Requirements
For your one and only essay in this class, you need to choose one of the more than 300 prompts on the following pages to write about.
The other requirements include:
1. Your essay must be at least 1200 words in length.
2. Your essay must contain at least four (4) sources—including the primary source (the work you are writing about)—that are used and documented in the body of your essay and included on your works-cited page.
3. Your essay should be written in MLA style.
4. Your essay should be formatted in MLA style.
5. Your essay MUST include a works-cited page in MLA style that includes four sources (mentioned above) cited in MLA style.
6. Your essay should not be plagiarized.
7. Your essay should be written by you, not ChatGPT or any other form of AI.
8. Your essay should be submitted as an actual file—not a link to a file, like Google Docs, Dropbox, etc.—that is a .doc, .docx, .pdf, or .rtf. (If you don’t know what this means or how to do it, Google it or look it up on YouTube.)
9. Your essay should be submitted on or before the date and time indicated in Blackboard.
If you have ANY questions or need ANY help, do not hesitate to text me at 501912-7272, and we will arrange a time to talk on the phone or meet in person. Don’t send me emails or use Blackboard’s messaging function to contact me, as it will take much more time for me to respond.
Happy writing!
—ALW
THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH
I. HEROISM AND IDENTITY
• Discuss how Gilgamesh’s journey transforms his understanding of what it means to be a hero. How does his concept of heroism evolve from the beginning to the end of the epic?
• Examine the relationship between kingship and morality in Gilgamesh’s character. How does his growth as a ruler reflect Mesopotamian ideals of leadership?
• Analyze how the friendship with Enkidu reshapes Gilgamesh’s identity. What does this relationship reveal about the human need for companionship?
• Compare Gilgamesh’s early pursuit of glory with his later search for immortality. How do these two quests reflect different phases of human ambition?
• In what ways does Gilgamesh embody both divine and human traits, and how do these conflicting elements define his struggle for meaning?
II. MORTALITY AND THE SEARCH FOR IMMORTALITY
• Discuss how the inevitability of death shapes Gilgamesh’s transformation. What lessons about mortality does the epic convey?
• Analyze the symbolic meaning of Gilgamesh’s quest for eternal life. Is it ultimately a failure, or does he achieve a different kind of immortality?
• Explore how the death of Enkidu serves as the catalyst for Gilgamesh’s spiritual awakening. How does grief function as a source of wisdom?
• Consider the role of Utnapishtim in the narrative. What does his immortality suggest about the gods’ relationship with humanity?
• Examine the theme of legacy as an alternative to physical immortality. How does Gilgamesh’s story propose that humans live on through memory, art, and civilization?
III. FRIENDSHIP AND HUMAN CONNECTION
• Evaluate the significance of the bond between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. How does their friendship redefine both men’s understanding of themselves and their world?
• Analyze Enkidu’s transformation from wild man to civ-
ilized companion. What does this process reveal about Mesopotamian views on culture and nature?
• In what ways does the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu mirror human relationships with the divine?
• Discuss the idea of balance in the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. How does each complete what the other lacks?
• Compare Gilgamesh and Enkidu to other literary pairs (e.g., Achilles and Patroclus, or Adam and Eve). How does their relationship explore universal themes of companionship and loss?
IV. THE DIVINE AND THE HUMAN
• Discuss the portrayal of the gods in The Epic of Gilgamesh. How do their actions reflect human-like flaws and emotions?
• Analyze the role of divine intervention in Gilgamesh’s journey. Does fate or free will ultimately guide his path?
• Consider how the gods’ treatment of Enkidu’s death reveals the relationship between divine justice and human suffering.
• Examine the goddess Ishtar’s role in the story. What does her interaction with Gilgamesh suggest about power, gender, and divine desire?
• How does the flood narrative in The Epic of Gilgamesh
reveal Mesopotamian beliefs about the relationship between gods and humans?
V. CIVILIZATION, NATURE, AND CULTURE
• Analyze the tension between civilization and the natural world as symbolized by Enkidu’s transformation. What does this suggest about the costs of progress?
• Discuss how the construction of Uruk and its walls serves as a metaphor for civilization itself. What do they symbolize at the beginning and end of the epic?
• Compare the wildness of the Cedar Forest with the order of Uruk. How does the epic define humanity’s role in shaping or destroying nature?
• Explore the theme of human domination over nature through Gilgamesh’s slaying of Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. What moral consequences follow?
• How does the epic reconcile the tension between the natural instincts represented by Enkidu and the societal order represented by Gilgamesh?
VI. GENDER AND POWER
• Examine the representation of women in The Epic of Gilgamesh. How do figures like Shamhat, Siduri, and Ishtar influence the male heroes’ development?
• Analyze the role of sexuality in Enkidu’s civilization. Does the epic portray erotic experience as corrupting, redemptive, or both?
• How does Ishtar’s portrayal reflect Mesopotamian attitudes toward female divinity and desire?
• Discuss how women serve as mediators between the human and divine worlds in the epic. What power do they hold in guiding fate?
• Compare the roles of mortal and divine women in shaping Gilgamesh’s destiny. How do they each challenge or reinforce his pursuit of immortality?
THE ODYSSEY
I. HEROISM, IDENTITY, AND THE SELF
• The Evolution of a Hero: How does Odysseus’s concept of heroism change from warrior to wanderer to ruler over the course of The Odyssey?
• Odysseus’s Identity and Disguise: How does Homer use disguise and deception to explore the nature of personal
identity and self-knowledge?
• Cunning vs. Strength: Analyze how metis (cunning intelligence) defines Odysseus’s heroism differently from the brute strength of Homeric warriors.
• The Journey of the Self: In what ways does Odysseus’s voyage function as a psychological or spiritual journey toward self-understanding?
• The Hero’s Dual Nature: How do Odysseus’s virtues and flaws—his intelligence, pride, and deceit—shape his fate and humanity?
II. FAMILY, HOMECOMING, AND LOYALTY
• The Meaning of Home (Nostos): What does homecoming mean in The Odyssey, and how does it differ for Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus?
• The Ideal of the Family: How does Homer portray the family unit as a foundation of Greek moral and social order?
• Telemachus’s Coming of Age: How does Telemachus’s development parallel and complement his father’s journey?
• Penelope’s Faithfulness: In what ways does Penelope’s endurance and intelligence serve as a form of heroism equal to Odysseus’s?
• Loyalty and Betrayal: Explore how loyalty—to family,
gods, and home—shapes the moral world of The Odyssey.
III. THE GODS, FATE, AND THE DIVINE ORDER
• Divine Justice and Human Will: How does The Odyssey reconcile divine intervention with human free will?
• Athena’s Guidance: Analyze Athena’s role as protector and mentor. Does she act out of divine duty, personal affection, or symbolic purpose?
• Poseidon’s Wrath: What does Poseidon’s hostility toward Odysseus reveal about the relationship between gods and mortals in Homeric thought?
