Transit Oriented Development as a matter of Territory and Architecture_1 of 4_ PHD Thesis Arnoud de
Transit Oriented Development as a matter of Territory and Architecture,
The impact of changed urban ratios on the architectural assignments in the ‘Noorderkwartier’ area
Dirk Arnoud de Waaijer
Tutors:
Assoc. prof. dr. ir. R. Cavallo
Prof. ir. C.H.C.F. Kaan
ir. H.J. Engel
A Word of thanks,
Great thanks are in place to be expressed to Henk Engel, in 2008 I started to work at the Delft University of Technology and under his responsibility and guidance I was welcomed in the group of Mapping Randstad Holland, for which he is jointly responsible. This offered me the possibility to develop research skills and a framework for the research. Here for I also have to express my gratitude to Otto Diesfeldt and Iskandar Pane for teaching me as colleagues and Esther Gramsbergen in a similar role which already dates back longer to now. From 2011 Henk Engel and myself worked on a research project for the province of NoordHolland, this was an intensive and fruitful period. Henk Engels insights have greatly contributed to this thesis and I owe him thanks for that. This brings me to the other persons in the faculty making this project possible such Roberto Cavallo, I want to thank him for his enthusiasm and ability to finding a positive look at the things. I want to thank Kees Kaan as well for this and for finding time for consultations and always giving great inputs for the research and moreover offering me the facilities to conduct this research. Furthermore the professors of the Villard d’ Honnecourt program for offering the possibility of discussing the thesis at several occasions, this must be expressed, it offers a very helpful framework. NS Stations needs to be thanked in particular for sharing their insights and giving financial support. Furthermore Michiel Ruis of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Space for our pleasant and helpful dinners where I took the opportunity for gathering inputs for the research as well. For the research it has been of great importance: all the help offered in the ‘Maps Room’ of the faculties Library in Delft. In particular Addie Ritter. Also thanks need to be addressed to the province of Noord-Holland. Their project formed the start of this thesis. Furthermore to my friend and very the inspiring personality of Nikki Brand. Who by our conversations in the car has taught me how to mentally deal with the project of a thesis. At the faculty last but most certainly not the least Willemijn Wilms Floet for being a big supporter and friend there.
Arnoud de Waaijer, Shanghai, september 2014.
4. The phenomenon of urban spreading over the territory. 61
4.1 A sketch of the changes in the region of Amsterdam and Noorderkwartier 61
4.2 The process of overflow of Amsterdam and the distribution 62 in Noorderkwartier
4.3 A spatial overview by mapping the statistics 66
5. The driving forces and nature of the spatial developments and mobility patterns. 79
5.1 Spaceandmobility 79
5.1.1 General backgrounds of mobility and spatial specialization 79
5.1.2 Mobility forms and spatial distribution 81
5.1.3 Means of communication and spatial distribution 82
5.2 Mobility flows in TheNetherlands 83
5.2.1 ThemainmobilityflowsinTheNetherlands 83
5.2.2 The nature of economic activities in Netherlands and the scale of mobility patterns 90
5.2.3 Aanalysis of Dutch developments on economic activity, mobility and commuting 93
5.3. The Urban Patterns in Noorderkwartier 99
5.3.1 Employment patterns in Noorderkwartier 99
5.3.2 Distribution of facilities in Noorderkwartier 111
6. The extend of walkability of transit locations in Noorderkwartier 115
6.1 The extend of walkability of transit locations in Noorderkwartier 115
6.1.1 Decrease in perdestrian coverage 1970-2010 115
7. Factors of influence op Landscape, Infrastructure and Policies to urban development form the point of view of Transit Oriented Development 123
7.1 The landscape in the Netherlands and in Noorderkwartier 123
7.2 The aspect of policymaking 128
7.3 Introduction to the transport systems in the area of Noorderkwartier 129
7.3.1 Barge Canals in Noorderkwartier 1600 - 1890 129
7.3.2 The construction of several connections to the port of Den Helder 132
7.3.3 The construction of line K 134
7.4 The Post WWII Urban Developments 141
7.4.1 Description and analyses of the developments in the territory per decade. 141
7.4.2 Urban Developments to type of landscape and policies on general developments 150
7.5 Dynamics in development patterns towards the railway Station 159
7.5.1 Region of ‘Kop van Noord-Holland’ 159
7.5.2 The ‘Kennemerland’ area, landscape of sand walls, clay and polders 162
7.5.3 Railway locations in the peat landscape of the Zaan area 166
7.5.4 Developments to the railway locations 170
8. The definition of the scope of architectural assignments on Transit Oriented Development and directions for further studies 171
8.1 The strategy of densification 171
8.2 Conclusions and recommendations for further studies 174
Curriculum Vitae
1.
Transit Oriented Development in Noorderkwartier; what does it entail for Architecture?
1.1 Research background
This research concerns the concept of Transit1 Oriented Development (TOD) as a spatial and Architectural concept. Transit is an American term for local mass public transportation. Transit Oriented Development (TOD) in practice can be characterized as strive for the clustering of spatial initiatives around nodes of public transport. As study area the northern part of the province of Noord-Holland, situated north of the IJ has been taken. Currently for the area policies are being developed under the heading of provincial policy program titled ‘Densification around Nodes of Public Transport’ 2 This program can be considered as related to the phenomenon of Transit Oriented Development. 3 Where in architecture the scope is often limited to the railway stations itself and possibly its direct environment, for TOD the focus is merely on a larger area. Its topic is the coherence between the urban territory and mobility. This involves a larger area around the railway stations than its direct surroundings. In this respect the term railway station locations is used, a railway location coincides with the area around the station that falls under the sphere of transit.4 The TOD project is initiated by environmental concerns and developed by Architects, Urban Designers and Urban Planners. With its larger area of study, TOD often, although initiated by architects, TOD falls out of the scope of architectural research methodology. Therefore it is somewhat unclear what TOD fundamentally is in architecture apart from the often implemented densification of railway station areas. Nevertheless in the end, most spatial interventions eventually have to take place on the scale of the architecture.
1 Transit means: mass public transport, often by railway. The Merriam Webster Dictionairy refers to transit as: local transportation especially of people by public conveyance.
2 Provincie Noord Holland (2011), Provincial Structural vision Noord-Holland 2040’ (‘Provinciale Structuurvisie Noord-Holland 2040’). (Provincie Noord-Holland), 84. The project: “Densification around Transit Nods” (“Verdichting rond Openbaar Vervoer-knooppunten”) is part of execution program of the Provincial Structural vision Noord-Holland 2040.
3 Provincie Noord Holland & Vereninging Delta Metropool (2013), Make place!, To work on urban development on mobility nods in Noord-Holland (Maakplaats!, Werken aan knooppunt ontwikkeling in Noord-Holland) (Province Noord-Holland, Haarlem). The programm of ‘Densification around nodes of public transport’ has led to a resulting policy document ‘Make place!’ (Maakplaats!).In the introduction at the back cover the topic of the book is introduced as ‘in regard to development of railway nods in particular regarding area development steps forewards need to be made. Furthermore the book states policy intentions regarding concentration of spatial developments around railway locations. As a next step in the process of policy development in collaboration with the Royal Institute of Dutch Architects (Bond Nederlandse Architecten) a design competition organized that bears the name: ‘Designing for TOD’
4 The term train station area is defined as the area in a certain radius around a train station, in literature different dimensions are used for the radius, but in general the tendency is towards a radius of 800 meters. In this research the train station area is defined as the area in a radius of 800 meters around a train station. 800 meters coincides with the distance which is generally considered to be acceptable as walking distance to a station. Centrum voor Regelgeving en Onderzoek in de Grond-, Water- en Wegenbouw en de Verkeerstechniek, ASVV (Aanbevelingen Stedelijke Verkeersvoorzieningen/ Recommendations for Urban Traffic Facilities), 1996.
The urgency for TOD originates from this experienced lack of synergy between mobility and urbanity in certain areas. This comes as a result of the wider mounted and more scattered urban landscape that came about after WWII.5 Post Second World War the urban territory in Western Europe has changed drastically, cities have spread over much bigger territories.6 This expansion is caused by increased accessibility to mobility and in particular to the increased car-mobility and has had major spatial implications and resulted in widespread mobility problems. 7 As early as 1965 it is putted as follows by Robbert Harvey: ‘Transportation circumstances are catalysts of sprawl. Trolley and bus lines pro-duce strip developments and the rapid transit lines have only extended the strips. Primarily, however, it is the auto which permits access to remote areas and provides the essential condition which allows sprawl to occur. The construction of expressways and super-highways as caused both congestion in the central areas, and the rapid spread of the city at the edge.’ 8
Several newspaper articles can be found related to the mobility problems to reach Amsterdam from Noorderkwartier Area.9
Table 1:10
Types of Mobility in commuting in Noorderkwartier Area
Simultaneously the part of transit in commuting has decreased from 51,2 in 1940 (and 36,6% for the train) to 28,3% in 1970 (10% for the train) to only 9,9% in 2000 (5,0% for the train only).
The concept of TOD is developed to counter the consequences of this urban sprawl. Its aim is to increase synergy between mobility in general, transit11 mobility in particular and urban development. Furthermore a goal is to promote use of public transport. The increased car mobility has proven to be very difficult to accommodate in existing urban territories. The sprawling has especially taken place outside of the previously existing centralities and the urban area has become much more dispersed than before. The sprawl and the resulting problematic of experienced lack of coherence and mobility problems is a broad
5 H. Priemus, ‘Urban dynamics and transport infrastructure: Towards greater synergy’, in Railway development impacts on urban dynamics, F. Bruinsma, E. Pels, H. Priemus, P. Rietveld, B. van Wee, 2007. p. 15.
6 ‘Città Diffusa’, Indovina 1990; The explosion of the city, Ascher, Font et al. 2004; in C.E. Pinzon Cortez, Mapping Urban Form, Morphology studies in the contemporary urban landscape, 2009.
7 R. Cervero, Transit metropolis, a global inquiry, 1998, p. 2, 3.
8 Harvey, R.O. and. Clark, W. A. V, (1965) The Nature and Economics of Urban Sprawl Author(s): Source: Land Economics,Vol. 41, No. 1 (Feb., 1965), pp. 1-9 (University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin)
9 Termaat, G., (2002) ‘North-Holland congestion problems keeps on increasing’ De Telegraaf of Januari 10th 2002. (De telegraaf, Amsterdam) Ministery of infrastructure (2014) Better Usage (Ministery of Infrastructure, The Hague)
10 Statistics Netherlands,
11 Transit means: mass public transport, often by railway. The Merriam Webster Dictionairy refers to transit as: local transportation especially of people by public conveyance.
phenomenon and this results in a more widespread occurrence of projects of TOD. The project ‘Stedenbaan’ in the South wing of the ’Randstad’ area in the Netherlands is a good example of such a project.12 Under the heading of ‘Transport Oriented Development’ (‘TOD’) similar initiatives have been undertaken abroad as well.13
The research is part of the larger research project Mapping Randstad Holland that runs at the Delft University of Technology and that started in 2005.14 The research project aims to obtain deeper insight in the processes that shape and have shaped the urbanization specifically in the Randstad and that create context for the current architectural assignments in this area. 15 The project seeks to place spatial developments that have occurred in a broader context than is often the case in the current spatial research practice. An assumption of the project is that the scope of the research projects executed in current practice is often too limited to really fathom the studied phenomena. This both in terms of the time period studied as in terms of size of the spatial range of the studies. The time period is often too short and the study area is often too small to be able to see consistency within the territory and to be able to really develop understanding on the assignments. The method used at the research group is that of historiographical research combined with spatial research by mapping. In this context, the research group has, in commission of the province of North Holland, executed research to the railway locations in the Provence.16 This research more specifically concerns the spatial developments of the urban territory of municipalities with railway locations north of Amsterdam and the IJ, the area of Hollands Noorderkwartier. This thesis elaborates further on this topic and could lead to deepening of knowledge on a specific aspect of the recent urbanization of this part of the Randstad of interest for the research program. The research of the thesis covers the urban developments around the rail trajectory Amsterdam to Den Helder and its architectural implications.
For the case of the ‘Randstad’ post World War II a particular development of spreading of urban area has taken place from the centre to the peripheries. This formation is not merely centred on a core but poly-nuclear.17 It has spread out from the different main centres over the territory, especially from Amsterdam and its patterns are strongly related to its transit infrastructures. In the area of the Randstad several aspects of the dynamic peat landscapes have had a strong impact on urban development. One of them is that the original urban settlements were strongly related to the local landscape characteristics.18 Another aspect is related to the early presence of a transit network in the area with the means of barge canals which was at an early stage possible in this type of landscape.19 The historically successively
12 Stedenbaan, www.stedenbaan.nl is an initiative of the “bestuurlijk platform zuidvleugel”, www.zuidvleugel.nl
13 In the book: The transit metropolis, a global inquiry, Robert Cervero reviews several projects on ‘TOD’, these projects are taking place globally, examples are given in Europe, North America and Asia.
