Aquaculture Magazine December 2021-January 2022 Vol. 47 No. 6

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Aquaculture Magazine Volume 47 Number 6 December 2021 - January 2022

EDITOR´S COMMENTS

6 INDUSTRY NEWS 16 ARTICLE

Interventions for improving the productivity and environmental performance of global aquaculture for future food security.

22 ARTICLE

Comparison of resource use for farmed shrimp in Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

on the

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The future is now: marine aquaculture in the anthropocene

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“Development choices should be based on carbon footprint and product LCAs in addition to traditional profitability analyses.

Aquaculture can help make our planet great again, this is a matter of choice”.

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The rise of the syndrome – sub-optimal growth disorders in farmed shrimp.

Genotype-by-environment interaction in white shrimp associated with white spot syndrome.

Passive Immunization with Recombinant Antibody VLRB-PirAvp/PirBvp—Enriched Feeds against Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infection in Litopenaeus vannamei Shrimp.

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Volume 47 Number 6 Dcember 2021 - January 2022

Inhibitory effect of marine microalgae used in shrimp hatcheries on Vibrio parahaemolyticus responsible for acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease.

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Eco-efficiency assessment of shrimp aquaculture production in Mexico.

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Resource-use efficiency in US aquaculture: farm-level comparisons across fish species and production systems.

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Let’s Decode the Defense System of Aquatic Animals.

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ARTICLE

Intelligent fish farm—the future of aquaculture.

62 FISH AND SHRIMP FARMING PRODUCTIVITY

Yucca plant as Treatment for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection in Nile tilapia Farms with Emphasis on its Effect on Growth Performance.

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Collaboration drives innovations in super-intensive indoor shrimp farming, part 2: Data on production and economic impacts at scale for the Viet-Uc commercial shrimp farm partnering with CSIRO

Editor and Publisher Salvador Meza info@dpinternationalinc.com Contributing Editor Marco Linné Unzueta Editorial Assistant Marcela Gracia editorial@dpinternationalinc.com Editorial Design Francisco Cibrián Designer Perla Neri design@design-publications.com Sales & Marketing Coordinator Juan Carlos Elizalde crm@dpinternationalinc.com Marketing & Corporate Sales Claudia Marín sse@dpinternationalinc.com Business Operations Manager Adriana Zayas administracion@design-publications.com

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COLUMNS

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PRECISION AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture 4.0: technological innovation as a competitive advantage.

By: Iván Ramírez Morales, Ph. D.

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CARPE DIEM

The World Aquaculture Society in 2022.

by Antonio Garza de Yta, Ph.D.

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETITIVE AQUACULTURE

Contributing Editor Marco Linné Unzueta

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little over two years after the beginning of the SARSCoV-2 pandemic and the technological advance for its solution, it has been more than pertinent to generate action strategies against the difficulties. So, in aquaculture, the rethinking of scientific and technological research in the sector must be established as a critical goal, developing guiding axes that allow the transmission of information and inter-institutional cooperation to influence public policies, promoting and encouraging sustainable development to minimize the impact on the ecosystem.

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Thus, the critical path of actions and their link with the historical diagnosis point towards the need to generate participatory schemes of reflection and generate activities relevant to sustainable production.

Today, the global community faces multiple interrelated challenges, ranging from the effects of the current financial and economic crisis to increased vulnerability to climate change and extreme weather events.

At the same time, it must address the pressing needs of feeding a growing population with finite natural resources.

This edition of the Aquaculture Magazine shows competitive innovations supported by Information Technologies (IT), which lead to establishing eco-efficient schemes in aquaculture activity and their integration in the generation of food with high nutritional value, employment, and economic income for the population.

It is vital and urgent to reconsider aquaculture education and research

objectives since aquaculture, as a primary production industry, is continually discussed, with optimism, as a strategy to replace the increasingly scarce fishery production. Aquaculture is expected to contribute to the world’s food supply in the same magnitude as population growth.

For this reason, it is imperative to establish research focused on the development of biotechnologies that allow production that can replace the natural output of the ecosystem and increase global food security.

Sustainable and competitive aquaculture must overcome numerous technical, regulatory, and economic obstacles to innovation and business development. While the main challenges are technological innovation and measurement needs, the enabling environment must be considered, including regulatory simplification and stability, the availability of investment capital for aquaculture companies, and the general political environment - for successful aquaculture development.

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

Grobest China establish a new aquaculture feed factory in Guangdong Grobest China has reported that it is planning to establish a new aquaculture feed factory in the new Guangdong Leizhou Industrial Development Zone. The aim of the new facility is to provide functional feed to aquaculture farmers in and around Zhanjiang, the company said.

The initiative is designed to be sustainable and long-term. The project is being implemented in phases according to the general plan that has received a total investment of more than 240 million yen (US$37.7 million) and an annual production capacity of 250,000 tons.

This was reported by company executives during the inauguration of the new Guangdong Leizhou Industrial Development Zone, a meeting attended by members of the company’s management team, as well as Chinese government officials and representatives of other companies.

Weng Jianshun, general manager of Grobest China, said to Aquafeed. com that for the new factory they will “select the best project management team, adopt modern and environmentally friendly production

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technology, and build efficiently in a safe, green and clean manner.”

In addition, Jianshun added, “we will use cutting-edge technology and unique functional feed formulas to cooperate with the government’s aquaculture industry support policies and help farmers in and around Zhanjiang.”

Partnership with UniAqua In the same way of growing, the

company founded in 1974 in Taiwan announced some time before its partnership with the Singapore based Universal Aquaculture (UniAqua), to collaborate on the development of the world’s first nextgeneration Functional Performance Shrimp Feed for UniAqua’s proprietary Hybrid Biological Recirculating System. In initial trials, Grobest functional performance feeds have outperformed competitive products

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by yielding healthier, tastier shrimp and significantly better water quality.

The cooperation between the two companies arrives at a time when Singapore is pursuing the goal of 30% home-grown food by year 2030. The roughly 730 km2 citystate heavily relies on imported food due to its relatively small land available for food production, which effectively reaffirms the importance of intensified production to satisfy the food demand of its growing population.

In UniAqua’s six-tier system, shrimp are farmed in stacked units with juveniles at the top level, and grown-ups at the bottom waiting to be harvested and shipped to the market. The combination of recirculation, biofloc and mechanical filtration ensures that the farming environment remains stable and secure while minimizing energy consumption.

“With a vertical indoor system of such high density, every parameter’s impact is magnified,” said UniAqua CEO, Jeremy Ong. “Hence, we designed the systems to be especially modular and systematic with the intention to incorporate IoT and machine learning within our operating system to ensure scalable efficiency.

A major component would be the feed that we put in the tanks—how soluble they are, how receptive our shrimps are to them, the residue left and other aspects like taste profile.

We are really excited to see how this partnership with Grobest will help to bring us closer to the optimal feed.”

This intensive aquaculture system requires safe, antibiotic-free and highly palatable aquafeed with the least possible leaching to further streamline the process and remain at the apex of innovation. Grobest will work closely with UniAqua to develop next-generation feed that is tailored for this particular model to facilitate all its technological advances.

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The world’s first Functional Performance Shrimp Feed In announcing the partnership, Grobest Group CEO, Samson Li, stated that “we are looking forward to working closely with the UniAqua team to develop the world’s first Functional Performance Shrimp Feed specifically formulated for RAS systems. Grobest has always led innovation in the aqua feed industry since the introduction of our proprietary bio-tech Functional Performance Feeds over 15 years ago”.

And Li adds, “making our farmers more successful, more productive and more profitable across all farming models is the essence of ‘The Grobest Difference’ and is why this partnership with Universal Aquaculture is an exciting next step that reaffirms our commitment to leading the industry by partnering with other leading innovators. The development and expansion of new

farming models, such as UniAqua’s proprietary Hybrid Biological Recirculation System will be critical in the development of the industry over the next decade and it brings a unique set of challenges that urgently need a solution.”

The companies Universal Aquaculture was founded in 2020 in Singapore with a mission to build the global food systems of the future, using environmentally sound and sustainable food production methods, and focusing on the intensive production of vannamei shrimp. Meanwhile Grobest Group was founded in 1974 in Taiwan and has since expanded its operations to China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

OceanLab, the Norwegian floating ocean laboratory that will contribute to research on aquaculture Off the small island of Munkholmen, outside the city Trondheim in Norway, is already installed the first of two observation buoys to collect data from the fjord, as a part of the new OceanLab that will contribute to research on aquaculture, underwater robotics, autonomous shipping and environmental research.

OceanLab is a new and state-ofthe-art national research infrastructure that is a collaborative venture between Stiftelsen for Industriell og Teknisk Forskning (SINTEF, Norwegian for Foundation for Industrial and Technical Research) and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), funded by the Research Council of Norway.

OceanLab/FjordLab is a full-scale field laboratory for research, development and innovation in marine technology and science. Its infrastructure is concentrated around three ocean and fjord areas (hubs):Trondheim Fjord, Hitra/Frøya and Ålesund.

Increasing understanding of the environment in the fjord The observation buoys of OceanLab are particularly important for increasing understanding of the environment in the fjord. With a diameter of five meters and a yellow colour, the buoy is easy to spot from land. The buoys will be powered primarily by wind and solar, and don’t need to be permanently manned.

“It is probably an understatement to call this a buoy. A floating laboratory would probably be a better description,” says SINTEF researcher Emlyn Davies. The research buoy will be important for testing ocean sensor technology, the education of future marine scientists, and establishing long-term data on the status of the environment in the fjord.

The information from the buoys 8 »

will be used for increasing environmental understanding and for developing and updating models. Ocean models can forecast things like current conditions and algae blooms, but more knowledge is needed in order to further develop them. The floating laboratory will also contribute to making local environmental policy more knowledge-based.

The Observatory in the buoys is one of five parts to the OceanLab National Research Infrastructure and is the first step in developments of the full-scale field lab of Ocean Space Centre (Fjordlab).

The data collected will be made available in real time on a digital platform for anyone who is interested.

OceanLab/FjordLab is a full-scale field laboratory for research, development and innovation in marine technology and science. Its infrastructure is concentrated around three ocean and fjord areas (hubs):Trondheim Fjord, Hitra/Frøya and Ålesund.

More knowledge about the consequences of what we do “As we gradually develop new ways of utilizing resources in the ocean, we also have an increasing need to collect data. This is important in order to develop good ocean models that can predict the impact of developments – something which is also one of the goals of the UN Ocean Decade. This will provide us with more knowledge about the consequences of what we do,” says Davies, a marine scientist and has helped to develop some of the equipment.

“Example of this is the increasing interest in harvesting more of the smallest organisms found in the sea, such as Calanus finmarchius and krill. The data we collect will provide a better understanding of how these affect the environment,” says Davies.

Collecting large amounts of marine research data The buoy off Munkholmen, in the DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

tion. To understand these kinds of changes and their consequences, we need to collect environmental data over the longer-term,” Davies adds.

CytoSub creates on-site images One of the most advanced instruments on the buoy is called CytoSub. This equipment creates on-site images by lowering an instrument called a flow cytometer, which produces microscope images and fluorescence signatures of particles and plankton right down to nano-level.

The reason is that phytoplankton are critical organisms for ocean ecosystems. Phytoplankton produce about 50 per cent of the world’s oxygen. They also harness energy from sunlight which scientists can measure by using light sensors. The plankton is also a primary source of food that in turn is eaten by larger organisms.

other hand, will collect data on everything that happens close to it, such as the weather, waves, current and temperature, and it is specially equipped to monitor underwater life.

It will have a range of features, including particle imaging, acoustic communication and a plug-and-play interface for customised sensors. In practice, this means that researchers can add and remove sensors as required. The floating lab will also have equipment that can take photos of organisms that are invisible to the human eye, such as phytoplankton.

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“By looking at the kind of plankton here, what it looks like and how it changes during the course of the season, we will be able to see, for example, how the River Nid affects the ecosystem in the fjord. With climate change we are seeing more extreme weather with heavy rain that carries water from the land and out to the ocean. When sediment enters the fjord it blocks the light. One of the effects is that it prevents algae from growing, which in turn results in a reduction in the food available for organisms and lowers oxygen produc»

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

ProSeaweed analyzes the possibilities of Royal Kombu seaweed in hamburger production Within the framework of the ProSeaweed project, financed by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Wageningen University has analyzed the feasibility of using the Royal Kombu seaweed, native to the North Sea, for the production of hamburgers and salt replacement, in addition to analyzing its potential for reducing the environmental impact of the food industry.

ProSeaweed is currently being carried out by a consortium formed by Wageningen University & Research, the North Sea Farmers Foundation (NSF) and Blonk Consultants.

Together, and in addition to studies such as the patties, they have analyzed the overall environmental impact of Royal Kombu cultivation in the North Sea using current and future techniques.

Given that algae can play a key role in environmental conservation when incorporated into the human food chain, helping to reduce the climate impact of diets, NSF is using “all the knowledge generated to understand the impact of its production and evaluate the possibility of expanding the portfolio of products and algae species to be used,” they say on their website.

Currently, several European companies cultivate algae and the food market is the driving factor for its commercial cultivation. One of the most widely produced in Europe is the brown seaweed Saccharina latissima, also known as Royal Kombu, which originates from the North Sea. This seaweed can be used for nutritional applications and is considered a promising source of functional nutrients.

As they explain in a report, in the analysis of the balance between nutrition and durability of Royal Kombu, “it is advisable to eat only one seaweed patty per week or eight days 10 »

because it contains a lot of iodine. As more is known over time about the iodine in Royal Kombu by product location and proper harvest timing, food safety risks can be minimized.”

Next steps The next step is to expand the product portfolio, both in terms of the types of products and the types of seaweed used as ingredients.

North Sea Farmers concluded that, together with the shipping industry, there is a need to develop efficient transportation options for seaweed. In terms of minimizing food safety risks, this is examined in the completed pilot project and the ongoing PROCESS project. NSF will use the results of the studies to provide entrepreneurs with more information on the impact of their product.

Regarding environmental hotspots in the current cultivation and processing of Royal Kombu for use in veggie burgers and as a salt substitute, the ProSeaweed report, life cycle analysis indicates a key point during transportation. “A reduction in environmental impact can be achieved by transporting and using seaweed more efficiently.”

A successful case It is interesting to note that in the Netherlands there is already a successful company that has been offering algae burgers made with Royal Kombu for some time. It is The Dutch Weed Burger, the first company to use algae from Zeewaar, the first algae farm in the Netherlands.

“Since then, we promote Dutch Weed, because we choose to work with what is available in the Netherlands, to help farmers and that seaweed can be commercially cultivated in NL,” said Mark Kulsdom, one of the two founders of The Dutch Weed Burger.

North Sea Farmers (NSF) is an international membership foundation for the seaweed sector, consisting of approximately one hundred diverse members and partners. NSF works on joint investment projects and knowledge exchange on all aspects of sustainable seaweed cultivation. Its activities are focused on but not limited to the North Sea. It is a non-profit organization with an ANBI status (Algemeen Nut Beogende Instelling, non-profit tax designation in the Netherlands).

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USAID and New Zealand Embassy Join to Promote Aquaculture Development in Timor-Leste US Agency for International Development (USAID) Mission Director Zema Semunegus and New Zealand Deputy Head of Mission of the New Zealand Embassy, Olivia Philpott, met some days ago with fish farmers in Bobonaro city, at TimorLeste, and visited the MoreDoc Unipessoal Lda public-private-partnership (PPP) tilapia hatchery in Leohitu to study its success and advance plans to scale aquaculture across the country.

The visit was part of joint and ongoing support by USAID and the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) to grow the aquaculture sector to fully realize the Timor-Leste National Aquaculture Development Strategy (2012– 2030). By 2030, the country aims to increase farmed fish production to 12,000 tons per year and increase fish consumption from 6.1 kg to 15 kg per person each year.

In February 2021, USAID began a USD 1.2 million partnership with WorldFish to launch the USAID Accelerating Aquaculture Development in Timor-Leste activity (February 2021–August 2022). The activity complements the efforts of the ongoing Partnership for Development in Timor-Leste Phase 2 (PADTL2) project funded by MFAT and implemented by WorldFish with the Timor-Leste Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF).

“Developing aquaculture is a key government priority among others,” said Pedro dos Reis, Timor-Leste’s Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. “By scaling up fish production, farmers can enhance their livelihoods and earn some extra income, while the sector can help to meet the national need for greater amounts of nutritious fish. Our partnership with MFAT, USAID and WorldFish will greatly help Timor-Leste achieve inDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

clusive and sustainable development in the long term.”

“This collaboration between MFAT, USAID, WorldFish and MAF is key to advance sustainable aquaculture and improved nutrition in TimorLeste,” said for his part Director Semunegus. “We’re excited to be joining hands together to help increase the country’s food security through fish farming to benefit rural families and boost their incomes.”

The goal is to enable greater quantities of healthy fish, specifically tilapia The PADTL2 project, running from April 2020 until March 2023, works with the government and private sector actors to support the diversification of rural livelihoods through nutrition-sensitive aquaculture. This is by scaling aquaculture to improve the availability, accessibility and consumption of diverse aquatic foods.

The goal is to enable greater quantities of safe, affordable and healthy fish, specifically tilapia, to reach the plates of a large number of Timorese households.

“Tilapia is a rich source of micronutrients and essential fatty acids that are needed for good health and development,” said Philpott. “Improving supply and encouraging more households to eat farmed tilapia will help to combat malnutrition in Timor-Leste, where one in two children under five years old are stunted. The partnership between MFAT, USAID, WorldFish and MAF to develop aquaculture will be critical to realizing the nutritional benefits of fish.”

Access to high-quality seed of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia A key focus of the PADTL2 project is to establish at least two more hatcheries through the public-private

partnership model, whereby construction costs are shared between the owner and the project, to ensure farmer access to high-quality seed of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT). Recently, on last October, the project inaugurated the Black Bird PPP GIFT hatchery in Lautem municipality—the first PPP hatchery established in the east of the country.

The project is conducting research to improve GIFT production and productivity by refining sustainable aquaculture technologies. Such technologies will be tested and validated under local conditions, enabling Timorese farmers to complete two production cycles in a year instead of one cycle as is the current practice. In the next 12 months, the project will continue expanding farmer clusters to provide training and support for growing GIFT through sustainable intensification.

The PADTL2 project builds on the successes of the PADTL1 project (2014–2019), supported by MFAT, which helped to lay the foundations for the aquaculture sector’s growth by developing seed, feed and grow-out technologies.

“Currently, local production of farmed tilapia is low and imported farmed fish is much cheaper to buy,” pointed out Gareth Johnstone, Director General of WorldFish. “We want to turn this situation on its head by ensuring safe, healthy and sustainable farmed fish is produced locally and is available at affordable cost within the reach of rural households. By building on the achievements of phase one of the project, we are confident that our partnership with the Timor-Leste government and private sector actors will support Timor-Leste’s effort to ensure better livelihoods, increased incomes and improved food and nutrition security in the face of climate change.” » 11

INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

eFishery raises USD 90 millions to expand throughout Asia and become the world’s largest aquaculture technology startup Indonesian agritech start-up eFishery announced that it has successfully closed US$90 million in its Series C round, making it the largest fundraise by an aquaculture technology start-up in the world. This round of investment was co-led by Temasek, SoftBank Vision Fund 2, and Sequoia Capital India, with participation from existing investors including the Northstar Group, GoVentures, Aqua-Spark, and Wavemaker Partners.