• Piety and Hubris: How does Homer portray the dangers of pride and impiety in shaping the destinies of mortals?
• The Role of Fate: Does Odysseus succeed because of fate, divine favor, or his own choices? Defend your interpretation using key episodes.
IV. WOMEN AND GENDER ROLES
• Women as Agents of Wisdom and Temptation: Compare how Calypso, Circe, and Nausicaa each influence Odysseus’s journey.
• Penelope as a Heroine: In what ways does Penelope embody heroic qualities within a domestic and patriarchal context?
• The Sirens and Female Voice: Analyze the symbolism of the Sirens. What do they reveal about gendered power and knowledge?
• Women and Power: How does The Odyssey explore both the empowerment and the limitation of women in the epic world?
• Fidelity and Reputation: How does Homer contrast male and female expectations of fidelity through Odysseus’s and Penelope’s actions?
V. HOSPITALITY, MORALITY, AND CIVILIZATION
• The Law of Xenia (Hospitality): How does the theme of hospitality distinguish civilization from barbarism in The Odyssey?
• Moral Order and the Stranger: In what ways do the encounters with hosts and guests (e.g., Phaeacians, Cyclops, suitors) reflect Greek ethical values?
• The Ethics of Revenge: How does the slaughter of the suitors raise questions about justice, mercy, and moral responsibility?
• The Civilized and the Savage: What does Odysseus’s encounter with the Cyclops reveal about the boundaries
between humanity and savagery?
• Community and Isolation: How does Homer use the motif of isolation versus belonging to define civilization and moral order?
VI. STORYTELLING, MEMORY, AND THE NATURE OF EPIC
• The Power of Storytelling: How does Odysseus’s retelling of his adventures shape his identity and his audience’s perception of him?
• The Oral Tradition: Analyze how repetition, epithets, and formulaic language contribute to the poem’s structure and cultural memory.
• Truth and Fabrication: To what extent is Odysseus’s narrative reliable? How does Homer invite readers to question truth in storytelling?
• Memory and Forgetting: How do the themes of memory (Mnemosyne) and forgetting (as in the Lotus-Eaters) shape the epic’s moral vision?
LYSISTRATA
I. GENDER, POWER, AND POLITICS
• Reversing the Gender Order: How does Lysistrata challenge traditional Athenian gender roles, and to what extent is the play revolutionary or conservative in its portrayal of women’s power?
• Women as Political Agents: In what ways does Aristophanes use the female characters to critique male governance and war culture in classical Athens?
• Masculinity Under Siege: How does the play depict male identity and masculinity when women assume political and sexual control?
• Sex and Power Dynamics: Analyze how Lysistrata uses sexuality as a form of political resistance. Does the play empower or trivialize women’s use of sexual leverage?
• The Feminine Voice in the Public Sphere: How does Lysistrata’s speech and leadership challenge Athenian expectations about women’s silence and domestic confinement?
II. WAR, PEACE, AND CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY
• Comedy as Anti-War Commentary: In what ways does Lysistrata serve as a serious critique of war through the
medium of comedy?
• The Peloponnesian War Context: How does Aristophanes use the social and political conditions of Athens during the Peloponnesian War to shape the play’s themes and humor?
• Peace as Restoration of Harmony: What does Lysistrata suggest about the relationship between personal desire, civic duty, and peace?
• Nationalism and Unity: How does the alliance of women from different Greek city-states reflect Aristophanes’ vision of pan-Hellenic identity?
• The Economics of War: Analyze how control of the Acropolis and its treasury symbolizes both political and sexual power in the play.
III. COMEDY, SATIRE, AND SOCIAL CRITIQUE
• The Function of Comedy in Social Change: To what extent does Aristophanes use humor as a means of political persuasion?
• Parody and Inversion: How does Lysistrata use the inversion of social norms—gender, class, sexuality—to expose the absurdities of Athenian politics?
• The Chorus as Commentary: What role do the choruses of old men and old women play in shaping the play’s comedic and moral messages?
• Comedy and Seriousness: Is Lysistrata ultimately more comedic or more political in purpose? Defend your interpretation with textual evidence.
• Language, Wit, and Power: How does Aristophanes use verbal humor and wordplay to undermine authority and critique Athenian society?
IV. SEXUALITY, DESIRE, AND THE BODY
• Sexual Politics: How does Lysistrata portray the intersection of sexual desire and political control?
• The Erotic Body as Battlefield: In what ways does Aristophanes turn the human body into a site of conflict, negotiation, and reconciliation?
• Carnivalesque Liberation: How does the play’s humor about sex, bodies, and fertility serve to invert social hierarchies and release social tension?
V. WOMEN, LEADERSHIP, AND UTOPIA
• Lysistrata as Political Leader: How does Aristophanes construct Lysistrata as a model of leadership—through her rhetoric, strategy, and moral vision?
• Imagining a Feminine Utopia: Does Lysistrata present a genuine alternative social order led by women, or is it a comic fantasy meant to reaffirm male dominance?
THE AENEID
I. HEROISM, DUTY, AND FATE
• The Nature of Heroism: How does Virgil redefine the heroic ideal in The Aeneid compared to Homeric epics like The Iliad and The Odyssey?
• Pietas and the Roman Hero: What does pietas mean for Aeneas, and how does it guide or conflict with his personal emotions?
• Duty vs. Desire: How does Virgil explore the tension between personal longing and civic responsibility through Aeneas’s character?
• The Burden of Destiny: Is Aeneas a free agent or merely an instrument of fate? Discuss the limits of human choice in the poem.
• The Cost of Obedience: What does Aeneas’s journey suggest about the moral and psychological costs of fulfilling divine destiny?
• Heroic Suffering: How does suffering—both personal and collective—serve as a necessary condition for the founding of Rome?
II. EMPIRE, POLITICS, AND AUGUSTAN IDEOLOGY
• Propaganda or Ambiguity: To what extent does The Aeneid serve as a celebration of Augustus and the Roman Empire, and to what extent does it question imperial values?
• The Founding Myth: How does The Aeneid construct Rome’s national identity through divine will and moral purpose?
• The Cost of Empire: What human sacrifices are required for the creation of Rome, and how does Virgil present those costs?
• War and Peace: Does Virgil glorify war as a noble means of empire, or mourn it as a tragic necessity?
• Anchises’s Prophecy: How does the vision of Rome’s future in Book VI shape the epic’s moral and political message?
• Aeneas as an Augustan Symbol: In what ways does Aeneas embody Augustus’s political virtues—and in what ways does he fall short?
• The Fall of Troy and the Rise of Rome: How does Virgil link destruction and creation to illustrate the cyclical na-
ture of history?
• Imperial Destiny and Moral Ambiguity: How does The Aeneid reconcile—or fail to reconcile—the glory of empire with the suffering it causes?