15 Engel H.J. (2005) , ‘Randstad Holland in kaart’ In H.J. Engel eds. OverHolland 2
16 Engel, H.J. & Waaijer, D.A. de. (2011) 22 Railwaylocations Hollands Noorderkwartier (Delft University of Technology, Delft)
17 H. Priemus, ‘Urban dynamics and transport infrastructure: Towards greater synergy’, in Railway development impacts on urban dynamics, F. Bruinsma, E. Pels, H. Priemus, P. Rietveld, B. van Wee, 2007. p. 16
18 Engel, H.J. (2013) Distribution of Towns, Cities and Infrastructure in Hollands Noorderkwartier up to around 1700. In Engel, H.J. et al. eds. Overholland 12/13 (Sun, Amsterdam) p .129-149.
19 Brand, A.D., (2013) The Roots of the Randstad (Delft University of Technology, Delft)
occurring public transport systems in the area have had a tendency to follow the existing patterns. 20 Therefor the settlements there have further developed according to patterns present. In addition after WWII a more or less successful policy has been executed for urban development aligned with existing infrastructural connection. It is striking that where urban development has been related to such an extend to infrastructural patterns a need for TOD comes to the fore. Simultaneously with the program ‘Densification around Nodes of Public Transport’ part of the studied railway line is taking up the role of a metropolitan line.21 In the National policy program ‘High Frequent Rail transport’ (Programma Hoogfrequent Spoorvervoer) it is proposed for the frequency on the trajectory to increase to 6 slow train connections and 6 fast train connections per hour on the most busiest trajectories in the Netherlands in 2020.22 The part between Amsterdam and Alkmaar is part of this project. The railway will so to say be transformed into a metro line. It is seen as an opportunity to transform the peripheries into a metropolitan area.23
For the area of ‘Noorderkwartier’ there is amongst policymakers of the governmental bodies a focus on Transit Oriented Development (TOD) and policies on this field are currently in the making.24 This makes much research material available.25 A commencing part of the research of the research program of the program Densification around nodes of Public Transport was conducted by the chair of department of Urbanism at the Delft University of Technology and by the association of Delta Metropool, both leading research groups in the field of Urbanism and Mobility.26 Thus the mapping and the historio-grapic research can be mirrored to this or Engel, H.J. Distribution of towns, cities and infrastructure in Holland’s Noorderkwartier up to around 1700. In: OverHolland 12/13.Engel H.J., Gramsbergen, E. Rutte,. pp. 129-149.
20 Cavallo, R. (2007). The Railway and the Dutch City (De Spoorwegen in de Nederlandse stad). In Engel, H.J., Claessens, F. & Kavanaugh, L. eds. (2007) OverHolland 5, (Sun, Amsterdam) p. 49. Cavallo puts foreward here to easier to aquire land. In addition, also plays a role that this route gave a connection between two points with a need for transportation, the water network also presumably was fine-grained and by connecting to an existing routing there is a good connection to the existing structure of the city.
21 State Programm High Frequent Rail Transport
22 More information on the Program Highfrequent Railtransport is to be found on the state website http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/openbaar-vervoer/groei-op-het-spoor/spoorboekloos-reizen , on the website form the organisation responsible for railway infrastructures in the Netherlands; general information http://www.prorail.nl/projecten/goederenroute-oost-nederland/programma-hoogfrequentspoorvervoer and more specific information for the trajectory Amsterdam to Alkmaar in the area of Noorderkwartier at http://www.prorail.nl/projecten/alkmaar-amsterdam , websites visited at 14th of august.
23 Maakplaats! P. 11-12.
24 Project: “Densification around Transit Nods” (“Verdichting rond Openbaar Vervoer-knooppunten”) part of execution program of the Provincial Structural vision Noord-Holland 2040’ (‘Provinciale Structuurvisie NoordHolland 2040’). 2011, p. 84.
25 R. Bos, T. Straatemeier, Kansen voor knooppunten en spoorcorridors in Noord-Holland, Een verkenning van de bereikbaarheid van en het ruimtegebruik rondom openbaar vervoerknooppunten, 2010. Provincie Noord-Holland, Werkboek Bouwstenen 3/3, Noord-Holland 2040, Analyses en verkenningen, 2009, p. 11- 57, amongst others it contains analyses on the basis of the ‘node-place model’ (method of L. Bertolini), ‘Space Syntax Typology’ (method of M.Y. Berghouserpont) and ‘Spacemate’ (method of E. Stolk and A. van Nes)
26 Delta metropool has been founded in 1998 to promote metropolitan development in the Randstad and has since then developed a research portfolio. The Chair of Urban Design at the department of Urbanism of the Delft University of Technology with research conducted on railway locations on the basis of the Node-Place Model (Bertolini), Spacemate method (Berghauser-Pont), Spacesyntax methodology (van Nes). In Provincie Noord-Holland, (2009), Workbook Building Stones 3/3, (Provincie Noord-Holland, Haarlem). p. 11-60.
extended research practice which represents the current practice of the spatial disciplines on TOD. Apart from that within the research group Mapping Randstad Holland much knowledge is available concerning the history and functioning of the area. The ‘Randstad’ is well studied and documented.27 This thesis will take use of this knowledge and where possible it will be extended. For the research group ‘Hollands Noorderkwartier’ is an interesting case as it is connected to the ‘Randstad’ area and as it can be considered part of its periphery. The Randstad is considered an area which functions as an urban system and which is rooted in history28, this makes historical comparison possible. Apart from this, for the phenomenon of TOD, an interesting aspect the shape of the area; as a peninsula connected to the ‘North Wing of the Randstad’/ ‘Amsterdam Metropolitan Area’, the decreasing influence of a central area can be studied In the post WWII period for the Randstad and its surroundings there has been a very strong guiding policy towards dispersion of urbanity into the peripheries, this has led to this specific form of dispersion which causes this need for TOD. It concerns a for the periphery of the Randstad specific form of urban formation related to the policy pursued in the past of dispersion of territory outward of the main cites of the Randstad. Meanwhile the policies changed toward the limitation of sprawl. Another previously not mentioned pillar in this respect of this policy of TOD is the current desire to keep the landscape open and protect it against further sprawl developments. 29 This is a direction that has developed slowly in the policies since the end of the 1990’s but which is a break with the General post-war developments of a tendency towards dispersion.30 The general tendency in development in build-up urban area post WWII has thus been of spread into the peripheries. The intention in the policies is now to break with this trend and to come to a form of concentration. Whereas this is a break with the existing tendencies present an important question comes to the fore is how this is to be achieved. Most probably policies will be needed to be developed for a more transit oriented development to be achieved. Spatial policies in the past have been proven to be one time more successful than the other. An important question comes to the fore to the dynamics of intervention for development towards transit. What are the probabilities for this to happen and what are the determining factors? Apart from the fine tuning of possible intervening policies the following consideration is of importance; the fact of a for decades withdrawing governmental role in society.31 This is endorsed by a structural political landscape with a believe in the free market and desire for a little as possible intervening government role. 32 In
27 H.J. Engel, OverHolland 1 t/m 13, and research by the chair of Urban Design at the Delft University of Technology.
28 Wagenaar & Van Engelsdorp-Gastelaars, Het ontstaan van de Randstad, 1986. Van Oort e.g., Economische specialisaties in de Randstad, 2009. Both derived from A.D. Brand, De wortels van de Randstad, Overheidsinvloed en stedelijke hiërarchie in het westen van Nederland tussen de 13de en de 20ste eeuw, 2012. p. 14-17.
29 Provincie Noord-Holland (2011) Structuurvisie Noord-Holland 2040, p. 61- 62 and p. 84.
30 The topic was introduced in the 4th Note on Spatial Development Extra in 1999 and the 5th Note Spatial Development part 3 of 2001.
31 In the the Kabinets of prime minister Lubbers (1982-1999) in the 1980’s policies of decentralization and withdrawing role of the state has been pursued. The subsequent ‘purple’ cabinets, a combination of liberals and social democrats (1999-2003) have been persuing economical growth trough liberal policies. After 2003 more conservative and right wing cabinets have formed the governments with alternatively Christian Democrats and Liberals in the lead. (2003-2014). In http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiek_en_overheid_in_Nederland, 14th of august 2014.
32 http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme, 14th of august 2014.
the meanwhile, with the Structural Vison Infrastructure and Space (Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte) of 2011, the role of the state in spatial development is limited to the indication of where it wil invest in possible construction of the needed infrastructures and where not.33 At the same time society in general is confronted with more limited means for intervention. Caused both by the expected decreasing demand for building production34 and the development of economical changing circumstances. More in general, it is important to study the possibilities for restructuring of station areas in relation to the 'other' approach to urban renewal that, amongst others, has been advocated in different advices of the ‘VROM- raad’ (the advisory board for the Dutch government on spatial planning). Instead of the commonly adapted approach of large-scale renewal of the housing stock, the ‘VROM- raad’ advises to emphasize (small) defined interventions which are consistent with programmatic strategies and that take the present social and spatial characteristics of the area as a starting point.35 Goal of this research is to study the potential of precise and targeted and therefore architectural interventions as an alternative for large scale planning and policy making. Both form a spatial and material point of view as of processes of realization.
33 Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Ruimte, (2011) Structural Vision Infrastructure and Space (Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte) (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Ruimte, Den Haag)
34 A shift from a building production of new build-up urban areas more towards restructuring of existing stock is expected by Ruimtelijk Planbureau, in De ongekende ruimte verkend, 2003. p. 30- 45.
35 VROM- Raad; Duurzame verstedelijking, 2010; Wonen in ruimte en tijd 2009.
1.2 Research problematic
By studying the urban territory and typology of its parts it also comes to the fore that cities nowadays consist of different parts than before and that those parts function differently than was the case previously.36 The assignment of TOD results from these altered spatial relationships and is therefore essentially a spatial task. It concerns an interesting field of research for architects whereas the massive increase in mobility and the very large spread of the urban territory37 has also led to other relationships in the urban territory and different typo morphology than was the case before. This also evokes the pressing question whether or not this leads to different needs to the built environment and thus to architecture. In any case the emerging lack of synergy in the area comes to the fore both on the level of mobility as on the level of the public space.
The strive for TOD is caused by the spatial spread of the urban built-up area which stems from the changed use of cities and the use of spatial concepts other than before. With the industrial revolution, a massive migration to the cities arose; this caused problems of accommodation due to the large concentration of activities and residents. This led to towns with social inequality and poor living conditions for the less fortunate. An urgent need for change developed and the availability of the technology of transit was seized as an opportunity to spread the built environment over a larger area and thus avoid complexity problems. Characteristic of post-industrial society became the separation between where people work and where they live; this is resulted in massive traffic patterns. 38 The thinking about spatial solutions to this problem is not very developed. And needs to be studied further.
According to Lefebvre the status of the terms centre and periphery is subject to change. This underlines the thought of proportions in the city having changed and the cities functioning in a different manner than before. In his famous piece ‘The Production of Space’ he writes about the subject. According to Lefebvre these processes of fundamental re-division play for a longer period of time, about since the years 1910. Starting from the 1950’s it changed classical oppositions such as city and land.39 This is clearly visible as the rural areas got more occupied with urban build up areas. Apart from this Lefebvre assumes a fundamental change in the opposition centre and periphery.40 The periphery has been build up and became in some kind of way a part of the city, with this also the functioning of the cities changed. 41 Mumfort speaks about suburbs as a phenomenon existing since the existence of cities. As places outside to live outside of the cities to escape the disadvantages of the city. Firstly this
36 C.E. Pinzon Cortez, Mapping Urban Form, Morphology studies in the contemporary urban landscape, 2009, p 29. “This new entity,…, is also a city in the sense that it combines many functions and different centres. But these centres are nothing like the traditional downtowns. There is a new structure for these areas that is provided by the system of infrastructure.”
37 R. Cervero, Transit metropolis, a global inquiry, 1998, p. 2, 3.
38 Statistics Netherlands (1947) Some facets of the housing situation in the Netherllands (Statistics Netherlands, The Hague)
39 Hays K.M. (1998) From The Production of Space. In Hays, K.M. ed. Architecture Theory since 1968, 124-126 H. Lefebvre (1974) The Porduction of Space.