The funds raised will be used to scale up eFishery’s platform and to strengthen its digital products, making it the largest digital “cooperative” for fish and shrimp farming. eFishery also aims to expand regionally, targeting the top 10 countries in aquaculture, such as India and China.

Growing the team and building a stronger platform Since the last funding round, eFishery has grown its headcount threefold, with moreb than 900 em-

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ployees now onboard. Though it is headquartered in Bandung, more than half of the employees are located remotely given the company’s permanent Work From Anywhere (WFA) policy.

“This funding will gear us to aggressively hire, especially for engineering and product development talent. We aim to recruit a thousand of new employees this year, not only to make an impact for the aquaculture industry in Indonesia, but also on a larger scale, to conquer the global aquaculture supply,” said Gibran Huzaifah, Co-founder and CEO of eFishery.

Provide a reliable and sustainable supply “Indonesia is one of the world’s largest producers of fish and we believe its aquaculture industry can play a meaningful role in feeding the world’s growing population,” said Anna Lo, Investment Director at SoftBank Investment Advisers. “eFishery is pioneering the adoption of technology for local fish and shrimp farmers with a complete,

integrated platform that supports them to improve productivity across feed supply, production, and the sale of fresh produce. We are delighted to be partnering with the eFishery team to support them to provide a reliable and sustainable supply of aquatic food products to Indonesia and beyond”, Lo added.

Based in Bandung, eFishery revolutionizes traditional farming methods and provides solutions designed specifically to improve outcomes for fish and shrimp farmers. It offers an end-to-end platform providing farmers with access to technology, feed, financing, and markets.

30,000 farmers across 24 provinces in Indonesia Since launching in 2013, the company has deployed thousands of smart feeders, serving over 30,000 farmers across 24 provinces in Indonesia. At the peak of the pandemic, eFishery scaled its network by tenfold since December 2020, and deepened adoption of its fresh and feed ser-

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vices. “With US$20 billion in market size, and a fragmented and complex supply chain, aquaculture is one of the largest and most attractive opportunities in Indonesia. That’s what makes this partnership with eFishery, the undisputed leader in the market, so exciting,” said Aakash Kapoor, VP, Sequoia India. “eFishery’s product offerings spanning feeder devices, input feed procurement, and fresh output sales combined with farmer financing is the most comprehensive and strategic model to serve this market. Sequoia Capital India team is impressed with the strong growth and fundamentals in the business, and excited about the prospects of the company,” said Johan Surani, VP, Sequoia India.

More successful with eFarm, eFund and eFisheryKu App eFishery’s latest suite of cutting edge products includes eFarm and eFisheryKu App. eFarm is an online platform that provides farmers with comprehensive and easy-tounderstand information about their DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

shrimp farming operations, while eFisheryKu is an integrated platform where fish farmers can purchase their farming supplies, such as feed, at competitive prices.

Farmers can also apply for a loan through eFund, which links fish farmers directly to financial institutions. A key component of eFund is Kabayan (‘Kasih Bayar Nanti’, translates to ‘Pay Later’), a service that provides fish farmers with financing that can be used to purchase fish farming needs through installments.

All processes are done seamlessly with just one app, eFisheryKu. To date, more than 7,000 farmers have been supported by this service, with the total loan approved exceeding US$ 28 million. “We are focused on increasing farmers’ productivity.

Through the introduction of new technologies, we’re streamlining the fish and shrimp farming business, making the industry more effective, efficient and sustainable”, Gibran explained.

For example, he added, “our upstream technology, eFeeder, optimiz-

es yield days and increases farmers’ production capacity by up to 26% while also optimizing feed efficiency by up to 30% through reducing time and labour costs. We also connect farmers with buyers via eFresh, our downstream technology, which increases their purchasing power. As a result, the solutions ecosystem lowers operational farming costs and increases the farmers’ income by up to 45%.”

“This new funding will allow us to scale our impact, expand regionally, and achieve our target of being a leading aquaculture technology company by improving the livelihoods of the farmers that we empower. We are excited to partner with Temasek, Softbank Vision Fund 2, and Sequoia Capital India, who we believe can add a significant boost to our mission,” finalized the executive.

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

NOAA presents the new Alaska Aquaculture Permitting Portal

New tools guide applicants through the aquatic farm leasing and permitting process in Alaska, reported members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. Since a few weeks ago are available the Alaska Aquaculture Permitting Portal and Guidance Document, that brings together in a single virtual space all the information and file multiple permits for the establishment and management of aquaculture farms in the area.

Until now, navigating the aquaculture leasing and permitting process in Alaska was a barrier to development. To reduce this barrier to sustainable aquaculture growth, the Alaska Aquaculture Interagency Working Group have produced a new permitting portal and guidance document to aid prospective and established farmers.

These processing barriers were identified by both the Alaska Mariculture Task Force and the NOAA 14 »

Fisheries Alaska Mariculture Workshop Summary Report.

A USD 100 million industry in 20 years The mariculture industry in Alaska has great economic potential, and the Governor’s Mariculture Task Force set a goal of growing it into a USD 100 million industry in 20 years. However, one hindrance included the complex leasing and permitting process.

Until now, the farmers were required to file multiple permits with at least four different state and federal agencies—sometimes more, depending on the project, noted the Task Force. And this was resulting in a confusing and time-consuming process.

“The permitting portal and guidance document are the result of a collaborative effort by many stakeholders,” said Alicia Bishop, NOAA Fisheries Alaska Regional Aquaculture Coordinator. “We hope that these tools increase permit transparency and efficiency.”

User-friendly tool NOAA Fisheries Alaska Region and Alaska Sea Grant spearheaded the project to create this user-friendly tool. It guides applicants through the aquatic farm leasing and permitting process in Alaska. Together they formed an interagency working group with state and federal aquaculture regulators.

Among them are the Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Alaska Sea Grant, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, NOAA Fisheries and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

The working group developed the Alaska Aquaculture Permitting Portal and Alaska Aquaculture Permitting Guide. They bring together leasing and permitting information from state and federal regulators all into one place. These first-of-itskind tools support new and existing farmers in navigating the initial application steps as well as authorizaDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

tion renewal, transfer, and amendment processes.

Once the materials were assembled, prospective and existing farmers reviewed the materials for usability. To leverage the state’s existing aquaculture experience, established farmers provided additional feedback and suggestions for new farmers to consider before starting the application process and siting a farm.

“I am very excited for this permitting portal to be an all-encompassing resource for those who are interested in or currently participate in aquatic farming, to address all their needs in one place,” said Michelle Morris, Alaska Department of Fish & Game Statewide Permit Coordinator.

“In addition to increasing the ease of navigating the permitting process, this portal provides a space for farmers to learn about wildlife in

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their area,” said for her part Sabrina Farmer, biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “This will have longterm benefits for both the budding mariculture industry and the species we care about as Alaskans.”

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers also stated support for the initiative to streamline the process, which will result in consistent information submittals.

The application period ends on April 30 The interagency work group showed up excited to share the permitting portal with applicants during the 2022 state joint-agency application opening that runs fromJanuary 1– April 30 each year. The portal will provide much more detailed information about how to navigate the process than is currently available online, improving efficiency for applicants and regulators alike.

The portal and guidance document are presented as great examples of how state and federal agencies can come together to help meet industry needs and advance sustainable aquaculture. “Aquaculture in Alaska continues to grow. The need for partnerships and proactive collaboration for an efficient, timely, and coordinated regulatory process that meets conservation, public health, and other legal requirements is growing as well”, said the NOAA representants.

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ARTICLE

Interventions for improving the productivity and environmental performance of global aquaculture for future food security By: Aquaculture Magazine *

Fulfilling the potential of aquaculture to contribute positively to food system transformation will require better accounting of the environmental performance of different types of production systems, and interventions that facilitate upscaling of aquatic farming to support sustainable diets. We contend that the existing literature overlooks large ‘‘performance gaps’’ in existing conventional aquaculture systems, especially freshwater pond systems, that could be rapidly narrowed to meet future global demand for more sustainable aquatic foods.

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ntensification of fed aquaculture has consequently shifted resource needs from on-farm to: (1) other agricultural land, often in locations remote from the farm, for production of crop-based feed ingredients; (2) open waters for fish-based feed ingredients (fishmeal and fish oil); and (3) additional exogenous energy inputs (infrastructure, pumps, aeration, etc.) and/or land that may be used to maintain water quality (i.e., settling ponds). Nine intervention areas are identified for improving the productivity and environmental performance of global aquaculture: species choice, genetic improvements, farm technologies and practices, spa16 »

tial planning and access, disease reduction, feed, regulations and trade, postharvest processing and distribution, and financial tools.

species, few have reached the levels of efficiency seen in the highly homogenized terrestrial-animal production systems, such as poultry farming.

Challenge: The Performance Gap in Aquaculture Fish have metabolic advantages over terrestrial animals, as they are cold blooded and neutrally buoyant in water and thus do not need to expend energy maintaining body temperature, building supportive structures, or fighting gravity. Aquatic animals subsequently have biological advantages over terrestrial livestock in terms of their resource-use profiles. However, given the short history of farming for most aquaculture

Benchmarking the environmental performance of aquatic foods.

Feed conversion ratio (FCR) is commonly used as an efficiency indicator in aquaculture. The simplicity of FCR, however, allows farmers to easily benchmark their performance and recognize farming improvements.

FCR can also serve as an indicator of environmental performance, as feed production remains the primary driver behind most environmental impacts related to fed aquaculture systems.

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Where more comprehensive efficiency measures are needed, life cycle assessment (LCA) enables evaluation of environmental performance and trade-offs on a multi-criteria basis.

LCA is a quantitative environmental assessment framework used to assess the environmental performance of a product or service throughout its lifecycle stages. The environmental impact assessment results produced by an LCA commonly detail impacts such as global warming, eutrophication, land use, and freshwater use, but may also include more aquatic-food-specific impacts, such as biotic resource use.

Comparing the evolution of animal farming sectors Farming of aquatic organisms dates back millennia, but it was only in the 1980s that shrimp and salmon became the first mass-produced and widely traded farmed aquatic foods. Profitability and, to some extent, environmental sustainability concerns motivated large investments in R&D for improving Atlantic salmon production systems, genotypes, and feed. Tilapia was domesticated (cultivated for food) by humans before Atlantic salmon and has similar genetic potential with regard to improved growth rates and feed-use efficiency but has yet to show the same FCR gains. This is most likely explained by more limited R&D in breeding and feed, poorer dissemination of improved strains, less access to quality feed, higher metabolic rates of tropical finfish, and more heterogeneous farming systems. Development and adoption of improved genetic strains suited to individual farming systems and commercial tailored feed has been especially slow. Feed efficiency is only one of many breeding objectives in selective breeding programs.

Improving Aquaculture’s Environmental Performance Closing the performance gap in aquaculture appears to hold considerable potential for both productivity and environmental performance gains.

Interventions can help to reduce the DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

Farm technologies and practices Farming in ponds could be greatly improved through better management practices, improved system design, and efficiency. Better record keeping, ideally supported by water quality sensors, diagnostics, and monitoring, could be key here, allowing farmers to optimize production and improve feed and chemical use. Integration Species choice with additional species and/or agriculApart from a capacity for reproducing ture may further improve sustainability in farm systems, aquaculture species outcomes and help maximize produchave historically been chosen based tion through better utilization of feed upon their temperature tolerance, and by-products, which could mitigate resource-use efficiency, feed prefer- nutrient emissions per unit of farmed ences, and ease of farming. This al- output. lowed for low production costs and accessible aquatic foods (defined here Spatial planning and access as those costing less than half the Access to affordable land and/or waglobal production weighted average). ter for farming is critical for profitable Recently, however, there has been a aquaculture, which is why many pregrowing trend toward farming luxury viously unclaimed areas, such as lakes aquatic foods (those costing more and mangrove forests, have historically than the global weighted average), been exploited. Developing well-dedriven by larger profits, changing con- signed spatial plans would help protect sumer preferences, and reduced wild essential ecosystems, respect ecosysfish supplies. tem carrying capacities, and increase Selecting more tolerant and less overall farm profitability. These plans resource-demanding species is there- need to account for the right set of infore a precursor for lowering environ- dicators and stakeholders and ensure mental impacts, but this is inevitably enforcement. challenged by market demands. This could, to some extent, be overcome by Disease reduction nudging consumer behavior and value- Apart from choosing tolerant species added products. and spatial planning, disease risks can be reduced through a range of inGenetic improvements terventions, from simple biosecurity There are relatively few distinct measures and better hygiene to develstrains domesticated for aquaculture, opment of vaccines and the use of and only around 10% of global pro- specific-pathogen-free and resistant duction is based upon species that seeds have been improved via selective breeding programs. The main long- Feed term objectives of selective breeding In addition to being environmenare body conformation, physiological tally sustainable, alternative novel tolerance, edible yield, appearance, feed ingredients need to be cost efdisease resistance, reproductivity fective, available in sufficient quanti(age of spawning, sex ratio, and fe- ties year-round, nutritious, free from cundity), resistance to pollution, feed contaminants and other undesirable efficiency, and growth rate. Allocat- compounds, able to endure a range ing more resources toward genetic of forms of processing, palatable to breeding programs for a more diverse farmed aquatic organisms, and able to set of aquatic foods could therefore support the desired nutritional traits of drastically boost production. seafood such as omega-3. performance gap in global aquaculture and thereby improve resource-use efficiency, profitability, and overall environmental performance. Interventions that are financially feasible for most farmers are sufficiently scalable to contribute to global change, and importance to food security should be prioritized.

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Feed ingredients must therefore be considered through the interacting nutritional effects of the feed as a whole. Interactions with other markets also need to be factored into this equation, as the same set of feed resources is used in terrestrial animal production, and sometimes feed resources compete with direct human consumption or for agricultural land.

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Regulations and trade The role of certification remains limited, and the standards of the two largest certification groups—ASC and the Global Aquaculture Alliance Best Aquaculture Practices (GAA-BAP)— cover only 3% of global aquaculture production.

Regulations can address more comprehensive sets of farms and farming

practices but have also been seen as a barrier for potential grow out sites, therapeutics, access to fresh water, effluent discharge, and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), non-indigenous species, and novel feed ingredients. Regulations should thus be drafted to discourage detrimental farming practices, without hampering otherwise effective interventions.

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Post-harvest processing and distribution The FAO (2011) estimates that 35% of all seafood is lost or wasted worldwide. Reduction strategies for food loss and waste range from simple changes in practices, such as handling fish with care, avoiding contamination, using insect nets, improved drying techniques, better hygiene and public awareness, to refrigeration, improved infrastructure, clean water, improved packaging material, food safety legislation, and promotion of value-added products from low-value fish species.

Large-scale processing can improve possibilities for utilizing byproducts for food, feed, or industrial uses. By utilizing these resources, larger volumes could be produced with a similar overall environmental footprint, resulting in lower impacts per volume and better resource efficiency.

Financial tools Many smallholder farmers cannot benefit from farm improvements, such as quality feed, seed, and disease diagnostics, due to limited access to credit. Enabling insurance providers and cooperatives could here play important roles in alleviating risk and gaining access to credit and markets among smallholder aquaculture farmers. Access to shared infrastructure, improved fry, cheaper feeds, and markets could be improved by upscaling production of a limited selection of species.

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Discussion Aquaculture holds potential to improve the sustainability of animalbased foods and the overall food system, but additional efforts are urgently needed for it to reach its full potential.

In some cases, simple improvements have not been realized yet due to limited know-how among aquaculture farmers and other supply chain actors. Financial barriers and perceived risks are also important constraints.

Other interventions would require longer-term resource commitments. These include upgrading farm infrastructure, establishing genetic improvement programs, and development of vaccines and novel feeds. A third group of interventions could provide incentives for farmers and industry to adopt more environmentally sustainable practices. These include spatial planning, stricter environmental regulations, and financial incentives encouraging better production practices.

Strengthening R&D together with widespread training programs and extension services for these farmers could offer a more efficient way forward for making aquatic foods more accessible.

Adding all these together, we can expect that global aquaculture yields could increase substantially over the next decade, while reducing the environmental impact per unit of output.

Improving production systems, management practices, and genetic strains

could reduce FCR and environmental impacts by roughly 25%.

LCA, remains insufficient with respect to the availability of methods for assessing all sustainability aspects relevant to the growth of aquatic foods.

Conclusions We contend that financial incentives and regulatory efforts, alongside investment in genetics, feed, and farm management, including better record keeping and data management by individual farmers, are needed to boost aquaculture production, improve resource-use efficiency, and reduce environmental impacts.

Sustainable intensification of existing systems for increasing accessibility of aquatic foods, based on scaling of proven but infrequently adopted interventions, could contribute substantially to realizing sustainability goals in aquaculture. However, these systems and improvements also need to be better benchmarked using LCA and complementary frameworks, to identify overall potential sustainability gains.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “INTERVENTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE PRODUCTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF GLOBAL AQUACULTURE FOR FUTURE FOOD SECURITY” developed by: PATRIK JOHN GUSTAV HENRIKSSON, MAX TROELL, LAUREN KATHERINE BANKS, BEN BELTON, MALCOLM CHARLES MACRAE BEVERIDGE, DANE HAROLD KLINGER, NATHAN PELLETIER, MICHAEL JOHN PHILLIPS, AND NHUONG TRAN. The original article was published on SEPTEMBER 2021, through ONE EARTH under the use of a creative commons open access license.

The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.08.009

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Comparison of resource use for farmed shrimp in

Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam

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he most negative environmental impacts of shrimp farming and other types of aquaculture result from use of resources at the farm level and in acquisition of the resources themselves (embodied effects). Besides, feed use essential for semi-intensive and intensive production is a major source of resource use and the main reason for pollution by pond effluents.

In an effort to obtain a better knowledge of resource use in shrimp farming, estimates of land, water, energy, and wild fish use have been made for farmed shrimp in Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam, the five major farmed shrimp exporters. In addition, the benefits to land use of intensification of pond yields have been assessed.

The purpose of this report is to compare resource use among the five countries for whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) farming and for farming of black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in the four Asian countries The resource use data for Ecuador, India, Thailand, and Vietnam have been published, and a summary of the data for Indonesia was presented in Juárez et al. (2021). In the present comparison, we recalculated the resource data from the original survey information using the updated embodied resource use coefficients.

Resoruse use for L. vannamei farming Average area of individual production ponds was much greater in Ecuador than in Asia. India had larger ponds than Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam which did not differ in average pond area. Average pond depth ranged from 1.19 m in Indonesia to 1.49 m in Thailand with considerable overlap in the 22 »

Shrimp farming has been widely criticized for excessive use of various resources and especially for coastal wetlands as farm sites. The purpose of this study was to assess the amounts of land, water, energy in fuels, and wild fish for fishmeal and fish oil in feeds required per ton of harvested, farmed shrimp in five countries producing most of the shrimp destined for the international market. Compared to Litopenaeus vannamei, black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon required more land, a greater amount of water, but less energy per ton of shrimp. Although comparatively small differences in average uses of these primary resources were found among countries, the large variation which was noted among farms in each country suggests that resource use could be improved considerably.

statistical comparison. The use of deeper ponds is beneficial where mechanical aeration is applied as a means of reducing bank and bottom erosion which leads to higher total suspended solids and turbidity concentrations in pond effluent. All of the Asian farms in this comparison used aeration in L. vannamei ponds, and 46% of Ecuadorian farms used aeration in some or all ponds.