III. LOVE, EMOTION, AND HUMAN CONFLICT
• The Tragedy of Dido: Analyze Dido’s story as both a personal tragedy and a political allegory. How does her fate critique Aeneas’s mission?
• Love vs. Duty: What moral conclusions does Virgil draw from Aeneas’s abandonment of Dido?
• Passion as Destruction: How does Virgil portray uncontrolled emotion as both deeply human and potentially ruinous?
• Grief and Leadership: How does Aeneas’s experience of loss (of Troy, of Anchises, of Dido) shape his capacity to lead?
• The Private vs. The Public Self: How does Aeneas balance—or fail to balance—his human feelings with his political role?
IV. THE DIVINE AND THE HUMAN
• The Role of the Gods: How do divine interventions shape the moral and emotional tone of the poem?
• Fate and Free Will: Do the gods enforce destiny or manipulate it for their own ends?
• Juno’s Opposition: What does Juno’s resistance to fate reveal about divine emotion and cosmic order?
• Venus and Maternal Power: How does Venus’s role as Aeneas’s protector complicate the poem’s view of divine involvement in human affairs?
• Piety and Rebellion: How does Aeneas navigate the competing demands of gods and men, and what does this suggest about Roman religious values?
V. VIOLENCE, WAR, AND CIVILIZATION
• The Ethics of Violence: How does Virgil depict the moral tension between the necessity and horror of war?
• Turnus as Foil: In what ways does Turnus represent both the enemy of Aeneas and a reflection of his own aggression?
• The Killing of Turnus: Does Aeneas’s final act represent justice, vengeance, or a failure of moral restraint?
• The Cycle of Vengeance: How does Virgil use recurring images of revenge and retribution to comment on the founding of Rome?
• Civilization and Chaos: How does The Aeneid portray the struggle between the forces of order (Rome, destiny, reason) and chaos (Troy’s fall, passion, war)?
THE BOOK OF GENESIS
I. THEMES AND THEOLOGY
• Analyze the concept of creation in Genesis 1 and 2: how do the two creation accounts differ, and what theological implications arise from these differences?
• Discuss how Genesis presents the relationship between God and humanity—is it characterized more by covenant, command, or companionship?
• Examine the theme of sin and redemption from Adam and Eve to Joseph’s reconciliation with his brothers.
• How does Genesis portray the concept of divine justice
versus divine mercy?
• Evaluate the role of faith in the narratives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
• Explore the significance of covenant in Genesis: how does God’s promise evolve from Noah to Abraham to Jacob?
• Analyze how the image of God (imago Dei) in Genesis 1:26–27 shapes the biblical understanding of human identity and purpose.
• How does Genesis define good and evil, and how does this definition evolve through the patriarchal stories?
• What is the theological function of naming in Genesis (e.g., Adam naming the animals, Abram becoming Abraham)?
• Compare the portrayals of obedience and disobedience in the stories of Adam and Eve, Noah, and Abraham.
II. GENDER AND FAMILY DYNAMICS
• Analyze the role of women in Genesis—Eve, Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, and Leah—as agents of both divine and human purpose.
• How does Genesis portray marriage and family as both sacred and conflict-ridden institutions?
• Discuss the theme of barrenness and divine intervention in the stories of Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel.
• Evaluate how patriarchal authority operates in Genesis: how do sons, wives, and servants challenge or reinforce it?
• In what ways do brotherly conflicts (Cain and Abel, Jacob and Esau, Joseph and his brothers) reflect broader theological or moral concerns?
• How does Genesis address gender roles and divine will in the creation and fall narratives?
• Examine how the story of Hagar and Ishmael challenges assumptions about blessing, lineage, and divine favor.
• Discuss the depiction of motherhood in Genesis and its connection to covenantal continuity.
• How do female figures in Genesis subvert or uphold the patriarchal structures of their time?
• In what ways does Genesis depict the family as a microcosm of divine-human relationships?
III. LITERARY AND NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
• Explore the literary structure of Genesis: how do repetition, genealogy, and narrative cycles create unity within the book?
• How does Genesis use symbolism (e.g., trees, serpents,
rainbows, dreams) to convey theological truths?
• Analyze the function of dreams as a narrative and theological device in the lives of Jacob and Joseph.
• Examine the use of irony in Genesis—how does irony reveal human weakness and divine wisdom?
• Discuss the role of speech and silence in key Genesis narratives—what is revealed by what characters say or do not say?
• How does Genesis establish patterns of repetition and reversal (e.g., younger son triumphing over elder)?
• Consider Genesis as a work of etiology: how does it explain the origins of human behavior, suffering, and social structures?
• In what ways does Genesis employ storytelling techniques that anticipate later biblical literature?
• Analyze the literary unity or disunity of the primeval (Genesis 1–11) and patriarchal (Genesis 12–50) narratives.
• How does Genesis balance universal human themes with the particular story of Israel’s beginnings?
IV. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS
• Compare the Genesis creation and flood accounts with Ancient Near Eastern myths such as the Enuma Elish or
the Epic of Gilgamesh.
• What does Genesis reveal about ancient conceptions of God, humanity, and nature?
• How might the patriarchal narratives reflect the historical realities of nomadic and tribal societies in the ancient Near East?
• Discuss how Genesis both reflects and critiques the social and moral codes of its historical context.
• Examine how land and migration function as both physical and theological motifs throughout Genesis.
• What does the Tower of Babel narrative suggest about ancient understandings of human ambition and divine order?
• How do the genealogies in Genesis function historically and theologically to connect humanity with divine purpose?
• In what ways does Genesis portray divine-human covenants as political or cultural contracts?
• Compare the Genesis flood story with other ancient flood myths—what unique theological perspective does Genesis introduce?
• How does the Genesis narrative address the origins of cultural diversity and human civilization?
V. ETHICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY
• How does Genesis frame the problem of human freedom and moral responsibility?
• What ethical vision of justice, mercy, and retribution emerges in Genesis?
• Analyze the moral complexity of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Isaac—what does it reveal about obedience and faith?
• Discuss how Genesis confronts the issue of violence and divine sanction (e.g., the Flood, Sodom and Gomorrah).
• How does Genesis handle the tension between divine sovereignty and human agency?
• What vision of hospitality and the stranger emerges in Genesis, and how might it inform modern ethics?
• Consider the moral evolution from Cain’s punishment to Joseph’s forgiveness: what does Genesis teach about reconciliation?
• How does Genesis engage with the philosophical question of the origin of evil?
• Examine the ethical implications of divine testing in Genesis (e.g., Abraham, Joseph, Jacob).
• To what extent does Genesis portray human life as a moral journey toward understanding God’s will?
BHAGAVADGITA
I. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY
• Discuss how the Bhagavad-Gita reconciles action (karma) with renunciation (sannyasa)—can one act selflessly without attachment?
• Analyze the Gita’s conception of dharma (duty) and how it applies to Arjuna’s moral dilemma on the battlefield.
