NOTES ON BEOWULF
TEXT AND CONTEXT
• Title: Beowulf
• Language: Old English (Anglo-Saxon)
• Date of Composition: c. 700–1000 CE
• Author: Anonymous (possibly a Christian poet drawing from oral tradition)
• Setting: Scandinavia — chiefly Denmark and Geatland (southern Sweden)
• Genre: Epic poetry / Heroic narrative
• Translator (modern edition): Seamus Heaney (1999)
Beowulf is the earliest known major work of English literature and one of the greatest epics of the medieval world. It recounts the heroic deeds of a Geatish warrior named Beowulf who battles monsters and dragons to defend humanity and earn lasting fame. Seamus Heaney’s translation revitalized the poem for modern readers, balancing literal accuracy with poetic resonance and emphasizing the tension between pagan heroism and Christian morality.
PLOT SUMMARY
I. The Danish Troubles and Beowulf’s Arrival (Lines 1–709)
• The poem opens with the genealogy of the Danish kings, celebrating their heroic lineage. King Hrothgar, ruler of the Danes, has built a magnificent hall, Heorot, where his people gather to feast and celebrate. Their joy angers Grendel, a monstrous descendant of Cain, who attacks the hall nightly, killing Hrothgar’s warriors for twelve years.
• Hearing of Hrothgar’s plight, Beowulf, a warrior of the Geats, sails to Denmark with his men to help.
II. The Battle with Grendel (Lines 710–1250)
• Beowulf vows to fight Grendel without weapons. During the night’s attack, Beowulf seizes Grendel’s arm in a superhuman grip and tears it off. Mortally wounded, Grendel flees to his lair and dies. Beowulf’s victory restores peace and brings him glory.
III. Grendel’s Mother (Lines 1251–1784)
• The next night, Grendel’s mother attacks Heorot in revenge, killing Hrothgar’s trusted counselor, Aeschere. Beowulf descends into her underwater lair to face her. With the help of a giant’s sword found in her hall, he kills her and beheads Grendel’s corpse. He returns to Heorot in triumph, praised for his courage and loyalty.
IV. Beowulf’s Kingship and the Dragon (Lines 1785–3182)
• Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of the Geats, ruling for fifty years in peace. In old age, he faces his final challenge: a dragon awakened by a thief who steals from its hoard. Beowulf fights the dragon with the aid of a young warrior, Wiglaf. Though they kill the beast, Beowulf is mortally wounded.
• He dies gazing upon the treasure he has won, and his people build a great funeral mound in his honor, lamenting the passing of a great but doomed hero.
MAJOR CHARACTERS
• Beowulf: The hero of the poem; embodies strength, bravery, honor, and loyalty. His battles against Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon trace a heroic life from youth to old age.
• Hrothgar: King of the Danes; wise and generous, but unable to protect his people without Beowulf’s aid.
• Grendel: The first monster; a symbol of chaos and moral corruption, described as a descendant of Cain.
• Grendel’s Mother: Avenger of her son; a fierce and formidable female warrior.
• The Dragon: The final adversary; a symbol of greed, fate, and death.
• Wiglaf: The loyal young warrior who stands by Beowulf during his final battle, representing the next generation of heroism and loyalty.
MAJOR THEMES AND ANALYSIS
1. Heroism and the Warrior Code
• The poem reflects the Anglo-Saxon code of comitatus—loyalty between lord and warrior. Beowulf’s courage and generosity define the heroic ideal. Yet the poem also questions the cost of this heroism: glory is fleeting, and even great warriors die.
2. Fate (Wyrd) and Mortality
• Fate governs much of Beowulf’s world. While bravery can delay doom, it cannot escape it. The tension between pagan fatalism and Christian providence reveals the poet’s transitional worldview—one between pre-Christian heroism and Christian salvation.
3. Good vs. Evil
• Grendel, his mother, and the dragon embody destructive forces—evil, revenge, greed—opposed to the order symbolized by Heorot. Yet these monsters also mirror human flaws, suggesting that evil lies within as well as without.
4. Kingship and Legacy
• Hrothgar’s advice to Beowulf about pride and the limits of power highlights the burden of leadership. Beowulf’s later reign shows that true greatness lies not only in
physical strength but in wisdom, restraint, and service to others.
5. Pagan and Christian Elements
• The poem fuses Germanic heroic culture with Christian moral reflection. Pagan elements include fate, blood-feuds, and funeral rituals; Christian elements appear in references to God’s will, Cain’s curse, and moral judgment. This blend creates an elegiac tone—heroic but haunted by mortality.
6. The Role of the Monster
Each monster serves as a symbolic test:
• Grendel: Embodies envy and violence that destroy community.
• Grendel’s Mother: Represents vengeance and the destructive cycle of feud.
• The Dragon: Symbolizes time, mortality, and the futility of human greed. Together they reflect the external and internal battles of the human spirit.
HEANEY’S TRANSLATION
Seamus Heaney’s 1999 translation revitalized Beowulf for modern audiences. His Irish background allowed him to connect Old English’s earthy rhythms with contemporary speech. Heaney emphasized:
• The musicality of alliteration and cadence.
• The dignity and melancholy of the original.
• The tension between heroism and mortality, translating the poem’s elegiac mood into modern English without losing its ancient force. Heaney’s first word, “So,” captures the oral, communal opening of the Old English Hwæt!—a word that invites listeners into a shared act of memory and storytelling.
SYMBOLS
• Heorot: Represents civilization, community, and human achievement.
• The Monsters: Embody humanity’s darker impulses—envy, vengeance, greed.
• Gold and Treasure: Symbolize glory but also the emptiness of material wealth.
• Beowulf’s Sword and Armor: Emblems of identity and heroism that fail in old age, symbolizing the limits of human strength.
• The Barrow (Funeral Mound): A monument to heroism, but also a reminder of mortality and loss.
LITERARY STYLE
• Form: Alliterative verse, with strong rhythm and parallelism.
• Tone: Elevated, formal, and elegiac.
• Narrative Structure: Three-part heroic cycle (Grendel, Grendel’s mother, dragon).
• Perspective: A blend of heroic action and reflective commentary.
• Mood: Heroic grandeur tempered by fatalism and mourning.
KEY QUOTATIONS
(Heaney Translation)
• “So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness.” — Opening line
• “Fate goes ever as fate must.”
• “Behavior that’s admired is the path to power among people everywhere.”
• “Anyone with gumption and a sharp mind will take the measure of two things: what’s said and what’s done.”
• “Thus Beowulf bore himself with valor; he was formidable in battle yet behaved with honor and took no advantage.”
• “They said that of all the kings upon the earth he was the man most gracious and fair-minded, kindest to his people, and keenest to win fame.” — Final lines
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
Beowulf reflects the Anglo-Saxon warrior culture, where fame and loyalty defined one’s legacy. The poem likely emerged during England’s Christianization, blending oral pagan storytelling with Christian ethics. Its themes of heroism, loyalty, and the inevitability of death echo across later literature, influencing writers from Tolkien to Heaney himself.
QUESTIONS YOU MAY WANT TO CONSIDER
1. How does Beowulf balance Christian morality with pagan heroism?
2. What do the monsters reveal about human nature and society?
3. How does Seamus Heaney’s translation shape our modern understanding of the poem’s tone and values?
4. What does Beowulf suggest about the relationship between fame, death, and meaning?
5. In what ways does the poem function as both a celebration and a lament for the heroic world it describes?