The percentage of farms using water exchange was greatest in Ecuador and Indonesia with 87% and 90%, respectively.

Yields in Ecuador and India were similar, even though only about half of the Ecuadorian farms (46.5%) applied mechanical aeration. In India, Thailand, and Vietnam where the number of crops per year were relatively similar and all farms used aeration, there was

a general increase in production with greater aeration.

Feed was used at all L. vannamei farms in the five countries. Feed typically contained around 35% crude protein and it was applied three to five times daily.

Amendments used in ponds include liming materials for neutralizing bottom soil acidity, fertilizers for stimulating primary productivity, chemicals for disinfection and shrimp disease control, and various products for water quality improvement.

Total land use ranged from 0.37 ha/t in Indonesia to 0.52 ha/t in Vietnam. Indonesia had the lowest land use, and no differences were found among the other countries.

Most water use was for brackish water or seawater applied to ponds, and DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

used water exchange than was the case in India.

In India and Vietnam, wild fish use was greater than observed in L. vannamei farming. This was mainly the result of a high wild fish coefficient for P. monodon feed. The lower wild fish use in Indonesia was caused by greater reliance on natural food and small inputs of feed.

DISCUSSION The production of L. vannamei in Ecuador appears to be shifting from semiintensive culture which relies on feed to intensive culture in which both feed and mechanical aeration are applied as done in Asia. It is clear from this comparison freshwater use, other than for drinking, Resourse use in P. monodon that much greater intensification of L. vannamei production is possible withice making, and sanitation purposes farming which was not determined, was the re- The results reveal considerable dif- out resorting to biofloc technology in sult of embodied water in fuels, feed, ferences in average production pond ponds or intensive tank culture.

Water exchange remains a common and amendments (mainly in feed). areas on farms, stocking rates, difIn Ecuador, where diesel fuel of ferences in feed use, water exchange, practice in L. vannamei farming, particulower embodied energy content than and aeration. The small feed inputs in larly in Indonesia and Ecuador. Farmelectricity was the primary fuel, embod- Indonesia resulted in a low FCR be- ers using water exchange may have had ied energy comprised 38.4% of total cause much of the production appar- confidence in stocking more shrimp in which case the difference in yield may energy use. ently was the result of natural food.

Wild fish use for fishmeal and fish Water use was especially great in be unrelated to water exchange.

Water exchange should not be prooil in feeds was greatest in Ecuador Indonesia where it was applied by (0.89 t/t) because of the higher wild tidal action not requiring pumping. moted with exception of cases of exfish coefficient for feed than in Asian Water exchange was not practiced in cessive salinity. The longer the hydraucountries.

Thailand, and fewer farms in Vietnam lic retention time (lower exchange rate) in ponds, the greater the opportunity for reduction in concentrations of dissolved organic matter, ammonia nitrogen, and soluble phosphorus through natural processes.

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate fertilizers are widely used in Ecuador in an effort to promote phytoplankton and especially diatoms. Although nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers may encourage phytoplankton, they should only be used in ponds with feeding in the early weeks of grow-out or when waters become clear and underwater aquatic plant infestations are likely to occur.

Magnesium and potassium may be beneficial in low-salinity water (<10 g/m3), but these mixes usually are not necessary in water of greater salinity.

The main limitation of disinfection in Ecuador probably is the high cost DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

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of treating ponds containing large volumes of water. Chlorine compounds are common disinfectants in shrimp farming. Chlorine treatment of municipal drinking water containing dissolved organic matter can result in formation of trihalomethanes which are suspected carcinogens

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Probiotics are commonly used in shrimp culture worldwide, but the benefits to water quality are questionable.

Piscicides such as saponin can be effective in eradication of wild fish from shrimp ponds. Screens on water inflow and outflow structures reduce the number of wild fish introduced.

Amendments, if used properly, will not harm shrimp, even though they may be ineffective for the intended purpose.

Nevertheless, amendments add to production cost.

Assessment of land and water use is problematic in shrimp farming. The coastal land is considered to represent greater biodiversity than does crop land. Moreover, when a portion of shrimp is eaten, a portion of some other meat choice likely is foregone. Land is required for production of the other meat animals, so increasing crop land for shrimp feed likely does not increase total land use for animal feed. Water for operating shrimp farms is taken mainly from brackish water in estuaries or from the sea. Such water is not useful for most human needs, and it is not considered a part of the supply of water available for human use. Freshwater use in shrimp farming consists of embodied freshwater in feeds, other substances used in producing shrimp, and water used for drinking, ice used to chill harvested shrimp, and sanitary purposes. These uses consume much less freshwater than the amount of saline water used for farm operations.

When compared with L. vannamei production, feed-based P. monodon production appears to use more land, similar quantities of water, somewhat less energy, and more wild fish than does feed-based production of L. vannamei.

The annual pond yield for P. monodon did not approach the levels observed for L. vannamei.

Resource use: shrimp versus chicken, pork, and beef Whiteleg shrimp required slightly less

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raceway production systems) recirculating aquaculture systems or considerable aeration, relates to the difficulty in maintaining the dissolved oxygen concentration at a suitable level in water.

From a nutritional standpoint, the proximate composition of shrimp is within the ranges of the three most common terrestrial meat sources.

The concentrations of macro- and micro-nutrient minerals and vitamins in shrimp meat fall within the ranges found for other meats The cholesterol concentration in shrimp is about twice that of chicken meat, beef, and pork. Although cholesterol is considered a factor contributing to cardiovascular disease, shrimp meat provides about 180 mg/100 g combined of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic, of cardiovascular benefit

Possible applications of resource use data shrimp used a large amount of saline land per ton of edible crude protein Great improvements would result if than did broiler chickens which re- water not required in production of the the less efficient farmers would imquired less land for this purpose than other meat proteins. prove to the average found in the surThe higher energy requirement veys of the five countries and greater did pigs and beef cattle. Shrimp required less freshwater per ton of ed- for shrimp production, and presum- improvements obviously are possible. ible crude protein than did any of the ably for most aquaculture species that Farmers desiring to participate in traditional, terrestrial meat animals. But use continuous water exchanges (e.g. shrimp certification must be willing to modify their production practices if necessary to comply with certification standards. However, the certification programs should give more consideration to the efficiency with which resources are used in shrimp production.

This type of data collection may not result in publication of high-impact journal articles, but it is necessary for spotting trends, identifying problems before they become widespread, and more recently, challenging assumptions made through theoretical modelling.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “COMPARISON OF RESOURCE USE FOR FARMED SHRIMP IN ECUADOR, INDIA, INDONESIA, THAILAND, AND VIETNAM” developed by: CLAUDE E. BOYD, ROBERT P. DAVID, AARON A. MCNEVIN. The original article was published on OCTOBER 2021, through AQUACULTURE FISH AND FISHERIES under the use of a creative commons open access license. The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: https:// doi.org/10.1002/aff2.23

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The rise of the syndrome – sub-optimal growth disorders in farmed shrimp By: Aquaculture Magazine *

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he major bacterial pathogens/diseases affecting farmed shrimp include acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) caused by toxins encoded by plasmid-bearing genes of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, septic hepatopancreatic necrosis (SHPN) or ‘vibriosis’, caused by Vibrio harveyi, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus and other species, necrotising hepatopancreatitis (NHP) caused by an intracellular bacterium, Hepatobacter penaei.

Although not a new phenomenon, shrimp aquaculture is currently affected by several syndromic diseases of unknown etiology. The elucidation of these etiologies is necessary to determine the pathogen(s) involved, other potential causes, and necessary preconditions for detection and control of disease.

Further, it will be important to determine which diseases can be categorised as ‘trade-limiting’ (disease caused by pathogens having international trade implications) and ‘yield/production-limiting’ (chronic syndromic conditions leading to significant production losses but not having direct bearing on international trade). This review focuses on the various manifestations of slow/retarded growth in penaeid shrimp species.

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The condition described as monodon slow growth syndrome (MSGS) has been reported from many countries. Though not leading to mortality, retarded growth at the pond level results in significant economic losses. This review focused on several key syndromic conditions that the sector is facing and discuss how new approaches to detection and description of (particularly) syndromic conditions are both now require. Several potential pathogens have been identified from affected shrimp; however, no confirmed causal relationship has yet been established. Moreover, it has been well recognised for quite long that diseases in aquaculture are an expression of a complex interaction between host, pathogen and environment.

Sub-optimal growth disorders (SoGD) in farmed shrimp During 2002, MSGS recorded in shrimp-growing areas across Thailand associated with approximately 36% (approximately USD 300 million) losses in annual production volume of farmed P. monodon. At that time, among the most serious disease problems affecting P. monodon farming, MSGS was ranked third after WSSV and YHV. Almost simultaneously (mid 2004), a similar occurrence of unusual slow growth was reported from a commercial P. monodon farm in East Africa. The occurrence was

characterised by wide variation in size, without abnormal mortality and slow growth (mean body weight of retarded animals was reported to be 30% less than expected) Penaeus monodon farmed in India also displayed differential growth which hampered production significantly. In a study conducted on the economic impact of diseases (during 2006–2008), Kalaimani et al.

(2013) estimated that slow growth syndrome and ‘white gut disease’ in P. monodon in India resulted in a production loss of 5726 MT, equating to Rs.1.2 billion (USD 21.64 million) annually.

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Pathogens associated with suboptimal growth in P. monodon.

Known shrimp viruses and other pathogens.

Retarded growth in shrimp has been reported to be associated with several pathogens. Before MSGS was reported from farmed shrimp in Thailand, hepatopancreatic parvovirus (HPV) was suggested to cause slow growth in P. monodon. Flegel et al. (1999) also reported HPV in retarded shrimp, and they found negative statistical correlation between severity of HPV and length of shrimp.

Retardation of growth in farmed shrimp has been noticed as one of the outcomes of PmNV infection.

Further, as the route of PmNV to the grow-out system is through contaminated post-larvae derived from virusinfected broodstock, trans- mission may be prevented through screening of broodstock and post-larvae Studies have revealed that multiple viral infections are common in nor- mal and stunted shrimp, suggesting that identifying known pathogens from affected shrimp constitutes only one approach and a single pathogen aetiology for slow growth in shrimp is unlikely. Chayaburakul et al. (2004) suggested that MSGS was indepen-

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dent of the intensity of infection of the viruses but dependent on some other overriding factors such as unknown pathogens, non- pathogenic factor or genetic variants of known pathogens tentatively named monodon slow growth agent (MSGA).

Reports indicate the wide range of disease-causing agents identified/isolated/associated with retarded/slow/ stunted growth in P. monodon from dif-

ferent parts of the world, though no conclusive evidence of their association could be proved.

Laem-Singh virus.

Laem Singh virus has been observed by in situ hybridisation (ISH) in both normal and MSGS-affected shrimp, reinforcing that LSNV is unlikely to be the sole cause of MSGS. TEM and ISH analyses showed that LSNV could be detected in tissues of the eye in only small shrimp from MSGS ponds, and an association (but not the reason for it) was demonstrated between pond level retarded growth and LSNV in eyestalks, but that eyestalks/brain tissue was not infected in LSNV-positive ponds with normal CV. It is important to acknowledge that LSNV which has been reported from India and other countries in Asia has no conclusive causal relationship with slow growth.

After the discovery of LSNV, Flegel (2008) proposed that LSNV is a ‘necessary but insufficient’ cause of MSGS; with other pathogens or environmental factors also important in the manifestation of the condition.

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contains has a CV for 35% or more for weight distribution shifted to less than marketable size.

Some authors attributed the growth retardation reported in MSGS to the suppression of the release of CHH peptide in the optic lobe, which results in decreased hepatopancreatic glycogenolysis and persistent hypoglycaemia. The observations made in this study are of significance in that it can be further explored for using these parameters as biomarkers of retardation in shrimp.

Relation of abiotic and other factors in sub-optimal growth.

Despite identification of several pathogens including viral, bacterial and eukaryotic from MSGS-affected P. monodon, a single-agent aetiology remains elusive. It is reasonable to discount a specific environmental parameter responsible for the retarded growth, as MSGS occurred over a wide geographical range.

Slow growth in Penaeus vannamei Though a range of factors have been suggested as the cause of RDS in P. vannamei, which included excessive antibiotic use in hatcheries, nature of post-larvae originated from captive, ablated broodstock, deteriorating pond conditions due to accumulation of unknown pollutants, poor quality feed, genetic factor etc., Kalagayan et al. (1991) showed that the major factor responsible for RDS was IHHNV It is recognized that two of the most powerful determinants of profitability are shrimp growth rates and market value and, therefore, factors which are having negative impact on the growth rate and size of the animal and, thereby, the market value, will significantly affect the profitability.

question when determining whether that pond is subject to MSGS. The case definition for MSGS is a pond 28 »

definition, not an individual shrimp description, as it has to meet the condition that the shrimp population it

Slow growth and hepatic microsporidian infection EHP had been recorded from shrimp collected from ponds not exhibiting WFS as well as the shrimp collected DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

from ponds that have recovered from WFS. These, along with oral challenge tests, indicated that EHP is not the sole causative agent of WFS in P. vannamei. EHP in combination with other enteric pathogens responsible for septic hepatopancreatic necrosis (SHPN) and potentially other unknown factors likely underlie the clinical syndrome described as WFS. EHP infections have also been associated with other disfunctions of the gut system, including AHPND and, septic hepatopancreatic necrosis (SHPN) proposing that EHP infection may be a risk factor for both of these other diseases.

EHP was initially considered to be a minor disease threat in shrimp farming regions due to its initial low prevalence and lack of severe disease outbreaks leading to mortality. However, high prevalence and higher disease intensity status are now more commonplace, associated with poor performance in grow-out. Although some microsporidians are ubiquitous in nature and do always associate with disease and mortality, reports from farmers as well as researchers indicate DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

that the hepatic infection with EHP results in significant growth retardation and a resultant increased variability in shrimp size that is not evident until 2–3 months of cultivation.

The contribution of pathogens that are ‘necessary but insufficient causes’ to sub-optimal disease at the pond level is not necessarily predictable.

New insights Although significant attention has been paid to viral pathogens such as WSSV and YHV over the past two-and- a-half decades due to their virulent nature and sudden and largescale mortality, it may be equally important to pay attention to chronic slow growth conditions which have the potential to significantly affect production metrics in the shrimp sector.

A critical examination of research carried out on these slow growth syndromes, as provided here, reveals not only significant potential for contradictory interpretation of evidence associated with specific observations of slow growth syndromes but also a lack

of consistency in the associated diagnostics that are applied when attempting to define aetiology Although the majority of studies on MSGS (in P. monodon) point to the involvement of multiple viral or viruslike agents, especially LSNV and hepatopancreatic viruses such as HPV or MBV, the only viral pathogen that has been proposed as the potential cause of slow growth in P. vanammei is IHHNV. However, a common pathogen identified in both shrimp species is the hepatopancreatic microsporidian EHP. Another consistent observation made in MSGS cases is the presence of bacterial lesions and, in certain cases, marked haemocytic inflammation and nodule formation characteristic of bacterial infection (similar to the septic hepatopancreatic necrosis (SHPN) caused by Vibrio sp. The evidence for bacterial co-infection indicates that multiple or concomitant infection could be a possible cause of slow growth syndromes in shrimp The ‘one pathogen-one disease’ paradigm has increasingly been realised as insufficient to explain many disease scenarios, and the pathobiome concept has recently been developed to promote a more multi-factorial perspective on disease aetiologies. The slow/retarded growth problem in shrimp clearly demonstrates the serious limitations of the conventional single pathogen approach and the need for more comprehensive approach to deal with such chronic conditions. It also highlights the need for looking beyond viral pathogens and the standard requirement of complementing the PCR-based screening of post-larvae with conventional evaluation protocols of health status.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “THE RISE OF THE SYNDROME – SUBOPTIMAL GROWTH DISORDERS IN FARMED SHRIMP” developed by: RAJENDRAN KOOLOTH VALAPPIL, GRANT D. STENTIFORD, AND DAVID BASS. The original article was published on FEBRUARY 2021, through REVIEWS IN AQUACULTURE under the use of a creative commons open access license. The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: https://www. researchgate.net/publication/349721825.

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Genotype-by-environment interaction in white shrimp associated with white spot syndrome.

By: Aquaculture Magazine *

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orld production of Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei) it’s based on the production of genetic lines selected for growth and overall survival. However, the control of White Spot Syndrome (WSS) it’s been a challenging goal to achieve. A selection criterion related to the resistance of this disease has been added to the selection objective of Genetic Improvement Programs (GIP) in penaeids.

In this order, and adequate heritability (h2) and genetic correlation (rG) estimators should be considered to formulate selection strategies.

These genetic parameters, estimated under natural outbreak conditions, can provide vital information to be considered in GIPs. Some studies report that, in the presence of WSS, it was unattainable to estimate the rG for weight and survival in shrimp due to the loss of information structure derived from the high mortality in the population.

Moreover, there is no information on how rG gets altered for weight and survival across different environments in shrimp production. Therefore, it is critical to estimate these genetic parameters (h2 and rG) in the presence or absence of the WSS to achieve an optimal GIP design.

This study aimed to estimate the effects of IGE for BW and SH in two commercial environments -presence or absence of natural SMB outbreak-, in two genetic lines of Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei); one selected for growth and the other with a history of resistance to SMB. 30 »

White shrimp production units are commonly affected by diseases entailing high morbidity and mortality rates, such as BMS. In this framework, this study aimed to estimate the genotype-by-environment interaction for body weight (BW) and survival to harvest (SH) in the presence and absence of white spot syndrome (WSS) in two genetic lines of Litopenaeus vannamei. Although the linear model suggests a genotype-by-environment interaction, the estimates propose independence of the same feature between environments.

Correlations between traits for the resistance line suggest selecting features independently in the presence of WSS.

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Material and Methods Data were obtained from a shrimp larval production company located in northwestern Mexico. Shrimp were grown under commercial conditions in three ponds. A line of individuals from 1998 was selected for growth and SH (GRW). Another shrimp line with resistance to WSS (RES) record, was also used. Families included in this study had a maximum of 25% of genes from the other line and were analyzed independently.

Origin and development of the genetic lines The GRW line was produced using shrimp from Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, United States, and Ecuador.

The RES line is composed of shrimp with a history of resistance to SMB from 2014 from Ecuador, Panama, and United States.

Management of families Families were produced by artificial insemination, using a ratio of one male per every two females. Inseminated female families spawned in individual tanks to ease nauplii counting per family (full siblings). Full-sub families were kept in the same tank, tagging them at around 60 days old.

Management of growth ponds Ten days after tagging, an average of 36 shrimp per family were transferred to each pond. The daily water exchange rate varied from 5% to 20%. The feed provided contained between 34 and 40% of protein at a rate of 3% of the total biomass in the pond. The quantity of daily feed required (35% - 40% protein); was calculated as 6% of their biomass.

Data collection for bodyweight happened at 130 days old, and the survival rate was considered from 70 to 130 days old. Estimation of SH considered individuals recovered at the end of the period as alive (1), while the animals not recovered deemed the difference between the live organisms of each family and those inseminated as dead (0).