• How does the Bhagavad-Gita define the self (atman), and how does that definition shape its view of human purpose?
• Examine the Gita’s understanding of God (Krishna) as both personal and cosmic. How does this duality shape Hindu theology?
• Explore the relationship between knowledge (jnana), action (karma), and devotion (bhakti) in achieving liberation.
• How does the Bhagavad-Gita integrate Sankhya philosophy with Vedantic and Bhakti traditions?
• Discuss the Gita’s vision of liberation (moksha)—is it achieved through detachment, devotion, wisdom, or a synthesis of all three?
• What is the Bhagavad-Gita’s attitude toward the material world—is it an illusion to transcend, or a realm of divine expression?
• Analyze Krishna’s claim that He is the doer of all actions: what does this mean for individual moral responsibility?
• Examine the role of faith (shraddha) in the Gita—how does it shape the path toward spiritual realization?
II. ETHICS AND MORAL DILEMMAS
• Analyze the ethical conflict faced by Arjuna: is the Bhagavad-Gita a defense of violence in the name of duty, or a metaphor for inner struggle?
• How does the Gita redefine moral action—does intention matter more than outcome?
• Discuss how the Bhagavad-Gita resolves the tension between individual conscience and social obligation.
• Examine how the Gita’s notion of non-attachment (nishkama karma) provides an alternative to modern utilitarian or deontological ethics.
• In what ways does the Gita critique ego-driven morality? Can one truly act without self-interest?
• What does the Bhagavad-Gita teach about the nature of
evil and ignorance?
• Compare Arjuna’s ethical paralysis with modern moral dilemmas—what does the Gita suggest about moral clarity amid conflict?
• How does the Bhagavad-Gita balance universal morality with caste-based duty (varna-dharma)?
• Discuss the Gita’s concept of right action in the context of war—can violence ever be spiritually justified?
• What does the Bhagavad-Gita teach about the relationship between inner purity and outer conduct?
III. DEVOTION, KNOWLEDGE, AND YOGA
• Compare the three paths to liberation—karma yoga (the path of action), jnana yoga (the path of knowledge), and bhakti yoga (the path of devotion). Which does Krishna
elevate, and why?
• How does the Bhagavad-Gita transform the concept of yoga from a physical discipline into a spiritual and philosophical one?
• What is the role of discipline and self-control in the Gita’s vision of spiritual growth?
• Discuss how Bhakti (devotion) redefines the relationship between God and human beings in the Bhagavad-Gita.
• How does the Gita describe spiritual enlightenment as both knowledge and surrender?
• What is the significance of meditation in the Bhagavad-Gita’s vision of the ideal yogi?
• Examine the tension between knowledge as intellectual understanding and knowledge as direct experience in the Gita.
• How does Krishna’s teaching on equanimity (samatva) inform the Gita’s ideal of spiritual liberation?
• Compare the Gita’s yoga philosophy to that of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras—how are the goals and methods similar or different?
• How does the Bhagavad-Gita define the divine nature of human work?
IV. SYMBOLISM, STRUCTURE, AND LITERARY ELEMENTS
• Analyze the dialogue structure of the Bhagavad-Gita how does the teacher-disciple relationship between Krishna and Arjuna shape the text’s meaning?
• How does the setting of the battlefield (Kurukshetra) function as a metaphor for the inner conflict of the human soul?
• Discuss the symbolic meaning of Krishna’s revelation of his universal form (Vishvarupa)—what does it reveal about divine reality?
• How does the Gita use language, repetition, and imagery to reinforce its philosophical themes?
• Examine how the Bhagavad-Gita blends poetic imagery with philosophical discourse—what effect does this combination have on its spiritual message?
BEOWULF
I. HEROISM AND IDENTITY
• How does Beowulf define heroism? Discuss how courage, reputation, and loyalty shape the poem’s concept of a hero.
• Examine the contrast between Beowulf as a young warrior and Beowulf as an aging king—how do these two roles redefine what it means to be heroic?
• In what ways does Beowulf explore the tension between individual glory and communal responsibility?
• How does Beowulf’s pursuit of fame (lof) reflect both pagan and Christian values?
• Analyze how the poem presents mortality as an inevitable counterpart to heroism.
• Discuss how kinship, loyalty, and vengeance form the foundation of identity in Beowulf
• Is Beowulf’s final battle with the dragon an act of courage or pride? Defend your interpretation using textual evidence.
• How does Beowulf use ancestry and lineage to establish legitimacy and identity among characters?
• Examine how honor and legacy function as moral currencies in the heroic code of Beowulf.
• Compare Beowulf’s sense of duty to modern understandings of leadership and heroism.
II. GOOD, EVIL, AND THE MONSTROUS
• How do Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon each embody different aspects of evil or chaos?
• Discuss the moral complexity of Grendel—is he purely a
monster, or does he reflect human flaws?
• How does the poem blur the line between human and monster?
• What does the dragon symbolize in Beowulf’s final act, and how does it redefine heroism?
• Examine the role of revenge in the poem—does it uphold or undermine the moral order?
• How does the depiction of Grendel’s mother challenge or reinforce medieval views of female power and monstrosity?
• Explore how Heaney’s translation emphasizes the moral ambiguity of violence and vengeance.
• What is the significance of light and darkness imagery in representing good and evil throughout the poem?
• Discuss how the poem’s monsters represent existential threats to human civilization and meaning.
• How do the monstrous figures in Beowulf reflect the fears and anxieties of early medieval society?
III. RELIGION, FATE, AND WORLDVIEW
• How does Beowulf blend Christian and pagan elements— and what tensions arise from this synthesis?
• Analyze the role of fate (wyrd) in the poem: does Beowulf shape his destiny, or is he bound by it?
• How does the poem’s portrayal of God’s will differ from its portrayal of heroic destiny?
• In what ways does the Beowulf poet reinterpret pagan heroism through a Christian moral lens?
• How does the poem’s fatalism shape its vision of mortality and moral struggle?
• Examine how Heaney’s translation captures or reshapes the spiritual undertones of the original Old English poem.
• What role does divine judgment play in Beowulf’s victories and ultimate death?
• How does the poem’s portrayal of evil as a spiritual condition contrast with its depiction of physical violence?
• Discuss the coexistence of pagan ritual and Christian moral reflection in the world of Beowulf.
• How does the poem use the concept of fate versus free will to define the limits of human action?
IV. SOCIETY, GENDER, AND POWER
• How do the mead-hall and gift-giving culture symbolize social order and mutual obligation in Beowulf?
• Discuss the role of women as peace-weavers and mourners in the poem. Do they wield any real power?
• Analyze the character of Wealhtheow or Hygd—what do their actions reveal about gender and diplomacy?
• What does Beowulf reveal about leadership and kingship in Anglo-Saxon society?
• How do the feuds and alliances in Beowulf reflect the fragility of early medieval kingdoms?