40 Lefebvre, p.
41 Idem p.
escape was only available for the elite. The massive spread of the phenomenon of Suburb brought with it problems with it, that of social isolation and the strongly increased need for transportation. ‘Yet the change of scale and the scattering of dwellings raised an older rural problem, that of isolation; and, to achieve any degree of social advantage, it magnified the need for private vehicular transportation, since, again, the very dispersal of dwellings made any more public system of transportation for short hauls prohibitive.’42
He also points to the segregation which takes place both spatially as socially;
‘The spatial dissociation of functions in suburbia results in an extreme specialization of the individual parts: segregated residence areas without local shops segregated shopping centres without industries: segregated industrial plants without eating facilities unless provided by the management. In escaping the complex co-operations of the city Suburbia recovers the original vices of overspecialization and rigid control’.43
Mumfort links the segregation to the typology of the suburb as the cause. I think the spreading indeed offers this possibility. But I assume it has deeper causes which lay in an economical and societal need which are to find their affect in any case.44
In literature a trend for this is to be seen. Since the end of the nineteen eighties by some cities are no longer considered as a spatial unity but more as a setting where activity patterns take place which are not anymore directly linked to spatial form. The Urban territory in the post-industrial era is to consist of two simultaneous dimensions. The spatial dimension which of course still exists and the different networks of activities of its occupants. In the journal of OASE 23 Harm Tilman devotes attention to this topic in the article ‘City and Network, Appearance and Disappearance of Urban Space’. The following is putted to the fore; at first cities where not equal to a unity, moreover a set of buildings and squares. The last 100 years changes trough spreading. Tillman puts forward the city to be considered a network.
‘From now on we no longer live in a city built around axles and a hierarchy of urban spaces. We are now moving on a map. Thus we entered the era of 'de-territorialization'. We have exceeded a threshold of perception’ 45 thus is quoted in the article.
The topic of de-territorialization and the city as a network is worked on extensively by Dupuy. According to Dupuy a network has a ‘geographical’ component which is the tendency to extend, and exceed boundaries. Furthermore network is ‘Kinetic’ and therefore it should allow optimum spead without interruptions and furthermore it is ‘Adaptive’ it can adapt itself instantaneously to the needs.46 The insights of Dupuy offer leads to study the functioning of the urban territory.
42 Mumfort L. (1961) The City In History (Harcourt, New York)
43 Idem.
44 Rossi. The Architecture of the City.
45 Teyssot, Georges, The Metropolis 'Theatre", in Teyssot, Georges, Beyond the City, the Metropolis,Electa/XVII Triennale, Milaan 1988, p. 268-272, p. 13-19.
In the area of Hollands Noorderkwartier concerning the re-division of elements in the build environment two opposite developments are to be distinguished. On the one hand more widely spreading housing over the territory into the peripheries, on the other hand concentration of activities towards the centralities. The de-concentration of housing can be explained by the following. With the availability of mobility more remote locations become available for development. In the article Between Politics and Technology: Transport as a factor of Mass Suburbanisation in Europe of Capuzzo in the book ‘Suburbanising the Masses’ these processes are described. With the Industrial Revolution a process of massive migration towards the cites has occurred which has by that time led to several accommodation problems. Complexity problems came to the fore which were difficult or to solve and this led to worsened living circumstances for large amounts of the population of these in the meanwhile formed metro poles. With the availability of mass mobility systems housing could be realised at a larger distance of the centres. In such lesser complex peripheral environment, housing can be realized at lower costs or with the same means better housing can be build.47 With the post WWII availability of car mobility the spread became even of lesser density and more spread-out. More remote locations become available for development. This has led to sprawl developments and to the occupation of the peripheries.48 This sprawl can thus be seen as a consequence of the increased accessibility to mobility. On top of the already present tendency for spread it has been enforced by policies to promote spread. In the bigger cities not enough locations were available to meet the demands for housing area caused by the wish for bigger housing.49 50These policies have gradually changed halted for reasons of costfulness and the unwished consumption of the landscape. On the other hand also the classical ‘Centre Periphery theory of Wallerstein is valid. This theory assumes the concentration towards the centralities at cost of the peripheries. 51 The increased amounts of mobility have enforced these processes of redivision. But the concentration only occurs with economical activities. These two developments make a possible discrepancy in urban patterns only more urgent. With the increased mobility and changed urban patterns, the dispersion of population, employment end facilities has changed and is less bound to certain places and locations than before. In this light in the studied area certain parts attract activities such as employment and facilities more than others and this leaves certain areas to be faced with a downfall in particular elements of population, facilities and employment and these areas ask in this perspective for intervention. ‘Noorderkwartier’ is considered to possibly be such an area, under pressure from the attractive forces from the center of the ‘Amsterdam Metropolitan Area’52 especially where in the national spatial plans now the priority lies on the southern part of the ‘Amsterdam Metropolitan Area’; with three national projects focused on reinforcement of
47Capuzzo, P. (2003) Between Politics and Technology: Transport as a factor of Mass Suburbanization in Europe, 1890-1939, In Dival, C & Bond. W. (2003) Suburbanising the Masses: Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective (Ashgate, Burlington) p. 23-48
48 Dijksterhuis, R. (1985) Railways and Urban Planning. In ‘The Rail. 150 Years railways in the Netherlands. Broeke, W.van et als eds. (Meulenhoff Informatief, Amsterdam)
49 Engel H.J. (2005) ‘Randstad Hollan Mapped’ In. Engel H.J. & Claessens, F. eds. OverHolland 2
50 Berghuiser and Pont. (20 )Spacemate (Delft Universitary Press, Delft)
51 Wallerstein, I. (1984)‘The Politics of the World Economy, the States, the movements, and the cicilaziation’(Camebridge Universitypress, Camebridge)
52 Provincie Noord-Holland, Structuurvisie Noord-Holland 2040, Kwaliteit door veelzijdigheid, 2010, p. 9 en 10. F. Suurenbroek, A. Pais do Amaral, ‘De Amsterdam Region, Van analyse naar visie’ in Lay-out 12, p. 4
this part 53 This study focuses on the contrary on the secondary and tertiary areas. In general in the area there are on the one hand areas that have become more concentrated. After all, the central locations attract activities. On the other hand areas emerge which have a tendency to become less concentrated and so to say de-concentrate. Whereas the area development is concerned with the territory as a whole it is not so much focussed on the central railway locations which is in architecture is the main field of study. Area development on the scale of the territory is achieved rather through the semi- peripheral and peripheral locations than through the central locations. Therefor the peripheral and semi- peripheral locations are the main field of study of this research.
In the article ‘Fragmentation in the peripheries’ Hilde Heijnen explains peripheries are characterized by absence of boundaries. This absence means the lack of a need for concentration and complexity. In the case of the area now a possible change is taking place. The aim is now to limit the expansion of urban areas54 and force a state of non-periphery onto the area. At the same time the mechanism of price is at hand. Concentration as comes at a price. The exact cause of the spread has been the dynamics of saving on building costs by avoiding complexity. What is more precisely the to be expected dynamics of the further developments in the area?
The phenomenon of concentration and of de-concentration lead to a different patterns in the use of the city. The functionalities requested from the build environment are at different scales than before. This also causes a shift in the scale levels of the connections in the urban landscape. A question of this research is how the patterns are imbedded and whether or not these patterns are well imbedded in the urban environment. The assignments in areas of concentration tend towards larger scaled and more complex building this is a well-studied area of the central locations, the assignments in the areas of de-concentration are less studied but I assume they are stretched out over larger areas than before and ask for adjustments on the smaller architectonic scale. Not necessary in the traditional build form. It makes the bringing about a linkage between urbanity and mobility more of an architectural matter than an urban matter. This is the field of interest of this theses.
The assignment of TOD is related to the desire for regaining synergy in the urban environment. It is the form of the spatial distribution that does not reflect urban patterns anymore which has created the need for TOD. It has been caused by the changed ratios and necessary patterns in the functioning of the city. It is thus a spatial task, which needs to be studied spatially to restore spatial relationships. How are the spatial relations organized in the territory and what are the causes?
53 The projects “Zuid- As”, “ Mainport- Schiphol” and “Scale amplification Amsterdam- Almere- Markermeer” are indicated as “Key National Projects for the Netherlands” in Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu, Ontwerp Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte, Nederland concurrerend, bereikbaar, leefbaar en veilig, 2011. p. 63.
54 Provincie Noord-Holland, (2010), Structural vision North-Holland 2040, Quality trough versitality, p. 9 and 10, The provincial policy programm Building within existing Urban Areas enforces the limitation of further expansion.
1.3 Research motivation and urgency
It seems the current professional and research practice is not able to give many answers to this kind of qualitative questions formerly mentioned of spatial relations and coherence. Commonly the only response in practice to the quest for TOD is limited to the densification of the build-up areas in the direct proximity to railway stations. This shows a merely quantitative approach. The Provincial program even carries the name ‘Densification around Nodes of Transport’.55 Indicating the general presumption on TOD; to be merely a matter of densification. Probably the thought behind this is that whereas the need for TOD is caused by a lesser dense urban environment this newer less dense type of environment is problematic and should be changed towards the previous denser urban environment which did not have these synergy problems. The question which comes to the fore is to what extend densification leads to a more Transit Oriented urban environment and if that is sufficient for its purpose and if these environments are consistent in today’s society. Another very important question is to the probability of densification to actually occur. Although it is a desired direction for development it doesn’t seem to be the normal tendency. The concept of sprawl came to the fore as a means to achieve better quality of housing with lesser means. To construct better housing for the same price. The more pressing considering the lesser means to invest. It seem not viable densification will occur. Although TOD is conceived as a concept based on private investment and only public subsidization of the transit in practice almost none of the projects have been without subsidies.56
Within architecture a professional opposition is to be distinguished in possible spatial environments; the traditional city and the modern city. The latter is of lesser density and considered less coherent. This has to do with the oppositions and dogmas that arose within the profession. With the principles presented by CIAM in the Athens Charter of 1933 a very strong rejection of the traditional city came to the fore. The traditional city should be rejected and completely adapted to the properties of the modern era. Preferably it would need to be demolished and replaced. In many places this led to a strategy of rigorously adapting the traditional city. This resulted for several cities to far-reaching restructuring plans with entire entities of the historical city to be broken down. With the widespread implementation of these strategies and strong societal resistance arose and the approach was halted. At the same time it caused other architectural schools to develop, which pursue traditional urban environments.57 The work of architect and urban sociologist Jane Jacobs was very important in this aspect. In her famous book, "The Death and Life of Great American Cities" she argues that in the new modern city a lack for opportunities of interaction is present which is precise a crucial property for cities and the functioning of society. Jacobs proposes denser urban environments and sets up guidelines regarding grids and densities. These guidelines are to achieve again denser and traditional urban
56 Article of Curtis about the history of TOD: “Likewise, today we know that few, if any, TODs have been developed without public subsidies. But, just as he does later with TODs, Calthorpe wrongly depicts the market demand for Pedestrian Pockets andstates that “the public sector’s role is merely to organize the transit system and set new zoning guidelines, leaving development to the private sector.”
57 School of New Urbanism
environments.58 In chapter two I will elaborate on the architectural debate in the founding of TOD and its assumptions and foundations. One could argue the strive for only tradition urban environments is not viable anymore considering the existing urban territory today and its spatial properties. The architecture school of New Urbanism which is closely related to the movement of TOD; incorporates these principles. It rejects modern wide spread urban settings and reverts to the traditional surroundings of density and walkability.59
I would argue the integration of mobility in both environments has become problematic. On the one hand for the newer modern low dense environments the position of the pedestrian and the public space is at stake. On the other hand the integration of car use in existing urban fabric has proven to be problematic. The increase of car mobility in Europe in the 1960’s has been of such size this task could not be accommodated by architects or urban designers but was assigned to the more efficient traffic engineers. Their approach is only focused on the dealing with amount of traffic and not the spatial properties and designing urban quality.60 The newer urban environments are often partially based on CIAM’s principles of separation of housing and mobility. This probably leads to two kinds of isolated urban environments which spatially do not interact so well. While at the same time the common Daily Urban System grew from the size of functioning only on a very local level to currently functioning mostly on the lager regional level and thus the use of the both different, not well aligned, urban environments. In New Urbanism TOD is perceived as rebuilding traditional environments and it thus denies the existence of the automobile and its related urban territory. Thus a reconciliation of the both environments never has really taken place. Objective is to transcend this opposition and to study the needs to modification to the urban environments.
In addition, it appears the usual scale of study and thought about architecture is often too small to contain the territorial concept of TOD. Whereas TOD merely involves the consistency of transit and its area of influence and the functioning of the built environment it covers relationships in a larger area. This is bigger than the immediate scope of ensembles of buildings that is often the subject of architecture. This makes TOD op until now primarily a matter for planners and urban designers.61 Planner’s task is to distribute the demand for housing over the territory and urban designers are to develop cities and parts of cities. The applied research methodology regarding TOD is practice dominated by the Plano logical discipline. The methods used are numerical in nature and do not take into account spatial proportional and relationships and how an area functions. A leading role is played by the
58 Jacobs. J. (1961) ‘The death and life of great American cities’ Random House, New York)
59 Idem
60 Schmucki, B. 2003. Cities as Traffic Machines: Urban Transport Planning in East and West Germany. In Divall, D. & Bond, W. (eds.) Suburbanizing the Masses; Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective. (Hants: Ashgate).