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Data Analysis BW also included gender and pond data were. Genetic parameters for BW and SH were estimated for each line, using an animal model and restricted maximum likelihood, with ASReml software. Normality was assumed in the SH analysis, considering the criteria for approximating a binomial distribution to a normal distribution.

Genetic correlations between both traits in the line-stock combination were estimated with ASReml, using bivariate models, and with the same model, but considering the vector and information vector of BW and SH. In the covariance structure and the environmental effects of a regular family, no restrictions were used both were considered independent.

The fixed effects included in the estimate of the genetic parameters model for BW were: sex, age at harvest linear, and quadratic. In addition, the pond effect (Kino and High tide) in WSS-presence was included.

As for SH for affected ponds, the only fixed effect considered was the pond effect in WSS-presence. Meanwhile, in the WSS-absence environment, no fixed effect was considered.

The phenotypic variance for each feature was estimated as the sum of the variance components of the random effects (animal genetic and family common). The h2 was estimated as the proportion of the phenotypic variance due to the additive genetic variance. Moreover, the rG was es-

timated as the covariance divided by the product of the corresponding standard deviations. The statistical significance of the estimated parameters was based on confidence intervals (95%), including default errors, assuming normality. The existence of IGE was determined when rG between environments was less than 0.80.

Finally, Fisher’s Z transformation was employed to compare the estimated rG in each line analyzing features’ behavior and looking for similarities between genetic lines.

Results And Discussion Comparison of productive behavior between lines The results showed differences in SH, where the GRW line has a low SH in WSS-presence, while the shrimp of the RES line has a lower SH in WSS-presence. The line-byenvironment interactions highlight the importance of considering the probability of SMB disease occurrence when choosing the line in the breeding program.

A number of individuals (n), and least-square means for body weight and survival rate at harvest in the growth line and the resistance line in the presence and absence of White Spot Syndrome.

Heritability for body weight at harvest The difference between the heritability for SMB-presence (0.05 ± 0.16) and WSS-absence (0.35 ± 0.15) on the GRW line might be an indi» 31

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cator of variance heterogeneity. Although, in this case, in addition to changes in the additive genetic variance, the source of this heteroscedasticity may be due to environmental variance changes related to the micro-environmental sensitivity of individuals.

Microenvironmental sensitivity of individuals could be the reason variations in heritability estimators for CP displayed. It’s worth noting these heritability changes could be altering the selection response prediction accuracy.

Genetic correlations for CP There is no effect of IGE on RES for BW. Considering that both lines were under the same environmental management conditions and exposed to the same pathogen (WSS), the differences in the estimators of both lines may be the consequence of a low SH rate of the GRW line.

Heritability for survival to harvest in both genetic lines The SH model results were consistent with the estimates, using univariate models, considering a binomial distribution.

Heritability for SRA were essentially zero in both environments, 0.01 ± 0.02 in SMB-presence and

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0.02 ± 0.03 in SMB-absence, representing minimal possibilities of genetic advance by selection for this trait in both scenarios. The minimal progress by selection could be related to difficulty in estimation because of the mortality rate by the statistical models, a considerably low genetic proportion in survival expression, or possibly, damage to the structure of family genetic relationships when WSS was present.

The heritability of SH for both environments were consistent in both lines, suggesting there is no compression of the additive variance, in the lines associated with the environment.

The genetic correlation between the two features could not be estimated in WSS-presence in the GRW line, possibly due to the affectation in the information structure associated with the high mortality presented in that line. In the case of WSSabsence for the GRW line, the rG was not different from zero, unlike that estimated in the RES line. Differences between genetic correlation in RES may be indicating changes in variance components presumably associated with IGE, in turn, related to the corresponding covariances, which would have implications for the response to correlated selection.

The results obtained from this study suggest that selection indices for CP should account for the genetic line used in the breeding program.

On the other hand, the estimation of genetic parameters related to CP should consider the presence of endemic diseases, such as SMB in shrimp culture, and visualize CS in the presence and absence of SMB as independent traits in both genetic lines. Apart from the changes in heritability and genetic correlations in both lines, productivity was different in the studied environments.

The above could be read as an indicator of phenotypic plasticity, which is not rare in marine organisms and could represent the expression of 34 »

different phenotypes in individuals with the same genotype, but under diverse environmental conditions.

Conclusions The linear model results suggest differences between lines for both bodyweight and survival across environments. However, genetic correlations estimates do not conceive within-line IGE effects on both traits, which would indicate that they are independent. In addition, genetic correlations between resistance line traits propose to treat them as independent variables when WSS is present in the environment.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “INTERACCIÓN GENOTIPO POR AMBIENTE EN CAMARÓN BLANCO ASOCIADA A SÍNDROME DE MANCHA BLANCA” developed by: CALA-MORENO NELSON, CAMPOS-MONTES GABRIEL, CABALLEROZAMORA ALEJANDRA, BERRUECOS-VILLALOBOS JOSÉ, CASTILLO-JUÁREZ HECTOR. The original article was published on APRIL 2021, through ABANICO VETERINARIO under the use of a GRWative commons open access license. The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: http:// www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S244861322021000100111&script=sci_arttext DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

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Passive Immunization with Recombinant Antibody VLRB-PirAvp/PirBvp—

Enriched Feeds against Vibrio parahaemolyticus Infection in Litopenaeus vannamei Shrimp By: Aquaculture Magazine *

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cute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND), formerly known as early mortality syndrome, was first recognized as an emerging disease in China in 2009, and since being identified has spread to neighboring countries in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam in 2010, Malaysia in 2011, and Thailand in 2012. The disease has now reached as far as Mexico in early 2013.

Affected shrimp have an empty gut and an atrophied pale hepatopancreas, which can be reduced in size by more than 50%. AHPND can cause up to 100% mortality within 20–30 days after the pond has been stocked with postlarvae shrimp. The disease has resulted in huge economical losses for shrimp farmers globally.

A unique strain of V. parahaemlyticus is responsible for causing AHPND. V. parahaemlyticus is a Gram-negative, halophilic bacterium found ubiquitously in warm marine and estuarine environments around the world. The strains responsible for causing AHPND possess a 63 to 70 kDa plasmid that encodes binary toxins PirAvp/PirBvp, which are actually homologs of the Photorhabdovirus insect-related (Pir) toxins PirAB. These two toxins are secreted by the bacterium and have been associated with the pathogenesis of the disease; they are considered to be the primary virulence factors involved in causing AHPND. 36 »

The causative agent of acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) is the bacterium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which secretes toxins into the gastrointestinal tract of its host. V. parahaemolyticus toxins A and B (PirAvp/PirBvp) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of this disease, and are, therefore, the focuses of studies developing treatments for AHPND. We produced and tested recombinant antibodies based on the hagfish variable lymphocyte receptor B (VLRB) capable of neutralizing some viruses, suggesting that this type of antibody may have a potential application for treatment of AHPND. Results showed significantly higher level of survival in shrimp fed with the PirBvp-9G10 antibody (60%) compared to the group fed the PirAvp-7C12 antibody (3%) and the control group (0%). This suggests that VLRB antibodies may be a suitable alternative to immunoglobulin-based antibodies, as passive immunization treatments for effective management of AHPND outbreaks within shrimp farms.

A variety of methods have been investigated for controlling AHPND, including passive immunization. Here, we report on a VLRB antibody that we developed, which specifically recognizes and neutralizes the binary toxins produced by V. parahaemolyticus that are responsible for inducing the pathogenesis associated with AHPND in shrimp.

rea) and the sequences aligned with the original PirAvp/PirBvp sequence.

Expression and Purification of Recombinant Toxin To induce the expression of PirAvp/ PirBvp proteins, BL21 cells harboring the pet32a- PirAvp or pet28b-PirBvp plasmids were grown overnight in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth with ampicillin (LB amp) and kanamycin (LB kan), Materials and Methods respectively. The cells were then subConstruction of Toxin Plasmids Vibrio parahaemolyticus (D2 strain) cells jected to three cycles of freeze-thawing were cultured in brain heart infusion to break the bacterial cell wall and the (BHI) broth. DNA was extracted from soluble fractions collected.

The soluble fractions were purified this bacterial cell culture. PirAvp and vp PirB were amplified using respective using affinity chromatography colprimers. To check the veracity of the umns. The purified recombinant toxins cloned PirAvp/PirBvp plasmids, each were also subjected to Western blotting plasmid was sequenced (Solgent, Ko- to further check their specificity. Large DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

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scale preparations of the respective proteins were performed once the correct sizes were verified. The proteins were quantified using PierceTM BCA protein Assay kit. Finally, the quantified proteins were used as antigens in subsequent experiments.

Screening of VLRB Library The cell line bearing the VLRB cDNA library was seeded into twenty 96-well plates with 200 cells/well and grown to 100% cell confluency. The supernatants containing the recombinant VLRBs was collected and screened by ELISA. The ELISA was performed three times to ensure the specificity of the PirAvp or PirBvp-specific VLRBs, with PirAvp-7C12 and PirBvp-9G10 showing the highest levels of specificity and were subsequently used in for further experiments.

Establishment of Cell Line Secreting Anti-PirAvp/PirBvp Recombinant VLRBs The cells secreting PirAvp/PirBvp-specific recombinant VLRBs, PirAvp-7C12, and PirBvp-9G10 were collected. Once specificity was established, large scale preparation of the supernatants was performed. These supernatants were designated as PirAvp-7C12 and PirBvp9G10 antibody from here on. via Kaplan-Meier with the Chi-square test using GraphPad Prism v.5 software.

Bacterial Challenge Test Differences between groups were conLitopenaeus vannamei post-larvae (n = sidered significant when ** p < 0.001.

100, 0.1 ± 0.03 g) were transferred into three 250-L tanks corresponding to the Results two experimental groups (PirAvp-7C12 Of the twenty 96-well plates that that and PirBvp-9G10 antibody) and one were screened in the first round of control group fed no antibody (nega- ELISA screening, only 19 wells showed tive control). The shrimp were fed with high binding with PirAvp and 24 wells antibody added to the shrimp diet. The with PirBvp. After the third round of challenged shrimp and bacterial solu- screening, only one antibody for each tion were poured and bacterial solution group with the highest binding capacity was poured into a new aquarium con- was selected, namely PirAvp-7C12 and taining 100 volume of clean water. The PirBvp-9G10. final volume was 15 L, which contained Based on the results collected, the 105cfu//mL of V. parahaemolyticus. level of survival in the first experiMortality data were obtained from two mental trial in which shrimp were fed separate trials. with PirBvp-9G10 antibody was 26.7%, which was significantly higher than the Statistical Analysis group fed with PirAvp-7C12 antibody Survival data were statistically analyzed (3%) and the negative control (6%).

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In the replicate trial, results were even more pronounced, wherein the group fed with PirBvp-9G10 antibody demonstrated a 60% survival, in contrast to the group fed PirAvp-7C12 or the negative control group that exhibited 3% and 0% survival, respectively. This particular dataset is statistically significant at p< 0.001, indicating the protective effect of the PirBvp-9G10 antibody.

Discussions The development of safe and efficacious treatment for diseases such as AHPND has been the subject of increased research in recent years. The use of antibiotics to treat bacterial infections in industrial aquaculture has been opposed despite their effectiveness, due to antibiotic usage giving rise to antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Vaccination is currently considered DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

to be the most effective strategy for controlling infections in aquaculture; however, shrimp do not possess acquired immunity, necessary to induce a memory response to the vaccine.

The potential of using passive immunization to protect shrimp against infections has been explored previously, with varying degrees of success. Gao et al. (2016) showed egg yolk powder containing antibodies against V. harveyi and V. parahaemolyticus orally administered to white shrimp, L. vannamei to be effective for reducing subsequent Vibrio infections. More specifically, the antibodies showed an inhibiting effect on both bacteria in vitro, and in vivo.

The results of several studies, indicate the potential of using an edible antibody as a means of passively immunizing shrimp to help them fight infection. In our current study, we developed VLRB antibodies that specifically recognized PirAvp and PirBvp, which could potentially “neutralize” DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

the effect of these virulence toxins.

Although the exact mechanism of action of these toxins is still unclear, the presence of the plasmid (pVA1) encoding these toxins in all AHPND-causing strains of V. parahaemolyticus indicates that they are causative factors involved in the disease process. The PirAvp/PirBvp toxins are known to be homologs of the insecticidal Photorhabdus insectrelated (Pir) binary toxin PirAB that exhibits pore-forming activity in insects, thus suggesting that PirAvp and PirBvp might function similarly. In a previous report, both Pir A and Pir B are needed to be present in insect larvae to induce mortality. Since these binary toxins have been discovered together in V. parahaemolyticus, it would seem reasonable that they are also both essential for the onset of symptoms associated with AHPND. Several notable studies had demonstrated the potential role of VLRBs in neutralizing certain viruses such as avian influenza virus H9N2, viral hem-

orrhagic septicemia virus and nervous necrosis virus, and results are compelling enough to promote their usage as a therapeutic agent against bacterial and viral infections. In the current study, the high level of survival in the group fed with the PirBvp-9G10 antibody after the AHPND-challenge, suggests that the VLRB antibody can provide protection against a V. parahaemolyticus infection in shrimp.

We speculate that the reason behind the effectiveness of the PirBvp-9G10 antibody in our study might be due to the abundant hydrophobic residues in the structure of PirBvp that our VLRB antibody readily recognizes and which the PirAvp noticeably lacks.

However, in general, our results clearly suggest that the PirBvp-9G10 VLRB antibody can improve shrimp survival against V. parahaemolyticus by simply targeting the virulent toxin PirBvp. In summary, the results of a previous report showing that only the PirBvp toxin could induce histological signs of AHPDH, and another stating that the virulence of AHPND relies heavily on the amount of toxins secreted by the bacterial cells, greatly substantiates the aim of our study to develop new therapeutic agents for AHPND targeting the PirBvp toxin. Furthermore, the efficacy of VLRB antibodies as immunogenic agents to passively immunize shrimp reared at high stocking densities could significantly help the shrimp industry to combat outbreaks of AHPND.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION WITH RECOMBINANT ANTIBODY VLRB-PirAVP/PirBVP—ENRICHED FEEDS AGAINST VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS INFECTION IN LITOPENAEUS VANNAMEI SHRIMP” developed by: JASSY MARY S. LAZARTE - Gyeongsang National University, YOUNG RIM KIM- Gyeongsang National University, JUNG SEOK LEE- Gyeongsang National University, JIN HONG CHUNGyeongsang National University, SI WON KIM- Gyeongsang National University, JAE WOOK JUNG- Gyeongsang National University, JAESUNG KIM- Gyeongsang National University, PATTANAPON KAYANSAMRUAJ - Kasetsart University, KIM D. THOMPSON - Moredun Research Institute, HYEONGSU KIM - National Institute of Fisheries Science, AND TAE SUNG JUNG - Gyeongsang National University. The original article was published on JANUARY 2021, through VACCINES under the use of a creative commons open access license The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9010055.

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Inhibitory effect of marine microalgae used in shrimp hatcheries

Materials And Methods Bacterial inoculum and Microalgae Culture Two V. parahaemolyticus strains were used, Vp M0904, a highly virulent strain causing AHPND (Vp AHPND+), and Vp M0702, a non- pathogenic strain, on Vibrio parahaemolyticus responsible both previously isolated from the hepafor acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease topancreas and stomach of shrimp affected with AHPND respectively. Four marine microalgae species were used: By: Aquaculture Magazine * Chaetoceros calcitrans, Tetraselmis suecica, Nannochloropsis sp. and Thalassiosira weissMicroalgae play a pertinent role in nutrition of larvae and are carrier of flogii under sterile conditions.

Inhibition assays with Vp M0904 indigenous bacteria associated with the microalgae in a microalgae– and Vp M0702 strains were perbacterial interaction. Microalgae plus bacteria combinations such as formed with batch monospecific, vibrio-free co-cultures of each microalga.

Isochrysis galbana and Alteromonas sp., Labrezia sp. and Marinobacter All assays had three biological replisp., resulted in a better total length, survival, and metamorphosis from cates. Uninoculated microalgae cultures with Vp strains were used as negative the zoea to mysis stages of Penaeus indicus larvae. controls.

H

owever, microalgae– bacteria interactions are complex, as the secretion of stimulating substances by bacteria improves microalgae growth and vice versa, indicating mutualistic or antagonistic relationships. Those relationships happen generally in the phycosphere, which is a region that it is immediately surrounding a phytoplankton cell that contains organic molecules for the photosynthetic activity, which can serve as bacterial nutrients. This takes high relevance in hatchery management because microalgae can carry bacteria that not only can be benefi-

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Samples, total lipids and carbohydrates To know if microalgae suffer stress by the Vp strain’s presence, with metabolism being affected, the total lipids (TL) and total carbohy- drates (TC) were considered.

The quantification of TL and TC was done according to the methods suggested by Pande et al. (1963) methodology, adapted to a 96-well microplate assay. Samples (10 ml) of each microalgae culture were centrifuged and the cellular pellet was suspended in deionized water. the solution was recial but also could act as a vector of frigerated. Subsequently, solutions were specific pathogens that could be in- vortexed and centrifuged. The samples were then cooled in water, and finally, troduced into the hatcheries.

Acute hepatopancreatic necro- distilled water was added. sis disease (AHPND) is an emerging bacterial disease that has caused great Microalgae extracts and Fluoresfinancial loss in the shrimp industry. cent labelled bacteria (FLB) Due to the importance of AHPND To evaluate the effect of lipid or hydroand the relevance of the use of micro- philic compounds of micro- algae cells algae in hatcheries, this study aimed on Vp growth, two microalgae extracts to evaluate the activity of cells, as well were obtained. Three hundred millilias extracts of four marine microalgae tres of duplicate C. calcitrans was taken commonly used in shrimp hatcheries, from the exponential growth phase. the growth of one Vp AHPND+and Since V. parahaemolyticus has ability to a non- pathogenic Vp strain, and the form biofilms on organic and inorganic effect of the bacteria load on the surfaces, Vp M0904 may have adhered physiological response of microalgae. to the bottom of the flask or to microDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

algae cells surface during co-culture assays, causing lower CFU counts.

Statistical analysis Bacterial and microalgae growth, total carbohydrates and total lipids at different times of experimentation were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, followed by a post hoc Tukey test to evaluate significant differences (p < 0.05) between means.

Results Non-culturable Vibrionaceae was observed in all control treatments in coculture with microalgae throughout the experiment, but C. calcitrans, T. suecica and Nannochloropsis sp. caused different levels of bacterial inhibition compared with the growth of Vp M0702 and Vp M0904 at 0 day and 3 days p.i. C. calcitrans showed a strong inhibitory effect on both Vp strains at all times p.i.

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effect on Vp M0904 growth. C. calcitrans had a higher percentage (39.4%) than the rest of the evaluated microalgae, followed by T. suecica (29%), Nannochloropsis sp. (25.6%) and T. weissflogii (16.1%).

In general, non-significant differences (p > 0.05) were found compared with the control of TC in C. calcitrans, T. suecica and Nannochloropsis sp. inoculated with both Vp strains. Conversely, using the indirect method, the growth of Vp M0904 observed in the three EE concentrations was significantly lower than the positive control Intact viable microalgae cells and monodispersed fluorescence Vp M0904 cells were observed in the assays, while Vp M0904 FLB was mainly observed adhered to the debris of senescence microalgae cells in both microalgae assays, but not to intact microalgae cells. It was evident that FLB did not adhere to viable microalgae cells, only to dead cells.