• In what ways does the poem present warrior culture as both noble and self-destructive?
• How does Heaney’s modern translation make the poem’s social values—such as loyalty, duty, and kinship— relevant to contemporary readers?
• What does Beowulf suggest about the role of women as preservers of memory and lineage?
• How does the performance of storytelling and poetry function as a source of cultural continuity in Beowulf?
• What vision of civilization and decline emerges by the end of the poem, and how does it relate to the human condition?
THE CANTERBURY TALES
“THE GENERAL PROLOGUE”
• The Art of Characterization: Analyze how Chaucer uses physical description, occupation, and speech in “The General Prologue” to construct complex social portraits of his pilgrims. Choose three characters and discuss how their descriptions reveal both individual traits and broader social commentary.
• Satire and Social Critique: Examine how Chaucer satirizes medieval social institutions—particularly the Church, chivalry, or the emerging middle class—in “The General Prologue”. What methods of irony and humor does he use to balance criticism and entertainment?
• The Role of the Narrator: Discuss the persona of Chaucer the pilgrim-narrator in “The General Prologue”. To what extent is he a reliable or naive observer? How does his perspective shape readers’ understanding of the pilgrims?
• The Estates Tradition: Explain how “The General Prologue” engages with and subverts the medieval “three estates” model (clergy, nobility, and commoners). How does Chaucer use his pilgrims to question the moral or
social authority of these categories?
• Religious Hypocrisy and Spiritual Integrity: Compare the representations of religious figures (e.g., the Prioress, Monk, Friar, Parson, and Pardoner). How does Chaucer distinguish between genuine spirituality and corruption within the Church?
• Chaucer’s Use of Irony: Explore the different kinds of irony—verbal, dramatic, and structural—that Chaucer employs in “The General Prologue”. How does irony invite readers to read “between the lines” of the narrator’s praise?
• The Middle English Language and Tone: Consider how Chaucer’s language, diction, and meter in “The General Prologue” contribute to its tone and meaning. How does He use rhythmic and lexical variety to elevate or mock certain characters?
• Gender and Power: Analyze the representation of women in “The General Prologue”, focusing on characters such as the Prioress and the Wife of Bath. How do their
portraits challenge or reinforce medieval gender norms?
• The Pilgrimage as a Microcosm: Discuss the idea of the pilgrimage as a metaphor for medieval society. In what ways does the diverse group of pilgrims represent a cross-section of 14th-century English life?
• Morality and Materialism: Examine how Chaucer contrasts spiritual ideals with material desires in “The General Prologue”. What do the pilgrims’ attitudes toward money, food, and pleasure reveal about moral decay and human nature?
• The Function of Humor: Analyze the role of humor—gentle, biting, or absurd—in “The General Prologue”. How does laughter serve both as entertainment and as moral commentary?
• Appearance vs. Reality: Choose two or three pilgrims whose outward appearance contradicts their inner nature. How does Chaucer use this contrast to explore hypocrisy, self-deception, or the complexities of human identity?
• Chaucer and Social Mobility: Consider how “The General Prologue” reflects the changing social dynamics of 14th-century England. How do characters like the Merchant, the Franklin, and the Wife of Bath complicate traditional hierarchies?
• The Idea of a “Perfect” Pilgrim: Who, if anyone, emerges as the moral ideal in “The General Prologue”? Discuss whether the Parson, Knight, or another figure embodies Chaucer’s vision of integrity.
• Storytelling and Self-Representation: Analyze how the descriptions in “The General Prologue” foreshadow the kinds of tales the pilgrims later tell. How does Chaucer connect each character’s portrait to their narrative voice or worldview?
• Chaucer’s Social Realism: To what extent does “The General Prologue” present a realistic portrayal of medieval society? How does Chaucer balance social observation with literary artifice and moral allegory?
• Pilgrimage and Performance: Consider how “The General Prologue” presents pilgrimage as a form of social theater. How do the pilgrims “perform” their identities, and what does that performance reveal about human nature?
• Medieval Morality and Modern Relevance: Discuss how the moral and ethical concerns raised in “The General Prologue”—greed, hypocrisy, ambition—resonate with contemporary social or political realities.
• Chaucer’s View of Human Nature: Drawing from multiple character portraits, what overarching view of humanity does Chaucer suggest in “The General Prologue”? Is it cynical, compassionate, or ambivalent?
• Seamus Heaney and Chaucerian Tone (Comparative Approach): Consider the role of translation and language modernization (e.g., comparing Heaney’s Beowulf or other Middle English renderings). How does Chaucer’s tone in “The General Prologue” achieve a similarly timeless blend of moral gravity and earthy humor?
“THE WIFE OF BATH’S PROLOGUE”
• Female Authority and Experience: Analyze how the Wife of Bath constructs her authority through personal experience rather than scholarly citation. How does her use of autobiography challenge the male-dominated tradition of textual authority in medieval literature?
• Gender and Power Dynamics: Examine how the Wife of Bath negotiates power within her marriages. How does her treatment of her five husbands reflect or subvert medieval expectations of women’s submission and obedience?
• Feminist or Anti-Feminist?: Debate whether the Wife of Bath can be considered a proto-feminist figure or whether her character ultimately reinforces patriarchal stereotypes. How does Chaucer complicate her representation?
• Marriage as Economics: Discuss how “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue” portrays marriage as an economic and transactional institution. How does the Wife use material power to assert control over her husbands?
• The Use of Biblical and Classical Authority: Analyze the Wife’s manipulation of religious and classical texts (such as St. Paul or Ptolemy). How does she use these authorities ironically to justify her sexual and marital behavior?
• The Performance of Confession: Consider the Prologue as a kind of confessional monologue. To what extent is the Wife confessing sincerely, performing strategically, or mocking the genre itself?
• The Body and Desire: Explore how the Wife of Bath uses her body as a source of power and knowledge. How does her frank discussion of sexuality challenge medieval notions of female chastity and modesty?
• The Voice of the Outsider: Discuss how the Wife of Bath represents a marginal or “outsider” perspective in medieval society. How does her voice disrupt the male, clerical, or courtly norms of Chaucer’s world?
• Irony and Narrative Distance: Examine the role of irony in the Prologue. How does Chaucer the author position readers to sympathize with, laugh at, or question the Wife’s self-presentation?
• Experience vs. Authority: The Wife famously opens her prologue with the line “Experience, though noon auctoritee…” Analyze how this opposition between lived experience and written authority structures the entire Prologue.
• Gendered Voices and Authorship: Explore how Chaucer, a male author, constructs a persuasive and complex female voice. Does the Wife of Bath’s Prologue represent authentic female self-expression, or is it a male fantasy of female speech?
• Conflict Between Body and Soul: Consider how the Wife of Bath addresses the tension between physical desire and spiritual virtue. How does she reinterpret Christian ideas about lust and marriage?
