Shift: A Digital and Material Framework for Enhancing Seismic Resilience (MArch)
ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES
PROGRAMME
EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
YEAR
2023-2024
COURSE TITLE
MArch. Dissertation
DISSERTATION TITLE
SHIFT
A Digital and Material Framework for Enhancing Seismic Resilience
STUDENT NAMES
Akansha Pandey(M.Arch), Sameerah Mohammed Yusuff (M.Arch)
DECLARATION: “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our and that my quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledged.”
SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT
Akansha Pandey(M.Arch)
DATE: 10 January 2025
Sameerah Mohammed Yusuff (M.Arch)
DATE: 10 January 2025
Acknowledgements
As a team, we would like to thank Dr.Elif Erdine and Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh for guiding us throughout this course and help refine our research through the critical feedback and support. We are grateful to our course tutors Dr. Alvaro Velasco Perez, Felipe Oeyen, Paris Nikitidis, Lorenzo Santelli and Fun Yuen for guiding and sharing with us the knowledge and the insightful conversations which made us carry this project forward.
Course Directors: Dr. Elif Erdine
Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh
Founding Director: Dr. Michael Weinstock
Studio Tutors: Paris Nikitidis
Felipe Oeyen
Dr. Alvaro Velasco Perez
Lorenzo Santelli
Acknowledgements Sameerah
To my parents for providing me with this opportunity and supporting me throughout. To my friends who always pushed me forward.
To Jerry, for always being by my side through tough times and achievements.
To my professors and EmTech colleagues for their guidance and support.
Acknowledgements
Akansha
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who supported and guided me throughout this project. Special thanks to my Professors for their invaluable insights and encouragement. I am also grateful to my team members for their collaboration and hard work.
Lastly, I thank my family and friends for their continuous support and motivation throughout this journey.
Abstract
Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, faces significant seismic vulnerability due to its geological location and a presence of conflicting architectural paradigms between traditional Newari structures and modern buildings. Current explorations lack a comprehensive approach that addresses the dual challenges of preserving traditional Newari architecture while enhancing its seismic resilience. The prevalent focus on RCC structures overlooks the potential of integrating local materials and construction techniques into modern frameworks. Furthermore, there is a deficiency in urban design strategies that balance the growth of built environments with the need for accessible open spaces, crucial for effective postdisaster evacuation efforts.
The thesis aims to develop a resilient housing neighbourhood in Kathmandu, with the primary objective of addressing the challenges surrounding the present seismic vulnerabilities posed by the increase in spatial density and inadequate evacuation spaces.
At the urban scale, the design utilizes risk assessment data to propose a new settlement layout that reintroduces a hierarchy of open-to-build spaces, forming the foundation for the post-disaster evacuation and rescue network strategy. Structural efficiency is achieved by evaluating the overall form and its response to cyclic loads. This process utilizes marching cubes that leverage combinations of Iso surfaces to plot in a 3D surface to generate a morphology that enables efficient load distribution and responsive to spatial dynamics.
The project further focuses on the distribution of spatial programs by the Newari culture, encompassing residential, commercial, and communal functions. Its overarching goal is to establish a strategic approach that aligns with the programmatic requirements of users by reimagining the role of buildings as adaptive systems rather than being perceived as static, unchanging structures. This shift involves designing buildings to function either autonomously or interactively, allowing them to respond effectively to varying conditions and evolving parameters.
Collectively these processes in a sequential process enable a structurally efficient design that opens the possibility to an adaptive system within the morphology while bridging both cultural and contemporary paradigms.
Introduction
Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, stands at the crossroads of tradition and modernity, where ancient architectural heritage coexists with rapidly advancing urbanization. This research project centres on Kathmandu, a city prone to significant seismic activity, which starkly contrasts the architectural practices of the past with those of the present. The urban expansion in Kathmandu has magnified the visibility of earthquake impacts, necessitating a re-evaluation of current building typologies and construction methods to mitigate property damage and loss of life. This disaster underscores the urgent need for a culturally relevant, sustainable, and seismic-resilient architectural system that bridges the gap between Kathmandu’s historical and contemporary architectural identities. The primary objective of the project is to address the shift, from traditional to modern architecture which is leading to an infrastructure that lacks identity and resilience. This research delves into the traditional Newari architecture, particularly focusing on the extensive use of wood, as a structural element. The study aims to explore the properties of local wood and its potential application in designing buildings that can better withstand seismic activities. By also integrating locally sourced natural fibers, both environmentally sustainable, promoting low carbon footprints and supporting self-sustaining economic growth. Additionally, the project focuses on developing effective evacuation planning, acknowledging Kathmandu’s current deficiencies in infrastructure. By drawing on traditional architectural practices and integrating modern materials, fabrication strategies and planning strategies, this project aims to develop building designs that are both culturally resonant and seismically resilient.
2.1
2.3
Ground Research
Ground research forms the foundation for understanding and analyzing the current situation in Kathmandu, particularly its vernacular aspects. By delving into the city’s local traditions, architectural heritage, and socio-cultural dynamics, ground research provides a nuanced perspective on how Kathmandu functions as a living, evolving entity. It examines the interplay between modern developments and traditional practices, offering insights into challenges like urbanization, environmental sustainability, and the preservation of cultural identity
2.1: Kathmandu City
2.1.1: Climate and Topography
Situated between latitudes 27°36’ and 27°48’ N and longitudes 85°12’ and 85°31’ E, the Kathmandu Valley (KV) is a rapidly urbanizing basin located within the Himalayan Mountain range. Encompassing an area of 899 km² 1, the valley hosts the districts of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur. The valley floor, predominantly flat, has an average elevation of 1300 meters and is surrounded by mountains that rise to heights between 1900 and 2800 meters.2 Notable geological features include a narrow, winding outlet formed by the Bagmati River to the south and three mountain passes, each approximately 1500 meters in altitude, situated on the eastern and western edges of the valley. This tertiary structural basin is characterized by its fluvial and lacustrine sediments, forming a distinct bowlshaped depression with an elevated basin and plateau bordered by mountainous terrain on all sides. 2 This topographical and geological configuration highlights the valley’s unique environmental and developmental dynamics, as it continues to evolve under the pressures of rapid urbanization.
Main frontal thrust
central thrust
boundary thrust
Earthquakes are a prominent global hazard, affecting numerous regions with varying intensities and frequencies. Seismically active zones, particularly around tectonic plate boundaries, such as the Pacific Ring of Fire, experience frequent and intense earthquakes. Asia emerges as the most seismically active continent with a substantial count of 3971 earthquakes, representing approximately 47.81%.3 This high earthquake count in Asia is primarily influenced by the presence of multiple tectonic plate boundaries, including the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate and subduction zones in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
The Kathmandu Valley is situated along the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. The main Himalayan thrust, a significant seismic fault line, runs through Nepal, making the region susceptible to earthquakes. Historical seismic activity, such as the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, highlights the city’s vulnerability. The tectonic movements of the Indian plate pushing against the Eurasian plate create immense geological pressure, resulting in frequent seismic events. This tectonic setting necessitates earthquake preparedness measures, including stringent building codes and public awareness campaigns to mitigate the risks associated with future earthquakes.
The climate of the Kathmandu Valley (KV) is predominantly shaped by the South Asian monsoon, which significantly influences precipitation patterns and wind directions. Over 80% of the valley’s annual rainfall, occurs during the summer monsoon period from June to September. In recent decades, the city has experienced notable climatic changes, including increased temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, largely driven by global climate change. These shifts have resulted in more frequent extreme weather events such as intense rainfall and prolonged dry periods. Furthermore, the rapid urbanization and increased vehicular emissions in Kathmandu have led to significant air quality deterioration, posing serious health risks to its inhabitants.
1. Thapa, Rajesh Bahadur, and Yuji Murayama. “Drivers of Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Examining the Efficacy of the Analytic Hierarchy Process.” Applied Geography 30, no. 1 (January 2010): 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.10.002.
2. Haack, Barry N., and Ann Rafter. “Urban Growth Analysis and Modeling in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Habitat International 30, no. 4 (December 2006): 1056–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.12.001.
Kathmandu has undergone rapid urbanization, expanding beyond its historical core into new urban zones. This growth has strained the city’s infrastructure, leading to challenges such as inadequate water supply, waste management issues, and traffic congestion. The population of Kathmandu has surged, driven by rural-to-urban migration, which has further exacerbated these challenges. As of 2023, Kathmandu’s population is estimated to be 1,571,010, with projections showing continued growth to 1,621,642 by 2024. 4 Economically, the city remains a central hub for tourism, although political instability and environmental issues have impacted its growth. Efforts are underway to improve living conditions through various infrastructural projects and urban planning initiatives.
The interplay between Kathmandu’s climate, seismic activity, and urban development is complex and significant. Climate change exacerbates the city’s vulnerability to seismic events by impacting the stability of soil and built structures. Rapid urbanization, if not managed with an understanding of these risks, can increase the susceptibility of new urban zones to both climatic and seismic hazards. Therefore, integrated approaches are
3. Ibrahim, Mariam, and Baidaa Al-Bander. “An Integrated Approach for Understanding Global Earthquake Patterns and Enhancing Seismic Risk Assessment.” International Journal of Information Technology 16, no. 4 (March 13, 2024): 2001–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-024-01778-1.
4. Thapa, Rajesh Bahadur, and Yuji Murayama. “Drivers of Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Examining the Efficacy of the Analytic Hierarchy Process.” Applied Geography 30, no. 1 (January 2010): 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.10.002.
Fig. 01.Street map of Kathmandu
Fig. 02.Average temperatures and precipitation of Kathmandu
Main
Main
Rapid demographic, socio-political, and economic transformations have dramatically shifted the urban fabric present in Kathmandu Valley (KV). Historically, the valley was characterized through the settlement patter of compact, agricultural clusters with low population densities, surrounding religious or culturally significant monuments. However, population growth has surged significantly, with an annual growth rate of 4.3% in the past decade, peaking at 6.5% in certain Village Development Committees (VDCs).1 As of the 2011 census, the population was estimated being at 2.5 million, with projections reaching 4 million by 2020 and nearly 7 million by 2030.2 This exponential growth has created immense pressure on land resources, resulting in the rapid conversion of agricultural land into urban spaces.
From 1990 to 2012, the built-up area in KV expanded from 38 sq. km to 119 sq. km, representing a 211% increase over a 22-year period.3 The relaxation of building regulations after a decade-long insurgency and the influx of migrants seeking economic opportunities significantly contributed to this transformation. Highrise buildings, apartments, and commercial structures have rapidly multiplied, particularly in the Central Business District (CBD), where urban density has increased considerably. However, as space within the city core contracts, peri-urban areas have seen increased horizontal expansion and the formation of informal settlements.
The consequences of this unplanned urban sprawl include land degradation, fragmentation, and declining environmental quality, with growing urban poverty exacerbating socio-economic inequalities. The quality of life has declined because of inadequate urban design, with more vulnerable populations living in high-risk locations. Today, the valley’s urbanization is defined by an outward sprawl, forming an agglomeration that connects previously rural VDCs with urban municipalities, signalling a major challenge in managing Kathmandu’s rapid population growth.
Fig. 04.Expansion near Baudhanath religious site, 1967(above) and 2001(below).
1. Irwin, D., S. Basnet, A. Joshi, G.S. Dawadi, R.M. Pokharel, P. Paudyal, T.R. Adhikari, S. Duwal, B. Rakhal, and D. Tamang. 2014. Urban Growth Trends and Multi-Hazards in Kathmandu Valley. edited by A. Joshi.Kathmandu: Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) and UNDP/CDRMP.
2. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). National Population and Housing Census 2011: National Report. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, 2011.
3. Muzzini, Elisa, and Gabriela Aparicio. Urban Growth and Spatial Transition in Nepal: An Initial Assessment. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2013. Image Source Haack, Barry. “A History and Analysis of Mapping Urban Expansion in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” The Cartographic Journal 46, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 233–41. https://doi.org/10.1179/00087040 9x12488753453417.
Kathmandu City
2.2: Architecture of Kathmandu 2.2.1: Architecture_Form
The vernacular housing buildings in Kathmandu valley exhibit unique characterises in it’s over all form and functionality. The geometry of the building is of symmetrical in nature with a rectangular plan that adds on to the seismic resilient factors.1 The buildings are defined by their multistorey levels with sloped roofs and a central courtyard which all together forms the key design.