61 R. Bos, T. Straatemeier, Kansen voor knooppunten en spoorcorridors in Noord-Holland, Een verkenning van de bereikbaarheid van en het ruimtegebruik rondom openbaar vervoerknooppunten, 2010. Provincie Noord-Holland, Werkboek Bouwstenen 3/3, Noord-Holland 2040, Analyses en verkenningen, 2009, p. 11- 57, amongst others it contains analyses on the basis of the ‘node-place model’ (method of L. Bertolini), ‘Space Syntax Typology’ (method of M.Y. Berghouserpont) and ‘Spacemate’ (method of E. Stolk and A. van Nes)
Node-Place model of Bertonlini which is purely numerical in nature.62 The embedding of research conducted by urbanists largely follows this methodology.63 The gap between the research and the practice is indicated by van Aken in 2004.64 The predominant method in the Netherlands of the ‘node-place model’ doesn’t take into account the specific characteristics of the elements neither the spatial and physical structures and cannot be used as a tool to analyse those.65 The matter is with this approach not considered as a coherent spatial whole. The approach of these policies on TOD is that the task is managed and defined by planological data more than to perceive it as a spatial architectural task. In practice architecture only follows as a possible next step only after the planological exercise but fundamental architectural research is lacking. Architecture is seen as only for the further elaboration on the previously defined assignments at the regional and the municipal level.66 The assignment is not conceived as a spatial one; mostly the approach to the issue is rather quantitative in nature. By not looking at the changed spatial relationships, also the planning discipline confirms the idea is only a task of compacting. This enforces the idea of striving for condensed traditional environments. While this is not necessarily the answer to the underlying issues.
In the past concepts on entire built environments regarding different positions of build environment to urban patterns were developed by architects. These often have a more conceptual character but are partially put into practice. These concepts are often thought on a limited scale and not on the territory. The concepts do contain ideas and theories on built environment and mobility, and it is important therefore to consider these concepts.
62 P. Chorus, L. Bertolini, ‘An application of the node place model to explore the spatial development dynamics of station areas in Tokyo’, in Railway development impacts on urban dynamics, F. Bruinsma, E. Pels, H. Priemus, P. Rietveld, B. van Wee, 2007.
P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012. The node value is based on the quantity of transport; it consists of a summation of for example of the number of train lines, the number of types of train lines, the number bus lines, of parking spaces. The place value on the quantity of elements in a certain radius to the location, these elements are population, number facilities and their diversity and employment. The idea is that improving transport provision will create potential for further development of the location and thus a raise in place value or a the other way around a raise in place value will create a higher demand for. To make this visible the node and place value are placed in a chart and listed per location. A middle line is drawn trough the bulk of the locations. Locations close by the middle line are labelled as balanced. Locations with relative high values for both place and node are considered stressed areas where new developments because of the density are more difficult to be realised. Those with relatively low values as dependent areas the struggle for space there is minimal and factors outside of the model must intervene to sustain it as an example is given subsidies. Nodes with one value relatively higher are called unbalanced.
63 Provincie Noord-Holland, Werkboek Bouwstenen 3/3, Noord-Holland 2040, Analyses en verkenningen, 2009, p. 11- 57, amongst others it contains analyses on the basis of the ‘node-place model’ (method of L. Bertolini), ‘Space Syntax Typology’ (method of M.Y. Berghouserpont) and ‘Spacemate’ (method of E. Stolk and A. van Nes)
64 J.E. van Aken, ‘Management research based on the paradigm of design sciences: the quest for field-tested and grounded technological rules’, Journal of Management Studies 41 (2), p. 219-246, from P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012, p. 52.
65 In the application of the node-place model by Corus correlation between proximity to a central area is shown on transit lines. However when the results of a certain locations differ from the models assumptions and locations apparently do not tend to go to the average score another explanation is given. Often those explanations are about exactly the characteristics of the tissue.
P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012, p. 131- 139.
66 The provincial program and its research is directed at formulating building assignments.
Given the backgrounds of the emergence of TOD, which causes are spatially in nature, I suspect that all this is a simplification of the real problematic and that it is actually lays broader. The applied research techniques are not spatially in nature while the problem is. In the cases of spatial research the scope is too limited. This leads to a focus of an approach of densification. I think a quantitative, non-spatial way of studying the topic or with only a local focus or does not lead to a fundamental understanding of TOD and its demands to architecture. I suspect that both spatial study location combined with the level of the territory leads to new insights regarding the relation TOD and Architecture. By not considering the spatial aspects, the underlying causes of the quest for TOD not being studied and thus the matter is not fully understood in this current approach. In this thesis, TOD will therefore be drawn broader than the strive for compacting. TOD will be perceived. According to its origin and ground targets, and to bring the pursuit environments with more synergy between urbanity and urban patterns. Also the backgrounds, premises and objectives of TOD will be subjected to a critical analysis to test their present validity. The analyses on the phenomenon of TOD will lead to a way of measuring TOD and thus a methodology will be constructed to spatially research TOD methodology for spatial research by mapping of the area and the territory. This research will be mirrored to the current research practice and to what can be found in the architectural production.
1.4 Hypotheses and objectives
The main question of this research is to the meaning and role of architecture in such an assignment of Transit Oriented development as the strive for an urban environment with higher synergy with urban patterns. The main question to increase the understanding of possible architectural interventions for redevelopment of station areas in semi-peripheral and peripheral territories. What could be the role of architecture in the assignment of Transit Oriented Development?
The strive for Transit Oriented Development, I presume, has spatial causes, by the changed spatial properties of the urban territory. This has facilitated a changed functioning of the society. TOD is an assignment which plays at bot a local as a territorial level. In practice, however, this seems not to be understood as such by planners and policy makers, as well as the spatial disciples of urbanism and architecture which without criticism conform to existing planning practice. It is mainly approached as a matter of densification. The approach only partially gives notion of the spatial aspect and has become detached from fundamental spatial research.
The hypothesis is that the quest for Transit Oriented Development is based on a spatial phenomenon and should be treated as such, to be able to understand it. It arises from changed spatial properties, and, therefore, it must for understanding, be investigated spatially. The current strategy towards densifications is based on assumptions which are not founded in the current situation and can be argued. The choice of densification has more to do with baseless assumptions that arguably are grown and thought passes than with spatial reality. Furthermore; spatial research is critical to define those relevant architectural problems whereas it comes from altered spatial parameters. The approach is more pure quantitative in nature and qualitative aspects play an important role and must therefore also be considered.The changed urban patterns raise the question whether the relation build form and the functioning of towns changed fundamentally in the second half of the twentieth century or not. I suspect spatially based research will alter the view on the architectural assignment for TOD and will clarify some meaningful architectural interventions.
The aim of this study is to conduct fundamental research and fathom of the impact of changed relationships and the architectural problematic at hand. This is to be based on careful examination of the territory and architecture and so improve the understanding of the evolved spatial relations. Ultimate goal for TOD is to achieve or bring about more transit oriented environments or environments with more synergy between mobility patterns in the urban territory. The approach is through examining the phenomenon of TOD, and to explore the pursuit of built environments with more synergy with mobility and urban patterns in fundamental way and to conceive as a spatial architectural matter. The aim is to increase the understanding of meaningful spatial architectural interventions in order to achieve more transit or urban patterns related urban environments.
2.
The backgrounds of ‘Transit Oriented Development’
The motivating question of this thesis is to clarify the role of Architecture in the quest for Transit Oriented Development. In relation to its underlying problematic TOD is here defined as the strive for urban environments with more synergy between urban patterns and transit mobility. Further goal is to define useful architectural interventions to achieve better urban synergies. An assumption is the lack of a spatial approach defers from fundamental understanding of the problem. This chapter consists of a literature studies on the what is available on the topic of TOD and the approaches in architecture and to the theoretical foundations to TOD as a spatial phenomenon. This to see if my presumptions are correct TOD is not treated as a spatial phenomenon, if necessary to adjust these presumptions. What are herein the underlying thoughts and dynamics? The goal is to be able to develop in the third chapter a framework of spatial study of the phenomenon of TOD and of the changed urban patterns leading to the quest for TOD.
In the first part of this chapter I will analyze the theoretical aspects of the need for TOD. Here I will look at what the assumptions and principles are and subject it to a critical consideration. In addition, the extensive field of literature and research that exist gives opportunity for analyses to its lead for further spatial study of the need for TOD in spatial and architectural terms. Principles will come to the fore to what the properties should be of this, for the next chapter where I will try to formulate a methodology for spatial research on the phenomenon of TOD with this knowledge.
The second part of this chapter is an exploration of the status of Transit Oriented Development in Architecture. Transit Oriented Development as it is currently practiced stems from the school of New Urbanism and the genesis and ideas behind it will here be addressed. The literature on resulting projects will be discussed briefly. In addition a literature review of books on TOD and Architecture in general will follow. What is the picture that emerges from the practice and general method of approach? Is it covered as a task with spatial origin? Also studies will be conducted to the current status quo in approaches utilized. Concluding a wider study on what architectural concepts regarding the relationship built environment and urban patterns can contribute.
2.1 The foundations of Transit Oriented Development
2.1.1
Transit Oriented Development linguistically
When searching the dictionaries for the complete term Transit Oriented Development in general no results appear, only for the combination of words altogether. Meanings can be found for different words separate but not for the term as such.
The searched dictionaries are; Cambridge Online Dictionary, Longman Dictionary, Oxfort learner’s Dictionaries, Merriam Webster, American Dictionary. In both Merriam Webster as in American Dictionary very useful meanings can be found. In Merriam Webster: ‘local transportation especially of people by public conveyance’ and ‘vehicles or a system engaged in such transportation’. In American Dictionary: ‘noun 1. the act or fact of passing across or through; passage from one place to another. 2. conveyance or transportation from one place to another, as of persons or goods, especially, local public transportation: city transit. The main significance of transit is conveyance of people from one place to another in particular trough public transportation. This term might appear as a built urban environments which have a higher linkage towards transit than normally is the case. However mostly it refers to improving existing urban areas in their linkage between urbanity and transit.
More elaborate explanations can be found on the Wikipedia page.67 The first part of the definition given on Wikipedia is: ‘A transit-oriented development (TOD) is a mixed-use residential and commercial area designed to maximize access to public transport, and often incorporates features to encourage transit ridership.’ The first part of this definition of TOD is focused on urban design encouraging the use of Transit. The second part of this is: ‘A TOD neighborhood typically has a center with a transit station or stop (train station, metro station, tram stop, or bus stop), surrounded by relatively high-density development with progressively lower-density development spreading outward from the center.’ And expresses how the urban environments generally are developed in TOD projects.
2.1. 2 Literature studies on Transit Oriented Development and its foundations
What is Transit Oriented Development fundamentally? and What are the foundations of TOD? In the founding of the theoretical background on TOD the work of Robert Cervero has been fundamental. As a researcher he has over the years contributed to the theoretical fundaments. Cervero’s work is focussed on urban transportation and land-use systems.68 There is a keen interest in a more coordinated approach to growth management to achieve a more sustainable urban form.69 TOD has been propelled mostly from the transit side and Cervero is its leading researcher. In the United states a movement of promoting transit use has come to the fore since the nineteen seventies by the Kennedy administration wanting to promote transit, further more by transit companies striving for higher transit ridership and revenues from development on their sites and other developer and by regional governments and environmental organizations wanting to promote the use of transit.70 The main body of research comes from the transportation planning discipline only initial additional spatial analyses has been done.71 In ’The Transit Metropolis a global inquiry’72 , written in 1998, Cervero sets basic outlines of transit oriented development in the contemporary territory. The book was published some years after the commence of TOD and is based on both the first projects as on the theoretical research conducted by Cervero in the years before its genesis. In the book Cervero deals with the underlying motivation of the phenomena of TOD it is merely driven by environmental concerns and traffic congestion problems.73 Cervero starts with argumentation about the increased car mobility and extended urban landscape and its subsequent consequences of congestion and pollution. Further on he reasons the contemporary need for improving the relationship between transit and urban form.74 The urban territory became too dispersed and became only usable by car. For solving these issues he departs from the side of transit and it’s declined role through its difficulties to compete with the automobile and the therefore resulting in a dissynergy between transit and urban form. The main goal behind the entire operation of TOD is to reduce car-ridership and to improve transit usage as a transportation and environmental issue. The proposed strategy consist of the alternative to the automobile of the use of transit combined with additional pedestrian displacement.