• The Role of Humor and Comedy: Analyze the function of humor in the Prologue. How does Chaucer use wit, exaggeration, and bawdy comedy to explore serious social and theological issues?
• Misogyny and the “Battle of the Sexes”: How does the Wife of Bath’s account of her marriages participate in or parody medieval anti-feminist traditions such as Theophrastus’s Golden Book on Marriage or The Romance of
the Rose?
• Storytelling and Self-Fashioning: Discuss how the Wife of Bath uses storytelling—particularly her narrative of her five marriages—to construct and control her own identity. How reliable is her self-portrait?
• Age, Desire, and Control: Explore how the Wife of Bath’s reflections on aging shape her understanding of love and power. How does her awareness of time and mortality influence her relationships?
• Language, Rhetoric, and Manipulation: Examine how the Wife uses rhetoric—flattery, accusation, contradiction—to gain the upper hand in her relationships. What does her linguistic skill reveal about her intelligence and social awareness?
• Chaucer’s Social Commentary: To what extent does “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue” critique the Church’s attitudes toward marriage, virginity, and female sexuality? How might Chaucer’s audience have interpreted her arguments?
• The Wife and Medieval Misogynistic Literature: Compare the Wife’s speech to medieval misogynistic writings (e.g., Jerome’s Against Jovinianus). How does Chaucer rewrite or parody these traditions through her character?
• Performance and Identity: Consider the Wife of Bath as a performer. How does she “stage” her identity for her audience of pilgrims? What does this theatrical self-presentation suggest about gender, narrative, and truth in Chaucer’s world?
“THE WIFE OF BATH’S TALE”
I. GENDER, POWER, AND
SOVEREIGNTY
• The Nature of True Sovereignty: Analyze how “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” defines sovereignty in marriage. How does the final moral—that women desire “maistrie” (mastery)—reveal Chaucer’s views on gender relations?
• Mutuality and Control: Does the tale ultimately support a model of mutual respect or female dominance? Explore how the resolution between the knight and the old woman complicates ideas of equality.
• Power and Consent: Examine the tale’s treatment of sexual violence and consent. How does Chaucer’s depiction of the knight’s crime and punishment engage with medieval concepts of justice and repentance?
• Transformation and Empowerment: Discuss the significance of the old woman’s transformation at the end. Is it a reward for the knight’s submission, a symbol of spiritual enlightenment, or a reinforcement of patriarchal fantasy?
• Marriage as a Power Struggle: Explore how “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” mirrors the Wife’s own views on marriage from her Prologue. In what ways does the tale dramatize her theories about control between husband and wife?
• The Knight’s Redemption: Analyze whether the knight’s moral transformation is genuine. Does he truly learn what women want, or does he simply conform to the expectations of the tale’s magic resolution?
• The Old Woman’s Rhetoric: Examine the persuasive techniques the old woman uses in her lecture to the knight. How does her argument redefine virtue, nobility, and gender power?
• Female Desire and Autonomy: How does the tale portray women’s desires—not only for sovereignty but also for dignity, justice, and respect? What does Chaucer suggest about the legitimacy of these desires?
• The Inversion of Patriarchy: Discuss how “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” temporarily inverts patriarchal hierarchies. Does this inversion serve as true critique or comic fantasy?
• Marriage as Moral Education: How does the relationship between the knight and the old woman serve as a moral allegory for learning humility, respect, and grace?
II. NARRATIVE STRUCTURE AND GENRE
• Blending of Courtly Romance and Folklore: How does Chaucer combine the conventions of Arthurian romance with folk-tale motifs in “The Wife of Bath’s Tale”? What is the effect of this blending on tone and theme?
• Arthurian Setting, Moral Message: Why does Chaucer set this tale in King Arthur’s court? How does the chivalric backdrop heighten the irony or moral tension of the narrative?
• The “Loathly Lady” Motif: Examine how Chaucer adapts the widespread “Loathly Lady” legend. What moral or social significance does he give to this traditional story?
• Frame Narrative and Storytelling: How does “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” reflect its teller? What aspects of the Wife’s personality shape the story’s characters, tone, and moral?
• Didacticism and Entertainment: To what extent is the tale intended to teach a moral lesson versus simply to amuse its audience?
• Magical Realism in Medieval Context: Consider the role of enchantment and transformation in the tale. How do these supernatural elements reflect medieval understandings of moral or spiritual change?
• Justice and Narrative Closure: Does the knight’s “happy ending” feel deserved? Analyze how Chaucer constructs (or undermines) moral closure in the tale’s conclusion.
• Narrative Voice and Irony: Discuss the use of irony in “The Wife of Bath’s Tale”. How does the tone affect how we interpret the moral?
• Interplay Between Prologue and Tale: In what ways does the Tale comment on or contradict the Prologue? Is the tale an extension of the Wife’s philosophy or a critique of it?
• The Tale as Allegory: Read “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” as an allegory for social or spiritual harmony. How does the resolution symbolize reconciliation between conflicting forces—gender, class, or moral order?
III. MORALITY, VIRTUE, AND TRANSFORMATION
• Virtue and Nobility: Analyze the old woman’s argument that true gentility comes from moral character rather than birth. How does this idea challenge feudal values?
• Moral Education Through Suffering: How does punishment and penance operate in the tale? What does the knight’s journey teach about moral responsibility?
• Justice and Grace: How does the tale balance the concepts of divine justice, mercy, and moral education? What does Chaucer seem to value most?
• Transformation as Moral Allegory: What is the symbolic meaning of the old woman’s transformation? Does it suggest that moral enlightenment leads to beauty and harmony?
• Religious and Ethical Undercurrents: Explore the Christian themes within “The Wife of Bath’s Tale”. How do concepts of confession, forgiveness, or grace appear in secular disguise?
• Vice and Virtue in Contrast: Compare the selfishness of the knight with the wisdom and generosity of the old woman. How does Chaucer use contrast to dramatize moral insight?
• Social Hierarchy and Moral Equality: Discuss how “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” challenges the medieval class system. How does the old woman’s lecture on “gentillesse” redefine nobility?
• Mercy and Redemption: To what extent is “The Wife of Bath’s Tale” a story of redemption? Does the knight earn forgiveness, or is it granted too easily?
• Sin, Shame, and Learning: How does Chaucer use shame as a tool for moral transformation? Consider the knight’s public disgrace and forced quest.
• The Tale’s Ethical Paradox: The knight begins as a rapist but ends rewarded with love and beauty. How should we interpret this moral paradox within Chaucer’s worldview?
SIR GAWAIN & THE GREEN KNIGHT
I. CHIVALRY, HONOR, AND MORAL TESTING
• The Chivalric Ideal Tested: Analyze how Gawain’s journey tests the ideals of chivalry. How does the poem define true knightly virtue in contrast to mere reputation?
• The Conflict Between Public Honor and Private Morality: Explore how Gawain’s sense of honor clashes with his instinct for survival. What does his choice to conceal the green girdle reveal about human weakness?