The courtyard serves as the heart of the home serving as a communal space within the family or immediate families surrounding the houses to host gatherings or activities reflecting the social nature of the Newari community. Beyond its social functions, the courtyard also enhances the building’s environmental quality though light and ventilation. The open design facilitates cross ventilation throughout the buildings along with the arrangement of windows overlooking it. Moreover the courtyard enhances the climates extremities mitigating both intense summer heat and winter temperatures. 1
Fig. 05.Left: Spatial arrangement for internal thermal comfort, Right: Ventilation aiding in cooling the building1
Fig. 06.Typical plan of a Newari house plan with courtyard
Notable features of the house can be noticed right from the intentional placement of the main doors with lower heights, compelling the users to bow down as gesture of respect to their living space. The living space also has a humble height ranging from 1.60-1.90m to 2.50-2.90m1, optimizing both space and functionality. The floors on the ground level open up to the central courtyard or ‘chowk’.3
One of the most striking characteristics of the traditional Newari building are the huge projecting roofs. The roofs are generally inclined at an angle to mitigate the heavy monsoon experienced in the valley, allowing for quick water runoff and reducing the risk of waterlogging. They are supported primarily by tundals, carved wooden struts which sometimes serve a decorative purpose by depicting various deities and mythological figures. This sloping roof form can be seen in almost all the Newari structures including temples and palaces making the functionally performing structure a trademark of the community. 3
1. Wellman, Lisa Awazu. 2024. “Sikami Chhen, Nepal.” RTF | Rethinking the Future. February 8, 2024. https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/case-studies/a12059-sikami-chhen-nepal/.
2. Sandra Tonna1,Valentina Sumini2, Francesco Chillè1 and Claudio Chesi1 1 Politecnico di Milano, A.B.C. dep. THE USE OF TIMBER INTO THE TRADITIONAL NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE Milan, (Italy) 2 Massa-
The facades of these buildings which mainly face the streets are given more attention for their aesthetical appearance. Which are adorned with intricately designed and carved windows and doors. The lattice windows are smaller in size in lower floors to maintain the strength of the walls by minimizing the puncture in the wall making the building more seismically resistant, while the windows on the upper floor are larger for ample sunlight and airflow. Symmetry is achieved along a central axis on each floor, with the central window on every level with its detailed artistic works2
The foundation elevates the building from the ground constructed of large cobbles and brickwork binded with mud mortar, the brick work further as wall. The buildings do no have a designated column beam structure, rather are supported by walls and floors2
The walls are the load bearing elements of the building, composed of brick, the thickness varies from the bottom being the thickest at 75cm to top being thinner are 45cm to reduce the weight of the wall on the foundation walls2
The floors of the housing are composed of closely spaced joists that are covered with wooden planks and finished with approx. 10cm of fine yellow clay. These joists are supported by wooden wall planes on the walls where its held by wooden pegs. floors2 fair-faced tapered bricks
chusetts Institute of Technology, Media Lab, Responsive Environments, Cambridge, MA, (USA)
3. Suwal, Ram. (2021). Vernacular Newar Dwelling-Its Construction Technologies and Vertical Functional Distributions.
Fig. 07.Typical traditional Nepali house with four floors.
Fig. 08.Roof to wall connection 2
Rubble/irregular bricks as infill
Fig. 10.Foundation of a Newari building
Fig. 11.Different layers of brick used for wall construction 3
Fig. 09.Facade of a Newari building
2.2.2: Architecture_Fenestration
The Tiki jhya is a quintessential feature of Newari Architecture, a symbol of its cultural significance and inherent craftmanship. This wooden window is designed in modular manner by repeating simple geometries and sometimes also portrays detailed motifs symbolizing beauty, grace and prosperity.
Crafted by Newar artisans using traditional techniques, the tiki jhya reflects more than aesthetics, often displaying arts of deep rooted spiritual beliefs
The wooden is carved from hardwood, such as sal or teak given its abundance availability in the region. These windows are placed on the facades of homes, temples and courtyards , blending aesthetics with functionality by allowing ventilation and natural light while ensuring privacy.
The tiki jhya has become an enduring symbol of the Newari identity, recognized by locals and visitors. Despite modern architectural influences, efforts to preserve and restore these works reflect the importance of protecting cultural heritage.
The tiki jhya portrays an rhythmic arrangement between shapes like Square Pattern (Maka Pattern), Diamond Pattern (Ikka Pattern), and the innovative Malegwa Pattern, which ingeniously combines elements of both square and diamond patterns1. Functionally, the window serves a thermal barrier acting as an effective insulator helping to regulate indoor temperature by enabling ventilation and warmth retention in winter. Additionally given the Newari architecture’s importance of territoriality and surveillance, the lattice window enables a visual barrier between the interior and exterior spaces.
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
1. Bajracharya, Milind & Uprety, Sanjaya. (2023).
Fig. 12.Figures showcasing the different functionalities of Tikijhya
Fig. 13.Concept of repeated geometrical arrangement of simple patterns in tiki jhya
Thermal Comfort Natural Light Visibility/Privacy
1. Bajracharya, Milind & Uprety, Sanjaya. (2023). Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. Journal of Engineering Technology and Planning. 4. 44-59. 10.3126/joetp.v4i1.58441.
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
Fig. 14. Illustration of Lattice Patterns by Chandra Bahadur Joshi (Joshi, 1990)1
2.2.3: Spatial Layout
The spatial planning of the Newari housing exemplifies the socio- cultural and practical functionality of the community. Their planning dictates a crucial establishment of functions from public to private each serving specific purposes with the needs of the users.1
Historically with Kathmandu’s importance in the trade chapter, many Newars’ utilized the residential spaces for business, with their retail and storage situated on the ground level to leverage the street’s proximity. Today the traditions follow by utilizing the floor for commercial purposes. Additionally, the floor on the interior opens up to a central courtyard used as a ‘semi-public’ space for communal engagements.
The succeeding floor shifts from the public to private functions. The first floor (Matan), houses living rooms and sleeping quarters which maybe further divided by partition walls depending on the floor area. Above the matan, the next floor (chota) is reserved for daily functions such as cooking and sanitation. The topmost floor, is often allocated for most private and personal uses like for religious practices.
This hierarchical arrangement effectively allows the ascending floors to maximize the distance from the street level bustle. This arrangement emphases the concept of defensible space theory, coined by Oscar Newman in 1970’s which revolves around the idea that the physical environment can influence the users to control and protect their spaces and how design can enhance sense of security by creating boundaries.1
a. Clear spatial hierarchy can be identified by the placement of commercial level on lowest floor to act as a public area and privatized upper floors to establish a distinct separation maintaining comfort and privacy for the residents.
b. Semi-public division: Newman’s theory establishes the role of semi-public spaces to softer community interaction, such is reflected in the courtyards where no stranger can enter into the space abruptly and forms a boundary to engage only with immediate residents
c. Surveillance: A sense of surveillance and control is incorporated as design elements by strategic window placements and balconies usually covered with aesthetic lattice works but lets the users to monitor nearby areas, a key component of the defensible space theory
d. Territoriality: The spatial planning resonates a sense of territory and control by integrating both public and private spaces within the same building fostering a sense of safety and privacy
Fig. 16.Spatial Division
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
Fig. 17.Section of a Newari house potraying spaces and activities
2.2.4: Materiality
The backbone of the Newari construction includes two primary materials namely: Brick and Timber. Given its availability and ease of cost through the times it became integral to the construction and expression found in the Newari architecture.
Given the proximity, abundance, durability and functionality of timber, it is used in many parts of the housing. Timber also contributes to the building’s thermal insulation, which helps to regulate indoor temperatures, keeping the interior cooler in summer and warmer in winter. The material usage can be found in:
a. Structural framework: Timber in a skeleton frameworks supports the building with its beams and columns joined with carpentry techniques ensuring flexibility and strength. A potential advantage to withstand frequent earthquakes.
b. Roof structure: The sloped roofs covered by roof tiles hosts a timber framework carrying any loads. The timber beams and struts from the underlying support structure bear the load of the roof and ensure stability which are crucial in distributing the weight evenly and preventing any collapse.
c. Doors and Windows: The usage is highlighted in the openings which are elaborately carved windows known as Tikijhya. The intricate artistry of the culture can be observed in the detailed craftmanship on the façade of the building
Adding on the ‘lightweight’ and versatility of the material, timber is also used for staircases, railings and even furniture inside the Newari housing.
Bricks are fundamental building blocks of the structures and have been long favoured due to their robustness and durability .Given the regions experience in making handmade bricks along with ease of cost contributes to its extensive usage. The material can be identified in:
a. Walls: The bulkiness of the material provides a structural stability for the walls though it usually corresponds to brittle failure under seismic load.
b. Foundations: The buildings generally sit on a raised platform of brick to protect the structure from flooding and dampness.
c. Hard pavements: The courtyards are composed of brick pavements, sometimes in decorative patterns to create intriguing visuals.
Fig. 18.Timber frames in a Newari housing
Fig. 19.Usage of bricks walls in a Newari housing
2.2.5: The seismic impact
The Newari housing possess elements in terms of seismic resilience. The topic can be broadened in terms of structure and material structure.
Building configuration (uniform load distribution and minimized twisting): The traditional building plan of a Newari housing has symmetrical configuration with a rectangular plan, this allows for even distribution of seismic forces across the structure. This helps to balance the concentrated stress points most prone to structural failure. The layout allows the forces to be absorbed and dissipated uniformly. Additionally, an asymmetrical building can experience torsional movement, where the building twists around its vertical axis. The building configuration mitigates by even distribution and reducing the risk of differential movement and collapse.
Vertical load distribution (structural redundancy and out of plane failure): The primary load paths of a Newari building rely mainly on thick load bearing walls that carry the weight and distribute it from upper floors to the foundation. Presence of the multiple load bearing walls with the supporting timber structure can help carry the load even if one element fails but due to the brittle nature of brick and the increased weight of upper floors with heavy roof structures generally lead to building collapse in seismic events.
a. Brittle nature : The material is inherently brittle in nature and has the inability to flex under stress. When the building is subjected to lateral and vertical forces, it experiences movement and deformation. It does not possess any energy absorbing and dissipating characters making it prone to cracking and breaking as it reaches its tensile strength limit.
Timber
a. Flexibility: Timber has a higher degree of elasticity compared to brick, which can absorb and dissipate energy more efficiently. This allows the structure to deform with the movement without collapsing, providing a higher degree of safety.
b. Lightweight: A major analyses discovered was buildings collapsing due to the heavy weight of roofs and brick elements, given the natural ability of timber to be less heavy minimized the stress loads throughout the structure decreasing the likelihood of differential settlement.
c. Joinery: Due to dynamic seismic forces joints experienced unusual stresses leading to separation and given the age of the structures, added forces can further weaken the joinery.
b. Improper bonding: Many field assessments pointed in the failure of bricks mainly due to its improper bonding, Since the strength of the wall heavily relies on the quality of the mortar joints and bonding between the bricks, the walls failed leading to cracks and collapse. This also stems from poor construction practices and lack of awareness for earthquake building practices.
c. Separation of masonry units: Buildings that were built really long ago was subjected to shrinkage of bricks and mortar over time which caused differential movement between masonry units and weakening the overall structure. During a seismic event, these pre-existing weakness can be amplified, leading to further damage. The overlooking of these shrinkage can also be a potential threat due to water infiltration induced by cracks.
Fig.
Fig. 20.Center of Mass coincides with Center of Resistance
Brick
Fig. 23.Section of Newari building with brick layers highlighted.
Fig. 24.Section of Newari building with weak points of timber layers highlighted.
Kathmandu City Kathmandu City
Fig. 25.Images of post disaster of Ghorka 2015 earthquake1
1. Kathmandu Valley, post 2015 Earthquake A Ghani
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
2.3: Conflict between modern and vernacular
2.3.1: In terms of Architecture
The increased job opportunities and better amenities in the city of Kathmandu resulted in huge influx of population, (National Population and Housing Census, 2011) coming to the city in search of a better life. The inundation of migrants has put a massive strain on the infrastructure of the valley, creating major lackings in accommodation. The housing sector has taken a huge hit and lack of proper housing facilities makes the city vulnerable to damages from earthquake, indicating a need for a strengthened infrastructure to accommodate the growing population.
In response many construction companies started investing in the housing sector. A new building typology has emerged which is altering the spatial arrangement of the residential architecture. The typical Newari house which earlier accommodated one family is now transforming into multiple housing units where lower floors are used for renting. The people who usually rent these units are migrant workers –who rent these houses till they can buy their own homes (Singh,2019).
This has resulted in a new spatial dynamic, where multiple families live within the same block and people expand their homes once they buy their own homes. A typical family in Kathmandu consists of grand parents, parents and grand children all living under the same roof. Typically the property gets divided between the children, resulting in uneven distribution of spaces which are not structrally viable. (Singh,2019)
As Kathmandu sits on a seismic zone, destruction resulting from earthquakes is inevitable. Now with the extensive use of materials like RCC in construction, the vernacular architecture is being replaced by RCC blocks covering the entire city scape.