The relation of the areas with transit can in Cervero’s opinion best be improved by changes on the transit side; he gives many examples of more flexible forms of transit to do so. Cervero’s main focus and way of studying is the number of transit users resulting from the different direct built environment and he has conducted many studies on this field. These
68 Robert Cervero is appointed as professor of urban studies at the of Department of City and Regional Planning At : http://www.ced.berkeley.edu/faculty/cervero_robert/robertcv.htm#top
69 Curtis, C. (2012) Delivering the ’D’ in transit-oriented development: Examining the town planning In challenge. In: The Journal Of Transportation and Land Use, Vol. 5 No. 3 [2012] pp. 83–99
70 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
71 Idem
72 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington)
73 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
74 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington), p.1.
studies consist of measuring the number of passengers using transit instead of the automobile in the different environments. From this information he derives conclusions about the spatially to be desired urban environment. An often used standard to measure and compare the different locations is to measure the number of transit users in the radius of 800 meter around a railway station. Cervero also argues different standards can be used to do so.75
Meanwhile Cervero is more focused on the transit side and his research is focused on this part. The aim of this study is to look merely at the spatial side. Cervero accepts the urban form and focusses on transit improvements. For this research it is of importance whether the parts of urban fabric offer potential to improve the connectivity spatially as well. Very importantly for this research is he also refers to the supportiveness of urban form and underlines the fact that also on the spatial side improvements can be made. In further literature it is shown two situations occur for TOD in practice: ‘In practice there are two situations, often occurring within the same city, that present distinct challenges for implementing TOD. The first situation is where new urban growth can be framed around TOD; the second is where established urban areas can be restructured to enhance TOD.’76
From the point of view of this research it is of particular interest important Cervero distinguishes transit supportive urban forms and transit unsupportive urban forms, hybrids and core cities.77 Supportive forms are defined as densely occupied and areas where transit is evenly spread out with lines interconnected. One can say these are the central areas with transit inside and larger areas where the shape is a center at the core and transit lines going outwards with buildup urban areas around the stops connected to the structure of transit. The unsupportive structures are mainly low dense post Second World War settlements. The shape here is lesser hierarchical organized and more difficult for transit to service. The hybrids are mixtures of transit supporting and un-supporting structures. Their shape is poly centric. The core cities can be improved by improved quality of the internal transit and the internal structures of the urban fabric and to improve the possibilities for more intensive use of the build surface by transforming the buildings and the public space.
Further Cervero does elaborate further on the spatial side and identifies 3 important elements for transit supportive cities; the 3 d’s: density, diversity, design.78 Densityy stands for density in occupation, diversity for a mix in facilities and design for quality of the urban space from the position of the pedestrian that has to use transit. To increase the link between the population and transit next to the connectivity the density of use the urban fabric is of great importance according to Cervero. Partially the assignment of TOD would be to densify the existing urban territory. The question is to which extend this is possible and what would be the result.
75 Erick Guerra, Robert Cervero, and Daniel Tischler, Half-Mile Circle Does It Best Represent Transit Station Catchments?. In Transportation Research Record 2276, p. 101-109
76 Curtis, C. (2012) Delivering the ’D’ in transit-oriented development: Examining the town planning In challenge In The Journal Of Transportation and Land Use, Vol. 5 No. 3 [2012] pp. 83–99
77 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington), p.5-14.
78 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington)p.72.
The background of TOD lays in environmental and mobility problems. In this light furthermore environmental concerns and growing scarcity of commodities are underlying motivations to strive for a more towards transit directed built environment.79 Especially now the demands for commodities are rising by the increasing demand from developing countries this arguments seems to have gained in importance.80 Although the environmental argument might in the future decrease in importance by emerging cleaner technologies, for the time being, this is offset by the growth in demand form the economically emerging countries. The developments could go both ways; a scenario is possible where dependence on transit will increase because of bigger scarcity in commodities and more pollution problems. Another scenario’s is possible with cleaner technologies for private mobility. Both scenarios would need to be studied. Without considering the environmental concerns the accommodation of car mobility within the urban fabric remains problematic and more dense urban environments acquiring less car mobility are to be desired.
Although there is a strong resemblance in the pursued urban environments of Cervero to those of Jane Jacobs his main argument is another one. Both strive for a dense walkable mixed urban environment. Where Jacobs’s argument mainly concerns sociological aspects and underlines a social need for density and mix. Cervero’s arguments are mainly environmental but he does endorse Jacobs’s arguments as well. Jane Jacobs described how in traditional dense inner cities better interaction would be possible. Particularly because of the network function of the city as a meeting place and a place of interaction and traditional dense urban environments suit better for these purposes. Meanwhile our society has evolved in the way it functions by digital technology and interaction is not only formed physically but also digitally. Nowadays with the advent of more advanced communication technologies both social and economic relations do not take place at the level of cities but on a higher more abstract level. Apart from that the changed economical activities ask for different quality of housing than was offered in these traditionally urban environments. Currently we are confronted with a dispersed urban territory in which car mobility is practice. The argument for only dense urban environments, although to a certain degree necessary and appreciated, is not valid anymore to the extend it was previously.
Another important point made by Cervero is: for the effectiveness of ‘TOD’ it is important the interventions are not merely focused locally but they must be in coherence on in a regional or corridor level.81 The research conducted has been based on statistical data of urban environments; these are not geographical in nature Cervero points out. In a studies it is also confirmed by him that geographical location is a prime factor.82 This insight has not led to further research on the topic.
In 2007 a paper is published which extends the range of spatial properties urban environments connected to transit should have. Instead of the 3 D’s there are now 5.
79 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington)1998
80 leGates, R.T. and Stout, F. eds ‘City Reader’ (Toutledge, Hoboken)
81 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington), p.4.
82 Hanson, S. (2004) The Concept of Urban Travel’In Hanson S. and Giuliano G eds. The Geography of Urban Transportation, (Guilfort, Ney York) p.3
Next to the three previously existing D’s of: Density, Diversity and Design there is the two D’s added: ‘Destination’ and ‘Distance’. The first 3 deal with the properties for an area to contain provision of passengers. In these latter two points the aspect of the possibility of transit locations in themselves being a point to attract passengers. If transit locations happen to be regional centres of employment provision and facilities more visitors are to be expected thus the locations become a ‘Destination’. This concept could thus be used to improve the use of transit by creating points of transit which are ‘Destinations’ as well. The question come to the fore to which extend such a strategy is possible; how many of such centres can be realized considering the available resources, at which costs and how to achieve this? ‘Distance’ stands for the distance to a point of Mass Transit provision. Research shows the closer to such a point the more inclined people are to use transit instead of the car. The same goes here, this view is what comes to the fore from a transportation point of view, but from the territorial it is easy to realize only a number of locations can be such a point of mass transit provision it is doubtful this can lead to an extensive useful spatial strategy.
More recently the internationally focussed organisation of ITDP (Institute for Transportation Development Policy) has published the ‘TOD Standard’ 201483, in which Cervero is a contributor. The way of TOD show is about the same now wider pulled slightly bikes integrate and bus connections. So not only the 800 meters which is held as a criterion. The urban Developments which have to be more easily evoked even are defined in terms of density and block size and are stronger in the direction of the walk-city such as those from Jane Jacobs. In addition, a very strong focus forward on reducing car mobility. There are many measures proposed to optimally organize. Environment for pedestrians In addition, measures as it were to eliminate the car. Area of So limit its search are placed on the surface available for parking. You might think that the presence of cars should be reduced on the street, and include, for example something like substrate transfer and stacking the necessary parking facilities would be a good option. But in the measurement method used to score this option to be very poor, it is measured in the number of available surface area ratio of car parking, compared to the base. Also, there are established standards of percentage by weigh ground plane. The lower the better.
The focus is therefore entirely on promoting transit in combination with walking, there is now the built environment, including the integration of bicycle and coach added. Reducing the car is now enhanced presence. There were set standards of complete elimination of the car. The point of the history of the integration of mobility in the urban fabric has been problematic. Considering the history of integration of mobility in the urban fabric a crucial question from the point of view of this research would be: how well the connectivity is organized and what could be done to improve this.84
The research on ‘TOD’ in the Netherlands is led by the ‘node-place model ‘of Bertolini. In the research practice the Urban and Architectural disciplines in general connect to the line of research by the planning discipline on the topic and in this frame the discipline of
83 Balachandran et al, (2014),’TOD Standard’ (ITDP,New York )
84 Schmucki, B. 2003. Cities as Traffic Machines: Urban Transport Planning in East and West Germany. In Divall, D. & Bond, W. (eds.) Suburbanizing the Masses; Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective. (Hants: Ashgate).
architecture and urbanism mainly as a second step execute spatial analyses. This is currently the case in the research program of the Provence of North Holland, ‘Densification of transit Nodes’ 85 I plead for spatial analysis on regional, urban and local scale placed in the social context. The ‘node-place model ‘ is based on the ‘Land use transport feedback cycle’ (Wegener and Fuerst 1999)86; in the cycle it is argued land use and transport system influence each other; the distribution of human activities require transport systems to overcome the distance between the locations where these activities take place, increase in transport system co-determines location decisions positively and the different locations are in competition with each other.87 In the model transport locations are assigned a node value (for transport provision) and a place value (for the development of a location) which is a summation of elements present at a certain moment. The node value is based on the quantity of transport; it consists of a summation of for example of the number of train lines, the number of types of train lines, the number bus lines, of parking spaces. The place value on the quantity of elements in a certain radius to the location, these elements are population, number facilities and their diversity and employment. By adding a summated value to the place and node those elements are considered to be homogenous without their own logic. The models assumes the ratio between node- and place- value tends to go to an average. The idea is that improving transport provision will create potential for further development of the location and thus a raise in place value or the other way around a raise in place value will create a higher demand for. Preciezer wordt er niet met de dynamiek omgegaan in het model. To make this visible the node and place value are placed in a chart and listed per location. A middle line is drawn trough the bulk of the locations. Locations close by the middle line are labelled as balanced. Locations with relative high values for both place and node are considered stressed areas where new developments because of the density are more difficult to be realised. Those with relatively low values as dependent areas the struggle for space there is minimal and factors outside of the model must intervene to sustain it as an example is given subsidies. Nodes with one value relatively higher are called unbalanced. The model is focussed on exploring correlations and in the model and it is assumed the locations will tend to develop towards the middle line. This remains a theoretical exercise. In literature van Aken signalled in 2004 gab in the studies of these practical developments and theoretical research methodology. It is argued for this kind of phenomenon to apply practical research methodologies instead of theoretical.88
85R. Bos, T. Straatemeier, Kansen voor knooppunten en spoorcorridors in Noord-Holland, Een verkenning van de bereikbaarheid van en het ruimtegebruik rondom openbaar vervoerknooppunten, 2010. Provincie Noord-Holland, Werkboek Bouwstenen 3/3, Noord-Holland 2040, Analyses en verkenningen, 2009, p. 11- 57.
86 L. Bertolini, ‘Station areas as nodes and places in urban networks: An analytical tool and alternative development strategies’, in F. Bruinsma, E. Pels, H. Priemus, P. Rietveld, B. van Wee, Railway development impacts on urban dynamics, 2007. P.37.
87 P. Chorus, L. Bertolini, ‘An application of the node place model to explore the spatial development dynamics of station areas in Tokyo’, in Railway development impacts on urban dynamics, F. Bruinsma, E. Pels, H. Priemus, P. Rietveld, B. van Wee, 2007.
P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012.
88 J.E. van Aken, ‘Management research based on the paradigm of design sciences: the quest for field-tested and grounded technological rules’, Journal of Management Studies 41 (2), p. 219-246, from P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012, p. 52.
The predominant method in the Netherlands of the ‘node-place model’ does not take into account the specific characteristics of the sites and the elements present on the sites/ the spatial and physical structures. And cannot be used as a tool to analyse those.89 Another issue is in the model only the elements in a certain radius are considered and the elements outside of the circle are out of the scope. It could very well be that those elements form a key to solving the issue of synergy between the urban elements and transit. Overall the method is very useful for analyses of the current situation and comparison of the relative differences between de sites and accomplishing grip on the bigger picture, but for areas with typical characteristics it falls short. This research aims to bridge the existing research to the dimension of space, physical structure and time, as well as with the characteristics of the different elements. With such a model, it comes down to increase or decrease of a value, or more or less transport provision, it does not say much about the content of the architecture and urban design tasks. The increasing of density also means that congestion problem increases. Part of this research is to make sketches by working this out by spatial architecture studies. What does that mean for the tasks and analyzing how it has come to this situation, what is the design and social dynamics.
Meanwhile, this type of research recently completed by the "Butterfly Model", which states to build further on the Node Place to build, and is enhanced with location maps and data. Probably this is so, I suspect, because when facing the Place Node model with reality, it is immediately clear that the model does not match reality. The Butterfly Model can be seen as a next step of the Node-Place model, it gives the values of the Node-Place model more detail. The studies at the site level, which contains the reproduction of the data with respect to the elements present and the possible locations to cultivate but no further architectural or urban analysis.