• Courtesy vs. Truth: Examine the tension between courtesy (polite deception) and truth (moral honesty). Does Gawain’s courteous behavior toward Lady Bertilak violate his knightly code?
• The Meaning of the Green Girdle: What does the green
girdle symbolize—cowardice, sin, humility, or wisdom? How does its meaning shift throughout the poem?
• Moral Perfection vs. Human Fallibility: How does Sir Gawain and the Green Knight critique the unrealistic expectations of moral perfection in chivalric culture?
• The Nature of Heroism: In what sense is Gawain a hero? Does his admission of failure make him more or less admirable?
• Temptation and Testing: Compare Gawain’s temptation in Bertilak’s castle to biblical or classical trials of virtue. What does the poem suggest about temptation’s role in moral education?
• Confession and Redemption: Analyze Gawain’s confession scene. What kind of sin has he committed, and what does his repentance say about Christian ethics?
• Honor and the Fear of Shame: How does the poem link moral failure with social shame? Is Gawain motivated more by fear of sin or fear of public disgrace?
• The Knight’s Journey as Moral Allegory: Interpret Gawain’s adventure as an allegorical journey from pride to humility. How does his experience transform his understanding of virtue?
II. THE GREEN KNIGHT AND SYMBOLISM
• The Enigma of the Green Knight: Who or what does the Green Knight represent—nature, temptation, God’s testing, or the Otherworld? How should readers interpret his dual identity?
• The Color Green: Explore the symbolic meanings of “green” in the poem—fertility, nature, paganism, or decay. How do these associations complicate the poem’s Christian themes?
• Nature vs. Civilization: How does the Green Knight embody the tension between the wild, natural world and the artificial codes of Arthurian courtliness?
• The Beheading Game: What does the “beheading game” symbolize in moral or psychological terms? How does this ritual test reveal truths about courage and mortality?
• The Green Chapel: Discuss the significance of the Green Chapel as both a literal and symbolic space. How does it function as a site of judgment or renewal?
• Magic and the Supernatural: How does the poem use supernatural elements (like enchantment and transformation) to explore moral and spiritual truths?
• The Green Knight as Moral Teacher: Does the Green Knight act as a punisher, a tempter, or a mentor? How does his final judgment shape the poem’s moral message?
• Christian and Pagan Symbolism: Analyze how the poem blends Christian and pagan imagery. What is the significance of this coexistence in a late medieval context?
• Cycles of Death and Renewal: Explore how the poem’s imagery of the changing seasons parallels Gawain’s moral and spiritual growth.
• Games and Tests as Moral Instruments: How do the poem’s “games”—the beheading challenge and the exchange of winnings—function as symbolic moral tests?
III. GENDER, DESIRE, AND COURTLY LOVE
• Lady Bertilak’s Role: Examine the role of Lady Bertilak in Gawain’s testing. Is she a seductress, an agent of moral instruction, or both?
• The Ethics of Courtly Love: How does Sir Gawain and the Green Knight critique the conventions of courtly love? Does Gawain’s politeness to Lady Bertilak help or hinder his moral integrity?
• Feminine Power and Agency: Consider the power dynamics between Gawain, Lady Bertilak, and Morgan le Fay. How do female figures control the moral outcomes of the story?
• Morgan le Fay’s Function: What purpose does Morgan le Fay serve in the narrative—as a symbol of magic, vengeance, or wisdom? How does her presence reshape the poem’s conclusion?
• Sexual Temptation and Spiritual Testing: Compare Gawain’s sexual temptation to biblical tests of faith. How does the poem link carnal desire to spiritual danger?
• Masculinity and Vulnerability: How does Gawain’s experience reveal tensions between idealized masculinity and emotional vulnerability?
• Gender and Moral Responsibility: Is Lady Bertilak morally culpable for Gawain’s near-failure, or is he fully responsible? Discuss how the poem distributes blame.
• Women as Moral Mirrors: Analyze how the female characters reflect or distort Gawain’s understanding of virtue and temptation.
• Eroticism and Ethics: How does the poem treat the intersection of erotic desire and moral duty? Is desire inherently corrupt or potentially redemptive?
• Courtly Love as Performance: Discuss how the flirtation scenes between Gawain and Lady Bertilak function as performances governed by social codes rather than genuine emotion.
IV. STRUCTURE, STYLE, AND CONTEXT
• Symbolic Architecture: Explore the poem’s symmetry and structure—two courts, two hunts, two confessions. How does formal balance reinforce moral meaning?
• The Use of Landscape: How does nature function as a character in the poem? Consider the symbolism of winter, wilderness, and the journey.
• The Poem’s Christian Allegory: How does Sir Gawain and the Green Knight function as a Christian moral allegory disguised as romance?
• Medieval vs. Modern Values: How might modern readers interpret Gawain’s failure differently from Chaucer’s or the Gawain-poet’s audience?
• Narrative Irony: How does the poet use irony to comment on the limits of human virtue or the absurdity of chivalric ideals?
• Language and Symbolic Repetition: Discuss the significance of recurring words or images (green, gold, exchange, blood, confession) and how they reinforce central themes.
• The Role of Games: What do the poem’s “games” reveal about human behavior, morality, and the search for meaning?
• The Poem’s Ending: Analyze the ambiguous tone of the poem’s conclusion. Does Gawain return to Camelot in
shame, wisdom, or both?
• Communal vs. Individual Morality: Consider how Gawain’s personal failure contrasts with the collective response of Arthur’s court. What does this say about moral responsibility in society?
• The Green Knight’s Laugh: The poem ends with laughter, not punishment. What is the moral or emotional significance of laughter in the poem’s resolution?
“OF CANNIBALS”
I. CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND CIVILIZATION
• Barbarism and Perspective: Montaigne writes that “each man calls barbarism whatever is not his own practice.” Analyze how this statement encapsulates Montaigne’s critique of European ethnocentrism. How does he redefine “civilization”?
• Ethnocentrism and Self-Reflection: How does Montaigne use his discussion of the Tupinambá (Brazilian “cannibals”) to critique European values, wars, and hypocrisy? In what ways does he turn ethnography into a mirror for Europe?
• The Noble Savage and Its Limits: Discuss whether Montaigne’s depiction of the “cannibals” can be considered an early form of the “noble savage” myth. Does he idealize or genuinely humanize the people he describes?
• Cultural Relativism vs. Moral Universalism: Does Montaigne’s relativism in “Of Cannibals” suggest that moral values depend entirely on culture, or does he still appeal to universal human principles?
• Europe as the True Barbarian: Analyze how Montaigne inverts the European notion of barbarism by portraying Europeans as more barbaric than the so-called “savages.” How does this reversal function rhetorically and morally?
II. HUMAN NATURE AND MORALITY
• Human Nature and Corruption: Montaigne contrasts the simplicity of the “natural” life with the corruption of civilization. What does he suggest about the relationship between nature, morality, and human happiness?