The global identity that RCC buildings are better equipped to handle earthquakes is making the locals shift towards RCC construction (Pant,2018). The idea is so deeply rooted in Nepalese society that in Nepali language the old vernacular houses are called Kachha Ghar meaning temporary or frail house, and on the other hand the RCC houses are called Pakka Ghar meaning permanent or sturdy houses. (Singh,2019).
Shift from vernacular to modern architecture
1. National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report). Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2. Ashna Singh, 2019 The Changing Domestic Architecture of Kathmandu Valley
1. Pant, Shaswant, Newari architecture in Kathmandu: ‘Old and weak’ buildings are also part of heritage. https://english.onlinekhabar.com/newa-architecture-in-kathmandu.html
2. Ashna Singh, 2019 The Changing Domestic Architecture of Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
2.4: Material System
2.4.1: Relationship between urban and nature
For centuries, the inhabitants of Kathmandu relied on renewable bio-based resources such as wood and crops for construction and agriculture, maintaining a balanced and sustainable relationship with their natural environment. This equilibrium was disrupted by the onset of industrialization, which introduced dependence on fossil fuels and nonrenewable materials like metals and minerals. This shift not only contributed to environmental degradation but also exacerbated seismic challenges, as traditional bio-based materials were replaced by more rigid and resource-intensive alternatives such as steel and concrete.
A paradigm shift towards using wood and bio-composites in Kathmandu’s construction industry presents a multifaceted solution to current challenges. It offers a pathway to enhanced seismic resilience, reduced carbon emissions, and economic self-sustainability. By leveraging local timber resources and community forest management, Kathmandu can revive its natural construction heritage while addressing the pressing needs of modern urban development. This shift not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also ensures a resilient and economically vibrant future for Kathmandu.
Locally found hardwood exhibits several properties that make it highly suitable for construction. Given the seismic vulnerability of the city, the mechanical strength of the material can play a vital role. Hardwood has natural flexibility which helps absorb and dissipate energy, reducing chances of failure. (Conrad, 2023) The reduced mass of hardwood structure results in lower inertia during earthquake. High strength to weight ratio of hardwood can help enhance the structural integrity of buildings, enabling them to endure seismic forces more effectively than heavier material. (Timber Council, 2022)
In addition to its mechanical properties, hardwood sourced from sustainably managed local forests offer environmentally friendly alternate to the currently used materials as wood has the ability to hold carbon for it’s entire life duration and can help generate the bio based economy.
Stregnth
2. SOURCE: www.worldmap1.com
Nepal’s timber supply is predominantly derived from governmentmanaged, community, and private forests. The promotion of a local timber industry offers the potential for creating a selfsustaining economy and improving the livelihoods of rural communities. The forests in Kavrepalanchowk, located near Kathmandu, are particularly promising for timber production. Kavrepalanchowk’s extensive community forests could serve as a major source of construction timber for Kathmandu. (Saxena et al,2022)
Sustainable management of these forests and practicing silviculture would ensure a continuous timber supply while maintaining ecological balance. By engaging local communities in forest management and timber production, it is possible to generate employment, empower rural populations, and promote sustainable forestry practices that benefit both the environment and the economy.
Type: Moderately hardwood
Local name Sal
Scientific name: Shorea robusta
Use: frames for doors and windows Growth 60-70 years
Local name Gobre Salla
Scientific name: Pinus wallichina
Use: Fuel wood, timber Growth 30 years
Local name Chilaune
Scientific name: Schima wallichii Use: frames for doors and windows, railway sleepers, buildings, fence, beams Growth: 30-50 years
Type: Moderately softwood
Local name Utis
Scientific name: Alnus nepalensis
Use: General carpentry, light construction Growth small timber can be harvested in less than 10 years
Type: Softwood
Local name Pate Salla
Scientific name: Pinus patula Use: Firewood, timber posts, pulpwood, shade and ornamental Growth 25-30 years
1. Alark Saxena et al., ‘Opportunities and Barriers for Wood-Based Infrastructure in Urban Himalayas: A Review of Selected National Policies of Nepal’, Trees, Forests and People 8 (1 June 2022): 100244, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100244.
Fig. 26.Forests of Nepal2
2.4.2: Hardwood
Fig. 28.Types Wood available in kavrepalan-
1. Alark Saxena et al., ‘Opportunities and Barriers for Wood-Based Infrastructure in Urban Himalayas: A Review of Selected National Policies of Nepal’, Trees, Forests and People 8 (1 June 2022): 100244, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100244.
Type: Hardwood
Type: Hardwood
Kathmandu City
2.4.3: Jute
Nepal is one of the significant producers of jute which grows mostly in the terai region. Although, it has decreased in production in recent years, it still remain a important industry promoted by the Nepalese government. With the world increasing moving towards a sustainable living, jute has regained its importance. Jute can offer sustainable alternate to traditional building materials and at the same time is more cost effective than importing synthetic materials. It’s usage in bio-composites can help replace synthetic composites like plastic and glass, making them more environmentally sustainable while also supporting the local economy. (Sharma, P & Bhandari, 2021).
Jute is a major agricultral product and use of jute as a construction material can enhance the production and provide employment to the community. Integrating jute into construction in Kathmandu offers both environmental and economic benefits, promoting local production while contributing to sustainable and resilient building practices.
With a long history of use in the construction industry, jute plays many roles, bringing to fore it’s many properties that makes it a desirable constituent of our bio-composite.It’s a natural fiber which is easily biodegradable, has a high growth rate and very short processing time.
It’s high tensile strength, with moderate elasticity make it ideal to be used as a load bearing element. It retains a relatively good degree of stiffness despite being a natural material. Jute has a high moisture absorption rate; this allow us to make it flexible when required and on drying, increases stiffness as needed. It exhibits good impact resistance while being lightweight and having low thermal conductivity; this makes it an ideal choice for insulation while also being able to handle sudden compressive forces due to blasts. (SpringerLink, 2022; Textile Engineering, 2023)
Fig. 29.Jute producing areas in Nepal 1. Sharma, P., and A. Bhandari. “Applications of Jute
1. SpringerLink, “Advances in Textile Engineering,” Textile Science Journal (2022)
Kathmandu City
City
2.4.4: Binders
For biocomposites, potato starch with jute and other natural fibers aims to produce a product with good mechanical properties. Both jute fiber and starch are hydrophilic materials, and therefore their molecules contain hydroxyl (– OH) groups, which facilitate the formation of hydrogen bonds between the reinforcing material and the theoretical distribution of mechanical stress in the material, and improves bonding, while starch provides a cohesive matrix for activation
Latex3
Derived from rubber tree sap, natural latex provides excellent elasticity, flexibility and flexibility. Latex when added to jute fibers acts as a binder enabling the composite to be soft, strong and durable
The interaction between natural latex and jute fibers creates a composite material that preserves the strength of jute and greatly increases its flexibility Latex covers jute fibers, fills voids and reduces fiber weakness, and it makes it soft and strong.
Silica is commonly used as a reinforcing agent to improve the performance of biomaterials thermally treated with potato starch. When embedded in potato starch matrices, the silica particles increase the thermal stability of the material by forming strong interactions with the starch polymer chains These interactions interfere with starch molecules, generating heat with increased thermal degradation.
Because potato starch is a natural polymer, it is not very thermo-stable, which limits its use at high temperatures. The addition of silica improves the heat resistance of the material. Silica acts as a thermal insulator and shares the initial breakdown temperature by providing uniform thermal absorption throughout the composite. Moreover, the silica particles form a more rigid frame within the starch matrix, which further prevents deformation under heating.
Soy protein is a natural binder that can enhance the tensile strength of natural fibres. It also contains amino acids that can for form strong hydrogen bonds with hydroxyl groups in natural fiber cellulose. The interfaces between these materials allow for better performance under tension. Furthermore the material maintains the essence of biodegradability in terms of material development. The protein with fibre compatibility can thus output a product with good tensile strength and flexibility in a sustainable manner.
Narendra Reddy, Yiqi Yang, Completely biodegradable soyprotein–jute biocomposites developed using water without any chemicals as plasticizer, Industrial Crops and Products, Volume 33, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 35-41, ISSN 0926-6690, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.08.007.
Potato starch1
Silica2
S.
S. Debnath, A.N. Roy, Jute fibre reinforced biodegradable composites using starch as a biological macromolecule: Fabrication and performance evaluation, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Volume 273, Part 1,2024,132641, ISSN
Sandi & Oliveira, Fabio & Silva, Leonardo & Fungaro, Denise. (2021). Study of Renewable Silica Powder Influence in the Preparation of Bioplastics from Corn and Potato Starch. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. 10.1007/s10924-020-01911-8.
Soy protein4
Kumar, S (Kumar, Sumit) Lal, S (Lal, Sohan) Jagdeva, G (Jagdeva, Geetanjali) Arora, S (Arora, Sanjiv) Kumar, P (Kumar, Parvin) Soni, RK (Soni, R. K.) Kumar, H (Kumar, Harish) Kumar, S (Kumar, Sunil) Panchal, S (Panchal, Suresh) Azevêdo, Luciana & Rovani, Suzimara & Santos, Jonnatan & Dias, Djalma & Nascimento, Sandi & Oliveira, Fabio & Silva, Leonardo & Fungaro, Denise. (2021). Study of Renewable Silica Powder Influence in the Preparation of Bioplastics from Corn and Potato Starch. Journal of Polymers
the
Kathmandu City
Kathmandu City
Linseed oil is generally used as binding agent in bio materials for its natural polymeric properties. When combined with natural fibre like materials, it helps to bind with other materials collectively to form a composite. The oil includes triglycerides that undergo polymerization, which hardens upon exposure to air or warmth, growing a long lasting and flexible matrix. The porosity of a natural fiber is filled with the oil, creating a strong bond with good mechanical properties in terms of strength, flexibility and moisture resistance.
2.4.5: Relationship between urban and nature
The construction industry in Kathmandu is a major contributor in increase of carbon emissions. By shifting towards a bio based economy Kathmandu can substantially reduce its carbon footprint and at the same time tackle the resilience to earthquakes by the use of wood. This approach aligns with the principles of a bio-based circular economy, (Van der Lugt & Harsta, 2020) that reduces waste and promotes recycling and reuse. In this model, materials are sourced from renewable biological processes, and products are designed to be easily repaired, repurposed and then composted or converd to biomass at the end of their life cycle.
Creating this model in the ecosystem of Kathmandu, can help mitigate the reuse of material in a post disaster sinario or can be repurposed as frames or furniture otherwise. The aim to set this cycle is to minimise environmental impact and create a close looped system where waste is reduced and resources are cycled back into the economy.
Linseed oil5
Jevgenij, Lazko & Dupré, B. & Dheilly, R.M. & Quéneudec, Michèle. (2011). Biocomposites based on flax short fibres and linseed
Fig. 30.Shows the Life Cycle of the material
1. Van der Lugt, P., & Harsta, A. (2020). Tomorrow’s timber: Towards the next building revolution (1st ed.).
Kathmandu City
Seismic Shifts
The structural performance of a building is a critical factor when evaluating its seismic resilience. This research emphasizes analyzing the forces acting on buildings during seismic events, such as lateral loads and ground accelerations, which can compromise their stability and integrity. By understanding these forces, the study aims to identify vulnerabilities in structural systems and develop effective mitigation strategies
3.1: Seismic Shifts
3.1.1: Earthquake
Buildings collapse during an earthquake due to the extreme forces exerted by the earths crust, primarily the P waves which are fast and compressional then followed by S-waves, which are slower causing ground acceleration that weakens an overall structure. These forces occurring simultaneously case much more destruction often leading the building to experience structural damage, including, minimal collapse, partial collapse and sometimes even total collapse if not reinforced.
The waves that travel through the ground cause rapid acceleration translating to inertia forces in a building, proportional to its mass. Thus heavier the buildings, greater the force exerted. These forces primarily targets weak points like improper connections causing buildings to deform. In particular, a lack of ductility—meaning the ability of materials or components to deform without breaking—can result in sudden, catastrophic failures.
The forces experiences by the disaster also pushes the buildings material beyond its elastic limit. Where material like concrete, which posses great compression stress can crack and deform to its weakness under tension forces.
The three main categories of earthquake resistant design by Japanese are Taishin, Seishin and Menshin or three shins. Each of these strategy play a different role in tackling the seismic forces generated.
Taishin emphasizes strengthening of the buildings in terms of reinforcing structure like bracings, this enables the building to withstand forces by dissipating energy into multiple pathways when subjected to ground acceleration. Seishin focuses on vibration control by introducing dampers, These devices absorb and dissipate the energy of the seismic waves, preventing the building from swaying too much and reducing the risk of damage to the structure. Menshin isolates the buildings from the ground. This is typically approached by lifting the structure on flexible bearing or base isolators that allow the buildings to move independently of the shaking ground. This enables the building to experience significantly less motion thus reducing overall damage
The project delves into various objectives, including incremental growth, material development, user-centric design, and sustainability. By studying and analyzing relevant case studies, the research identifies practical approaches and strategies that can be abstracted and applied to similar contexts.
