuseofparkingandastrategythatenforcesupperlimitsonparking(Department ofPlanningLandsandHeritage 2019);however,itis yettobeseenwhethersuchaspirationswill find expressiononthegroundgivenofteninflexibleand formulaictransportplanningstandards.

Our findingswiththeliterature

Ourkey,andnovel, findinghighlightsthatthesuccess ofstationprecinctsmustcogently, firmly,andenduringlyreflectthedesignprinciplesandimperativesthat will maximisetheirpotentialasauthenticcommunity places.Inwrestlingwiththethornyissueofdensifying

TODprecincts,policymakersshouldbeattentiveto the ‘realpeople’ ofAustralia’scitiestounderstand their ‘needs,wants,capabilitiesandfears’ (Mares 2010,41)ratherthangraspingto ‘achieve’ infilldevelopmentortransitusetargets.Indeed,asTroy(2004, 125)remindsus,otherapproaches ‘onlywastesalot oftheplannerstimeandgovernmentmoney.’ This situationhas(tosomedegree)occurredwithTOD –anapproachthatmighthaveconvincedplannersbut hasnotnecessarilyconvincedcommunities.

Farrelly(2021)identifiesinourTOD fixation ‘ a prioritisationofthe"going"overthe"being"liesan overweeningimpatience,afocusonefficiencyanda near-universalobsessionwithutilityasthehighest good.’ Moreover,Fishman(1982)explainshowthe missiontoorganisethecityaroundspeedand efficiencyallowedurbanplanningtobeseenasa science,notanart;asituationwhichhasseenan emphasisontransportconnectivityoverthecreation of ‘place.’ Our findingsresonatewithsuchprescient contributions.

Inmoredetail,theliteratureechoestheneedto integratethestationwiththesurroundingprecinct. Inparticular,theliteratureidentifieshowextensive parkingaroundstationsconflictswithmessaging aroundreducedcaruse,activetravel,andcompact development(Soria-Lara,Valenzuela-Montes,and Pinho 2015).Moreover,itidentifiesthatafeelingof safety(orlackthereof)candeterminetheprecinct’ s success(Carpio-Pinedo,DeGregorioHurtado,and SánchezDeMadariaga 2019).

Secondly,theliteratureissupportiveofour findings oftheneedto ‘planstrategicallyforspecificorigins anddestinationswithinthetransitnetwork’ and ‘diversifygenuineactiveandpublictransportoptions.’ Meesechoesthesesentimentsinhiscallforpublic transport tobeagenuine ‘alternativetothecarfora fullrangeoftrips,notjustthosetothecitycentre’ (2014).

Thirdly,theneedtoattractacriticalmassofcommunityintoaprecinct,inpart,throughhousingdiversity,isconfirmedbytheliterature.Indeed, Kamruzzamanetal.(2016)identifythatduetoadisconnectbetweenhousingchoiceandhouseholdcompositions, ‘therearealargenumberofpeoplethatdo notliveinTODareaswhowouldprefertodoso.’ This situationisparticularlypronouncedforfamilieswith school-agedchildrenwho,duetoalackoflarger apartmentsandprivateopenspace, ‘re-locatetoward non-central,mostlytransit-poorpartsofthemetropolitanarea’ (Wolday,Næss,andCao 2019).

Theopinionsofourintervieweeswerealsogenerallyconsistentwiththosefromstakeholdersurveys conductedbyRenne(2005)fromthePlanningand TransportResearchCentre.Thebarriersandrelated mitigatingstrategiesidentifiedinthisprojectresonate withours(Renne 2005).Thiscomparisonindicates

thatmanyoftheobstaclestoTODhavebeenlongstandinginPerthandareunlikelytobesurmounted withouttargetedpolicyinterventionssuchaswe haveproposed.

Limitations

Astheinterviewsinformingthispaperwereconductedinearlytomid-2019,thepaperdoesnot scopetheimplicationsoftheCOVID-19pandemic forTODandcompactcityplanningpolicy.Nonetheless,COVID-19hasreducedthedesirabilityof bothapartmentlivingandtransituse,whichwillcompoundbarrierstofullTODimplementation(Bolleter 2021).

Conclusion

PlannerCharlesMarohnhasarguedthat ‘Greatplaces needatrainlessthanatrainneedsagreatplace.Build theplace first,andtransitbecomesthelogical,inevitablenextstep – nomoretransit-orienteddevelopment schemes.Instead,whatweneedisdevelopmentorientedtransit’ (Quednau 2018).Forthisreason, urbanplannersanddesignersshouldlearnfromour TODstrugglesofthepastandfocusontheeveryday routinesandembodiedmovementsofthosetargeted toliveinanduseTODprecincts.Togiveexisting andfutureresidentsareasontosupportTOD,beyond transit,beyondafastcommutetotheCBD,willbe imperativetothesuccessofTODsinPerthand elsewhere.

Disclosurestatement

Nopotentialconflictofinterestwasreportedbytheauthor(s).

Funding

ThisworkwassupportedbytheAustralianResearchCouncil(LP190100558),DepartmentofCommunities,GovernmentofWesternAustralia;DevelopmentWA, GovernmentofWesternAustralia;WesternAustralian PlanningCommission,GovernmentofWesternAustralia.

ORCID

JulianAlexanderBolleter http://orcid.org/0000-00021514-2007

PaulaHooper http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4459-2901

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