• War and Violence: Compare Montaigne’s description of
cannibalistic warfare with European warfare of his time. What does he imply about the morality of violence in different cultures?
• Virtue Without Religion: How does Montaigne present the moral behavior of the “cannibals” as virtuous despite their lack of Christian belief? What does this suggest about his understanding of natural ethics?
• The Limits of Human Judgment: How does Montaigne’s skepticism shape his discussion of moral and cultural difference? In what ways does “Of Cannibals” challenge readers to suspend judgment?
• Nature vs. Artifice: Examine Montaigne’s concept of “natural man.” How does he define naturalness in opposition to artificial European customs, and what moral implications arise from this distinction?
III. RHETORIC, STRUCTURE, AND STYLE
• Montaigne’s Use of Irony: Analyze how Montaigne employs irony to critique his readers’ assumptions about civilization and savagery. Identify examples where tone subtly undercuts apparent praise or condemnation.
• The Essay as Self-Inquiry: How does “Of Cannibals” exemplify Montaigne’s larger project of self-examination? In what ways does his analysis of others lead to reflection on himself and his culture?
• The Blending of Observation and Reflection: Discuss how Montaigne fuses anecdotal description, hearsay, and philosophical meditation. How does this hybrid style contribute to his argument?
• Rhetorical Strategies of Persuasion: What rhetorical techniques does Montaigne use to challenge entrenched European prejudices? Consider his use of paradox, comparison, and anecdote.
• The Role of Skepticism: How does Montaigne’s skeptical worldview shape the essay’s tone and conclusions? Does skepticism lead him toward tolerance, relativism, or humility?
IV. POLITICS, EMPIRE, AND KNOWLEDGE
• Colonialism and Moral Critique: How does “Of Cannibals” implicitly criticize the emerging European colonial enterprise? What warnings does Montaigne offer about the moral consequences of conquest?
• Knowledge and Power: Explore how Montaigne questions the authority of “learned men” and European travelers. How does his essay anticipate later critiques of ethnographic knowledge and imperial discourse?
• Encounters with the Other: How does Montaigne construct the encounter between Europeans and the “New World” as a moral and philosophical test? What does he suggest about how people perceive and define the “Other”?
• Humanism and Global Perspective: To what extent does “Of Cannibals” represent a turning point from medieval ethnocentrism to Renaissance humanism? How does Montaigne’s essay expand the boundaries of moral thought?
• The Politics of Comparison: Montaigne constantly compares “us” and “them.” Analyze how these comparisons serve as political critique. What is at stake when he equates cannibalism with European cruelty?
“OF COACHES”
I. CIVILIZATION, LUXURY, AND DECLINE
• Luxury and Moral Corruption: Montaigne connects the invention of coaches with the moral decline of civilizations. How does he use material comfort and luxury as metaphors for decadence and decay?
• Technology and Degeneration: What does Montaigne’s attitude toward technological advancement—symbolized by coaches—reveal about his understanding of
progress and human nature?
• Vanity and Excess: Discuss how Montaigne uses the image of the coach to critique aristocratic vanity and the desire for ostentation. What broader philosophical critique of society emerges?
• Luxury as a Political Disease: How does Montaigne’s account of coaches function as an allegory for the corruption of political and moral order in late Renaissance Europe?
• Civilization and Its Discontents: Analyze how Montaigne suggests that what is often considered “civilization” may actually represent decline. What role does comfort play in undermining virtue?
II. EMPIRE, CONQUEST, AND THE NEW WORLD
• Colonial Hypocrisy: How does Montaigne juxtapose the moral corruption of European courts with the conquest of the Americas? What critique of empire emerges from this contrast?
• Violence and Civilization: Compare Montaigne’s portrayal of European conquest in “Of Coaches” with his earlier reflections in “Of Cannibals.” How does he expand or complicate his critique of colonial violence?
• The Fall of Empires: Montaigne draws parallels between ancient Rome and contemporary Europe. What does he suggest about the cyclical nature of empire and decay?
• Religion and Imperialism: Examine Montaigne’s treatment of missionary zeal and forced conversion in the New World. Does he present Christianity as a civilizing force or as a form of moral corruption?
• The Myth of European Superiority: How does Montaigne’s comparison between European “civilization” and Indigenous societies challenge the ideology of European supremacy?
III. THE SYMBOLISM OF THE COACH
• The Coach as Allegory: Interpret the coach as a central metaphor. How does Montaigne use it to comment on power, social hierarchy, and moral vanity?
• Mobility and Imprisonment: Paradoxically, coaches enable movement but symbolize confinement and dependence. How does Montaigne use this paradox to critique the illusion of freedom in luxury?
• Material Objects and Moral Meaning: Discuss Montaigne’s philosophical use of material culture. How does an object like the coach become a lens through which to examine ethics and politics?
• The Coach and Social Inequality: How does Montaigne’s meditation on coaches reflect growing social divisions in Renaissance France? What does he reveal about class and privilege?
• Progress or Regress?: Does Montaigne see technological and cultural refinement as a form of moral progress or as evidence of decline? Defend your interpretation using examples from the essay.
IV. HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HUMANISM
• Historical Cycles of Rise and Fall: How does Montaigne use examples from antiquity to frame his analysis of Renaissance Europe? What philosophical view of history emerges from his reflections?
• Skepticism and Historical Judgment: How does Montaigne’s skepticism shape his account of history and empire? To what extent does he believe humans can learn from the past?
• Human Vanity Across Ages: Montaigne presents human vanity as a constant throughout history. Does this pessimism undermine his humanism, or does it reinforce it?
• Stoicism and Moderation: To what degree does Montaigne’s critique of excess reflect Stoic values? How does he use Stoic moderation as a counterpoint to luxury and pride?
• The Fallibility of Reason: How does Montaigne expose the limitations of human reason in understanding moral progress, historical destiny, and divine justice?
V. STYLE, VOICE, AND METHOD
• Montaigne’s Essay Form: How does the digressive and associative structure of “Of Coaches” reflect Montaigne’s philosophical method? In what way does form mirror content?
• Irony and Indirection: Montaigne’s critique of luxury and conquest often relies on irony. Identify key passages where irony deepens or complicates his moral argument.
• Autobiography and Observation: How does Montaigne weave personal anecdote and philosophical reflection into a unified argument? What role does his self-observation play in understanding others?
• Language and Judgment: Analyze Montaigne’s rhetorical strategies. How does his tone—by turns skeptical, ironic, and moralizing—affect how we interpret his critique of Europe?
• “Of Coaches” as Political Philosophy: Can “Of Coaches” be read as a political essay as much as a moral one? Dis-
cuss how Montaigne’s reflections on luxury and empire anticipate modern critiques of power, consumption, and colonialism.
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Allen Loibner-Waitkus
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