Architect: Shigeru Ban; Year: 2017
Location: Nepal
2.5: Case studies
2.5.1: Khumjung Secondary School
Designed as a reconstruction project in Nepal after the 2015 Earthquake, the Khumjung secondary school showcases how local skills and materials can be translated into a community-driven project.
The structure comprises an easily deployable timber module. Two of these modules can be stacked to attain the height of a single-story building. The module serves as the primary structure of the building, with walls filled with materials available locally such as stones, and even the rubble or debris collected from buildings damaged by the earthquake. The stone infill also acts as an insulation layer in the harsh climate. The project combines traditional masonry and modern engineering techniques to enhance structural integrity and earthquake resistance.
The project demonstrates an example of hybrid construction. The architect engages the community by considering their needs, skills, and availability of resources while also developing a module that is tested structurally in Japan to understand the level of seismic resilience it can provide. The timber framework caters to a certain degree of flexibility and ability to absorb seismic forces. In addition, the elevated plinth acts as a base isolator reducing the risk to seismic activity.
The limitations posed by the project are the nature of the materials used and the associated maintenance cost in such extreme climates. The stone used is site-specific and may not be suitable for use in urban areas. Moreover, the stacked timber module allows for easy expansion in a horizontal span but does not provide any scope of expansion in the vertical direction.
Located in South Korea, the project provides potential ways to use timber elements in a lattice structure using a more technological approach to traditional timber joinery and assembly practices. The roof structure is built of a complex, interlocking system of timber beams that provide the scope of featuring large spans and open spaces. The interlocking laminated timber elements form a lattice shell structure that provides structural integrity.
21 columns, each 14m in height, support the rectangular roof span based on a square grid. Owing to the height and possibility of “buckling” – the columns are composed of individual members which are glued together to form one timber column. The circular hollow timber columns support a double curvature roof surface leading to beams with complex geometries. The traditional scarf and halving joints are used to resolve the lattice timber shell to be produced in a manner that would increase bending stiffness of the structure while also simplify assembly.
The geometric and modular configuration - systemically extracted using parametric design processes allows for the identification of clear load paths, distributing them evenly across the structure. The design process involved integration of new computational software that would allow design to optimize material usage and testing of multiple load cases at multiple points. The parametric design approach also provided ease in the assembly and fabrication process of the structure. As each beam segment was designed individually to fit into the structure and required to be produced multiple times – digitally produced templates set the outline for the prefabrication strategy.
Though the project reveals the potentiality that lies in using advanced design methods merging with traditional aspects of timber design – it also reveals the necessity of the skillset and logistics required to construct such a project to adapt in different geographical contexts. In addition, additional treatment may be required for the applicability of timber elements in double curvature alignment in terms of tackling humidity and exposure to extremes of temperature. Although material usage is optimized, the amount of timber required is still significant – which highlights the challenge of proper utilization of local materials. Although the parametric approach allowed to test the lattice structure for 30 load cases – there is no clarity of load testing carried out for seismic resilience. Such testing could further challenge the design complexity and engineering techniques required – which would also impact the time required to construct such an assembly.
2.5: Case studies
Architect: Shigeru Ban; Year: 2010
Location: South Korea
Fig. 32.Fabrication of roof structure, perspective and column section (clockwise) Source Architect’s website
2.5.2: Clunhouse, Halsey Nine Bridges Golf Course
Architect: Charles Correa; Year: 1983
Location: Belapur, Navi Mumbai, India
2.5: Case studies
2.5.3: Belapur Housing
Belapur Housing addresses the housing needs of lowincome families in Navi Mumbai. The project revolves around community living and incremental growth, providing an adaptable framework where residents could expand their homes as their resources permitted.
The design integrates public spaces, such as courtyards, which are key elements of the cluster. The housing units are organized in clusters of 7 or 8 houses around shared courtyards. Correa emphasized the importance of privacy by creating a hierarchy of spaces, moving from public communal spaces to semi-public shared spaces, and finally to private home areas. These spaces allow for communal activities, natural ventilation, and lighting, improving the overall quality of life for residents. Materials such as brick and concrete were used to keep construction costs low, while maintaining durability and integration with the local context.
The cluster-based layout with shared courtyards promotes social interaction, creating a strong sense of community while optimizing land use. In cities where urban density is a challenge, such a layout could provide communal spaces that improve quality of life while ensuring efficient use of limited land. The emphasis on shared spaces aligns with traditional communal living practices in the Indian subcontinent, presenting this housing typology as culturally adaptable. Resident-driven expansions as such may compromise the structural integrity of the houses if not properly regulated. In a seismic zone, such unregulated expansions could introduce significant safety risks.
2.5: Case studies
2.5.5:RAFA - Additive fabrication of components from waste wood
The ongoing research by the department of “Experimental and Digital Design and Construction” at the University of Kassel is focused on using waste wood as a construction material, in a broader effort to reduce construction waste. The use of waste wood and robot-assisted additive manufacturing to create building components paves the way for achieving precision in the design of custom components. By repurposing waste wood, the project aims to reduce construction waste and promote the notion of a circular economy.
The previously developed material formulations using waste wood particles and enhanced with biogenic binders could create a pasty material that can be used for additive manufacturing. The material was successfully transitioned into new circular construction applications, which could serve as a supplement or as an alternative to 3D concrete printing. By avoiding addition of non-biodegradable additives, the components could also be reused, thereby creating a closed material cycle.
The challenges in the research for real-world architectural applications lie in scalability for larger construction modules, and in ensuring the quality and performance of the material during processing and fabrication. The technical complexity in the fabrication process also adds a layer for implementation in multiple regions.
Fig. 33.Belapur housing, (clockwise) , Axonometric View, Plan and after construction phase.
10.2023 - 09.2025, Ongoing Research, University de Kassel
Fig. 34.Fabricated modules from waste wood composite. Source University de Kassel Website
Reflection and Potential
Architect: Fei and Chris Precht; Research project
2.5: Case studies
2.5.4: The farmhouse
The Farmhouse by Studio Precht is a conceptual project that integrates strategically designed modular timber construction while also addressing the modern challenges of urban living.
The Design focuses on sustainability by making timber the primary material, which utilizes a prefabricated construction technique suitable for user customization and to create scalable structures to individuals or community needs. This technique allows for compact pre packed elements making transportation and assembly on site a much less time consuming and challenging job. The process also enables the residents to participate in the construction phase, fostering a sense of ownership.
The building in itself have low environmental footprint compared to other building materials like steel and concrete. As a renewable resource, timber contributes to carbon sequestration, aligning with the project’s ecological goals
Each study encompasses an array of topics that can be extracted and utilised in a @@@.
Each of the projects studied presents innovative approaches to sustainable and resilient architecture, yet they also expose critical challenges and areas for improvement. Khumjung Secondary School’s integration of traditional and modern techniques provides a culturally sensitive yet resilient structure, but the remote location complicates logistics and consistent quality control. The Clubhouse at Haesley Nine Bridges illustrates the potential of laminated timber in seismic design, but the associated cost and need for specialized skills may limit broader applicability. Similarly, Belapur Housing, offers a contextual model of incremental growth and communitybased design, but its unregulated expansion processes lead to inconsistencies in material use and structural quality. The RAFA project offers a pioneering approach to utilizing waste wood through additive manufacturing, presenting a sustainable alternative to conventional materials, yet faces hurdles in material consistency, scalability, and broader industry adoption.
A resilient architecture framework can be extracted from each project’s strengths while mitigating individual challenges. As a starting research ground, integrating the expandable housing concept from Quinta Monroy with the advanced load-concentric design of the Clubhouse at Haesley Nine Bridges could provide affordable, resilient housing that adapts to residents’ changing needs. Utilizing RAFA’s additive manufacturing techniques to produce custom, modular components from waste wood for these expandable units could further enhance sustainability, reducing reliance on new timber and minimizing construction waste. Khumjung Secondary School’s approach to blending traditional and modern methods, along with Belapur Housing’s focus on community spaces, could be employed to ensure these modular components are culturally appropriate and easily integrated into various local contexts.
Research Conclusion
The unique geographical location of Kathmandu Valley, coupled with its rich Newari architectural heritage, presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly in the context of seismic resilience. The traditional architecture of the valley, characterized by its compact, courtyard-centric design, offers insights into the environmental resilience and community cohesion. However, pressures of rapid urbanization, population growth, and modern construction practices have disrupted these traditional systems, leading to issues such as land fragmentation, environmental degradation, and heightened exposure to seismic risks.
Current explorations lack a comprehensive approach that addresses the dual challenges of preserving traditional Newari architecture while enhancing its seismic resilience. The prevalent focus on RCC structures overlooks the potential of integrating local materials and construction techniques into modern frameworks. An inherent conflict between the use of traditional materials like wood and brick and modern construction techniques is identified, emphasizing the need for an design approach that integrates the strengths of both. Furthermore, there is a deficiency in urban design strategies that balance the growth of built environments with the need for accessible open spaces, crucial for effective post-disaster evacuation and rescue efforts. Through case studies, the possibilities of modular, adaptable housing systems that can evolve with the needs of the population while maintaining structural integrity are also demonstrated.
The aim is to address the shift from traditional to modern construction by resolving issues related to the inflexible and brittle nature of modern buildings. It seeks to incorporate Newari elements to preserve cultural heritage while enhancing design adaptability and increasing seismic resilience.
How can the principles of a bracing system be applied to achieve effective load distribution in building construction, while fostering flexibility, adaptability, and avoiding the rigid and monotonous nature of modern RCC buildings currently?
Methodology
The project explores various computational and theoretical methods to bridge the points of architetcure, disaster management, sustainability through adavanced techniques
Analysis Machine Learning
Cellular automata (CA) is a computational method that can be used to simulate emergent patterns in architecture. By applying simple rules to a grid of cells, complex, evolving forms can be generated for the emergence of a hierarchy of spaces, where the overall structure emerges from the interaction of individual elements.
CA is used as a growth algorithm at both the site and morphology scales. A custom C# script is created inspired by Conway’s Game of Life to generate a grid on an urban site, with cells being defined as either built or unbuilt spaces. The script initializes the grid with a certain built ratio, which dictates the proportion of cells that start as “built” (alive). The grid is further influenced by predefined “courtyards” - areas that must remain unbuilt (dead cells). Over several iterations, the code applies rules similar to those in Conway’s Game of Life: a built cell with too few or too many neighbours become unbuilt, while an unbuilt cell with exactly three neighbours becomes built.
To achieve a housing morphology where differing spaces need to be achieved while maintaining specific design rules, the growth algorithm applied through CA can assist in designing the variable nature of space formation and the pattern they grow in.
The theoretical meaning of space adjacency follows the principal that spaces inside a building are interconnected, creating a delicate and intricate connection structure around which the design evolves.
This concept aligns with the computational methods of magnetizing floor plan generator, where an algorithum generates layout on the basis of evacuation plans and corridor structures. In this case each room is an entity with connects to the main access corridor. Rooms are added iteratively, adhering to functional requirements and algorithumic constraints. This algorithum usually considers metrics like the numbers or total area of room placed.
Space syntax magnetizer focuses on the relationships between spaces, helping designers optimize the functionality and accessibility of spaces. It allows designers to simulate how spaces attract or repel each other, creating dynamic layouts based on specific design criteria. Following this logic can help our team generate iterative floor plans for different housing layouts, where the relationship between spaces change depending on the size and generations of people living together. Also it can help us generate layouts with quick access to the main corridor leading to the exit.
Finite element analysis is employed to evaluate the structural performance of the morphology. The software enables to simulate force fields and principle stress lines, providing an understanding of the force distribution throughout the structure. Analysing the forces, areas of stress concentration can be highlights which gives a crucial insight to identify optimal locations to integrate the secondary structural framework. This strategic placement can efficiently use to absorb and dissipate energy lessening the stress on the structure.
Machine learning was employed as a tool to study the existing site demographics how the generated voxels can be clustered together to cater to the existing population while having the potential for future growth. This helped us in generating a phased development strategy which ensures that the development can expand progressively, minimizing disruption to current residents and providing a framework for future urban expansion. It also helped, in cluster the blocks based on the existing principles of Newari Architecture, with the data of achieving comfort and privacy for residential blocks
Finite Element
In the urban scale experiment, the algorithm would be designed to provide the most feasible layout for the built and unbuilt areas with relation to risk assessment obtained from mapping existing layers. Secondly, the algorithm would be designed to formulate a network layout in terms of courtyard and vehicular and pedestrian pathways in terms of evacuation strategies for seismic events and proximity between residential clusters. In the cluster scale, the algorithm would be designed with relation to climatic performances of the building morphology, maximization of spatial arrangement, and allowance of incremental growth through the various modules while maintaining structural integrity. Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm
The use of a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm allows for the design to be analyzed through multiple iterations to obtain a balanced result, especially when it involves contradicting design criteria or objectives that need to be met for the final design layout.