One aspect of this model is that it is increasingly guiding while that is not the political situation anymore and it does not take into account the "natural" social dynamics leading to eventual outcomes, and what is currently considering the societal consensus seems to be a logical approach. It shows guiding policy earlier as it has no understanding of the market that the goal is not reached. Eg the former ABC policy in the Netherlands
The policy world and its linked planning discipline is a world unto itself with its own reality. This had a financial strength in the past, which could shape the world. How is that the government stepped down and the much reduced support for intervention. What would be the means for intervention to establish that people use and apply at this time? TOD (much do it so that it is such an entity to formulate (Zaan line) while such a statement just before an entity Holland important if you look at the plans are the numbers in the south and all of which are beyond the reach of the station locations
89 In the application of the node-place model by Corus correlation between proximity to a central area is shown on transit lines. However when the results of a certain locations differ from the models assumptions and locations apparently do not tend to go to the average score another explanation is given. Often those explanations are about exactly the characteristics of the tissue. P. Chorus, Station area developments in Tokyo, and what the Randstad can learn from it, 2012, p. 131- 139.
2.1.2 The school of New Urbanism, Transit Oriented Development and Traditionalism
Developments which are oriented to transit as a phenomenon have been the case since the invention of transit. It is generally acknowledged concept mobility and urban development are related.90 History shows many more examples of urban development related to the presence of rail transit as early as the commence of rail technology in the 19th century in the United Kingdom. Firstly on the outskirts of the cities, later on a bigger distance. It has only been in 1993 that the term has been named as such by architect and urban Planner Peter Calthorpe in his book ‘The New American Metropolis’.91 With further studies it comes to the for this is a very specific form. The term of Transit Oriented Development is closely related/ linked to the traditionalist architecture school of New Urbanism.
The question which comes to the fore in this research is to the background and assumptions of the TOD of Calthorpe and New Urbanism and how these relate to the spatial causes. The article ‘Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept’ by Ian Carlton needs to be mentioned in this perspective. It gives an extended description of the genesis of the current form of Transit Oriented Development and sharp analyses of the underlying ideas and assumptions that have led to its formation.92 This article will be dealt with extensively here whereas it can be derived from this form lacks spatial foundation and why it does. It describes the context of the history of this TOD Calthope and motivations. It appears that New Urbanism and TOD emerged from preferences regarding the built environment and preferences in terms of mobility systems. The bottom line is that it actually comes from two broader social endeavors occurring in American society from the nineteen sixties extending for several decades. One is the rise of the need for built environments that make more use of transit. The other is the pursuit of the establishment in architecture to pass on traditional prewar urban environments. The article clearly shows the picture that there is an academic cross-pollination 93 It is explained the need to develop environments oriented on transit may be prompted by a number of motives; from the environmental point of view, from a political aim for a more equal position for transit versus car use94 and hence access to mobility for all citizens and last but not least from the transit companies themselves trying to attract passengers.95 The aim of the architects and urban designers is inspired to the thoughts of amongst others Jane Jacobs and Rob Krier and relate to the social functioning of certain types of city. According to Jane Jacobs traditional American cities function better in terms of social interaction and that in modern urban expansions proper interaction is not possible.96 This idea is reflected in the pursuit of creating walkable environments, and this form of development of the idea of social cohesion an essential part of the TOD of New Urbanism. An important aspect that
90 Wegener and Fuerst, Transport and Landuse feedback cycle
91 Calthorpe, P. (1993), The New American Metropolis.
92 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
93 Idem.
94 Idem.
95 Kennedy government promoted auto oriented transit. It turned out to not bes o succefull from the point of view of revenues for transit companies. These companies discovered developemnt of the grounds they owned as agood means ofadditional income.
96 Jacobs. J. (1961) ‘The death and life of great American cities’ Random House, New York)
emerges in the article is that in history, from experience and scientific research, the idea emerges that both pursuits coexist well together. 97 This is partly due to the experience of Transit companies. It was embodied in the practice of urban environments that focus on the car and lower densities for transit travelers yielded less than the stations in areas with higher density. It is explained in the article that this type of environments, were developed to bring balance of operation standard, while it was found that combination of more passengers and also the revenues were generated from the development. This image of higher passenger numbers was strengthened in the 1980s by certain scientific research showing this. 98 From environmental and anti-sprawl movement further study has been done to transit ridership in different urban environments. 99 One very important insight for the further path of development of TOD as it is often understood as is the crucial outcome of a study that Pre WWII environments coincided with the rate of 22% transit ridership than suburb car environments with a score of only 3%.100
As stated before a key researcher for TOD I found has been Robert Cervero. He conducted extensive research which confirmed the earlier results. 101 It appeared that the traditionalist environments before World War lent itself extremely well to the pursuit of transit favoring urban environments. Carlton describes the link between this study and the development of TOD as follows: ‘The synergies were especially apparent in academic settings, like the UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design, were architecture studios on neo-traditional developments were being conducted in the same building as transport research on development density near transit. San Francisco based urban designers, including Peter Calthorpe, participated in and promoted this research as it substantiated their claims that neo-traditional design conferred significant community benefits.’ From that moment on there was a turnaround in designing for transit to the traditionalist school. Apparently it had become a broad-based understanding.
Cervero also writes in a paper on this subject that the studies initially have been held without taking geographical differences between the various locations into account. The research conducted by Ferhs and Peers in 1992, Handy 1993, Ewing 1994 shows at first that there would be connection between traditional environments and much higher transit ridership. In 1994 however, a study by Kitarnura, Mokhtarian, and Laidet (1994) was conducted where these types of factors are taken into consideration. It turns out that one of the key factors is the geographical position, that only additional factor to this is Density. Cervero describes it as follows: ‘The most significant explainers were the geographic locations of the surveyed neighbourhoods, which themselves were correlated with factors like residential density. Besides geographic location, the only significant predictors of transit modal shares were BART access and the availability of parking, and the only significant
97 Idem.
98 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
99 Idem
100 Fehrs and Peers Associates. 1992. Metropolitan Transportation Commission Bay Area Trip Pate Survey Analysis. Oakland, CA: Metropolitan Transportation Commission.
101 Cervero, R., Zupan, J. (1996) “Commuter and light rail transit corridors: the land use connection” (Parsons, Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas; New York, N.Y.)
correlate of non-motorized modal shares was the presence of high density. None of the indicators of the presence of pedestrian and bicycle facilities was significant.’ This insight is not further picked up and does not lead to a qualification. 102
In the 80s, after the oil crisis of the 70s and after the publishing of the report of the Bruntland Commission103, in architecture a numerous concepts were in development which aimed at linking the built environment and transit mobility. With the aim of reducing car mobility. This includes that of "Urban Villages, of the 'Compact Community Concept' and of 'Smarth Growth'. The concept of 'Urban Villages' revolves around settlements with a high density and which should be self-sufficient. They are focused on pedestrian and independence from the car. This concept has been criticized from the then already existing economic necessity for displacements.104 In addition, there was the movement of 'Compact Community Concept', in which compact transit-related environments were pursued in high densities but without the premise that it should be traditional architecture.105 In addition, there was the concept of 'Smart Growth' aimed more at ecology and the revitalization of existing buildings with linkage to transit advocates and thus leads to less car use and fuel consumption, but also saving the landscape. 106 Apart from this there was the movement of "Traditional Neighborhood Design" pursuing traditional prewar urban environments, but this movement was initially not concerned directly with transit. The research findings previously mentioned had its impact. A link was found between traditional urban areas and transit ridership, and the movement of "Traditional Neighborhood Design" came to the fore in the pursuit of built environments that promote transit. The other concepts were drawn to the background and the traditionalist architects were favored in the further spatial development of TOD.
Key Figure in the coupling of the two movements has been Peter Calthorpe. Calthope is educated as an architect, urban designer and planner. Besides that he is working in practice, he is also active as a researcher. His field of research is the development of ecologically optimized built environments. In the book 'Sustainable Communities'107 in 1986, of which he is one of the editors, the pursuit of environmentally friendly built environments is key. It shows still an ambiguous attitude towards linking transit to the built environment.108 In the chapter "The New Suburban Fabric 'by Calthorpe himself the starting principles of TOD can
102 Cervero, R. and Radish, C. (1995) Travel Choises in Pedestrian Versus Automobile Oriented Neighborhoods (University of California, Berkeley) P.3-4
103 World Commission on Environment and Development, ‘Towards Sustainable Development’ Charter of the New Urbanism. In leGates, R.T. and Stout, F. eds ‘City Reader’ (Toutledge, Hoboken)Urban Reader p.351
104 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
105 Idem
106 Association of Bay Area Governments (2002), Theory in Action, Smart Growth Case Studies (Oakland: ABAG, 2000), p. i.
107 Sim Van der Ryn, Peter Calthorpe (1986) Sustainable Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns (New Catalysts Books, Cabriola Island)
108 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
be detected. 109 He discusses there the case of Stockholm, where he compares the Satellite New Town Vallengby that of Levittown. Levittown is automobile driven and three times as spacious as Vallengby that has a strong focus on transit. Calthorpe describes how the design principles of the concept of 'Garden Cities' of Ebenezer Howard are applicable in the case of Vallenby. Calthorpe stresses importance to the fact that the heavy reliance on transit of Vallenby is a key feature in its sustainability. 110 This reflects the essence of the later proclaimed TOD; the link to transit and traditional prewar environment that is focused on the pedestrian. Thus is the concept of TOD is conceived.
In the same period in the United States, a growing trend of cities desire to reduce car use and save on land use is ongoing. Light rail technology had become available from Germany.111 By the publishing of his book also his ideas on the topic Calthorpe became known to a broader public of professionals with this concept. In the course of time he then was approached by the different parties invited participate in various projects related to transit. Both research and design. 112 Here it is important to identify the setting in which Calthorpe was active, the notion comes to the fore Calthope was surrounded by important figures in the constitution of state of the art spatial projects and policymaking both in the level of California and the national level of the United States. Calthorpe worked for example closely together with van Rijn, who was State Architect and was a co-publisher along on the book Sustainable Communities. The setting of Berkeley, where Calthorpe was professor and in particular of the department of Urban Planning is also attached to influential professionals and policymakers of the State. The book the City Reader states that TOD has become a marked success where has it gained a strong foothold as it has been adopted as a national spatial policy by the Clinton administration. 113 The people, who have Calthorpe invited for projects important to the formation of the concept of TOD later on, usually had a link to Berkeley in the form of a professorship there.
After this book Calthorpe worked on further research and developed, at Berkeley, the concept of the Pedestrian Pocket. A Pedestrian Pocket is defined as: ' a simple cluster of housing, retail space and offices within a quarter-mile walking radius of a transit system.’ 114 This concept he owes to his traditionalist colleagues Duany and Plater-Zyberk. 115 Who in their turn borrowed it from the ideas of Leon Krier. Krier focused on neo-traditional urban design to redefine a sense of community and coherent urban life and comes from the same line of thought as Jane Jacobs. Here he draws on historical figures in response to modernism.
109 Idem
110 Idem
111 Tan, W. et al. (2013) Nodes development in the Netherlands, how we should implement Transit-Oriented Development (Paltform 31, The Hague)
112 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
113 Congress of the new Urbanism (1998) Charter of the New Urbanism. In leGates, R.T. and Stout, F. eds ‘City Reader’ (Toutledge, Hoboken)
114 Kelbaugh, D. (1989) “The Pedestrian Pocket Book: A New Suburban Design Strategy. (Princeton Architectural Press, New York).
115 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
These are towns with a pedestrian-oriented transportation infrastructure. Krier’s definition of 'neighborhood' was defined by a 10-minute or quarter-mile walk. The concept of Pedestrian Pocket thus contains the concept of creating walkable traditional environments, but as it turns out is not necessarily linked to transit. According to Calthorpe the main means of transport for further distances did not have to be rail but could also involve 'car pools of pools, bikes and buses' 116 Calthope had a strong believe creating walkable environments would reduce car use. 117 To test the concept of Pedestrian Pockets and further develop architectural design studios were organized at Berkeley with the professors of traditional school.118 From Washington University he was also invited to participate in design studios on the topic of traditional urban environments but now because of his insight of linking building typology to the transit. As presented in the book ‘Sustainable Communities’. While the Berkeley studios were not necessarily linked to transit, the Washington studios took light rail locations as a starting point.
Calthorpe himself at that time was not necessarily focused on linking transit but had become more focused on making traditional walkable urban settings, both in practice and theory.119 For example, he thought that just making walkable urban environments with mixed program would lead to up to 50% fewer car journeys, without even having to be linked to transit. 120 Creating mixed use pedestrian oriented traditional environments would already drastically reduce mobility needs. 121 Calthope is not the only one who thinks this the thought is more widely carried. Robert Cervero for example summarizes the approach as follows: ‘The New Urbanism movement calls for redesigning American neighbourhoods so that they are less oriented toward automobile travel and more conducive to walking, bicycling, and transit riding, especially for non-work trips. New Urbanism calls for a remm to compact neighbourhoods with grid-like street patterns, mixed land uses, and pedestrian amenities.’ 122
They strove to recreate a different kind of society, that of before the second world war, in which daily affairs were handled at the local level. It is also assumed that the use of these types of environments would lead to a different scale of use of the area. I think this is a denial of the contemporary reality in which there most likely is a need for local citizens for urban patterns exceeding the local scale. This idea is also reflected in the article ‘The Concept of Urban Travel’ by Susan Hanson. Here it comes to the fore the larger scale of urban patterns has to do with arisen spatial segregation in the city and more importantly with the differences between work and home location ‘Can you imagine what life would be like without the easy of movement that we now take for granted?’ … ‘Transportation is vital
116 Idem.
117 Idem, p.15
118 Lars Lerub, Dan Salomon, van den Rijn van University of California Berkeley; Doug Kelbaugh and Harisson Fraker from Washington University.
