Resilient Landscape

RESILIENT LANDSCAPE

rebuilding community through culture and sustainability

YUKO ANGEL OKAMURA Bachelor of Arts in Architectural Studies, 2008 University of Washington Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture in The Faculty of Graduate Studies School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture Architecture Program

COMMITTEE Inge Roecker (Arch 549 Chair) Raymond Cole (Arch 548 Mentor) Stephanie Chang

We accept this report as conforming to the required standard

.........................................................

Inge Roecker

.........................................................

Raymond Cole

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA May 2012 Š Yuko Angel Okamura

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00 _ ABSTRACT Natural disasters have been occurring increasingly frequently in recent years.

They indiscriminately land upon cities throughout the globe and often far exceed a community’s capacities to respond. Swiftly wiping out buildings and infrastructure and often causing countless casualties, natural disasters destroy livelihoods and devastate communities.

This design thesis attempts to identify ways in which architecture can honour the memory and culture of a region, while also acting as a catalyst for sustainable rebuilding. Additionally, through identifying factors that are essential for architects to consider in the process of rebuilding, this design thesis looks at how architecture can adapt to these frequently occurring conditions.

On March 11, 2011 a massive tsunami struck the Tohoku region of Northeastern Japan destroying everything in its path. While the quake itself did not cause extensive damage, the powerful tsunami waves that were triggered by it reached heights up to 40.5 meters in certain cities and left a total of 15,854 dead and 3,089 missing (as of April 28, 2012). This design thesis proposes a place for people to remember, share thoughts and experiences, and to celebrate life in the devastated coastal city of Rikuzentakata.

What are usually first built in post-disaster locations are shelters. While this is certainly essential, one can propose that the design of a community facility can be constructed of equal importance and time line, since community cohesion is particularly critical in every stage of a disaster-prone city.

Instead of architecture being temporary and foreign, how can architects aid in rebuilding communities both physically and spiritually through the built environment by bringing considerations to the preservation of memory and culture and linking it to environmental sustainability for the future through design? How can buildings accommodate the rapidly changing needs of a community after a disaster event?

Can architecture serve as a catalyst for hope and happiness in a community following a disaster?

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 00 ABSTRACT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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LIST OF FIGURES

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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01

STATEMENT OF THESIS

1

02

FIELD OF INQUIRY CONTEXT, AREA OF STUDY

introduction

5

15

03

architecture’s role in disaster relief

ARCHITECTURAL ISSUES

preparedness

27

capability

53

culture

67

environmental sustainability

93

04

SITE & SITE ANALYSIS

109

05

DESIGN THESIS

135

site concept

139

building concept

149

06 BIBLIOGRAPHY

178

fig. 01 Rikuzentakata Satellite View: After the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (image source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12743904)

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Front Matter fig. 01

Rikuzentakata Satellite View After the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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fig. 02

Rice Harvest: Rikuzentakata

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fig. 03

Tsunami heights: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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fig. 04

Map of Northeastern Japan: Rikuzentakata

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fig. 05

Rikuzentakata Satellite View: Before

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fig. 06

Rikuzentakata Satellite View: After

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fig. 07

Rikuzentakata Aerial View: After

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fig. 08

Great natural catastrophes worldwide 1950-2010: Number of events with trend

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fig. 09

Natural Disaster Summary 1900-2010

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fig. 10

Diagram: preparedness + capability with culture + sustainability

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fig. 11

Highway in Naka, Japan: After the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

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fig. 12

The Great Wave Off Kanagawa by Katsushiga Hokusai

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fig. 13

1896 Meiji Sanriku Tsunami aftermath

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fig. 14

Diagram: Tsunami generated by seismicity

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fig. 15

Diagram: Tsunami resistant building structures

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fig. 16

Region of Sanriku

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fig. 17

Tsunami warning sign noting evacuation centre location: Rikuzentakata

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fig. 18

Trees planted on the coast can lessen the intensity of tsunami waves

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fig. 19

Post-disaster reconstruction according to Kates and Pijawka (1977)