The moulding of biocomposite materials using CNC involves creating a precise CAD model of the desired product, which is then translated into a toolpath for CNC machining. This allows for the production of an accurate mould with details. The biocomposite, in its initial batter-like form, can easily fill all nooks and corners of the mould. CNC’s precision ensures that the mould can be adjusted computationally to meet design specifications.
Environmental analysis laid the understanding and approach on integration of thermal comfort for the building users particularity through the application of computational tools. Ladybug and Honeybee was utilized for environmental design and performance analysis. In this context the tools help to better the over thermal performance of the building and in integration of a developed material system ensuring buildings energy efficiency, comfort and conducive to occupant well-being.
Marching Cubes (MC) is an algorithm that utilizes isosurfaces to extract boundaries of regions within a 3D dataset where a specific scalar value is constant. By applying space packing to voxels, the algorithm efficiently identifies and visualizes these surfaces, creating polygonal meshes for complex data. In the context of architectural design, this project leverages the MC approach to integrate bracing systems into a 3D network. The algorithm’s morphology, which describes how surfaces evolve within the voxel grid, is utilized to inform the design and arrangement of bracing elements. As the building’s form evolves, the MC methodology can be applied to dynamically adapt the bracing structure, optimizing stability and spatial organization while aligning with the building’s growth and changing needs.
The shortest walk is used to determine the fastest way of reaching from point A to B. It calculates the most efficient path between points within a defined environment. Leveraging algorithms like Dijkstra’s or pathfinding, Grasshopper enables designers to visualize and optimize routes by considering obstacles, boundaries, and accessibility. By inputting start and end points along with a defined geometry, the simulation generates paths that minimize travel distance or time. This method is particularly plays a vital role in evaluating the evacuation route on both size level and morphological level,
Pedestrian simulation is used to model and simulate the behaviour of pedestrians in different environments. It uses individual agents, which represents pedestrians, that interact with their environment and with each other based on defined rules, allowing for realistic simulations of crowd behaviour, within a specified parameters of speed, size and behaviour. The core features involve path finding, collision avoidance and group behaviour. The agents find the optimal path based on their goals such as reaching exit or the end point, while adjusting the paths to avoid obstacles or other agents. It can create group dynamics, which can help understand how a group of people will behave.
Ped sim can be very helpful in evaluating the usability of a plan; after defining site boundaries and a start and end points, it can simulate the behaviour of the pedestrian and help visualise movement through the plan in real-time, through the geometry of the environment. This definition also allows users to make changes to the plan while running the simulation, allowing users to evaluate design instantly. Ped Sim can play a critical role in designing spaces that are safe, functional, and efficient, particularly in scenarios where human movement and crowd behaviour are key considerations
Research Development
The research development phase involves a systematic approach to understanding the current urban context and associated seismic hazards in Kathmandu. It begins with the overlay and analysis of maps that assess the city’s present conditions and risk factors, providing a broad understanding of the spatial and environmental challenges at hand. Moreover, this phase also focused on formulating the programmatic layout that would drive form finding experiments, through extraction of design principles, present spatial requirements of residents and structural resiliency. Concurrently, the research progresses into experimental setups designed to evaluate various mechanical and environmental factors pertinent to the proposed wood-based bio-composite material. The results would help inform and refine the computational experiments being carried out for form finding and structural stability.
6.1: Site
To identify a suitable site for the proposal of seismicresilient housing, it was imperative to analyse the interplay between the city’s landscape and its urban configuration. This analysis aimed to pinpoint an intervention area appropriate for the design initiative. A comprehensive study was undertaken, involving the superimposition of various maps to examine the numerous layers—both geographical and built—relevant to assessing seismic risks. It was crucial to ensure that the selected site not only avoided any identified risk zones but also provided a stable groundwork to address the urgent issues of urban density and the necessity for a new housing typology. This proposed typology would effectively bridge the divide between the historic and contemporary sections of the city, serving as a precedent for resilient and sustainable growth for the residents of Kathmandu city.
Urban sprawl has driven the change in land use, with built up areas increasing threefold between 1990 and 2012.
1 Housing trends in the valley depict class-based gated communities, decay within the historic core areas, and rapid unplanned development in peripheral areas. Four types of settlements were identified from research spread across the city of prominently contrasting patterns.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.006.
1. Chitrakar, Rajjan Man, Douglas C. Baker, and Mirko Guaralda. “Urban growth and development of contemporary neighbourhood public space in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Habitat International 53 (April 1, 2016): 30–38.
Kathmandu city lies along the Bagmati River and its extensive network of tributaries, which have influenced the city’s growth and urban layout. The primary road network of Kathmandu, which forms the spine of the city’s transportation system, is strategically developed along these waterways, ensuring connectivity between different parts of the city. Complementing this layer are the secondary road networks, which penetrate deeper into residential and commercial areas, facilitating local access and mobility.
Over time, the built-up area of Kathmandu has expanded significantly, radiating outward from the densely populated inner-city core, which houses many of the city’s historic and cultural landmarks. The dense core areas of the city, particularly within certain wards, have reached densities as high as 1,181 p/ha.1 This expansion reflects the pressures of population growth and urbanization, leading to the development of new residential, commercial, and infrastructural zones in the outer periphery regions. This outward growth, however, has not been without challenges, as it must continuously adapt to the geographical and environmental constraints posed by the river system and the city’s topography, including considerations of flood plains, landslide-prone areas, and other risk factors associated with natural disaster.
1. Bajracharya, Amit, Pragya Pradhan, Poonam Amatya, Bhagawat Bhakta Khokhali, Sabina Shrestha, and Arif Hasan. “Planning for Affordable Housing
6.1.1: Urban Layout
1.
01 SANKHAMUL
Sankhamul, the oldest informal settlement in the eastern part of Kathmandu, is one of 13 such settlements along the Bagmati River. This settlement exhibits a density of 377 people per hectare. The area is characterized by a linear layout, with a single row of houses extending along the entire length of the settlement adjacent to the river. A paved road separates this informal settlement from the formal developments to the east. Initially consisting of single-story temporary structures, residents have gradually converted these into permanent reinforced concrete (RCC) buildings, with horizontal expansion into surrounding open spaces.
02 NARADEVI
Naradevi is located adjacent to the core of the city, laid out in the traditional settlement pattern with hierarchy of courtyard system. The area exhibits a high density of 2,112 people per hectare. The compact nature of traditional buildings has proven inadequate to accommodate the growing spatial demands of residents, leading to an increase in building height and reconstruction efforts. While the original street grid pattern has been partially preserved, the traditional architectural homogeneity has been altered due to vertical expansion using modern materials. This has resulted in narrower streets and darker courtyards as building heights have increased, with most structures now reaching up to five stories.
Khusibo is a land pooling project initiated as a government proposal and is situated on the outskirts of the city’s main urban core. The area has a density of 1,046 people per hectare. The land readjustment project, guided by the existing infrastructure, transformed former agricultural fields to accommodate urban expansion by implementing a concentric layout with roads at regular intervals. Approximately 70% of the plots were reorganized into regular sizes, while 21% of the land was developed into roads. Many buildings in the area are reinforced concrete structures. However, violations of building regulations have permitted vertical expansion, resulting in numerous buildings reaching multiple stories.
Chabahil is a settlement that gradually developed on former agricultural land because of population growth spillover. It is located adjacent to the ring road that encircles the main urban core of Kathmandu and has a population density of 410 people per hectare. Due to the significant amount of vacant land, the area’s density is anticipated to increase. The primary impetus for housing development in Chabahil is its proximity to the revered Pashupatinath Temple and its adjacent conserved forest area, both recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The area has experienced unplanned growth, leading to the emergence of irregular and non-linear roads. Consequently, housing has been constructed in a disorganized manner, lacking a coherent pattern and making navigation through the settlement difficult.
Chitrakar, Rajjan Man, Douglas C. Baker, and Mirko Guaralda. “Urban
03 KHUSIBO
04 CHABAHIL
6.1.3: Landscape and risk assessment
The Kathmandu valley hosts the districts of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur. The valley floor, predominantly flat, has an average elevation of 1300 meters and is surrounded by mountains that rise to heights between 1900 and 2800 meters. 1 The contour maps of the city, alongside the slope analysis map indicate the central and lower elevation areas, where the contours are more widely spaced (marked red on the slope analysis map), representing the valley floor where most of the city’s built-up area is concentrated. The outer region of the city shows higher elevation and steeper slopes –indicative of the extent to which the city’s growth has expanded and thereafter constrained.
During seismic events, liquefaction results in watersaturated soils losing their structural integrity, leading to higher levels of damage to buildings and infrastructure. The central and southern parts of Kathmandu city, identified as high-risk zones on the liquefaction susceptibility map, are particularly vulnerable due to their location on the flatter valley floor. This area, characterized by water-saturated sediments, is inherently more prone to liquefaction, especially around the riverbanks. The convergence of flood-prone areas and liquefaction zones within the city underscores the combined risks present, rendering these regions exceptionally susceptible during seismic activity. The inner core of Kathmandu, where traditional architecture and high-density development are most concentrated, faces significant seismic hazards. In contrast, the eastern and northern peripheries, where urban expansion is underway, are increasingly at risk of becoming flood-prone, further complicating the city’s vulnerability to natural disasters. 1
Overlaying the four settlements—Naradevi, Sankhamul, Khusibo, and Chabahil—on liquefaction and flood-prone maps reveals the specific vulnerabilities faced by each site. Slope analysis indicates that Chabahil, situated near the city’s hilly outer edge, is the only settlement located on steep slopes, while the other three sites are on relatively flat terrain within the central part of the city. Sankhamul, located along the Bagmati River, lies within a ten-year floodplain and is at significant risk of erosion and flooding during the monsoon season. Khusibo, positioned on the western edge of the city near the Bishnumati River, a tributary of the Bagmati, is highly susceptible to liquefaction and is at risk of flooding during a 100-year return period. Similarly, Chabahil, although moderately susceptible to liquefaction, faces a flood risk due to its proximity to another tributary, the Dhobi Khola River. In contrast, Naradevi, located near the inner core of Kathmandu, is in a zone of moderate liquefaction susceptibility. However, the direct seismic risk in Naradevi is exacerbated by its dense settlement pattern and unplanned growth.
The selected site for moving forward with the design is Naradevi, identified as a low-risk zone through its alignment with risk maps, offering the potential for developing a culturally sensitive yet new housing morphology. Naradevi represents a traditional settlement type that distinctly reflects the spatial hierarchy characteristic present in the Nepali architecture. This hierarchy, initially imposed through the grid pattern surrounding the Durbar squares, historically accommodated members of the higher caste system. Originally, the tightly clustered residential blocks comprised three to four-story buildings facing either open courtyards or the streets. A similar stratification is evident in the layout of major open spaces and broader streets, all of which converge towards the Durbar squares, with the rest of the site becoming more compact and denser.
In recent years, Naradevi has experienced vertical densification due to population influx, with additional floors being added to traditional dwellings. This vertical expansion, coupled with the lack of maintenance of aging structures, has heightened the area’s vulnerability to seismic events and fire hazards. Moreover, the narrow streets and increasingly inaccessible routes leading to courtyards, often passing beneath deteriorating traditional homes, exacerbate the risks posed by earthquakes. These conditions underscore the urgency of developing a resilient architectural framework that respects Naradevi’s cultural heritage while addressing its contemporary challenges.
6.1.4: Naradevi
6.2: Morphology
6.2.1: Architectural Abstractions
Kathmandu’s housing sector faces numerous challenges, as the increasing population compels residents to settle in areas increasingly vulnerable to environmental and seismic hazards. The research aims to address these issues by examining the spatial needs of the local population and proposing a refined approach to the design of the housing morphology.
The objective is to develop a resilient housing form that accommodates the city’s rising population density while ensuring that the proposed structures remain culturally sensitive, structurally stable, and adaptable to future growth. The study draws upon principles of Newari architecture, extracting design elements that enhance seismic resilience, and integrates these as key design guidelines for the new form. Furthermore, an analysis of existing family typologies and demographics informs the design of spatial configurations that would effectively balance population density while preserving necessary open spaces.
The design principles are extracted in two manners from the existing Newari architecture. The language of spatial organisation and the cultural aspects that define them.