Discussion Regarding the growth of Vp M0904, a strain responsible for AHPND and Vp M0702 a non-pathogenic strain, a significant inhibitory effect was observed when they were co-cultured with microalgae. Regardless of the virulence of the strain or the incubation time, a higher bacteriostatic effect was observed with T. suecica and C. calcitrans. A similar effect of bacterial inhibition has been observed in co-culture experiments with marine microalgae against Vibrio species, although the mechanism of action has not been determined in most of the studies. The above suggests an antibacterial potential of specific microalgae to be used as a biological tool against pathogenic bacteria in hatcheries. Nevertheless, several experiments with axenic microalgae demonstrated the ability of some species to produce and release compounds with potent activity against pathogenic bacteria » 41

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Moreover, microalgae can produce a broad spectrum of antimicrobials and secondary allelopathic metabolites including polyunsaturated fatty acids, glycolipids, alkaloids, indols, phenols, terpenoids, etc. to gain a competitive advantage in dynamic and complex communities.

Antibacterial activity observed in diatoms, Chaetoceros and Skeletonema, has been associated with their fatty acids content, primarily those with 10 carbon atoms, which might induce lysis in bacterial protoplasts.

However, fatty acids are inside the microalgae cells, therefore only extraction methods can make them bioavailable. Organic and aqueous extracts from marine microalgae also produce antibacterial substances against clinical bacteria and Vibrio species. Methanolic extract of C. muelleri had potent antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and S. aureus.

Crude seawater extract containing all cellular material of C. calcitrans showed significant inhibition on the growth of Vp M0904 at higher concentrations.

The above might mean that potential antibacterial compounds remain active after a lyophilization process. Nonetheless, aqueous ex- tracts did not show potential in controlling the microbial pathogens, and antibiotic activity was also dependent on the microalgae phase of growth. On the contrary, the aqueous phases of P. tricornuturn extracts in the log growth phase were active against the marine bacteria Alteromonas communis, 42 »

Alteromonas haloplanktis, V. parahaemo- lyticus, Vibrio fischeri, Pseudomonas marina and Alcaligenes cupidus; in contrast, during the stationary phase, there was no activity against marine bacteria. Depending on the existence of bioactive compounds, the different organic algal extracts show a difference in their inhibition against bacteria, and despite the antimicrobial role of fatty acids, other types of compounds may exhibit similar bioactivities It should be highlighted that the method used to estimate the bacterial growth influenced the result of the antibacterial activity of C. calcitrans extracts.

Ethanolic extract showed a significantly lower OD of Vp M0904 than control, contrary to the OD of aqueous extract.

In contrast, the growth of bacteria in seawater extracts of C. calcitrans had significant inhibitory activity. The optical density test measures the absorbance of the solutions, including live and dead cells, debris, organic material, etc., meanwhile the viable growth estimates the real effect of the microalgae extracts of bacterial cells able to grow in these extracts. For this type of study, we recommend the use of the TVC method.

In addition to microalgae species, the presence of antibacterial compounds in the microalgae extracts is also highly dependent on the solvent used during the extraction.

In this work, total lipid metabolism was not altered for the four evaluated microalgae (C. calcitrans, T. suecica, Nannochloropsis sp. and T. weissflogii) in co-culture with both Vibrio strains compared

with the control. However, C. calcitrans and T. suecica had higher percentages (39.4% and 29%, respectively), which showed higher inhibitory activity on the tested Vibrio strains, although these differences in percentages could be due to intrinsic characteristics of the microalgae strain.

Nannochloropsis sp. and T. weissflogii slightly promoted the growth of Vp M0702 and Vp M0904, which could imply that they act as stimulant of pathogenic vibrios and, therefore, the choice of microalgae in hatcheries must consider these microalgae– pathogen interactions.

Regarding the labelled bacteria assays, growth of Vp M0904 and Vp M0904 FLB in the water column was similar to the bottom of the flask when co-cultured with C. calcitrans as well as T. suecica, meaning that bacterial cells were not attached to the bottom of the flask.

In addition, planktonic bacterial FLB cells were mainly observed adhered to debris of senescence cells of both microalgae.

Conclusions Bacteriostatic effects of microalgae in co-cultures with Vibrio strains were dependent on microalgae species and Vibrio strains. C. calcitrans caused a higher degree of inhibition of Vp M0904, meanwhile T. suecica inhibited Vp M0904 as well as Vp M0702. Additionally, the bacteriostatic effect of C. calcitrans on Vp M0904 was dependent on the type of extract, only the hydrophilic extract showed inhibition by the TVC method.

It should be noted that C. calcitrans and T. suecica possess antibiotic activities over Vp M0904, a highly virulent strain that causes AHPND, a devastating disease for farmed shrimp around world.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “INHIBITORY EFFECT OF MARINE MICROALGAE USED IN SHRIMP HATCHERIES ON VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS RESPONSIBLE FOR ACUTE HEPATOPANCREATIC NECROSIS DISEASE” developed by: SONIA ARACELI SOTO-RODRIGUEZ, PAOLA MAGALLÓN-SERVÍN, MELISSA LÓPEZ-VELA, MARIO NIEVES SOTO. The original article was published on NOVEMBER 2021, through AQUACULTURE RESEARCH under the use of a creative commons open access license. The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: DOI: 10.1111/are.15668

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Eco-efficiency assessment of shrimp aquaculture production in Mexico

Due to its physical, natural and social characteristics, Mexico has a real potential to be a leader in aquaculture. Most of the aquaculture production for this species, with more than 200 aquaculture plants in Sonora. This study focuses on the application of LCA + DEA methodology to assess the ecoefficiency of 38 semi- intensive shrimp farms located in the state of Sonora. LCA results showed that feed management and electricity consumption are the main critical points in almost all the impact categories. Further improvement actions were evaluated, the replacement of wheat meal for Dried Distiller Grains with Solubles (DDGS) resulted in environmental impact reductions ranged from 2% to 57%, depending on the impact category. On the other hand, the installation of photovoltaic panels in the area was evaluated, looking for a shift towards a less carbon-intensive energy production. Overall, the implementation of these improvement measures will contribute to increased environmental protection and resource efficiency.

S

hrimps are produced in three models of farming systems: extensive, semi-intensive and intensive. The differences lie in the level of technology applied, the control of physical-chemical and biometric variables, water consumption and the frequency of meal dosage. In recent years, the expansion of aquaculture systems has been accompanied by an intensification of the system and has generated social concerns on the associated sustainability issues. In this context, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is considered an appropriate methodology to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with shrimp farming in Mexico.

Within this framework, the goal of the current study was to apply the large amount of data available to carry out 44 »

an environmental and eco efficiency assessment of 38 semi-intensive farms located in Sonora using a combined LCA and DEA approach.

The environmental and eco efficiency analyses were conducted in order to detect critical activities in the environmental profile of the process, identify operational inefficiencies, set input reduction objectives and compute the environmental impacts of inefficient practices in shrimp farming. The results of the eco-efficiency analysis will allow a realistic proposal of alternatives to improve environmental performance by identifying those facilities that under similar conditions may act as reference for their peers. This document also proposes the definition of a roadmap for more sustainable aquaculture production

with a view to future environmental certification

Materials and methods System overview In Mexico, most of the national shrimp production is concentrated in the northwest region, specifically in the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, where semi-intensive farms are the most abundant. The vegetation associated with shrimp farming in the state of Sonora is mostly semi-desertic, xeromorphic and succulents shrubdominated, arranged in a matrix, so environmental impacts associated with land use change are not expected to be relevant. For this reason, in the present study, these impacts were excluded, attention was focused on impacts related to nutrient emissions to water.

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The LCA + DEA framework The methodology is structured in 5 steps: i) data collection and construction of life cycle inventory for each DMU; ii) determination of the life cycle environmental impacts of each DMU through the LCA methodology; iii) implementation of the DEA model to obtain the efficiency scores and operational objectives for each DMU. These operational objectives represent reductions in input consumption while maintaining output production; iv) impact assessment of LCI for new virtual DMUs based on the operational reductions established in step 3; v) interpretation of the results obtained, comparison among DMUs and verification of inefficient practices.

efficiencies. A secondary objective is to identify operational improvement actions to reach, totally or partially, the proposed theoretical goals.

Data collection and life cycle inventory A total of 38 Mexican shrimp farms were inventoried in this case study.

All the facilities are grouped into nine local boards of aquatic health. The information provided compiles relevant data to understand the operation of the different farms and comprises the following variables: Farming area (ha), stock density (organisms/m2), total shrimp production (t), survival rate (%) and Feed Conversion RatioFCR. Water exchange in ponds was based on agricultural records of the LCA methodology region. Direct emissions of suspendThe ISO 14040 and 14044 standards ed solids, nitrogen and phosphorus have been used as the basic meth- were obtained following the guideodology to carry out environmental lines provided by farm managers. assessment. These standards define the LCA phases as: goal and scope Impact assessment definition, inventory analysis, impact To convert the extensive list of life assessment and interpretation. cycle inventory results into a useful list of environmental indicators, the Goal and scope definition following impact categories were seThe main objective of this case study lected: Global warming (GW), Stratois to analyze the significant environ- spheric ozone depletion (SOD), Termental burdens of shrimp aquacul- restrial acidification (TA), Freshwater ture and link them to operational in- eutrophication (FE), Marine eutro-

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phication (ME), Marine ecotoxicity (MET), Fossil resources scarcity (FRS) and Water consumption (WC).

DEA model selection Based on different models described in the DEA methodology, three. of the most used ones were tested for the available dataset: Slacks-Based Measure (SBM), Charnes-CooperRhodes (CCR) and Epsilon-Based Measure (EBM). Finally, SBM model was selected as it follows a non-radial approach, which allows greater discrimination power to assess the efficiency of DMU than radial methods Input/output selection The DEA matrix used in this study was composed of 7 inputs and 1 output. These units were chosen for their operational importance and associated environmental impacts, according to the previous life cycle analysis.

Improvement actions Once the critical stages in the environmental profile were deter- mined.

The variation of the life cycle impact was estimated with respect to two fundamental elements: the formulation of the feed and the energy re-

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quirements of the larvae tanks. It should be noted that environmental burdens from water discharge are derived from the portion of feed that is not consumed by the animals and remains in the pond water. All this leads to the proposal to replace some components of the feed with others of lesser environmental impact that result in similar levels of growth and survival.

The shift from electricity production to photovoltaic panel generation was evaluated as another improvement action.

Results Environmental burdens of current DMUs SS1. Feed and SS2. Larvae are primarily responsible for environmental burdens in most impact categories, except for freshwater eutrophication and water consumption. The environmental burdens in the GW category come mainly from the electricity requirements of SS1 and SS2. These electrical consumptions are related to the milling of wheat and soybean grains to obtain meals and the need for aeration in the larvae tanks to

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maintain optimal growth conditions.

With respect to FE, SS3. Aquaculture is the main contributor due to direct phosphorus emissions (95%).

DEA calculation and efficiency scores Of all the shrimp farms evaluated, just over 13% (5 of 38 farms) were found fully efficient (Φ = 1). However, although only 5 farms were considered fully efficient, the efficiency index can be considered high in general, as only four farms have efficiency values below 0.6 and an average efficiency of 0.79 is achieved.

Environmental burdens of virtual DMUs As expected, the greatest reductions occurred on the farms with the lowest efficiencies, such as DMU 23 (69.9%) and DMU 31 (50.7%). While the smallest reductions were found on farms that were already close to full efficiency (DMU 6 and 30).

Improvement actions In the view of the results, only the replacement of wheat meal by barley meal or by DDGS seems to be environmentally friendly. Analyzing barley meal in detail, the reductions in environmental impacts are limited, although a 14% decrease in the SOD category stands out.

The installation and use of photovoltaic panels would result in a 15% reduction in carbon footprint, in addition to a 10% reduction in TA and 23.2% in FRS. Bearing in mind that the high impact in this category is derived from a structure whose useful lifetime is quite long, it can be concluded that the implementation of these photovoltaic panels in the facilities will have a positive effect on the environmental impact.

Discussion Chemicals are responsible for improving productivity in aquaculture systems by improving larval survival rates, feeding efficiency, and pathoDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

gen control, but they also have a negative impact on the environment due to their ecotoxicity.

The carbon footprint values reported in this study are slightly higher than those obtained in a previous study that evaluated organic shrimp production in Taiwan.

Therefore, it can be considered that the farms evaluated in this study have, in general, a good environmental performance, at least in terms of carbon footprint and terrestrial acidification, at similar levels to organic and certified production.

With regard to efficiency scores, the results obtained from the DEA study showed that only 5 of the 38 farms evaluated were considered efficient, which represents a low value compared to previous LCA/DEA studies applied to the agri-food sector. Although it was found that few DMUs were fully efficient, it is important to note that most DMUs achieved efficiency values above 0.5.

In fact, only 5 were found to be below 0.6. Therefore, the average efficiency value of the sample evaluated is a reasonably high value of 0.79 While it is true that inefficient farms do not have significantly lower production/feed values than efficient ones, the combination of the three

ratios clearly gives the worst results.

This makes it clear that, in order to seek operational and environmental efficiency, action must be taken on all possible lines of action, prioritizing a balanced improvement of all variables.

Conclusions The results showed that feed formulation and electricity consumption in larval tanks are the main “hotspots” of the process. As a result of the eco-efficiency analysis, several improvement actions were proposed that resulted in the convenience of installing photovoltaic panels and decreasing the food conversion ratio by substituting wheat meal in the feed. Substitution by DDGS proved to be the most promising option, ensuring reductions of between 2% and 57% depending on the impact categories.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “ECO-EFFICIENCY ASSESSMENT OF SHRIMP AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION IN MEXICO” developed by: ANTONIO CORTÉS, RAMÓN CASILLAS-HERNÁNDEZ, CRISTINA CAMBESES-FRANCO, RAFAEL BÓRQUEZLÓPEZ, FRANCISCO MAGALLÓN-BARAJAS, WALTER QUADROS-SEIFFERT, GUMERSINDO FEIJOO, MARIA TERESA MOREIRA. The original article was published on JULY 2021, through ELSEVIER B.V. under the use of a creative commons open access license.

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Resource-use efficiency in US aquaculture: farm-level comparisons across fish species and production systems

Despite a robust literature, there is little consensus on a definition of ‘sustainability’, nor on systems and farming practices that are ‘sustainable’. While US aquaculture is practiced in a highly sustainable way, the pressure from continuous population growth requires that resources be used in increasingly efficient ways. Encouraging farms to include efficiencies of resource use and cost in their annual review of farm productivity and financial performance would also encourage farms to increase

By: Aquaculture Magazine *

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n emerging focus in the literature has been on resource-use efficiency. A number of studies have shown that natural resource use and negative environmental impacts were concentrated at the farm level. Thus, while sustainability concepts tend to be broader than just resource-use efficiency, a growing body of literature suggests that attention to the efficiency of use of resources at the farm level may be a practical approach to enhancing sustainability by reducing negative environmental impacts. To be measurable at the farm level, however, metrics must be well aligned with farm recordkeeping systems.

The main contribution of this paper is to show how the incorporation of metrics that are well aligned with a common farm-level management tool such as enterprise budgets can shed light on comparative resource-use efficiencies as well as the associated resource-cost efficiencies.

Materials and Methods Scenarios Scenarios selected included a variety of ponds, raceways, and RASs, with an emphasis on the major species raised in the USA. The scenarios for this 48 »

efficiency of resource use as an incentive to reduce production costs.

analysis included the most common management practices and degree of production intensity as determined by previous surveys of US aquaculture farms. RAS scenarios were developed despite the lack of sufficient numbers of commercial RAS in the USA from which to obtain sufficient farm-level data.

Resource-use and resource-cost metrics Sets of resource-use efficiency metrics were developed based on the types of resources essential to aquaculture production and to previous empirical work. Resources that are essential inputs for food production generally include: land, labor, capital, water, and energy. The resource-use metrics selected included total land area, water footprint, energy use (electricity and fuel), and feed use in aquaculture.

• Land-use efficiency was calculated based on total land used for the farm.

Land-cost efficiency was calculated by dividing the annualized value of land by the weight (kg) of fish produced for each scenario.

• Water-use efficiency was measured by the weight (kg) of fish produced divided by the water footprint.

• Energy-use efficiency was measured

by the kg of fish produced divided by the energy use in giga- joules (GJ).

• Labor and management use efficiencies were measured by dividing the weight (in kg) of fish sold by the full-time equivalents (FTEs) in labor and management, respectively. The management-cost efficiency was measured by dividing the sum of wages paid for management by the weight of fish sold.

• The productivity of capital used was measured as the weight (in kg) of fish sold divided by the annualized cost of total investment capital. The capitalcost efficiency was calculated by dividing the annualized cost of total investment capital by the weight (in kg) of fish sold.

• Feed efficiency was measured as the feed conversion ratio, calculated as the kg of feed fed divided by the kg of fish sold. The feed-cost efficiency was calculated by dividing the total expenditures on feed by the weight (in kg) of fish sold.

• The enterprise budgets were developed with standardized values (national averages) for key items, including land values, labor wages, management salaries, and interest rates. Feed costs, however, were not standardized across the budgets.

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Results Land The RASs exhibited the greatest productivity of land use with the greatest values of weight of fish produced per unit area of land used (in kg of fish ha-1 of land). Raceway production of trout was the second most productive use of land and was followed by that of ponds.

Resource-cost efficiency of total land for the various farm scenarios showed that the scenarios with the lowest fish yield (kg . ha-1) had the greatest annualized land cost per kg of fish produced. The lowest land cost per kg of fish produced was that of RAS production.

Water The farm scenario that demonstrated the greatest water-use efficiency was that of intensively aerated hybrid catfish production, followed by RAS tilapia (45400 kg . yr-1), multiple-batch channel catfish, the other RAS scenarios, largemouth bass in ponds, and the other pond species.

The cost of water per kg of fish produced was greatest for those farm scenarios with the lowest productivity (kg of fish . l-1 of water) except for trout produced in raceways.

Overall, the water-cost efficiency was lowest for fathead minnows, followed by sportfish and golden shiners, goldfish, largemouth bass produced for food- fish, the RAS systems, and then hybrid catfish with intensive aeration.

Feed Feed conversion ratios were greatest for the sportfish, largemouth bass for food fish, and minnow farms. Feed prices in this analysis were not standardized, however, because feed prices vary across species due to different nutritional requirements and costs of ingredients. As a result, the feed-cost efficiencies calculated were affected by varying feed prices for different species.

Energy The farm scenarios with the most efficient energy use were the 2 catfish 50 »

costs per kg of fish sold showed that the farm scenarios with the lowest labor productivity values had the greatest labor costs per kg of fish sold.

scenarios, hybrid catfish with intensive aeration and multiple-batch channel catfish. These were followed by trout in raceways and largemouth bass pond production, and then RASs and the other pond-based farm scenarios.

The energy cost per kg of fish produced was greatest for pond production of goldfish, sportfish, fathead minnows, and golden shiner scenarios, followed by RASs, trout in raceways, largemouth bass food fish, and multiple-batch channel catfish.