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fig. 20

Post-disaster reconstruction proposition

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fig. 21

Graph: Population of Rikuzentakata and Japan by age

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fig. 22

Fumonji: Tower showing detailed ornamentation

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fig. 23

Segai-zukuri

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fig. 24

High levels of ornamentation by Kesen-daiku

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fig. 25

Kenka-Tanabata

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fig. 26

Kaijo-Tanabata

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fig. 27

Ugoku-Tanabata

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fig. 28

View of Takata-Matsubara and beach from sea

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fig. 29

Takata-Matsubara Park: Pathway through pine forest

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fig. 30

Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum interior with auditorium at right

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fig. 31

Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum exterior

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fig. 32

Red Location Museum of Struggle: Memory box, working section

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fig. 33

Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum interior with memory boxes

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02

03

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LIST OF FIGURES fig. 34

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Windflow diagram of Inujima

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fig. 35

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Aerial view

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fig. 36

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Air cooling system with Earth gallery

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fig. 37

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Air heating system with Sun gallery

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fig. 38

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Art installation by Yukinori Yanagi

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fig. 39

Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Section

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fig. 40

Old City Centre of Banyoles 01

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fig. 41

Old City Centre of Banyoles 02

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fig. 42

Old City Centre of Banyoles 03

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fig. 43

Old City Centre of Banyoles: Pedestrian pathway with canal exposed

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fig. 44

U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector

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fig. 45

U.S. CO2 Emissions by Sector

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fig. 46

Aluminium Forest: Exterior view

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fig. 47

Aluminium Forest: Building entrance

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fig. 48

Aluminium Forest: Longitudinal section

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fig. 49

National Opera House: Site plan

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fig. 50

National Opera House: Public stepped terraces around building

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fig. 51

Kastrup Sea Bath: View from beach

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fig. 52

Emergency Shelter: Shelter on site

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fig. 53

Emergency Shelter: Panel system

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fig. 54

Air Tree: In use by public

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fig. 55

Air Tree: Diagram

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fig. 55

Air Tree: Structure

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fig. 56

Kibou no Matsu: Tree of Hope)

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fig. 58

Rikuzentakata’s City Flower: Tsubaki

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fig. 59

Rikuzentakata’s City Bird: Seagull

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fig. 60

Rikuzentakata’s City Tree: Cedar

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fig. 61

Graphs: Rikuzentakata prior to the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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fig. 62

View of Kesen River: Before

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fig. 63

Graphs: Effects of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami on Rikuzentakata

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fig. 64

Graphs: Considerations for construction of new home / place of residence

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fig. 65

Map of Rikuzentakata City: Before

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fig. 66

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Grids

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fig. 67

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Central commercial activity area

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fig. 68

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Central recreational activity area

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fig. 69

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Tsunami inundation area

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fig. 70

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Proposed sakura planting around tsunami inundation line

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fig. 71

Rikuzentakata Mapping: Buildings with structure mostly remaining

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fig. 72

Map of Rikuzentakata City: Buildings partially intact after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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fig. 73

Map of Rikuzentakata City: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami Event tsunami inundation

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fig. 74

Map of Rikuzentakata City: Before the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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fig. 75

Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Main proposal

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fig. 76

Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Proposed housing zone

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fig. 77

Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Zones

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fig. 78

Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Projected temporal uses

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fig. 79

Rikuzentakata City: Projected city growth

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fig. 80

Rikuzentakata City’s Disaster Prevention Park: Site plan with section cut line

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fig. 81

Rikuzentakata City: Section cut through city with proposed seawall

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fig. 82

Typical seawall: Cross section

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fig. 83

Site diagram: Natural ecologies

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fig. 84

Site diagram: Proposed zoning on site

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fig. 85

Site diagram: Building orientation towards landscape

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fig. 86

Site diagram: Building on remaining land

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fig. 87

Site plan: 1:10,000

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fig. 88

Possible building-seawall sectional interactions

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fig. 89

Possible building-seawall interactions

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fig. 90

Rikuzentakata Youth Hostel remains & Tree of Hope

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fig. 91

Site Plan: Building location

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fig. 92

Perspective: Aerial View

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fig. 93

Roof Plan: 1: 2000

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fig. 94

Building diagram: Access to building

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fig. 95

Building diagram: Pathways through building

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fig. 96

Building diagram: Remembering

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fig. 97

Building diagram: Multipurpose public spaces

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fig. 98

Perspective: On pathway to building

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fig. 99

Unfolded Plan: 1:500

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fig. 100

North Elevation: 1:500

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fig. 101

Plan at 3 m: 1:1000

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fig. 102

Perspective: Approaching building from east entrance

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fig. 103

Plan at 7.5 m: 1:1000

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fig. 104

Perspective: Approaching building from the pathway to the west

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fig. 105

Plan at 12 m: 1:1000

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fig. 106

Perspective: Under roof canopy on seawall, looking down at mid-level memorial space