The Newari houses show linearity as the functional spaces are stacked one above the other in a vertical manner throughout the three to four storied structures. From the practice of traditional layout and construction, as well as current building codes, buildings which are symmetrical in plan and elevation are deemed to be more seismic resilient. In certain cases, a strict sense of proportion is maintained through the organisation of square or rectangular spaces. The buildings are courtyard centric with at least one side having a direct access to the adjacent street. The built forms themselves also act as intervention zones between the more public street to the private hierarchy of internal courtyards.
The most common built form in the city is the General buildings, which defined as per the Nepal Building Code are buildings which are 01 to 05 stories or below 16m in height (1). This height constraint is deemed to be optimal in reach for emergency egress and rescue efforts. Observed through the cultural lens, the Nepalese society is composed of multi-ethnic groups, with some preferring joint family structures. Urbanization and changing economic activities have led to a shift from joint to nuclear families in urban areas. According to a recent survey (2), around 70% of families in Nepal belong to nuclear families (less than 06 members) and the rest 30% belong to large joint families (above 06 people). Spatial requirements have adapted accordingly with permanent houses being divided up to provide smaller rental units. According to the NLSS 2010/11 (3), the average dwelling size in Kathmandu Valley is approximately 50sqm. The understanding of these quantitative data is further refined when setting up a library for units catering to different family sizes in the following part of the research.
Abstractions from Newari architecture
6.2.2: Structural Resilience
The project aims to explore the modern earthquake- resistant design of diagonal bracing system on a 3D cellular scale. The typical bracing system arranged in a diagonal pattern across a structure, absorb and dissipate energy generated during an earthquake. Acting as tension and compression members, these braces redistribute the lateral forces, lessening the extreme movements that could lead to structural failure. Initially the members absorb the energy through elastic deformation, but under drastic acceleration, they can undergo plastic deformation, effectively dissipating the forces and reduce the impact on the primary members.
The FEA analysis conducted on a typical storeyed building illustrates the significant reduction of displacement when diagonal members are introduced to the structure
Fig.
Fig. 38.FEA analysis on building without cross bracing
Fig. 39.FEA analysis on building with cross bracing
This research leverages the Marching Cubes (MC) algorithm, a widely recognized method in computational geometry for generating isosurfaces within a scalar field. The MC algorithm combines iso-surfacing and constraint-solving techniques to encode complex designs into environments. Our approach focuses on harnessing the core functionality of the MC algorithm to create architectural structures derived from the iso-surfaces it generates.
By utilizing the MC algorithm, we aim to enhance spatial and material efficiency. The structures created through this process are designed to reduce overall load while improving structural stability by leveraging stable geometries. This contributes to more resilient, efficient, and environmentally responsive architecture.
Furthermore, the process introduces modularity into the design, facilitating easier assembly, disassembly, and adaptation over time. This is achieved by employing a kit-of-parts approach, which allows for greater flexibility and adaptability in construction. The result is a system that can be easily reconfigured, repaired, or scaled according to evolving needs, supporting long-term sustainability and resilience in architectural designs.
Stress point Optimisation
Modularity
Spatial/Material Optimisation
Kit of parts Stable Geometry
Load Distribution
Rebuilding efforts
6.3: Material
6.3.1: Material Properties
In addition to using a timber frame for the main structure, a biocomposite material has been developed to serve both environmental and thermal purposes. This material is designed to reduce environmental Impact by utilizing sustainable, ecofriendly components, while also improving the building’s energy efficiency, it targets the timber in its powder stage (sawdust), primarly from post disaster and underurlised reosurces.
Additionaly, a natural fibre like jute was added, which is abundantly available in the region due to its agricultural growth. The nature fibre aims to further strengthen the composite
Fig. 40. Properties of jute and sawdust
6.3.2: Binders
6.3.3: Material Aim
01. Aim: To find optimized balance between adhesion and water resistance in the bio-composite.
Blend sawdust and jute fibres in a 4:3 ratio followed by latex and potato starch in a 2:1 ratio.1
Procedure:W
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibres in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex and potato starch.
3. Thoroughly combine the fibre blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples (e.g., small bricks or tiles) and cure at room temperature for 24 hours.
02. Aim: To increase thermal stability and water resistance while maintaining flexibility in the bio-composite.
Blend sawdust and jute fibers in a 3:2 ratio followed by latex, soy protein and silica in a 2:1:1 ratio. 1
Procedure:
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibers in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex, soy protein, and silica.
3. Thoroughly combine the fiber blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples and cure in a controlled environment (humidity-controlled chamber) for 48 hours.
03. Aim: To maximize durability and adhesion in the biocomposite for structural stability.
Blend sawdust and jute fibers in a 3:3 ratio followed by latex, soy protein and silica in a 3:1 ratio 1 .
Procedure:
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibers in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex, soy protein, and silica.
3. Thoroughly combine the fiber blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples and cure under heat (60°C) for 24 hours.
6.3.1: Material Properties
1. Compression Test
To apply load to the composite samples in a specified thickness and size to check for moments of deformation or crack.
Method:
To apply various loads to the composite samples. Record the force at which the sample deforms or cracks. Analyse stress-strain curves to determine compressive strength.
2. Bending stress test
To subject the composite to a three-point bending test to check measure the strength and flexibility under various loads.
Method:
The composite is placed on two end supports. Load is applied at intervals.
Analyse the materials response to return to its original state.
3. Water loss or Gain
To test the effect of water on the swelling or shrinkage of the composite sample.
Method:
Measure and record the original weight and dimensions of the sample. Submerge samples in water for 24 hours, then dry and re-measure the weight and dimensions.
Calculate percentage change in weight and dimensions.
4. Thermal test
To test the effect of the composite to resist or insulate against heat transfer.
Method:
Subject the material to heat on one side. Place an ice pack on the other side. Record the state of the ice pack melting.
Site Development
The design development phase of the project advances through the application of different computational methodologies, specifically cellular automata and evolutionary algorithms, to craft a site layout that resonates with the intricate urban fabric of Kathmandu. This phase involves the generation of 3D morphologies within a specific grid, incorporating courtyards that reflect the traditional spatial dynamics of the city
7.1: Site
7.1.1: Context
Naradevi stood out as the preferred site for development due to a combination of critical factors identified through detailed analysis. Topological studies highlighted the area as a safe zone, ensuring stability and suitability for construction, away from the soil suseptible to liquification which is particularly important given Kathmandu’s seismic vulnerability. Its proximity to the iconic Patan Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, adds immense cultural and historical value, positioning the site as a bridge between heritage and modernity. Additionally, Naradevi’s strategic location serves as a vital transit corridor connecting the historic city core with new urban development areas, enhancing its accessibility and future potential for growth. These combined attributes—safety, cultural relevance, and connectivity—make Naradevi an ideal and dynamic location for sustainable and impactful development.
Hospitals and fire stations around the site were identified, providing key reference points for establishing the main vehicular access routes to the site, ensuring efficient emergency response and connectivity.
NARADEVI
NARADEVI
PATAN DARBAR SQUARE
NARADEVI TEMPLE NEW CITY
Fig. 42.Naradevi context map showing it’s relation with it’s historical context and the new city
Fig. 41.
7.1.2: Experiment Setup
The design experiment commences with outlining the site boundary and leaving a set back of area 27,425 sqm along the river edge. This was done to avoid the Loose soil along the river which is not fit for construction.
The remaining area along dividing it into a grid of 20x20m, followed by populating the area with circles, each having a radius of 30 meters. This specific radius is selected to adhere to the strategic requirement of maintaining the standard evacuation distance from any enclosed space to the nearest core. The centres of these circles serve as reference points for establishing the center of primary courtyards or evacuation centres, which are instrumental in the subsequent stage of defining a growth pattern using Cellular Automata for urban design.
The implementation of a regular grid, with consistent cell sizes, facilitates the systematic organization and precise calculation of areas, thereby enhancing the understanding of the potential growth patterns and scale within the site.
The rules for aggregation used to populate the grid on the site can be foremost defined by the CA rules of reproduction, survival and death applied to the grid on site, extracted from Conway’s Game of Life. These rules are then used to create a custom CA logic to populate the site. The courtyard cells (circle centres) are set to be the starting cells, and the built cells are populated surrounding them within the set boundary curve. The rules are maintained in a manner so that the iterations can produce a higher density of built(alive) cells as the algorithm proceeds and reach and maintain the set footprint ratio.
F01-Maintain Built ratio
F02-Minimize Isolated structures
A circle with a radius of 30 meters encompasses 21 cells, collectively covering a total of 59,568 square meters. The footprint ratio, determining the proportion of built versus open space, is designated to vary between 50% and 70%. With a built ratio of 50%, 10 cells would be designated for buildings, resulting in a constructed area of 4,000 square meters. According to local code, which allocate 18 square meters per person for a house, this built area could accommodate approximately 222 individuals. To serve this population, two cells (800 square meters) would be designated as communal open space, while five additional cells (2,000 square meters) would be allocated as evacuation zones.
Achieve housing density with built to open ratio of 60 -40.
F04-Maximise Accessibility to Open Space
Achieve easy accessibility to open spaces for ease of evacuation
F03 - Maximise distance from site boundary
Minimise vibrational impact To mitigate the impact the proposal will have on the surrounding buildings
F05-Minimise Road Length
Achieve shortest path between the built zones for evacuation
7.1.3: Site Growth Algorithm
The iterative CA algorithm allows for differing urban growths on the site, however due to its stochastic nature, a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm with specified objectives is set to the produced iterations to better facilitate and rephrase the spatial growth on the urban scale.
The MOEA is setup taking into considerations the parameters that should be put forward to maintain a layout that would cater to both pre-disaster and post disaster situation at site. Built spaces are to be extracted in such a manner that would deviate less from the targeted built ratio for the desired density on site, while also ensuring that the evacuation spaces are accessible from all ends. The perimeter to area ratio of the building clusters is also maintained at a low ratio to minimize the impact of lateral forces from seismic waves, by making sure there are reduced number of isolated structures or singularly spread built cells. A shortest walk computation was set to minimize the necessary road and pedestrian network connecting the main built area to the primary evacuation zones while ensuring better connectivity.
Number of Fitness Objectives: 05
Fig.
Fig. 50.Diagrams explaining CA growth
Generation 85/ind.5
Generation 48/ind.17
Generation 51/ind.26
Generation 59/ind.5
Generation 59/ind.33
7.1.4: Weightage and Selection
The pareto fronts showed the optimized results from the simulation and assisted in narrowing down the site layout that would help attain the desired density in the design and spatial layout of the evacuation areas. Phenotypes performing better in maintaining high density created a limit in providing accessible open spaces. Six optimized individuals were weighted with F05 of minimizing the road length was given the highest weightage followed by minimise deviation from built ratio.
Generation 85/ Ind 5
Build:Open = 40:60
Built Area = 44,800sqm
Open Area = 64,800sqm
7.1.5:
Network generation
A network-based experiment was set up on the selected pareto to derive the evacuation route for the pedestrian pathways and evacuation routes. The built areas were made into clusters, and the center open space within the cluster was identified as collection points for residents. These strategically chosen points, surrounded by the built environment, ensure accessibility and serve as hubs for gathering during evacuations. The collection points served as starting nodes, while evacuation zone points were defined as endpoints. Built boundaries were identified as repulsion curves to guide pedestrian paths away from clusters, avoiding collision, ensuring safe and efficient routing.
Random paths were generated within these points to commence the simulation. Average speed of running was taken as 6–10 km/h (3.7–6.2 mph).
The simulation gave the team the opportunity to analyse and understand the way agents were moving through the built environment, helped us determine the path efficient for evacuation.
7.1.6: Network Analysis
Network analysis was done to. In network analysis, betweenness centrality is a measure of how often a node (or cell, in this context) will act as a bridge along the shortest path between two other nodes. A higher betweenness centrality (red nodes) suggest that a node is crucial for facilitating connections or movement between other nodes in the network. Taking the average centres of the build forms as origins and the open spaces as destination, an analysis on the individuals showed the optimized path for further development.
The comprehensive study of the networks and simulation, including the existing road network, and the existing terrain of the site gave us the final set of paths. While determining the final path, vehicular and pedestrian pathways were shown including path from site entry points to evacuation zones. This holistic approach ensures that the final path selection was efficient, accessible and aligned with the site’s physical characteristics and safety requirements.
Existing vehicular movement
Proposed vehicular movement
Morphology Development
This phase involves the generation of 3D morphologies within the built areas incorporating redudancy and evacuation strategies on the building level for effective means of escape during an earthquake. The experiment also integrates the social culture of the Newari Architecture in various stages
8.1.2 Site Weightage and Selection
The iterative CA algorithm allows for differing urban growths on the site, however due to its stochastic nature, a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm with specified objectives is set to the produced iterations to better facilitate and rephrase the spatial growth on the urban scale.
The MOEA is setup taking into considerations the parameters that should be put forward to maintain a layout that would cater to both pre-disaster and post disaster situation at site.