Capital Capital-use efficiency was substantially greater in the 2 catfish farm scenarios as compared to the other scenarios, followed by the largemouth bass food fish and trout raceway scenarios. The lowest capital use efficiency values were those of the smaller pond and RAS scenarios.

Labor and management The 2 catfish scenarios demonstrated by far the greatest labor productivity, as measured in kg of fish sold per FTE of labor. Given that labor wages and costs were standardized across the production scenarios analyzed, the labor

Discussion As expected, the cost per kg metrics calculated generally mirrored (inversely) the quantities of resources used per kg. This was true for land, energy, labor, management, and investment capital. Despite a few exceptions, DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

sportfish. Clearly, in regions with very high land values, RASs would be expected to be more competitive economically due to its more efficient use of land. While some production systems use some resources more efficiently than do others, existing aquaculture businesses in the USA, regardless of species or production system, are managed as sustainable food production systems.

cost-efficiency metrics could be used interchangeably with resource- use efficiency in terms of discussions related to the relative sustainability of aquaculture production systems. With water use, the same relationship between cost efficiency and resource-use efficiency was found among all scenarios except for trout production in raceways.

The metrics presented in the present study did not account for or adjust for total water requirements as opposed to water ‘consumed’, nor consider the value of water in areas in which scarcity has created markets for use of scarce water resources. Monitoring water use on any type of farm is the first step in the search for ways to reduce water volumes used, particularly in those systems that previous research has shown to ‘consume’ greater quantities of water, as in RASs. Feed use was the second exception to the close relationship between physical efficiencies (quantity of resource used per kg of aquatic animal product) and cost efficiencies.

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Results of this analysis highlight the importance of examining resource-use efficiencies of key resources when discussing relative sustainability. Different production systems in this study demonstrated varying levels of efficiency for the resources analyzed.

Aquaculture production technologies continue to evolve rapidly as research continues to identify and develop improved production practices.

Therefore, estimates of resource use on farms will continue to change as production practices evolve.

In terms of economic sustainability, the scenarios analyzed in this study reflect business realities of segments of US aquaculture that have been economically sustainable for many years.

The exception to this is, of course, RASs, for which there are only a few commercial examples of successful RAS businesses. Regions where land and water are less expensive can support more extensive production systems, such as that of minnows and

Conclusions More intensive production systems were found to use resources (land, water, energy, labor, management, and capital) more efficiently per kg of fish produced than less intensive production systems with lower yields (kg .ha-1). Except for land and feed use, however, intensive pond production of catfish resulted in the most efficient use of resources overall, demonstrating the overall highest degree of sustainability of catfish pond production as compared to other systems and species. RAS production was the most efficient in terms of land and feed use among all scenarios evaluated. The metrics used in this analysis were those that can be calculated in a fairly simple fashion on farms. While these metrics do not capture the full effects of embodied energy resources in feed, tanks, equipment, and sources of energy, among others, they offer a practical way for farm owners and managers to monitor resource use as a way to both control costs and improve farm profitability by seeking to use resources in the most efficient manner possible.

* This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “Review Yucca schidigera Usage for Healthy Aquatic Animals: Potential Roles for Sustainability” developed by: Bilal Ahamad Paray, Mohamed F. El-Basuini, Mahmoud Alagawany, Mohammed Fahad Albeshr, Mohammad Abul Farah and Mahmoud A. O. Dawood. The original article was published on january 2021, through the Animals journal of MDPI under the use of a creative commons license. The full version can be accessed freely online through this link: https://www.mdpi.com/951396

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Let’s Decode

the Defense System of Aquatic Animals By: Aquaculture Magazine * Efficient disease management and mitigation strategies are not possible without understanding the immunological aspects of the cultured animal. During the larval stage, fishes are easily susceptible to a wide range of stressors and diseases; hence improving survival during the earlier stage is crucial and beneficial to aquaculture production. Stress is the primary disruptor of homeostasis of all living organisms, including finfish and shellfishes.

Prolonged stress decreases the defense ability of the animal. A better understanding of the defense mechanism of aquatic animals will pave the way for the immunological control of diseases. Usage of functional ingredients and additives in feed, can offer a hand in achieving the healthy animal with better growth and profitable revenue to the farmer community

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quatic animals consist of two categories which include vertebrates likes fishes and invertebrates like crustaceans and mollusk. These organisms also possess a unique immune system like the mammals but with some exceptions in the former.

Pandemic is the recent heated argu-

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ment of humanity, whereas epidemic is the daily life crisis of every aquaculture farmer. Efficient disease management and mitigation strategies are not possible without understanding the immunological aspects of the cultured animal. Let’s dive deeper into the defense system of both finfish and shellfish.

Overview Immunology is derived from the Latin word immunis, meaning ‘exempt from’, which is the study of the defense system. Every aquatic organism can fight against the disease known as Immunity. Many cells and processes are involved in activating the immunity, which is termed as immune system/ defense system. Finfishes like seabass, catfish, possess both innate and adaptive immunity, unlike shellfishes like shrimp which lack adaptive immunity. Substances that are foreign or alien to the body which can provoke an immune response known as an antigen. Antibodies or Immunoglobulins are a group of globular glycoproteins which binds explicitly with antigens and neutralize them, thereby protecting the body against various diseases.

The defense system of Finfishes Anterior kidney and thymus are the major primary lymphoid organs, newly hatched out larvae will possess maternal immunity till it starts exogenous feeding. Non-specific components like lectins and Hemagglutinins are present even during the egg and fry stage, which is evident that nonspecific immunity is the central back-

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bone of the finfish defense system, which develops first in fishes followed by cell-mediated, humoral and specific immunity. During the larval stage, fishes are easily susceptible to a wide range of stressors and diseases; hence improving survival during the earlier stage is crucial and beneficial to aquaculture production. Maternal antibodies have a significant role against the vertical transfer of pathogen during the spawning stage.

Non-specific defense mechanisms Surface Barrier: Mucus • First chemical and Physical barrier against the pathogen.

• Antimicrobial activity.

• Cells involved in the production of mucus include club cells, sacciform Lysins. cells, goblet cells.

• The complement system, which consists of more than 30 protein components Surface Barrier: Skin they promote phagocytosis.

• Malpighian cells promote sloughing • Anti-microbial peptides-defensins, catof infected cells to eliminate foreign helicidins, piscidins. matter.

• Lysozyme- present in fish ova, mucus, • Rapid wound healing. serum, phagocytic cells.

Surface Barrier: Gill • The primary pathway for entry of pathogen.

• The protection is offered through the mucosal barrier and with the help of the gill epithelium.

Precipitins and agglutinins • Pentraxins are compounds involved in acute phase response which includes, • CRP (C-reactive protein which

binds to phosphorylcholine of the microbial cell wall) • SAP (Serum amyloid P, which binds to the phospho-ethanolamine glycans and DNA) • Lectins-Pattern recognition receptors for detecting infections in fish.

Non-specific cellular factors Phagocytes (Macrophages and Neutrophils) • Kupffer cells are absent in fish liver.

• Bactericidal chemotaxis, involved in phagocytosis.

Surface Barrier: Gastro-intestinal tract • The protection is offered through the Mucosal membrane and by lowering the gut pH in gastric fishes like salmon.

Non-specific humoral factors

Growth inhibitors.

• The transferrin-Bacteriostatic and fungistatic effect through their binding affinity for iron is an essential nutrient for microbial growth.

• Interferon-Antiviral defense.

Enzyme inhibitors • Anti-proteases, Alpha 2 macroglobulin acts by neutralizing the pathogenic enzymes.

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Cytokines • Intercellular signaling molecules induce the movement of phagocytes to the site of infection.

Eosinophils, basophils and mast cells • Significant role in inflammation and defense mechanisms.

Specific defence mechanisms • Specificity and memory are the intrinsic property of this system.

• T cells-Cell mediated immunity.

• B cells-Antibody production.

Defense mechanism in shellfish Shrimp is one of the globally traded commodities; epidemics is the neverending crisis in the culture industry, lot of vaccinations are available only for finfishes, but when it comes to shellfish like shrimp, mollusk, vaccination is impractical because of the primitive defense system this animal possesses which includes the lack of true antibodies, specificity, and memory. Cell-mediated and humoral immunity is present, whereas adaptive immunity is absent in crustaceans.

From this, one should have a complete idea about the immunological aspects of this animal when considering culture.

Innate immunity of shellfish Hemocytes play a central role in the innate immune defense of the animal; different types of hemocytes present are classified based on the presence of cytoplasmic granules inside the cells.

• Hyaline cells: Phagocytosis and clotting.

• Semi-granular cells: Encapsulation and nodule formation.

• Granular cells: Prophenol-oxidase system and cytotoxicity.

Cellular defence mechanisms

Nodule formation • Isolation and melanization • Occurs mainly in gills and hepatopancreas.

Encapsulation • Mainly for an organism that are too large which cannot be engulfed through phagocytosis, example nematode parasites.

Cytotoxicity • Direct interaction of hemocytes with pathogens.

is the biotic master factor that triggers changes in the animal behavior.

Prolonged stress decreases the defense ability of the animal. Stress can be acute or chronic, which depends on the duration of the stressor. Cortisol and catecholamines are the indicators of stress. Blood glucose level increases as the result of secondary stress response to compensate for the increased energy demand. Hence as a result susceptibility of the animal to diseases increases due to the impaired immune system.

Conclusion A better understanding of the defense mechanism of aquatic animals will pave the way for the immunological control of diseases. Usage of Humoral defense mechanism Functional ingredients and additives Lectins/Agglutinins in feed, Nutraceuticals, immunos• Immune recognition factor and mi- timulants, along with the OMICS crobial phagocytosis through opso- studies, can offer a hand in achieving nization. the healthy animal with better growth and profitable revenue to the farmer ProPO activation community. Proper nursery manage• Associated with melanization, scler- ment, selection of healthy PL, and otization and wound healing. biosecurity measures are the keys • Counterpart to the vertebrate com- for the mitigation of outbreaks of plement system. diseases, and further studies in the immunological aspects of aquatic anAnti-microbial compounds imals can provide a different dimen• Hemocyanin which is the copper sion in the future. containing respiratory pigment of crustacean having anti-viral property.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial • Peneidin isolated from P. monodon team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “LET’S DECODE THE DEFENSE SYSTEM OF having anti-bacterial properties.

AQUATIC ANIMALS” developed by: ATSHAYA. S, SOWApoptosis/Programmed cell death • Infected and damaged cells are eliminated through this process to maintain homeostasis.

MIYA. C. The original article was provided by the authors.

Stress and Immunology Stress is the primary disruptor of homeostasis of all living organisms, including finfish and shellfishes. There are many factors called stressors that bring a change in a normal physiological response of an animal; being a cold-blooded animal, temperature

Phagocytosis • The first line of defence present in the crustacean.

• Engulfing and exclusion of pathogen by killing through the release of antimicrobial substances.

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The future is now: marine aquaculture in the anthropocene

Aquaculture is one of the human activities that has accelerated the most in the last half of the century. However, climate change and other constraints will undoubtedly challenge future growth of marine aquaculture. It is, therefore, critical to anticipate new opportunities and By: Aquaculture Magazine *

challenges in marine aquaculture production during the Anthropocene.

T

he environmental effect of human activity is increasing at unprecedented rates and at a global scale. At a conference in Mexico in 2000, Paul Crutzen, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, expressed the idea that we have entered a new geological epoch driven by the impact of human activities on the Earth System: the Anthropocene.

Marine aquaculture, which is focused mainly on aquatic plants, mollusks, and to a lesser extent fish, now accounts for almost half of global aquaculture production, recently exceeding wild capture fisheries. Temperature and sea-level rise, shifts in precipitation, freshening from glacier melt, changing ocean productivity and circulation patterns, increasing occurrence of extreme climatic events, eutrophication, and ocean acidification (OA) are some of the stressors that will influence the potential of marine aquaculture production.

In this context, the ICES Journal of Marine Science (IJMS) solicited contributions to the themed article set (TS), “Marine aquaculture in the Anthropocene”. The objective of this TS was to bring together contributions on the broad theme of the potential impacts, adaptation, and mitigation strat56 »

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Adaptation to OA will ultimately depend on trade-offs that occur when a relationship between two traits prevents them from being simultaneously optimized. For example, a population might possess genetic variation for tolerance to both OA and disease, but if there is a negative correlation between these two traits it may not be possible to evolve substantially increased tolerance to OA and disease simultaneously.

egies of marine aquaculture in an era of rapid change.

Impacts of climate change-related factors on aquaculture production and spatial distribution of species-specific aquaculture activities Human activities are estimated to have caused ~1ºC of global warming above pre-industrial levels. The oceans are not only absorbing a large amount of heat, leading to ocean warming, but also about 25% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Increasing CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere lower the pH of the oceans, a process referred to as OA. The pH in the ocean’s surface waters has already decreased by 0.1 units since the beginning of the Anthropocene. Simultaneously, aqueous CO2 concentrations are increasing, and carbonate ion concentrations are decreasing, possibly impacting the growth, physiological rates, immune responses, behavior, and survival of some marine organisms.

Scientists have conducted many OA experiments, usually exposing organisms to experimental conditions based on scenarios modelled for oceanic waters, typically simulating present and near-future ocean pCO2 levels.

However, most marine organisms are cultivated in coastal areas such as intertidal and upwelling zones, estuaries, DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

fjords, and salt marshes where pH/ pCO2 levels vary far more dramatically than in the open ocean. Such variability in coastal environments limits the relevance of applying predictions of CO2 in the open ocean to these situations. Also, coastal aquaculture is likely to be affected by OA in different ways than open-ocean aquaculture. Our knowledge of the variability in pH and carbonate chemistry in coastal areas is relatively poor and predictions are lacking.

In bivalves, embryonic and larval development are generally sensitive to OA, with reductions in size and survival of larvae and increases in the number of abnormal larvae. On an industrial scale, the most striking illustration of possible OA effects is the correlation between the pH of seawater and the survival of oyster larvae, clearly linking the pHT/ pCO2 of seawater to hatchery failures Phenotypic plasticity and adaptation potential of farmed species under climate change, including selective breeding for resilience. Carryover effects can occur between development stages, but also between generations (intergenerational effects). For instance, exposure of adults to OA can produce positive or negative carryover effects in their progeny that influences survival under conditions of lower pH.

The effect of climate change-related drivers on species interactions: the intricate cases of parasitism and predation Climate change can alter host–pathogen interactions and, therefore, the likelihood of disease outbreaks. For instance, interactions between hosts, pathogens, and the environment govern disease outbreaks, and a change in any of these components can shift the balance towards or away from a highintensity disease state. Temperature is the most well-studied climate-related driver of marine disease because it profoundly influences host and pathogen metabolism. Although there are reports of the exacerbating effects of temperature on the risk of disease, it is difficult to attribute a causal link between climate change and the occurrence of disease.

Salmon farms act as reservoirs of sea lice that are a source of transmission from farmed to wild salmon.

Considering that temperature increases the epidemic potential of the parasite. Rapid increase in salmon farming has dramatically altered the disease dynamics between farmed and wild salmon. In Norway, new restrictions on fish farming have been enforced in the south due to the impacts of sea lice on wild salmonids. In northern areas, the effects of pathogens on wild salmonids are lower, reflecting relatively low density of fish farms and low temperatures. However, both factors are now increasing. These areas contain habitats supporting some of the largest » 57

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remaining wild salmonid populations in the world.

Temperature can differentially influence species within a community, significantly affecting the outcome of trophic interactions. For example, ocean warming is predicted to strengthen plant–herbivore interactions and potentially impact seaweed production. Warming increases the consumption rate of herbivores and also, the palatability of macroalgae.

This effect might be tempered by other factors such as nutrient availability.

Adaptive measures for mitigate the impacts of climate change on marine resources The combined accelerated footprint of climate change and anthropogenic pressures on marine life raise the need for restoration programs worldwide.

Rinkevich (2021) analyzes the recent literature on coral reef restoration from an ecological engineering perspective, linking biology, ecology, and engineering to improve and rehabilitate damaged ecosystems. He concludes that ecological engineering should consider creating new ecosystems that did not exist before rather than seeking to recreate historic ecosystem states.

In a literature review, Daly et al.

(2021) investigated the implications of phenotypic plasticity for enhancement of crustacean stocks. The main idea is that there are behavioral and morphological differences between hatchery-raised and wild individuals that reflect adaptive responses to an unnatural rearing environment, and this phenotypic plasticity could be used to improve stock enhancement.

Kluger and Filgueira (2021) argue that carrying capacity should be viewed as multidimensional, iterative, inclusive, and just. Hence, the scope of carrying capacity needs to move from industry-driven towards an inclusive vision taking into consideration historical, cultural, and socio-economic concerns of all stakeholders.

The cultivation and use of seaweeds have high potential to support sustainable jobs and growth, providing biomass for human food, animal feed, and other applications like climate remediation. Although the large majority of seaweed production is located in Asia, interest in Europe is on the rise. Van den Burg et al. (2021) show that, from a people, planet and profit perspective, the focus is not on producing large volumes of seaweed but on producing the right amount of the right seaweeds, considering the carrying capacity of European seas.

Finally, Froehlich et al. (2021) ask how the 20 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) member nations will sustainably meet the increasing demand for seafood, considering that the majority of these nations have not developed robust aquaculture industries. They found that the majority of ICES nations lack long- term strategies for aquaculture, with few plans accounting for climate change and an increasing gap between future production and consumption. This work highlights the need to prioritize aquaculture policy to set more ambitious domestic production goals and improve sustainable sourcing of seafood from other parts of the world, with a more explicit incorporation of climate change into decision-making.

Sustainable development of aquaculture and its contribution to climate change Concerns over the footprint of the ever-expanding aquaculture industry have motivated a range of approaches focusing on aquaculture impact analysis.

Summary and forward look From all these articles and the associated scientific literature, it seems that three types of action are possible for adapting aquaculture operations to climate change. First, we must anticipate the biogeographical changes in the distribution of species. Spe-

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cies are indeed distributed over geographic areas where physical and biotic conditions fit their physiological range and any changes in these conditions may locally alter the potential for aquaculture production. Second, we must determine whether species can adapt to a variety of stressors through evolution.n. Then, the selection of robust phenotypes, which are resistant or tolerant to these stressors would be an option for the aquaculture industry, although trade-off with other traits and maintaining the genetic diversity need to be carefully considered. Third, we must consider ecosystem conservation, restoration, or remediation strategies to foster resilience to climate change stressors. Biodiversity indeed limit disease risk, an upcoming threat under climate change. Macroalgae and plant act as a carbon sink and create local refugia against acidification for calcifying organisms. These examples suggest that the combination of species that interact favorably with each other can mitigate the effects of climate change. These three options are not mutually exclusive and should be considered together.

Not all aquaculture productions are created equal. For example, intensive culture of shrimp or carnivorous fish is highly energy demanding, while production of omnivorous fishes, bivalve mollusks or macroalgae have a low or even negative carbon footprint. Therefore, aquaculture will undoubtedly contribute to the low carbon economy of tomorrow. Development choices should be based on carbon footprint and product LCAs in addition to traditional profitability analyses. Aquaculture can help make our planet great again, this is a matter of choice.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “THE FUTURE IS NOW: MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE ANTHROPOCENE” developed by: FABRICE PERNET, AND HOWARD I. BROWMAN. The original article was published on FEBRUARY 2021, through INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF THE SEA under the use of a creative commons open access license.