119 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
120 Carlton, I. (2007), Histories of Transit- Oriented Development: Perspectives on the development of the TOD Concept, Real Estate and Transit, Urban and Social Movements, Concept Protagonist. (Institute of Urban and Regional Development. University of California, Berkely) p. 1- 24
121 Idem
122 Cervero, R. (1998) ‘The Transit metropolis, a global inquiry’ (Island Press, Washington)
to US urban live and to live in other places as well because it is an absolutely necessary means to an end: It allows people to make up a diverse range of activity that make up daily live. Because of cities exist of spatially separated , highly specialized land uses – food stores, Laundromats, hardware stores, banks, drugstores, , hospitals, libraries, , schools post offices, and so on – people must travel if they want to obtain necessary goods and services. Moreover home and work are in the same location for only a few people (about 3,3% of the U.S. workforce in 2000, so to earn an income as to spend it as well one must travel’123
In literature of that time and the area it was already noted that this idea does not match the fashion of the society at that time. It is very doubtful whether to turn this development around and to can simply return to traditional typologies for the entire existing built environment and moreover, that this is feasible from an economic perspective. The theory is furthered in the design studios resulting in the publication of 'Pedestrian Pocketbook'. 124 In the academic setting of Berkeley has thus a cross-fertilization of the two movements took place inspired by the work of Krier and Jane Jacobs.
At the same time, in nearby Portland Oregon, a research was underway to investigate types of land use and transportation relationships; the 'Making the Land Use, Transportation, Air Quality Connection "(LUTRAQ). Background was the planned construction of an additional freeway. Environmental organizations started this program with the goal of proposing the alternative of transit instead of an extra motorway. From Germany, light rail technology was made available, which allegedly also supplied to the emergence of the phenomenon of TOD in America. 125 Also developers were participating in the project with a view to possible land use reduction in future developments. Calthorpe was involved in 1988 as its primary urban design consultant. The studies research director, Elizabeth Deakin, transportation engineering consultant and professor at UC Berkeley, appointed Calthorpe. She was informed about Calthorpe by her a colleague Dan Solomon, with whom she had worked together in different urban designs earlier and who also had been a participant involved in the design studios for Pedestrian Pocket. She says that her involving Calthophe is ‘because he makes urban environments as well with transit’. Apparently the understanding of the earlier study which proved a link between transit ridership and prewar urban environments was common knowledge among Berkeley professors. At that time Calthorpe was not so much concerned with creating projects focused on transit but more on making neotraditionalist Urban Villages 126 The project proposed a version of Calthorpe’s Pedestrian Pockets connected to a Transit line. This proposal was passed, and the calculation showed greatly reduced car use and also strongly reduced land use.127 It should be noted that it was the idea of this entire project to show this kind of evidence. The result was political success and further steps were put into effect to further develop the plan of Calthorpe. The project
123 Hanson, S. (2004) The Concept of Urban Travel’In Hanson S. and Giuliano G eds. The Geography of Urban Transportation, (Guilfort, Ney York) p.3
124 Kelbaugh, Doug; “The Pedestrian Pocket Book: A New Suburban Design Strategy.” Princeton Architectural Press, New York, NY; 1989.
125 Tan, W. et al. (2013) Nodes development in the Netherlands, how we should implement Transit-Oriented Development (Paltform 31, The Hague)
126 From Carlton,I.(2007),HistoriesofTransit-OrientedDevelopment
127 Idem
sought generally applicable outcomes which were therefore also useful in other cities and was also widely shared.
Almost simultaneously in Sacramento a light rail track had opened and the government there was seeking to further development around the line. It became informed about the developments on the research and design projects in Portland. As a result of this Calthorpe was attracted to propose something likewise around the county rail stations which was labelled ‘Pedestrian / Transit Oriented Development’. Calthorpe himself, still at that time uses the term ‘Pedestrian Pockets’. But generally for the project, the term Transit Oriented Development used. Sacramento sought to make their project exemplary one and asked a group of renowned professionals to define a set of guidelines for the development of transit station areas. 128 This meeting led two years later to the proclamation of The New Urbanism by Cathorpe at the Congress for New Urbanism. This manifesto is to be seen as to be pursued principles for future urban developments. Also in 1993, there is the issue of the book 'The New American Metropolis'129 in which the principles are shared and thus received greater prominence in the planning discipline.
It is stated in the Charter that there are some illness in the cities and that is part of a building task. It is thus recognized that there are problems in the built environment and outlines aspects such as inner city decay, suburban sprawl, deterioration of agriculture and wilderness lands, and social segregation. It also says, 'that physical solutions by themselves will not solve social economical problems' but at the same time it recognizes:' a coherent and supportive physical framework is necessary‘. To summarize it architecture is not the whole but a substantial part of a possible solution 130
The Charter of The New Urbanism contains 27 principles divided into three categories. The three categories are to scale. "The Metropolitan Region," "The Neighborhood, the District and the Corridor 'and' the Block the Street and the Building. The highest level is the region defined by topography and is to be seen as an economic unit. It is stated for all the levels of the built environment the need to be consistent with society and to correspond to the urban patterns. For this consistency the existing historic structures are to be followed. On each level specific aspects of the mobility system to be pursued are discussed and statements about the built environment are made. At the regional level the issue is related to the system and its main target. ‘The physical organization of the region should be supported by a framework of transport alternatives. Transit, pedestrian, and bicycle systems should maximize access and mobility throughout the region while reducing dependence upon the automobile.’ At the level hereunder "Corridors are regional connectors of neighborhoods and districts." And it is stated which effects it is to produce: ‘Transit corridors, when properly
128 To develop the guidelines, The LGC leveraged the design contacts of their San Francisco-based strategic consultant, Peter Katz. LGC and Katz invited architects Michael Corbett, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Elizabeth Moule, Stefanos Polyzoides, and Dan Solomon, in addition to Calthorpe, to confer on the design principles.67 in 1991 in Awahnee Hotel in Yosemite Valley in Californie. From Carlton,I.(2007),Historiesof Transit-OrientedDevelopment
129 Talen, E. ed. (1999), Charter of the New Urbanism, Congress for the New Urbanism. (Mc Grawhill, Columbus)
130 Congress of the new Urbanism (1998) Charter of the New Urbanism. In leGates, R.T. and Stout, F. eds ‘City Reader’ (Toutledge, Hoboken)
planned and coordinated, can help organize metropolitan structure and revitalize urban centres. In contrast Highway corridors should not displace investment form existing centres’. For the lowest level; ‘the Primary task for urban architecture is physical definition of streets and public places as places of shared use.’ It is therefore to the physical development of areas that are central to society. Furthermore, the relationship to the automobile: ‘In contemporary metropolis adequately accommodate automobiles but also respect pedestrian and public space’
The car may exist, but is subordinate to the pedestrian, which is central to this concept of TOD. When the typology is to be further developed the pedestrian should be prior to the automobile. In practice of the integration of two types what it comes down to is that the position of the car in the area is strongly pushed back. It is also the phenomenon of transfer of ideas into practice is often perceived differently. In the manual of the American Planning Association in the part about Transit Oriented Development this comes to the fore. The general outline of the guide to TOD is:’ Transit-oriented development (TOD) is generally defined as development that is located within a 10 minute walk, or approximately 5 mile, from a light rail, heavy rail, or commuter rail station.’ This quite adequate outlines the principles of TOD. Where the translation shows some discrepancies to the original premises stated in the charter is in this case into making anti car environments. At the section of ‘site planning’ and the position of parking contained under the heading: ‘Reduces parking requirements: ‘it is stated: ‘One of the most important outcomes of transit-oriented development is increased transit use. Lower parking requirements and dedicated bicycle paths and bicycle parking are among the actions that can be taken.’ 131 There is therefore a double attitude of the car, it should be permitted but in practice it is not. There is the desire to reduce car mobility and it is accomplished this by making walkable traditional environments. These types of environments have developed in prewar era where the private car was not yet present. They turn out to be not suitable for the vehicle in general. The striving for prewar typologies carries with it the use of typologies which are unsuitable for car use.
On the built form itself the Charter is less specific. At the regional level, the aspect of protecting landscape is putted forward; "Development patterns should not blur or eradicate the edges of the metropolis. Infill Development Within Existing urban areas conserves environmental resources' It is also noted that there must be sufficient densities: 'Neighbourhoods should be compact, pedestrian friendly, and mixed-use.’and ‘Appropriate building densities and land uses should be within walking distance of transit stops, permitting public transit to become a viable alternative to the automobile.’ About typologies to be applied nothing is stated apart from that it must be pedestrian friendly and should take into account or subordinated to existing structures. It is therefore not directly named in the charter which architecture theoretical backgrounds.132
A & C International, Quaderni / Documents contains an article by Jean Francois Lejeune Urbanizing Suburbs " and can be seen as presenting the first major project of the founders of New Urbanism; the Seaside Project in Miami. Architects such as Peter Katz, Andres Duany,
131 American Planning Association (2000), Planning an Urban Desig Standards, 132 Talen, E. ed. (1999), Charter of the New Urbanism, Congress for the New Urbanism. (Mc Grawhill, Columbus)
Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Peter Calthorpe, and Daniel Solomon participated. It becomes clear from the text the traditionalist principles and studies indicate that the projects principles are derived from the work of Rossi. The aspect of territorial spatial study is completely absent.
133
133
Lejeune, J. L. ‘Urbanizing Suburbs’ In A & C International, Quaderni / Documents
2.1.3 Conclusion and critical analyses
In literature on TOD and New Urbanism it comes to the fore it results from two types of pursue. The pursue for reducing car use and for making traditional prewar urban environments. This makes the TOD as we know it very closely related to strive to build with traditional prewar walkable environments typologies. The formulated principles of New Urbanism, are indeed derived from the underlying problem of lack of synergy between postwar built environment and urban patterns. But the cause of the problem is not so much sought in the changed spatial relationships but more in the typologies of the city form have emerged post WWII and which are supposed to entail higher car use. For scientifical studies have found that to be associated with typology. The use of traditional typology, it is believed, will lead to less car use. This was in alignment with the at the time of argument prevailing thoughts developed by Jane Jacobs. It is more considered as a problem of typology, which causes a lack of social cohesion and interaction. This led to a profound conviction that the traditional typology is superior from different angles. It is believed that the use of typology herein is a solution to mobility problems. In itself a logical line of thought, whereas many of the problems were therefore not yet existent or at least far less prominent. In the approach of New Urbanism and the related form of TOD the focus is not so much on the realization of the connection of the physical infrastructure to the changing urban patterns, but more to be seen as an attempt to return to the built environment of the past. The approach is thus to be characterized more as typological, than as spatial. The spatial problem was overtaken by typological thinking. The theoretical principles are spacious in nature though and therefore useful in formulating a methodology to study problems of TOD in a spatial manner. In the second part of the chapter I will deal with theoretical backgrounds more profoundly.
Moreover, it is to be said the premise of lack of interaction has lost validity in the current network society and with the changed economical activities towards the services economy. Meanwhile, another type of economy in which there is labor can actually not be found in the immediate vicinity, and there are other ways of making interaction then arise through interaction on the street and neighborhood level.
The preference for these environments can also be exchanged for a different view of the different typologies. Lewis Mumfort signaled that the typology of the suburb potential can lead to valuable architecture. 134 The work of Rayner Banham. 'Los Angeles of four Ecologies' is all about the typology of the American suburb and how it is to be appreciated.135 It shows that you look differently at the typology Jacobs was fighting. This reflects the beauty and value of suburban landscapes of Los Angeles forward. Is has now also been signaled, Los Angeles became by the infill operation TOD, the most dense city in the United States which has made it loose part of its quality. And the city is still facing its mobility problems. It is therefore also very important to also look at what the resulting impact of a TOD operation may be qualitatively in the territory.
This typological approach is particularly motivated by the argument that came from research evidence, which indicates that the traditional pre-war typologies score better in the use of
134 Mumfort L. (1961) The City In History (Harcourt, New York)
135 Banham, R. The Los Angeles of four Ecologies
transit. That at an early stage already discovered that there is no account in this study with geographical aspects and moreover that they turn out to be more important than typological is not thoroughly studied. The altered spatial ratios were not investigated. There is also the idea that a return to traditional environments will lead to structurally different mobility patterns. The concept of the network society is seen as something which can be reversed. A building on this concept of Transit-oriented does not seem appropriate for the concept of the network society that I want to explore. Because I suspect that this is reversal no longer applicable for the Area of Noorderkwartier in North Holland. It is important to determine how the spatial relationships in Noorderkwartier have developed and currently lie. On what scale the patterns are and what are the underlying causes. That typological or are there other reasons for this.