In alignment with the 2D CA, the 3D morphology follows the built area voxels as starting cells. With consideration of the population influx, a gene controlling the floor numbers is proposed to maximize the volume and floor area. Considering the necessity for seismic resilience, cell states are carefully defined, and specific rules are implemented to warrant overall structural integrity. Built spaces are densely arranged within the designated boundaries of the bounding box to achieve a targeted footprint ratio.
The scale of architectural design is exploited at the morphological scale by developing the housing typology. The design abstractions are carried forward to be used as parameters in the computational phase of exploration. A custom CA logic is developed to be used as a growth algorithm. The produced iterations were thereafter streamlined through a multi objective evolutionary algorithm as per set fitness objectives to achieve a form that could accommodate a target set of housing units.
Fc1:
Built spaces are to be extracted in such a manner that would deviate less from the targeted built ratio for the desired density on site, while also ensuring that the evacuation spaces are accessible from all ends. Thus voxels hindering these open areas were culled to minimize the impact of seismic waves and making sure there are optimum space for post evacuation and rescue even after building collapse
Given Cellular Automata algorithm’s nature, there were uniform growth on the upper floors compromising thermal comfort by not allowing sunlight. Voxels in upper floors exposed directly to the sun were removed to create a staggering effect improving the overall clusters response to natural light and ventilation
8.1.4 Clustering
Machine learning was used to determine the clusters within the finalized 3D CA model. K-means clustering was used to define clusters based on a 70-meter radius 1, as stipulated in Nepal’s local bylaws, which specify that the maximum allowable distance from a building to a collection point should not exceed this distance. Additionally, average population data was considered and divided into equal groups, with each group being allocated to the proposed blocks to ensure efficient accommodation, with the potential of future growth in the next decade. This approach helped create a balanced and well-organized layout that aligns with both regulatory requirements and population distribution.
Data inputed for machine learnning, Phased development was proposed for the achieved clusters, which can be built over a period of 10 - 15 years. The clusters are designed to be developed in phases, allowing for the accommodation of existing residents while maintaining flexibility for future growth. This phased approach ensures that the development can expand progressively, minimizing disruption to current residents and providing a framework for future urban expansion.
Phased Development
Fig. 56.Diagram showingClusterd voxels
Fig. 57.Phase development diagram
Shortest Path from core to Extreme Voxels
Zooming into the cluster scale. The selected cluster was further divided into 6 smaller blocks, with a radius of 30m, this distance was taken from the local bylaws, with a maximum evacuation distance from the core, (the central open space).
30m radius
Hierarchy of spaces from collection to evacuation Cluster Division
Fig. 58.Cluster division diagram
Fig. 59.Final Cluster derived from k clustering
Identifying the corridor
The next step was to identify the circulation, the voxels around the courtyard was converted into access corridor and shortest walk was run on the floors to get the access route, dividing the floor plates into smaller units of approximate equal numbers.
Finalised Access
Identifying the staircase access
Followed by identification of the horizontal access, A vertical access was generate by connecting the points on the opposite ends of the floor, equidistant from the core cell, these points were connected in relation to the final point leading upto the open areas.
The same logic was applied over the entire cluster to derive the main horizontal and vertical circulation, dividing the voxels into smaller habitable units. This approach defined the final access corridors and staircases,
Horizontal access
Vertical access
Fig. 60.Diagrams explaining vertical core
Fig. 62.Cluster with the final access
Fig. 61.Diagrams explaining horizontal
Horizontal access
Point cloud forms the input of the algorithum, by changing the point cloud input, morphology achieved can be experimented with. Following experiment were conducted to understand the possible volumes that can be achieved. This further informs the structural frame work, architecture and interior spaces.
As highlighted in the diagram above, all the center points of one block were taken, on which the marching cube algorithum was run. The volume achieved gave a framework which was too large and didn’t allow for any flexibility.
In the second experimet, the marching cubes were applied floor wise with a combination of two floors, giving flexibility in floors. Giving a more stable frame work.
Marching cubes were applied to the achieved habitable spaces to generate the corresponding volumes. This technique allowed for the precise extraction of 3D forms, helping to visualize and refine the spatial configuration of the habitable units. This process provided the overall spatial and massing configuration, allowing for a clear representation of the volumes and their arrangement within the cluster.
Building further into the block, the block was organized into commercial, communal, residential, buffer, and service spaces, inspired by traditional Newari housing principles, ensuring a functional and culturally relevant layout. Gaussian clustering was used to cluster the points based on proximity and size. The same hierarchy of spaces was followed, keeping the most public spaces on the ground floor, which gets private as one goes onto the upper floors. The area around the main staircases were converted into communal and buffer spaces, providing the required privacy to the communal spaces. The entire block is divided into 60% residential, 21% commercial, 15% communal, 5% buffer and 2% services.
As specified in the ground research, a typical Newari Housing complex is a combination of commercial, communal and residential. Commercial spaces being placed on the lower floor, with residential on top. The communal spaces act as a buffer between units and staircases, making the staircase active communal spaces in everyday use. This approach not only ensures efficient circulation but also enhances social interaction, creating dynamic areas where residents can engage and connect. This ensured a harmonious blend of functionality, cultural relevance, and community-oriented design, creating a balanced environment that respects local traditions while addressing modern needs.
Fig. 65.Diagrams explaining vertical core
Fig. 66.Voxels showing achieved program development
Marching Cubes Applied on Morphology
Conclusion
The marching cubes algorithm was reapplied to the voxelized model, which had been categorized based on programmatic functions. This process generated the final spatial and volumetric configurations, refining the design into distinct zones. It also established a cohesive structural framework, ensuring functional integration and spatial clarity within the overall architectural system. This experiment produced a morphology and interior spaces which can be rationalised into an architectural habitable space.
Applying the marching cubes algorithm during program development provided a flexible framework that maintained clear bifurcations between different functions and programs. This approach ensured that the framework could adapt to changes within one function without affecting others. It created spatial configurations where the structural system remained independent of functional areas, allowing unhindered development and adaptability of programs. This separation of structure and function ensured a harmonious balance, facilitating functional modifications while preserving the overall integrity of the design.
Fig. 67.final framework derived from marching cube algorithum
The experiment focused on evaluating the structural performance and integrity of the building by using the connecting edges of the marching cube surfaces as the primary framework. This method allowed for the forces to divert to various load paths given the redundant nature of the members. The Frequency Element Analysis incorporates vertical loads, gravity load and horizontal loads to observe its behavior under seismic stress. This force application was used to assess the structures displacement under the various loads, with aim of minimizing displacement while also minimizing the overall load of the structure.
The structural response was evaluated by examining the overall performance, specifically the structures ability to resist deformation and maintain integrity under stress. The primary parameter in the experiment was the cross section dimension of the hardwood frame. The series of tests with the varying sizes, structure with 200mm cross section showcasing the most optimal performance that would provide better balance between strength and stability, with minimal displacement and load on the supporting frame.
Fig. 68.Framework from MC as structure
8.1.7: Unit Development
The design draws inspiration from traditional Newari houses, emphasizing compactness, privacy, and hierarchy, while addressing contemporary needs through participatory, adaptive, and user-centric principles. Compact layouts ensure efficient space use, while privacy is maintained by layering public, semi-private, and private zones within the house. Hierarchical organization guides movement and interaction within spaces. To meet modern demands, the design incorporates participatory methods, allowing residents to co-create their homes, fostering ownership and community. Adaptive features enable incremental growth, letting units evolve over time based on financial capacity or family needs.
Abstraction from existing architecture
Experiment Setup
The outer boundary along with the main entry is inherited from the main massing configuration. The area of the rooms is defined by the user. The order in which rooms are placed reflects the sequnce of circulation of room. As the idea of incremetal growth needs to be achieved, all rooms grow from the living room, and connected to it directly or through a corridor or staircase.
Floor plan Generator
The floor plans were iteratively generated using the magnetizing floor plan generator and the most suitable iteration was choosen from a pool of 100 iterations on the basis of privacy , compactness and functional adjacency of the layout. The most important factor in choosing the layout was given to the ease of access to the services and the common living and open spaces.
Family of two is the nuclear family - consisting of a couple in a 1BHK layout. The house is built around central living room, making it the heart of family life.
Family of four is the nuclear family - consisting of a couple in a 2 BHK layout. The house can grow from built area and central living room, either directly or through corridors.
Family of six is the extended family - consisting of a couple and their children, and their parents in a 3BHK layout. The spaces within the house can be built form already existing 2 BHK house and cinnected to the main space through corridor or staricase.
Family of eight is the joint family - consisting of 03 generations and dominant in the Nepalese society. A 4BHK layout grows the same way as the existing 3BHK, with growth possibility of horizontal or vertical growth.
Incremental framework
The unit typology matrix showcases the morphological diversity achievable through various floor plan clustering scenarios, driven by user personalization. These configurations were generated by applying a magnetizing floor plan algorithm to the user-selected voxels, resulting in tailored spatial arrangements. The house framework has been meticulously designed to allow modifications over time, accommodating changing needs and preferences while ensuring structural integrity. This adaptability promotes flexibility, enabling incremental growth and customization without compromising stability, making the design resilient and future-proof for evolving user requirements. incremental growth and customization without compromising stability, making the design resilient and future-proof for evolving user requirements.
Developmental Body
A workflow diagram is created which redifes the design control distribution between various project stakeholders. Priortising the relation between the user and the architect. The existing construction system follows a linear process starting from Government, and ending at construction, with no inputs from the user.
The proposed methodology introduces an interlinked system where communication is continuously established between the design process and the user. This dynamic interaction ensures that the user’s input actively shapes the design as it evolves.
The proposed workflow establishes a relationship between the local council and the architect, who can interact with the user to arrive at a more user friendly and adaptable model, before the selected house gets constructed.
A proposed application allows users to select the desired number of voxels based on various parameters, including area, user count, proximity to amenities, and cost. The system presents a range of voxel options tailored to the specified criteria. Users are guided through available locations within a block, ensuring alignment with their preferences. Subsequently, the application provides access to a curated library of multiple pre-designed home options. This approach integrates spatial analysis with customizable housing solutions, enabling informed decision-making. By leveraging parametric inputs, the tool offers a dynamic and adaptable framework for addressing diverse user requirements within constrained urban contexts.
Fig. 71.App images 8.2.1: Website
Material Experiment
The research focuses on the development and potentials of a wood-based bio-composite material, combining wood and jute fibres, to enhance thermal comfort . The integration of this new material into the architectural design aims to establish a sustainable and culturally responsive framework, while bridging the gap between traditional and contemporary building practices.
The project focuses on developing a material system that targets the thermal efficiency of the buildings by utilising local resources that are sustainable and reusable.
The proposed bio composite material will be designed to address several critical factors: strength, bonding efficiency, flexibility, thermal insulation, and water resistance.
The composite is developed by exploring locally available materials with complementary physical properties that can work synergistically. In particular, hardwood sawdust and jute fibre are being investigated as potential components for creating this new composite material. By combining these materials, the project aims to harness their individual strengths to produce a composite, each result informing the next experiment.
9.1.1: Preliminary Experiments
Preliminary experiments were carried out on a small scale to identify effective additives and binding agents that work well with each other. Various combinations of linseed oil, liquid latex, silica, potato starch, and soy protein were tested with jute and hardwood sawdust being fixed components. The tests involved adjusting both fixed and variable parameters across different ratios and processing steps to determine which combinations provides the best results. Experiment 1
1. Dipendra Gautam1, 2, Hugo Rodrigues3
9.1: Material
The various experiments performed provided a foundation of binders and ratios that work together. Moving on to the next stage focusing on removing moisture content from the materials, the experiments were subjected to baking.
Extractions
The initial experiments demonstrated that the composite material developed mold growth when exposed to water. To address this problem, linseed oil was introduced as a binding agent to enhance the cohesion of the mixture, which had previously been prone to crumbling when dry or without any liquid.
Subsequent experiments involved incorporating linseed oil with various binders and additives to determine their effects on the material’s
stability. Additionally, the proportions of the fixed components, namely sawdust and jute fibre, were adjusted to explore their influence on the composite’s properties.
The use of liquid latex in combination with other binders and additives produced inconsistent results, with some mixtures forming undesirable lumps. However, in the third experiment, a formulation was identified that exhibited improved cohesion and stability. This successful mixture was then subjected to a baking process to remove excess moisture, which resulted in the sample hardening and demonstrating enhanced structural integrity.
Experiment number 8 was scaled up to a larger mould measuring 40 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. The same mixing procedures used for the smaller modules were followed, but the increased quantity of materials led to problems with binding, resulting in the formation of lumps. Despite applying the baking process, the larger samples remained unstable, exhibiting crumbling and cracking.
Fig.