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ARTICLE

Intelligent fish farm —the future of aquaculture

The developments of aquaculture engineering, mechanization and information technology and equipment construction are seriously lagging behind. Some breeding enterprises in underdeveloped areas are restricted by breeding technology and environmental conditions, breeding germplasm is degraded, enterprises lack good varieties, and aquatic products are of low quality. Aquaculture is facing huge challenges, but there is also a bigger opportunity. Ecological, facility, industrial, and

By: Aquaculture Magazine *

Definition and system framework of intelligent fish farm Intelligent fish farms rely on digital and intelligent technology to solve the problems of aquaculture labor shortage, water pollution, high risk and low efficiency. It can be divided into four categories according to different culture environments: pondtype intelligent fish farm, land-based factory type intelligent fish farm, cage-type intelligent fish farm and intelligent marine ranch.

Pond-type intelligent fish farm collects water quality information using sensors in real time, and unmanned aerial vehicle patrols to obtain the water surface activities of fish. Land based factory-type intelligent fish farm mainly realizes automated recirculating aquaculture (RAS). Cage-type intelligent fish farm obtains seawater quality and ocean current information using sensors and obtains fish movement and feeding information using machine vision and sonar.

Intelligent marine ranches usually use high-definition surface cameras and underwater robots to collect the video information of the ranch in real time, transmit the video to the data server in the shore-based information control center for the purpose of biological identification, behavior analysis, and biomass estimation.

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intelligent are the future development directions of aquaculture.

Advance information technology in intelligent fish farm The traditional aquaculture IoT system adopts three-tier structure. The device layer is composed of sensing equipment, control equipment and data acquisition terminal. The sensing equipment is responsible for collecting the environmental data as well as

the working status of the device and aquaculture video image information.

The control equipment includes aerator (oxygen cone), feeder, pump valve and other aquaculture equipment. The data acquisition terminal is responsible for the upward transmission of sensor data and the reception of control instructions. The network layer generally » 59

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adopts wireless network. The cloud service layer includes cloud platform and smartphone app.

For businesses with high real-time requirements, end-to-end millisecondlevel low latency is required, but it is difficult for ordinary cloud computing models to meet the above tasks.

Therefore, this research introduces Edge computing and 5G into the aquaculture IoT system to improve the standardization, stability and usability of the system.

The work of fishery informatization will produce a large number of multidimensional data. By simulating human thinking and intelligent behavior, AI can learn the massive information provided by the IoT and big data, analyze and judge the problems, finally complete the decision-making task, and realize the accurate operation of the fish farm.

Intelligent hardware for measure, control, and self-feeding Water environment ecological monitoring refers to the use of sensors and cameras carried by unmanned ships or surface buoys to automatically collect water quality parameters, aquaculture biological pictures and video information, and then store, transmit, analyze and predict data. Long time accurate detection of aquaculture water quality parameters provides a reliable data source for automatic control and intelligent decision-making of intelligent fish farm.

Intelligent aeration system refers to the equipment that can accurately measure and control the DO in water, which is composed of various sensors, network transmission module and IOT actuator. The intelligent aerator can monitor water temperature, air humidity, air pressure and DO in real time.

Automatic feeding system has been widely used in industrial recirculating aquaculture, including automatic feeding system with multi monomer centralized control and automatic feeding robot system. In the pond-type intelligent fish farm, intelligent bait-drop60 »

ping equipment should be deployed on unmanned boats or UAV, and the UAV will be responsible for the independent transportation and loading of bait.

Unmanned patrol system Biomimetic robot fish carries a variety of sensors to automatically monitor the water quality and the operation status of key equipment.

Biomimetic robot fish can also monitor the feeding rule of fish based on computer vision technology and analyze relevant data to provide a basis for optimizing the feeding strategy.

The inspection robot based on the deep learning, computer vision and positioning technology can detect the position of sick and dead fish and use the automatic manipulator to pick up the dead fish combined with the optical and acoustic system.

Underwater robot in cage culture can also locate the damaged and contaminated positions of the net clothes and use tool to clean and repair the net clothes. Orbital robot can inspect the circulating water pipe network, oxygenation equipment and feeding equipment in the recirculating aquaculture workshop according to the predetermined inspection route.

Intelligent harvesting system Intelligent harvesting system is the last module for fish farm to complete the breeding cycle. Using this system, the breeding objects will enter the market through the transportation with or without water. At present, trawling is the most efficient way of fishing.

Water quality soft measurement and control method Aquaculture water quality greatly affects the growth rate, health status and feed intake efficiency of fish. A single water quality parameter in aquaculture water is easily affected by other water quality parameters, which increases the difficulty of detection by a single detection method, and also provides the possibility for the application of soft measurement. The basic idea of soft measurement technology is to infer or estimate important parameters that are difficult to observe with the help of some easily observed variables. If a sensor fails, it will directly lead to the deviation or even failure of the soft measurement prediction.

Intelligent feeding strategy Feeding back the evaluation results of bait-feeding effect to the control system will help to adjust the feeding amount in real time. The artificial exDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

perience model is usually based on a large amount of observation experience in aquaculture, and a regression fitting analysis method is used to establish a mathematical equation related to the nutrient requirements of fish growth and the amount of feed.

Behavior analysis of raised species Fish bioassay is one of the earliest biological monitoring methods, especially used to investigate the impact of pollution fluctuation on fish behavior. Up to now, the indicators used to monitor and evaluate water quality mainly include movement behavior, respiratory behavior, and group behavior.

Using computer vision technology to monitor fish behavior and obtain fish hunger levels can improve ability and accuracy of image processing and provide a theoretical basis for intelligent feeding.

Deep learning is the most advanced machine learning method at present.

It comes from the research of artificial neural network architecture which has a large number of hidden layers and millions of parameters. Intelligent fish farm tries to combine machine vision, sonar detection and deep learning technology to realize behavior analysis of cultured animals in real time.

which uses acoustic lens to transmit independent beam.

Modern advanced remote sensing technology using satellite remote sensing images and relevant professional software to analyze the marine fishery resources can accurately obtain the position of fish stock, which greatly improves the accuracy and quantity of fishing.

Diagnosis of fish diseases After a healthy fish gets sick, it is usually accompanied by changes in the color and texture of the body surface.

Since different fish suffer from the same disease with different symptoms, the first step in studying fish diseases is to identify the type of fish by analyzing the sub-images of the sick fish body and extracting its features including the color feature and texture feature based on the statistical method and the wavelet method.

Current research on fish images are limited to obtaining excellent recognition and detection results under certain conditions. To improve the accuracy and sensitivity of the automatic fish disease diagnosis system in the intelligent fish farm, it is an effective way to add water quality analysis, fish behavior analysis and meteorological data analysis as the correction input of the deep learning method.

positioning algorithm, optimization of navigation and path planning algorithm and optimization of operation object sorting and monitoring algorithm.

Compared with traditional machine learning, deep learning can better extract the features of agricultural images and structured data, and effectively combine with agricultural machinery to better support the development of aquaculture intelligent equipment. It is found that there are still some deficiencies in the application of deep learning in aquaculture as follows: Firstly, deep learning needs large data sets for model training, verification and testing. Secondly, most of the aquaculture problems based on deep learning are supervised learning, and the corresponding sample data need to be labeled.

Conclusions Modern emerging technologies such as AI, big data, IoT, sensors, machine vision and robots will gradually participate in the whole process of aquaculture production for liberating traditional labor force completely, and finally realize multi-scene all-weather real-time monitoring of production environment, big data analysis based on cloud platform and real-time intelligent decision-making.

The construction of intelligent Biomass statistics fish farm is much more complex than The biomass statistics is crucial to sup- Fault diagnosis of equipment port the fish farmers’ decisions such An intelligent fault diagnosis process is other intelligent farm projects. The reas fish food dosage, drug consump- divided into two steps. Firstly, all data liability and service life of sensors, the tion and fish loss. need to be preprocessed, the feature robustness and accuracy of analysis The length, width, area, and cir- parameters which can represent the and decision-making models, the relicumference of fish in different growth fault symptoms are extracted based ability of data transmission based on periods are closely related to their on deep learning, and a certain num- IoT technology, and the cooperation weight. These parameters will be used ber of sample sets are selected to train efficiency among various aquaculture as an important basis for the estima- the neural network to get the expected intelligent equipment also need to be tion of fish biomass. Laser scanning diagnosis network and classifier. Sec- further solved. technology is another noninvasive ondly, according to the trained neural This is a summarized version developed by the editorial monitoring technology that can be network and classifier, the online data team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review used to estimate fish biomass in real of the system is diagnosed. article titled “INTELLIGENT FISH FARM—THE FUTURE OF AQUACULTURE” developed by: CONG WANG, ZHEN time. However, compared with the LI, TAN WANG, XIANBAO XU, XIAOSHUAN ZHANG, AND limited penetration ability of light in Challenges DAOLIANG LI. The original article was published on SEPTEMBER 2021, through AQUACULTURE INTERNAwater, the attenuation of sound wave Aquaculture robots are facing great TIONAL under the use of a creative commons open access license. The full version can be accessed freely in water is much smaller. Identification challenges in the aspects of optimionline through this link: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499sonar is a kind of multi-beam system zation of target identification and 021-00773-8 DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

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FISH AND SHRIMP FARMING PRODUCTIVITY

Yucca plant as Treatment for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection in Nile tilapia Farms with Emphasis on its Effect on Growth Performance

I

n Egypt, fish production comprises 20% of the white animal protein production, 17% of which is derived from aquaculture and the common cultured fish is Tilapia nilotica (Oreochromis niloticus) which have attained a great economic importance.

Pseudomonades are considered one of the most important fish pathogens which are responsible for ulcer like diseases including ulcerative syndrome. The disease is characterized by petechial hemorrhage, darkness of the skin, detached scales, abdominal ascites and exophthalmia. Moreover, Pseudomonas can cause a problem for human consumers too, generally caused by only one species (most frequently Ps. aeruginosa), cause healthcare associated illnesses. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative rod shape bacterium belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae. This species is highly adaptable opportunistic pathogen, capable of surviving in a variety of environment, including aquaculture environment.

Several plant extracts are reported to stimulate appetite and promote weight gain when they are administered to cultured fish. The yucca has been suggested suitable for water quality management in aquaculture systems. The effect of feeding diets containing yucca extract or probiotic on growth performance, nitrogen utilization, digestibility, blood parameters, ceacal microbial activity 62 »

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a G-ve bacterium causing diseases threat the animals, poultry and fish resources. Extracts of plants or their by-products contain some exclusive compounds that can be effective as chemotherapists and vaccines. The yucca has been suggested suitable for water quality management in aquaculture systems.

Fig. 1. Clinical and post-mortem examination of naturally infected Oreochromis niloticus showing: A) petechial haemorrhages all over the body. B) Skin ulcer. C) Exophthalmia and tail rot. D) Dark gall bladder enlarged and congested liver and congested gills

were studied and the results showed that the yucca extract reduced blood and ceacal urea and ammonia concentrations by using these additives.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in some Nile

tilapia at Kafre EL-Sheikh governorate, and also evaluate the effect of dietary supplementation of yucca extract on growth performance and diseases resistance of Nile tilapia challenged with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

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FISH AND SHRIMP FARMING PRODUCTIVITY

Material and Methods Fish samples. A total of 150, apparently healthy, Nile tilapia were obtained from a private fish farm in Kafre EL-Sheikh Governorate and transported a live to Animal Health.

Fish were acclimated for 2 weeks during the acclimation period fish fed on the basal diet only.

Isolation and identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from fish samples. Specimens from gills, liver, kidneys, brain and spleen of examined fish were taken under aseptic conditions and inoculated in trypticase soya broth. The growing colonies were purified in pure form and identification of all isolates was done by cultural, morphological and biochemical characters.

Molecular identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and detection of some virulence genes.

DNA extraction from 10 isolates biochemically identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa was performed using the QIAamp DNA Mini kit The sample was then washed and centrifuged following the manufacturer’s recommendations.

PCR amplification. For PCR, primers were utilized in a 25 μl reaction containing 12.5 μl of EmeraldAmp Max PCR Master Mix. The products of PCR were separated by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel. For gel analysis, 20 μl of the 64 »

PCR products were loaded in each gel slot. The gel was photographed by a gel documentation system (Alpha Innotech, Biometra) and the data was analyzed through computer software.

Experimental design and feeding diets. 150 fish were divided to five groups (30 fishes per group) were fed the prepared pelleted experimental diet for two months according to the experimental design.

All fish in each group were weighted at the beginning (Wi) and biweekly for a continuous 8 weeks. Feed intake was readjusted according to the average body weight each period.

Weight gain (WG), gain percent (G%), relative growth rate (RGR), Feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed efficiency (FE), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and Metabolizable Energy were calculated.

Sample collection and analysis of kidney and liver functions.

At the end of the feeding trial before the challenge, all the fish in each aquarium were counted and weighed. For the blood collection, five fish per aquarium were randomly selected and euthanized.

Blood samples were obtained from the caudal vein of the fish.

Preparation of the bacterial strain for experimental challenge. The selected virulent bacterial isolate was sub-cultured in tryp-

tic soya broth at 37°C for 24 hrs.

Bacterial pellets were then taken after centrifugation of the broth solution. Bacterial pellets were then suspended in sterile physiological buffer saline (PBS) solution Experimental challenge. After the end of the experiment (after 8 weeks), fish in all groups were challenged intraperitoneal (IP) with one of the virulent Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain that previously isolated from Oreochromis niloticus. Dead and survivor fish were subjected to clinical and bacteriological examination.

Bacteriological investigation.

For bacterial re-isolation samples from gills, liver, kidneys, brain and spleen of fishes were collected from 10 fishes. Then a loopful of the broth was streaked onto nutrient agar and Pseudomonas agar medium with supplement (cetrimide) then incubated at 37°C for 24 - 48 hr.

Statistical analysis. Statistical analysis was made using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) one-way analysis of variance for study the effect of different treatment groups on the different studied variables studied that includes (growth performance parameters, hematological and biochemical) variables using (SAS, 2004).

Results and Discussion Our results showed that fishes infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed hemorrhages all over the fish body especially at the base of fins, tail and fins rot; detachment of scales, darkness in skin, skin ulceration, exophthalmia and abdominal distention. Post mortem, these fishes showed abdominal dropsy with reddish ascetic exudates; enlarged and congested liver and spleen.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from diseased Oreochromis niloticus in which 10 positive samples out of 70 tested ones with a percent of 14.28. All the isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa produced blue green DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

colonies on nutrient agar due to production of pyoverdin and pyocynin pigments. Also they produced green colonies on Pseudomonas agar supplemented with Cetrimide.

The biochemical tests indicated that Pseudomonas aeruginosa positive to citrate utilization test, positive to catalase test, oxidase and citrate test, positive to motility test while negative to indole test, methyl red, vogaus proskauer, indole production, urease and H2S production on triple sugar iron (TSI).

PCR used in diagnosis of bacterial fish diseases, isolated from cultured fish, it is a very fast and accurate method. These results were agreement with Abd El Tawab et al.

(2016) who detected PCR could be used for detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence genes. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used for detection of virulence genes of Pseudomonas aeruginosa giving positive results for outer membrane lipoprotein gene (oprL) at 504 bp.

Conclusion Based on the results obtained, it can concluded that yucca extract in the diet can be used as a cost- effective, safe and biocompatible feed additive for supplementation in Nile tilapia diets to improve growth performance and enhance disease resistance in cultured fish. The optimum inclusion level of yucca extract on juvenile Nile tilapia diets was found to be 0.1% in the diet in which this concentration give the best growth performance Effect of dietary supplementa- and disease resistance. tion of yucca extract on kidney and liver functions Addition of YMS0.1% has not any Growth performance adverse effect on kidney and liver The Yucca schidigera extract 0.1% health. However, most of the herbgroup significantly increased final al substances are poorly absorbed, body weight by about 13.56% more and they produce some effects in than control groups (groups 1 and animals such as diarrhea. If used in 2) moreover, increased significantly higher doses, they are able to harm the total gain, gain percent and rela- intestine and even destruction of tive growth rate by about 39.66%, red blood cells resulting from he38.92% and 29.36% respectively. molysis could occur. Thus, high levAlso supplementation of the Yucca els of yucca meal can be detrimental schidigera extract in the Nile tilapia to fish health. diet by about 0.1% improved FCR, FE and PER by about 16.95%, The re-isolation and survival This informative version of the original article is sponsored by: 21.65% and 18.5% respectively rate after experimental chalthroughout whole experimental pe- lenge riod while increasing Yucca schidigera The re-isolation rate of Pseudomonas extract in tilapia fish diet by level aeruginosa from 10 survival fishes This is a summarized version developed by the editorial 0.14 and 0.2% had no significant ef- after challenge decreased in groups team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “YUCCA PLANT AS TREATMENT FOR PSEUfect on the previous mentioned pa- fed on yucca extract than the conDOMONAS AERUGINOSA INFECTION IN NILE TILAPIA rameters when compared with con- trol group. Also in our study, after FARMS WITH EMPHASIS ON ITS EFFECT ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE” developed by: EL-KEREDY M.S. trol and 0.1% yucca groups. challenge with Pseudomonas aeruginosa ABEER - Regional Kafrelsheikh Animal Health Research The results of current study in- all treated groups showed a reduced Institute, AND NEHAL A.A. NAENA - Regional Kafrelsheikh Animal Health Research Institute. The original article was dicated an improved growth perfor- mortality and morbidity rate compublished on JULY 2020, through ALEXANDRIA JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCES under the use of a creative mance (final weight, total gain, gain pared to the control group and the commons open access license. The full version can be % and relative growth rate) for Nile best survival was observed in group accessed freely online through this link: DOI:10.5455/ajvs.113537 Tilapia when fed diet supplemented fed on 0.1% yucca extract.

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with 0.1% Yucca schidigera extract.

Supplementation of basal diet with a Yucca schidigera extract 0.1% significantly increased feed intake, relative growth rate (RGR), protein efficiency ratio PER) and improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared with O. niloticus fed the basal diet. This means a decrease in the amount of feed necessary for animal growth which could result in a reduction in the production cost.

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Collaboration drives innovations in super-intensive indoor shrimp farming, part 2: Data on production and economic impacts at scale for the Viet-Uc commercial shrimp farm partnering with CSIRO

It is often necessary to allow control of variables and high treatment replication for research to improve aquaculture production systems, but results can sometimes be difficult to translate to commercial conditions because of the added complexity of commercial environments. A collaborative three-year project ending in 2021 delivered a sustainable and profitable super-intensive shrimp farming system by developing new management and technological approaches tailored to the

By: Aquaculture Magazine *

environmental conditions

R

esearch to improve aquaculture production systems is often performed outside commercial settings in smaller, experimental-scale units, over shorter time periods and with a focus on a specific aspect of production. This approach is often necessary to allow control of variables and high treatment replication, but also to adhere to research budgets. However, results can sometimes be difficult to translate to commercial conditions because of the added complexity of commercial environments that can influence the outcomes which respond differently to experimental-scale systems.

Since 2010, CSIRO (The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization) has collaborated with Viet-Uc Seafood Corporation in various areas. More recently, a collaborative three-year project ending in 2021 delivered a sustainable and profitable superintensive shrimp farming system by developing new management and technological approaches tailored to the environmental conditions in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta.