It is in the charter completely not expressed that the operation has spatial impact and synergies are improved. In the American case, TOD is characterized by the condition of construction new transit infrastructure or revival of ancient in disused infrastructure.136 The urban landscape there was characterized by low density urban sprawl related to car infrastructure. In this landscape the TOD developments were automatically of a higher density than the case in the previously existing landscape. This in practice automatically gave a positive spatial impact. The effects were so obvious that it is not named in the charter. This is of importance whereas the program in North-Holland a different setting is the case and building new rail infrastructure is not to be expected. And asks the spatial aspect more specific attention because it will not automatically come about. What are the results to be achieved with this approach Noorderkwartier?
In the assumptions is stated there must also be integration with the automobile. But by the focus on a specific typology and a lack of critical analysis in relation to that typology selected resulted is one, the traditional pre-war, which comes from a time where car use did not exist. The typology does not accommodate for car use. In practice this leads to the design of pedestrian friendly environments where there is no integration to the case. In addition there are car based environments. There has been no interaction between the different environments relationship developed pedestrian versus car urban environments.
136 On the one hand this comes to the fore in the book: Tan, W. et al. (2013) Nodes development in the Netherlands, how we should implement Transit-Oriented Development (Paltform 31, The Hague) On the other hand in the book ‘New Transit Towns’ Several projects in:Washington DC. Arlington County Virginia, Dallas- Roths Worth Metro Plex, Atlanta – Marha, Calisfornia – Silicon Valley, en natuurlijk de originele projecten Protland en Sacramento
2.2 Architecture and Transit Oriented Development
2.2.1 Literature on architectural projects and transit oriented development
There are a number of books on the subject of architecture and TOD, these books are related to the movement of TOD and New Urbanism. They describe such projects and also give an overview of the thoughts and motivations behind it. There are some works that outline TOD Architecture projects are discussed. A key book here is ‘The New Transit Town, Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development’ by Dittmar and Ohland, it gives a good overview of TOD and also build transit related. 137 This book contains a foreword by Peter Calthorpe he describes TOD here as follows: "Transit-Oriented Development is regional planning, city revitalization, suburban renewal, and walkable neighborhoods combined." The book starts with analyzes from the problematic situation to the making of TOD in practice and economical and legal issues for promoting TOD projects. Then after that it gives an overview of what TOD is in built form. There are 11 selected projects of TOD which are to represent the broadness of TOD. The spatial range is wide, with a radius of 400 meters to a project with a diameter of 1200 meters around a transit location. However, the emphasis is with seven of the eleven projects, on projects within the radiated of 400 meters. There are two projects with 800 meters and also two larger ones, one with 1000 and one with 1200 meters. 138 The projects with the scale below 400 meters, which is the fast majority have a density varying from 300 dwellings per hectare, this project is one building, but furthermore, between 60 and 70 dwellings per hectare. There are also a few projects with a larger scale of 800 meters and is generally somewhat lower density of between 40 and 50 dwellings per hectare. There is an exception to the Addison Circle project has a density of 240 dwellings per hectare in a circle of 800 meters. On closer examination it appears that Addison is an exceptional situation. It is a business center with airport and numerous corporate offices.139 It has only 13,000 inhabitants, but 100,000 daily visitors. It is therefore to label a centrality. The project that 1200 meters is the extremely low density of 25 dwellings per hectare is difficult to build transit oriented mention. It is a Greenfield development 'and the transit is two intersecting bus routes.140 The selected representative TOD projects show that the focus is on station area as 400 meters, 800 meters also occurs. The densities on line k are between which is a lower exception 12 Anna Paulowna but mostly between 26 and 39 dwellings per hectare.141 The typology is that this traditional city and the densities are higher than in the Northern Quarter. The question that arises is whether this typology with higher density is good to apply Noorderkwartier and what can apply this strategy are to achieve improved synergy Noorderkwartier.
137 Dittmar, H. & Ohland, G. (2003) The New Transit Town, Best Practices in transit-oriented development (Island Press, Washington)
141 Engel, H.J. and Waaijer, D.A. de. (2011) “22 Railway locations Hollands Noorderkwartier Mapped’ (Delft University of Technology,Delft)
The book ‘Urban Transformations: Transit Oriented Development and the Sustainable City’ by Ronals Altoon’ is to show prime TOD projects from over the globe.142 It starts with large sections about transit station buildings. Afterward this section it follows a section on TOD projects. It defines TOD as follows: TOD is a real estate project directly at or above a station. The focus in this book on the topic of TOD lies very strongly on the stations and its direct surrounding on the scale of a real estate project and it only exists of examples of high dense very central urban environments.143 There are also books of architecture firms specialized in railway station location development such as these books show projects mainly large scale and in central urban environments.
Apart from the architectural books directly on TOD which are related to New Urbanism a larger set of books exists written about the topic or railway stations and metro stations. In addition, there are plenty of articles in journals about separate projects of railway and metro stations, but here the focus is to get a grip of the general approach on Transit Oriented Development in Architecture therefore the outlining books will be studied first. These books often show different examples of development in Railway stations themselves and sometimes their direct surroundings. This is merely about the topic of the station itself and not about area development on a larger scale. It is striking to see this body of work consist merely only of the stations and its direct surroundings. The idea comes to the fore the practical field of work for architects is mostly at a local scale.
There are some books devoted to area development such as from AREP the architecture firm connected to the French railway company. In this literature different examples of current architectural interventions that promote urban development around train station sites come to the fore.144 These examples may show different approaches but mostly are situated within a central urban context not in semi-peripheral or peripheral context which is the scope of this research. For the central urban context for the projects presented some main design strategies can be distinguished that could be transposed to the (semi-) peripheral situation; a trend of greater integration between the several programmatic parts of the station and an increase in quantity in this respect. This can be seen when changes of station locations are mapped out and it has been described by Marcel Bajard in his book ‘De la ville à la gare AREP, une démarche de projets’. 145 Noteworthy from an outcome of typological research on the (semi-) peripheral stations in the area there has been an opposite trend. - a closer and better organised integration of the traffic flows and of the different building components of the different transport system in the station building and to its surroundings. Accessibility to other forms of transportation is an important issue here. In this respect, the
142 Backcover of the book: ‘The powerful cases in this book remove the excuses for mediocrity and mundane functionality, and show us how to excel’ ‘The text introduces an understandable typology of development around transit, and uses that to illustrate different strategies and design techniques. There is a broad range and scale of projects represented—large and small, domestic and global, big markets and modest communities and each an excellent example of what can be realized.’
143 Ronald A. Altoon,James C. Auld, (2011) ‘Urban Transformations: Transit Oriented Development and the Sustainable City’ ( )p. 53
144 F. Accorsi, Etude de definition QUARTIER AUSTERLITZ GARE, 2007.
M. Bajard, De la gare a la ville, une demarche de projet, 2007, Brussel, Les Archives d’ Architecture Moderne. T. Venhoven, K. van Velsen, STATION CENTRAAL Over het samenbinden van station en stad, 2010.
145 M. Bajard, De la gare a la ville, une demarche de projet, 2007.
research scope includes articles such as Marc Wheeler’s: ‘The rail network and urban development’146
In addition whereas the area development is concerned with the territory as a whole it is not so much focussed on the central railway locations which is in architecture is the main field of study. Area development on the scale of the territory is achieved rather through the semiperipheral and peripheral locations than through the central locations. All the aforementioned examples however do not have ‘Transit Oriented Development’ as a base but more the aspiration for an improved functioning of the railway station area itself and towards its direct surroundings and not of a transit corridor as is the case in ‘TOD’.
Apart from books analysing projects that have occurred on railway locations there is also a some books on what should happen on railway locations. Which give a description of the apparently unfulfilled needs around railway stations. Such as in ‘Station Centraal’, a publication of Ton Venhoeven and Koen van Velsen.147 In the following a need for better integration of train stations to its direct built environment comes to the fore, Christine di Stefano also devotes much attention to this.148 This integration can occur both spatially as programmatically. These developments are considered important references for both the redevelopment of station locations and special requirements for architecture involved149 Other interesting strategies are creation of a public building to serve as a public space for several functions, sometimes with the reuse of existing (station) buildings150 and the use of parks and squares for reorganising the station and its surroundings. In the book 'Station Centraal' also emerges the need for integration with the further network of the city. This indicates a perceived need for TOD also in some parts of the architectural profession. Professionals hired by the state to formulate problematic on higher level. The image emerging from the other literature reveals that this is not so much how often the task is approached.
A very interesting project is the following, which is partially theoretical and partially putted in practice; the plan or Bernardo Secchi and Paola Vigano 'Antwerp Rail City "151 is important in this point of view, it focusses on several at linked strategies; the improvement of the transport network by making it more dense and widespread; making it better connected to the public realm trough improvement of public spaces and by the creation of a coherent network of public spaces and Improving the quality of the public space; and the strategically placement of facilities. 152 Here a strategy comes to the fore of a sketch of an urban network
146 M. Wheeler, ‘The rail network and urban development’, in M. Bajard, De la gare a la ville, une demarche de projet, 2007, p. 6.
147 T. Venhoeven, K. van Velzen, Station Centraal, Over het samenbinden van station en stad, 2010.
148 C. di Stefano, ed., Agence des Gares, Parcours 1988- 1998, 1998.
149 T. Venhoeven, K. van Velzen, Station Centraal, Over het samenbinden van station en stad, 2010.
150 F. Acorsi, Etude de definition, Quartier Austerlitz- Gare, 2007 A. Ferrarini, Railway Stations, from the gare de l’est to penn station, 2004.
151 B. Secchi, P. Vigano, Antwerp, Territory of a new modernity, 2009, p. 85- 101.
152 This trough “reinforcing a street character by providing a stronger and more coherent role or redistributing uses in a better way (less congested, more accessible, more mixed). Facilities and services must be used to improve their public character and role as centralities. This can occur both on the metropolitan and the local
which is to get shape by architectural interventions. This seems to be an approach that matches the spatial principles of New Urbanism, New Urbanism Where it seeks primarily in building typologies is this just about the creation of an inter-urban network of top local scale. This underlines the need for spatial support of the identified network society. This project is in assignment of the municipality of Antwerp. The project plays in the more central context of Antwerp but principles can be derived from this. In the books about TOD or Railway and Architecture the aspect of territorial area development related further is not dealt with.
For the non-central territory, some projects bring strategies to the fore: The station area in Piotella by Antonio Monestiroli, Italy 1995. This example clarifies that the creation of new urban spaces should be a major point of attention in the transformation of station locations in peripheral areas. 153 Comparable to Secchi is the project of Julian Lewis for the design of the station and railway area of Rainham, United Kingdom, design stage. It is situated in a semi-peripheral setting. The project is initiated by the local government it is not part of a larger regional policy. The welding of the different elements and facilities present in the area and the different transport systems is central in the design.154 Another case is the famous project in Hoenheim of Zaha Hadid, where in semi-peripheral setting a mobility complex was achieved. Additionally, there are projects that focus more on the properties of infrastructure and mobility. Found For example, the project of Caruso St. John in Zurich where the lack of spaciousness infrastructure at issue.155
These are separate exemplary projects which do not represent the broad stream, but rather these projects emerged in semi and peripheral area. The projects common that they often have public institutions as principal. This could indicate that they represent deeper societal needs which arise at municipal level for a different approach.
As explained in the introductionary chapter for the specific task of restructuring for TOD, peripheral and semi peripheral railway areas are the focus. It is important to know what other parts of the built environment have potential for the redevelopment of such station locations and, moreover, how this can be translated into specific architectural assignments. For this I will study the foundations of Transit Oriented Development to establish what TOD could be in architecture. What could be an at transit directed urban environment?
Architectural discourse is not directed at area development and its mere focus lays on the station itself and its immediate surroundings of which there are numerous individual projects This confirms the idea of defining the problematic at hand and as a next step select suitable separate examples which are applicable. In a later stage of the research when the
scales according to the level of accessibility, most through public transportation”, B. Secchi, P. Vigano, Antwerp, Territory of a new modernity, 2009, p. 101
153 A. Monestriroli, Antonio Monestiroli: Opere, Progetti, Studi Di Architettura, 2002.
154 Lecture on designs of East Architecture by Jean Lewis, held at the Delft University of Technology by the chair of Building Typology april 2010, available at: http://collegerama.tudelft.nl/mediasite/Catalog/pages/catalog.aspx?catalogId=16d039f3-c3a3-46e3-aedcc89a7693fc6a
155 Redesign Escher Wyss Platz Zurich Quaderns #262