9.1.2: Module
Consequent experiments were conducted using an uniformly sized box mould of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. This adjustment aimed to achieve more reliable results and subject to further testing.
C1
C3
C2
C4
Experiment selection:
Experiments C1 and C2demonstrated very poor compressive strength, while experiment C3, although not showing the best compressive performance, exhibited a degree of elasticity and did not experience brittle failure. Experiments C4 and C6 were able to withstand greater forces compared to the other materials. Based on the observed results, the research selected experiments C3, C4, and C6 for further testing, as they indicated that a higher percentage of starch yielded the optimal material properties.
9.1.5: Bending test
The three experiments chosen from previous tests were subjected to a three-point bending stress evaluation. For this, the samples were resized appropriately to undergo the bending test. During the testing process, each experiment was subjected to incremental loading, and the degree to which they returned to their original shape after the load was removed was carefully observed.
Experiment C4 exhibited significant deformation and ultimately broke halfway through the application of the loads, indicating poor resistance to bending. In contrast, experiment C6 demonstrated superior performance, returning to its original position much more effectively than experiment C3, which showed less recovery from deformation.
The procedure involved recording the material’s initial weight, submerging it in water for 24 hours, and then weighing it again before drying for 12 hours and measuring the final weight. The observed absorption shrinkage percentages were 5.93% for C3, 6.40% for C4, and 11.95% for C6. These results indicate that Experiment 1 showed the lowest water absorption rate, making it the most effective in minimizing water uptake among the three tested materials. Therefore, C3 is identified as the best-performing experiment in terms of water absorption resistance.
The three experiments demonstrated varying thermal properties. In C3, the temperature showed a gradual decrease with a slight rebound, indicating moderate thermal stability. C4 exhibited a significant drop in temperature over time, suggesting the material has high thermal conductivity and dissipates heat quickly. C6 displayed an initial increase in temperature, peaking before eventually decreasing, which suggests the material initially absorbs heat before stabilizing. Based on these observations, C6 appears to possess the best thermal properties, as it shows a robust response to temperature changes and maintains stability after initial fluctuations.
Comparing all the experiments, C6 performed well consistently and was chosen as the final material
C3
C6
C4
9.1.6: Water absorption test
C3
C6
C4
The application of the material developed targets Tiki Jhya, a wooden lattice window of Newari architetcure that functions as both symbolics and evironmental purpose. The experiment utilises the adherent factors to incorporate the material in a modular level
Tiki jhya
10.1.1: Venturi effect
The venturi effect increases wind velocity as it passes through constricted spaces, enhancing ventilation by accelerating airflow. This study explores the traditional tiki jhya pattern and integration of venturi effect into it with main criteria of light, ventilation, thermal comfort and privacy.
The tapered openings aims to obscure sightlines creating privacy for the user from interior to exterior spaces while also maintaining sufficient airflow. The module channels and diffuses natural light , minimizing glare and illuminating indoors reducing the need for artificial lighting.
These ventilation channels though venturi effect accelerate airflow through set narrow cavities of various scales, ensuring efficient air circulation. This also contributes to thermal comfort by promoting passive cooling, removing excess heat, and maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature. By combining function and aesthetics, these modules create sustainable and adaptive results aiming to increase user comfort
10.1.2: Experiment Set up Fig. 74.Venturi Effect
Fig. 75.Size of opening affecting the venturi effect
Fig. 76.Pseudo code of the module experiment
1. Eldarwish, Ingy & A., Rizk. (2021). NATURAL WIND DRIVEN SUSTAINABLE VENTILATION SYSTEM (PROTOTYPE) FOR INDOOR LIVING SPACES. Engineering Research Journal. 170. 184-201. 10.21608/erj.2021.177364.
10.1.3: Selection Strategy
The experiment was conducted by primarily leveraging the existing Tiki Jhya functions and its geometric approach. The design approach laid the ground work for configuring a performance driven geometry stemming from venturi effect.
The rhythmic repetition of patterns inspired the module of the morphology and was optimized by specific parameters. These varying parameters varied in terms of module thickness and varying sizes of opening at three distinct levels. By setting rules and modifying these aspects, the design was fine tuned to enhance performance and maintain the symbolic original concept.
The evaluation process involved a sequential simulation, where various iterations of the geometric patterns were tested under weighted criteria. Thermal comfort and ventilation were given the highest priority, reflecting the need for efficient airflow and cooling in enclosed spaces. Following these, privacy was also considered essential, ensuring the patterns maintained a functional balance between openness and seclusion.
Fc1:
Fc2:
Fc3:
Fc1
Conclusion
The optimised morphology was chosen by analysing them in multiple categories inclusing, Porosity, Daylight Anlysis and structural analysis. Generation 75 individual 5 showcased the most promising outcomes in all categories.
The selected modules are strategically placed on high thermal surfaces of the overall building morphology
The module’s practicality was further enhanced by the incorporation of prefabrication techniques. The bestperforming modules were designed for casting in molds as prefabricated units, which would then be transported and assembled on-site. This approach ensures precision in manufacturing, minimized construction time, and reduced material waste.
10.1.4: Assembly Module assembly
Tiki jhya assembly on site
Wooden lattice frame Clasp on frame Module attached to first clasp
Another lattice frame layer Final clasp fixing the frame to module
Architecture
The chapter elaboartes on the application of the developed experiments detailing on the material sourcing, acheived social hierarchy and joinery that responds to seismic impacts
11.1: kit of parts
A modular construction system, derived from the marching cubes algorithm, has been proposed to optimize efficiency and adaptability. This system comprises a comprehensive kit of parts divided into three parts, primary toolkits: main framework, the macro and micro toolkits. The macro toolkit includes jali and staircases, forming the core architectural components. The micro toolkit encompasses smaller, functional elements like panels, base panels, windows, and doors. Each panel is designed with a maximum length of 2 meters, facilitating ease of transportation and fabrication. This approach enhances the scalability and practicality of the construction process while reducing logistical complexities.
The diagram illustrates the incremental growth process of a single-story, one-room house evolving into a two-room, two-story house. The modification cycle begins with the addition of a base floor, expanding the initial structure to accommodate a second room on the same level. Subsequently, vertical expansion is introduced, culminating in the addition of a second story. This phased approach demonstrates a systematic and scalable strategy for housing growth, catering to evolving spatial and functional needs over time. The diagram highlights the adaptability of the structure, emphasizing its capacity to support incremental development while maintaining structural and design coherence.
Framework of a 2 room house
Framework modified to achieve incremental growth
floor plate extended and staircase added.
External wooden panels added.
Base panels added for insulation
wooden panels added on top Fig.
Fig. 78.Implementation of the kit and growth
11.2: Material Process
The material process illustrates the lifecycle of building construction from initial stage of timber production from forests to their transformation into prefabricated components through panels, followed by user centric design interface, assembly and eventual occupation of the space. The key criteria underlies in maintaining an efficient and streamlined flow, following an organized method. This method allows for smooth and expeditious process capable of addressing the issue of housing influx and rebuilding efforts minimizing waste and delays.
In event of an earthquake or any structural disruption, the process enables to be traced back to its initial components, allowing for a highly adaptable and responsive approach for damage assessment and repair. In account of a partial collapse, the structural assessment done can identify and retrieve the prefabricated components from storage. Given the nature of the components design it can be easily interchanged and integrated into the framework. This preparedness allows for rapid and efficient repairs that minimize disruption for the building occupants which is currently lacked.
However in case of a complete collapse, the process would restart from earlier stages. The prefabricated components would be revisited, where the materials are sourced and manufactured. Once the components are ready, they are reassembled into the building’s structure, from foundation to inhabitation. This process holds an advantage to modern construction in current Kathmandu where the failure of buildings are often overlooked leaving residents homeless . The materiality, adaptability and modularity of the components would allow the construction process to be quicker with less environmental impact.
Material Process
Joining different tool kits gives the user an opportunity to personalise the block, giving him the flexibility and a sesne of connection and belonging to the house. Even though the frame work is similar for every occupat, no two houses are ever the same.
11.5: Section Abstractions from Newari Architecture
11.4.1: Spatial Abstraction
11.4.1: Thermal and atrium abstraction
The design utilizes Japanese joinery techniques for the framework, which provide significant strucral benefits. Considering the modularity feature of the morphology, this method apart from enhancing structural integrity by improving resistance to seismic loads also facilitates quick assembly. Which is highly advantageous in a in post-disaster scenarios, where damaged components can be quickly replaced, ensuring efficient rebuilding efforts.
Additionally The framework incorporates an extrusion on the horizontal frames, for the non structural panels to be easily slid into place aiming to improve efficiency and practicality
A wooden truss was installed beneath the staircase to enhance its structural integrity. This truss effectively distributes the load, ensuring stability and durability. It connects seamlessly to the main structural framework, creating a cohesive support system while maintaining the aesthetic and functional harmony of the overall design.
Hard wood landing
Wooden truss to be suspended from the main structure
11.6: Joinery
11.5.1: Structure Joinery
11.5.2: Staircase Joinery
Proposed Design
T = 0 - 2min
Earthquake strikes
P & S wave tremours
T = 5-10 min
Evacuation - heading to open space
Construction Fabrication
T = 3day
Structural assesment
T = halfday - 3 days
Risk Assesment Debri cleaning
The research and design proposal presented introduces one of the methods for mitigation against seismic vulnerability in Kathmandu Valley, combining the tradition of Newari architectural practice with adavanced engineering and sustainable principles. It is an indication of how concern for the conservation of traditional heritage would have to squarely address rapid urbanization. The focus here is on a multilevel intervention that results in increased structural resilience of this earthquakeprone region.
The Newari vernacular architectural style also demonstrates the ability to hold up under stress, through plan, symmetry, availability of a central open courtyard, and judicious use of materials in brick and timber that skilfully integrate environmental, social and structural functions in an enduring balance. Adaptive features such as sloped roofs to allow proper drainage of rainwater, specially designed fenestrations regulating temperature and privacy, hierarchical layout of spaces show sophisticated combination of functional and aesthetic needs.
However, urbanization pressures have shifted this focus towards more so-called permanent modern reinforced cement concrete constructions. The marginalization of traditional approaches to construction is highly increasing seismic risks and has caused environmental degradation. The vulnerability to earthquakes-as manifested by the destructive 2015 Gorkha earthquake-requires immediate attention since Kathmandu lies on the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. The brittle nature of masonry walls and low ductility of RCC structures further complicate seismic risks, calling for innovative solutions.
This work presents a hybrid framework that combines seismic flexibility of wood with masonry compressive strength. While embedding bio-composites and advanced reinforcement techniques, this approach reduces structure weight, enhances energy absorption, and boosts durability. Advanced computational and analytical methodologies form an essential part of the design approach in the proposal. As will be illustrated, for instance, Cellular Automata and Spatial Algorithms develop optimized configurations of built-unbuilt spaces, considering issues of risk assessments and evacuation needs at both the building and larger urban network scales. In the same line, through the marching cubes algorithm, complex forms that are adaptive come up, balancing structural efficiency with spatial dynamics, allowing for unique load distribution mechanisms.
The main objective of the project is to rethink buildings as adaptive systems instead of static ones. House units shall be designed for growth, structurally capable while maintaining the occupant needs, whereas courtyards and lattice fenestration were employed as part of an integral social context in a well-performing cultural environmental framework. The project generates hierarchies at an urban level that allow an easy rescue action after catastrophes or natural disasters, separating space between open areas and buildings. The use of bio-based materials responds to the global call for sustainability by reducing waste and reusing material resources.
This research contributes to the debate on sustainable urban development and resilient architecture. It will bridges current paradigms in construction and show how vernacular techniques can be combined with recent innovations. The results have shown that an interdisciplinary approach has to be used, merging knowledge from urban planning, material science, computational design, and cultural anthropology.
In spite of its ambition, the proposal reveals some limits: disconnections between urban and building scale. Though acheiving an optimum evacuation plan, the proposal reveals some limitation in urban scale in addressing the contextual relationship of existing kathamndu urban fabric and addressing the various blocks response to the said site.
This framework, if implemented, will pose important implications for Kathmandu. The emphasis on local resources and community participation promotes economic independence and cultural preservation. Its emphasis on adaptive and modular systems provides a replicable model for addressing urban housing challenges in rapidly growing cities worldwide while not abandoning the cultural significance.
There is a necessity for future designs to address identified shortcomings to reach an actually integrated and functional design. Simplification of building morphologies, enhancement in seamless integrations of urban and building scale, and embedding of materials cohesively into the design framework are some key next steps.
Ultimately, seismic resilience is more than just structural reinforcement; it needs a holistic reevaluation of how buildings interact with their environment and communities. This project has set a benchmark in designing architecture that is resilient and deeply rooted in cultural and environmental contexts by blending traditional wisdom with contemporary practices.
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