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Figure 1. Aerial view of the Viet-Uc Nha Mat farm in Bac Lieu, Mekong Delta, and commercial greenhouses used in the project.

Targeted experiments were designed to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of different systems.

A range of protocols evaluated for the different systems were designed to maintain optimal levels of key water quality parameters, as well as to (i) assess shrimp performance and pond conditions under a range of stocking densities from 150 up to 600 shrimp per square meter; (ii) refine/implement partial harvesting protocols; (iii) develop strategies to minimize pathogenic Vibrio concentrations; (iv) evaluate different commercial supplements and diets, including diets based on the commercial microbial biomass product Novacq™; and (v) design strategies to reduce production costs.

Experimental setup Six experiments were conducted within two commercial greenhouses over the three years of the project.

The experiments evaluated protocols across different seasons, with each experiment running for 90 to 100 days of culture. Each greenhouse contained 14 plastic-lined ponds (500 square meters), which allowed for four to six replicate ponds per treatment. Data was colDECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

lected and analyzed from 132 commercial ponds in total. Experimental designs systematically refined and retested systems, with new protocols developed based on knowledge gained from the preceding experiments.

The project compared clear-water (through water exchange) and biofloc technology (BFT) systems in Experiments 1 and 2 and focused exclusively on BFT after Experiment 2 due to consistently better shrimp performances along with better water quality and significantly lower water use. A comprehensive data collection regime was implemented to enable in-depth analysis of system performance and identification of critical constraints on production. Twenty-two different water quality parameters were routinely monitored in each experiment. The research covered other important aspects of farming and production such as shrimp health assessment, pathogen monitoring and biosecurity, investigating precision farming strategies such as new sensor technologies, data management, machine learning and decision support tools and economic modelling of farming profitability.

Enhancing production parameters, water and shrimp quality Consistency in water quality is critical because it provides stable conditions for shrimp growth, efficient feed utilization and a more predictable environment. This latter benefit reduces monitoring and increases the potential for automation, thereby providing costs savings in labor.

In our project, the performance of pond replicates was very consistent, demonstrating accurate execution of protocols which allowed reliable comparison between treatments.

This enabled our team to identify the main production constraints and develop targeted solutions to systematically improve production. After the third experiment, key water quality parameters were stable and within optimal ranges for Litopenaeus vannamei for all tested protocols.

Throughout the project, increasing and consistent shrimp yields were achieved in BFT systems. During the last experiment, consistent harvest yields of 43 t/ha/cycle were achieved under a range of different biofloc protocols. From experiment 2 onward, survival increased and averaged over 80 percent for all BFT protocols, with some treatments » 67

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averaging over 90 percent across all replicate ponds in experiments 5 and 6.

A Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) value of less than 1.3 was frequently achieved. Experiment 5 produced FCRs below 1.25 in some treatments and below 1.20 at a density of 150 shrimp per square meter.

This is a key outcome for the future sustainability of commercial shrimp production, both in terms of cost efficiency and to minimize waste. The biofloc protocol enabled significantly less water use than the

clear water protocol. In experiment 6, water use averaged 674 L/kg of shrimp produced. The best clearwater protocols (experiments 1 and 2) ranged from 3,343 to 5,164 L/kg of shrimp produced.

The greenhouse infrastructure and management practices were refined to provide optimal water temperatures (27 to 30 degrees-C) for shrimp growth, especially during winter crops. The biofloc protocol combined with the indoor environment increased biosecurity and provided stable water quality conditions

with minimal daily fluctuations in temperature, dissolved oxygen (> 5 mg/L) and pH (~7.8). The salinity varied from approximately 10 to 35 ppt depending on the season.

Alkalinity was maintained at levels higher than 150 mg/L. Turbidity, settling solids and total suspended solids were kept below 50 Formazin Nephelometric Unit (FNU), 5 mL/L and 250 mg/L, respectively, in the last two experiments. Continual improvements in the BFT protocol using a chemoautotrophic-based strategy resulted in greater control

From Experiment 3 onwards, chemoautotrophic-based biofloc was selected as a target system; it was continuously improved based on optimal water quality, enhanced shrimp yield and quality, and enabled consistent and reliable performance. From Experiment 3 onwards, chemoautotrophic-based biofloc was selected as a target system; it was continuously improved based on optimal water quality, enhanced shrimp yield and quality, and enabled consistent and reliable performance.

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over toxic nitrogen compounds (total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite).

The project experienced challenges in the form of pathogenic Vibrio in the water and early-stage health issues for shrimp in experiments 2 and 3, respectively. These challenges were overcome through a combination of approaches that were implemented over the course of the project and were useful in exploring solutions commonly faced by shrimp producers. Approaches included developing specific protocols for pathogenic Vibrio control, adjusting pond management procedures such as cleaning and water exchanges, using water supplements (e.g., probiotics and prebiotics), sanitation products and applications of minerals, and improving intake water settling, filtration and sanitation protocols.

The proportion of total Vibrio and green colony Vibrio (potentially pathogenic) was drastically reduced from 15 to 30 percent (peak levels observed in experiments 3 and 4, respectively) to less than 0.5 percent of total bacteria in the latter experiments, resulting in higher survival and superior shrimp quality. The project target was to maintain levels of green colony Vibrio to total bacteria below 5 percent, likely indicating a favorable bacteria balance within the production units.

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Economics Super-intensive indoor systems can support enhanced biosecurity and disease mitigation, leading to more consistent production performance compared to traditional outdoor operations. However, the establishment and ongoing production costs of indoor systems are higher.

To address this challenge, the project conducted economic analysis to identify the various influences on profitability. Subsequent economic models were used to run simulations and identify system and management modifications to optimize economics returns. The resulting protocol adjustments were tested and resulted in a 13 percent increase in the Net Profit Margin (NPM) across the final three experiments when compared to the baseline protocol.

Results of this 3-year study demonstrate the benefits of R&D collaboration between commercial companies and research institutions to promote innovations in superintensive indoor shrimp farms.

Impact at scale Our project highlights the benefits of conducting production system research directly at the farm and taking a whole-of-system approach.

This approach allows us to evaluate the direct influence that specific

treatments are having, but also the indirect influences that occur in a larger environment over a longer time period. This research model can deliver substantial improvements in production and economics for a commercial company.

The key to success is a trusting relationship between the scientists, the company and its staff, and a willingness of the company to invest a significant amount of time and resources into Investigation and Development (R&D). This initiative is critical to the mission of CSIRO to develop, evaluate and deploy new technologies, generating impact at scale. The CSIRO team wishes to acknowledge and thank Viet-Uc for their continued support, contribution and dedication to the project.

This is a summarized version developed by the editorial team of Aquaculture Magazine based on the review article titled “COLLABORATION DRIVES INNOVATIONS IN SUPER-INTENSIVE INDOOR SHRIMP FARMING, PART 2: DATA ON PRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS AT SCALE FOR THE VIET-UC COMMERCIAL SHRIMP FARM PARTNERING WITH CSIRO”, developed by: MAURICIO G.C. EMERENCIANO – CSIRO, STUART ARNOLD – CSIRO, TIM PERRIN – CSIRO, BRYCE LITTLE – CSIRO, JEFF A. COWLEY – CSIRO, ASHFAQUR RAHMAN – CSIRO. The original article was published on 3 January 2022, under the use of a creative commons open access: https:// www.globalseafood.org/advocate/collaboration-drivesinnovations-in-super-intensive-indoor-shrimp-farmingpart-2/?headle%E2%80%A6%00%00

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AQUACULTURE 4.0:

technological innovation as a competitive advantage A competitive advantage is that distinctive characteristic which places a company in a higher relative position to compete. The clear example in the shrimp industry is related to the countries near the equator, where there are better conditions of temperature and quality of water, in comparison with those that approach the tropics, this natural advantage is, at the moment, a competitive one.

However, there is a promising outlook, a feature that in the coming years will draw

By: Iván Ramírez Morales, Ph. D. Leader of R + D + i in Larvia @larvia_ai @ivaneduramirez

a dividing line between success and failure, changing the rules of the game in the aquaculture industry.

E

xisting versions of aquaculture production remain effective for the time being. Version 1.0 refers to those extensive productions, whose densities are low, in which the control is minimal, and the results are not predictable and that totally depend on natural conditions.

Version 2.0, increased the sowing density and consequently requires water changes, incorporation of air and supplementary feeding, in several cases, using timed feeders, there is greater control. However, results vary and in many cases, results cannot be reached with certainty.

Version 3.0, on the other hand, addressed the need to statistically record and analyze the information of the process, to make intelligent decisions. In other words, the greater the control of the process and the better processing of the information, the more accurately the future results can be estimated and move on the highway of continuous improvement.

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In another scenario, the arrival of the internet, mobile devices, robotics, Big Data, artificial intelligence, the internet of things, and other exponential technologies; they amplify the ability to model, simulate, and predict prospective results with relatively low margins of error. The incorporation of these technologies allows the passage from any of the previous versions of Aquaculture, to version 4.0, in which costs are minimized and yields are maximized.

Supported by these technologies, the work in genetic selection would offer a better phenotypic response, nutrition would cease to be intuitive to be precise, and the investment made in infrastructure acquires more value per kg of harvested biomass.

But best of all, is that many of these technologies have been on the market for several years, it is a matter of applying the Japanese philosophy of “adapt and adopt”.

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Before long, it will be common to have feeder robots that measure water quality, biomass and make precise decisions, biologists and data engineers making joint decisions, performing mathematical modeling of crops to optimize yields, drones inspecting ponds, and sending to the cloud all the information in close to real time, control of productive parameters of larvae, pre-hatchlings and adults using mobile phones and artificial intelligence algorithms. A digital ecosystem, within a biological system, which gives rise to a profitable business, but especially to a food production system of high biological value and low environmental impact for the benefit of humanity, in this system, those involved take advantage of the technological innovation as a competitive advantage, this is the opportunity that Aquaculture 4.0 brings.

Ivan Ramirez Co-founder of Larvia Research and Development Leader ivan@larvia.ai IG: ivaneduramirez

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CARPE DIEM

THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY IN 2022.

We are living extremely difficult times where our ability to adapt is more important than ever. During 2021 we had to postpone most of our events, due to COVID restrictions put in place worldwide. I am confident that our global team is taking every consideration to guarantee the safety of our members, partners, participants and guests. More than ever, WAS is proving to be a very resilient organization and in despite the current events, we are consolidating and strengthening our position globally. I will like to extend my highest recognition

by Antonio Garza de Yta, Ph.D. President, World Aquaculture Society (WAS)

to John Cooksey and his team for all their effort and adaptability that have been challenged at the highest levels.

W

AS looks forward to returning to some degree of normalcy in our meetings in 2022.

However, COVID remains with us and continues to create uncertainty, particularly with respect to restrictions on international travel. Therefore, to better accommodate to our members’ needs, the Board is making the following exceptions to standard policies for 2022: 1. Annual Membership Meeting (AMM), which may also be known as the Annual Meeting (terminology used in By-Laws) or the Business Meeting. To better accommodate a membership that may be experiencing travel restrictions, we will hold three (3) equivalent in-person AMMs in 2022. The regularly scheduled AMM will occur at Aquaculture 2022 in San Diego to serve our North American members. The second AMM will occur at World Aquaculture 2021 in Me-

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rida, Mexico in May 2022 to serve our Latin American and Caribbean members. The third AMM will be held at World Aquaculture Singapore 2022 in Nov/Dec 2022 to serve our Asian Pacific members. At each of these meetings, at least a subset of Officers and Directors will be available to provide updates on Society activities and answer questions. As

the pandemic has strained the Society’s finances with respect Officer/ Director travel, all three AMMs will include a virtual component.

2. Board Meeting. The Board voted to move the scheduled Board meeting from San Diego to Merida to allow more time for travel to return to normal and, thus, provide a

DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

WAS Event Aquaculture 2022 Aquaculture Africa 2021 World Aquaculture 2021 Aquaculture Canada & WAS North America LACQUA 2022 World Aquaculture Singapore 2022

better opportunity for holding an in-person meeting. Virtual Board meetings may be held as necessary during either the San Diego or Singapore conferences.

3. Change of Officers and Directors. New terms for Officers and Directors normally begin at the end of the regularly scheduled AMM, which in this case would have been San Diego. However, because we will be holding three AMMs this year, we will change Officers/Directors at the end of the AMM in Merida.

All other Society functions are expected to operate normally in 2022. We hope these changes allow for greater engagement among the Board and the members as we continue to navigate these challenging times.

DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022

Location San Diego, California Alexandria, Egypt Merida, Mexico St. Johns, Canada Panama City, Panama Singapore

Date Feb 28-Mar 04 March 25-28 May 24-27 August 15-18 November 14-17 Nov 29-Dec 02

Regardless of the difficult times, aquaculture has grown in relevance globally. Proof of that is the Shanghai Declaration, which was adopted on September 25th, and the importance that was given to aquaculture during the Food System Summit, in New York and the Glasgow COP 26. I hope we have time to discuss more about these topics on our following events.

Finally, I would just like to wish to you all, aquaculture professionals and enthusiasts around the world, that during this new year you are surrounded by your family and loved ones; and that peace, harmony and love fill your homes.

I sincerely wish, with all my heart, that happiness, joy and good health accompany you and your loved ones during all 2022. The best for the year to come!

WAS President 2021 - 2022. Antonio Garza de Yta, a renowned international aquaculture professional, who holds a Masters degree and a Ph.D. in Aquaculture from the University of Auburn, USA. He is an aquaculture expert, FAO frequent consultant, as well as a specialist in strategic planning. Ex-director of Extension and International Training for the University of Auburn and creator of the Certification for Aquaculture Professionals in that academic institution.

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Upcoming

aquaculture events

JANUARY 2022 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE (ICFA) Jan 1st Bhubaneswar,India T: +91 8280047516 (Call 9.00AM to 7.00PM) E: papers.asar@gmail.com W: http://asar.org.in/Conference/26092/ICFA/ FEBRUARY 2022 AQUAEXPO 2022 SANTA ELENA, ECUADOR Feb 9 – 10th T: (+593) 4 268 3017 - 268 2617 - 268 2635 E: cna@cna-ecuador.com W: aquaexpo.com.ec 7TH SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEETING ON SHRIMP FARMING February 22 – 23 Ciudad Obregón, Sonora. www.panoramaacuicola.com opr@dpinternationalinc.com

AQUACULTURE 2022 Feb 28 – March 04th San Diego, California USA T: +1 700 751 5005 E: worldaqua@was.org W: was.org/meeting/code/aq2022

XVI SIMPOSIUM INTERNACIONAL EN NUTRICIÓN ACUÍCOLA March 29 – Apr 1th Virtual T: +52 993 161 7582 E: info@aena.mx W: sina.aena.mx

MARCH 2022 AQUAFUTURE SPAIN ´22 March 23 – 25 Santiago de Compostella, Spain T: 620 681 861 E: okeventos.juan@gmail.com W: https://www.aquafuturespain.com/

APRIL 2022 AQUAEXPO 2022 MANÁBI, ECUADOR Apr 6 – 7th T: (+593) 4 268 3017 - 268 2617 - 268 2635 E: cna@cna-ecuador.com W: aquaexpo.com.ec

AQUASUR 2022 March 2 – 4, 2022.

Aquasur Venue - Puerto Montt, Chile.

E: info@aqua-sur.cl W: www.aqua-sur.cl

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Tel: +34959255799 www.tervalis.com EVENTS AND EXHIBITIONS 7TH SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEETING ON SHRIMP FARMING..........................................................................1 February 22 – 23 Ciudad Obregón, Sonora.

E-mail: opr@dpinternationalinc.com www.panoramaacuicola.com AQUACULTURE AMERICA 2022...................................................37 February, 28 - March 4, 2022. San Diego, California.

Tel: +1 760 751 5005 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com www.was.org AQUACULTURE AFRICA 2021......................................................37 December, 11 - December 14, 2021. Alexandria, Egypt.

Tel: +1 760 751 5005 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com AQUACULTURE CANADA AND QAS NORTH AMERICA 2020........33 August, 15 - 18, 2022. St. John´s Convention Centre.

St. John´s Newfoundland and Labrados, Canada Tel: +1 760 751 5005 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com www.was.org

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AQUACULTURE EUROPE 2022.....................................................35 September, 27 - 30, 2022. Rimini, Italy. www.aquaeas.org AQUAFUTURE SPAIN 2022..................................................43 March 24 – 26, 2022. Santiago de Compostela, Spain T: +1 620 681 861 E: okeventos.juan@gmail.com W: www.aquafuturespain.com AQUASUR 2022.................................................INSIDE COVER March 2 – 4, 2022. Aquasur Venue - Puerto Montt, Chile.

E: info@aqua-sur.cl W: www.aqua-sur.cl GUATEMALA AQUALCULTURE SYMPOSIUM 202....................21 June, 8-10, 2022.

Santo Domingo del Cerro, La Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala.

E: simposiodeacuiculturagt@agexport.org.gt W: www.simposio.acuiculturaypescaenguatemala.com LACQUA 2022.............................................................................37 November, 14 - 17, 2022. Panama City, Panama.

Tel: +1 760 751 5005 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com www.was.org WORLD AQUACULTURE 2021......................................................37 May, 24 - 27, 2022. Mérida, Mexico.

Tel: +1 760 751 5005 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com www.was.org XVI INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON AQUACULTURE NUTRITION...................................................................................19 March, 29 - April 1, 2022. Virtual event. www.sina.aena.mx

PANORAMA ACUÍCOLA MAGAZINE Empresarios No. #135 Int. Piso 7 Oficina 723 Col. Puerta de Hierro, C.P.45116 Zapopan, Jal. México Office: +52 (33) 8000 0578 Contact 1: Subscriptions E-mail: suscripciones@panoramaacuicola.com Office: +52 (33) 8000 0629 y (33) 8000 0653 Contact 2: Juan Carlos Elizalde, Sales & Marketing Coordinator. crm@dpinternationalinc.com | Cell: +521 33 1466 0392 Contact 3: Claudia Marín, Sales Support Expert E-mail: sse@dpinternationalinc.com www.panoramaacuicola.com TANKS AND NETWORKING FOR AQUACULTURE REEF INDUSTRIES.................................................BACK COVER 9209 Almeda Genoa Road Z.C. 7075, Houston, Texas, USA. Contact: Gina Quevedo/Mark Young/ Jeff Garza.

T: Toll Free 1 (800) 231-6074 T: Local (713) 507-4250 E-mail: gquevedo@reefindustries.com / jgarza@reefindustries.com / myoung@reefindustries.com www.reefindustries.com

AQUACULTURE MAGAZINE....................5 / / INSIDE COVER Design Publications International Inc. 203 S. St. Mary’s St. Ste. 160 San Antonio, TX 78205, USA Office: +210 504 3642 Office in Mexico: +52(33) 8000 0578 - Ext: 8578 Subscriptions: iwantasubscription@dpinternationalinc.com Sales & Marketing Coordinator. Juan Carlos Elizalde crm@dpinternationalinc.com | Cell: +521 33 1466 0392 Sales Support Expert, Claudia Marín sse@dpinternationalinc.com | Cell:+521 333 968 8515

DECEMBER 2021-JANUARY 2022