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fig. 107

Plan at 16.5 m: 1:1000

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fig. 108

Perspective: Under roof canopy at seawall level from cafe

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fig. 109

Perspective: Approach to building through the pine forest from the sea-side

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fig. 110

Perspective: Approaching the building from the west on the seawall

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fig. 111

Site model: 1:500

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fig. 112

Section model: 1:200

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fig. 113

Section model: 1:200

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all, I would like to sincerely thank my mentors, Ray and Inge for their guidance and support over the course of my Graduation Project. I would also like to thank my committee member Stephanie for her insight through the development of this thesis project.

A heartfelt thanks to Hiromaru and Nobuko Sasazaki from Rikuzentakata, and Allison Brown for sharing with me their experiences, knowledge, and thoughts on the city and for their kindness and openness throughout the process of my research.

Special thanks to all of my friends and colleagues for their encouragement and friendship over the years and especially during the final weeks of thesis. I would not have been able to get to where I am now without your love and support.

Last but not least, I would like to express my biggest appreciation to my family for their love and care, and for all of the patience and support they have given me to enable me to follow my dreams.

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01 _ STATEMENT OF THESIS How can architecture address and serve as a link between the past and the future in a community following a large-scale disaster? How can the built environment sustain the memory of a natural disaster event while simultaneously serving as a catalyst in enabling the growth of a more resilient community? Can architecture serve as a catalyst of social and physical regeneration for a community in its aim to rise from disaster?

fig. 02 Rice Harvest: Rikuzentakata (photographed by Liz Maly, Fall 2011)

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02 _ FIELD OF INQUIRY: POSITION, CONTEXT, AREA OF STUDY

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7+ m

RIKUZENTAKATA 14-15m

3 - 5 m 2 - 3 m 1 - 2 m 0 - 1 m

3.11 tsunami inundation heights

fig. 03 Tsunami heights: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

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deaths: 15,844 missing: 3,394 injured: 5,932 land subsidence: Miyako, Iwate Yamada, Iwate Otsuchi, Iwate Kamaishi, Iwate Ofunato, Iwate Rikuzentakata, Iwate Kesennuma, Miyagi Minamisanriku, Miyagi Oshika Peninsula, Miyagi Ishinomaki, Miyagi Higashimatsushima, Miyagi Iwanuma, Miyagi Soma, Fukushima

0.50 m 0.53 m 0.35 m 0.66 m 0.73 m 0.84 m 0.74 m 0.69 m 1.20 m 0.78 m 0.43 m 0.47 m 0.29 m

CONTEXT

The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

On Friday, March 11, 2011, an earthquake measuring 9.0 on the moment magnitude scale struck the Tohoku region of northeastern Japan at 14:46. The quake, which lasted 6 minutes, was the largest recorded earthquake to have ever hit Japan since 1900 and the fourth largest recorded in the world. The epicentre was approximately 70 kilometres east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tohoku, and while the Tohoku region was the strongest hit, the damage was widespread.

Although the damage sustained solely from the earthquake was minimal, owing to Japan’s earthquake preparedness, the quake triggered powerful tsunami waves that reached heights up to 40.5 meters (The Asahi Shimbun Company 2011), travelled up to 10 kilometres inland, and inundated an area of approximately 561km2. (Japan Weather Association 2011) These series of events left a total of 15,854 dead and 3,089 missing nationwide.

“The Ocean gives us life, but also takes it away” – Masaru Kumagai (Fairclough 2011)

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IWATE

RIKUZENTAKATA

fig. 04 Map of Northeastern Japan: Rikuzentakata

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Rikuzentakata

Rikuzentakata was a small city located in Iwate prefecture on the northeastern coast of Honshu island, with an area of 232.29 km2 and a population of approximately 24,000.

As part of the Sanriku Ria Coast, which extends from Aomori through Iwate down to northern Miyagi, it is characterized by a wide range of scenic landscapes and consists of jagged cliffs and rock pillars dubbed “the Sea Alps”. While this area of northeast Japan is mountainous near the coast, the coastline of Rikuzentakata was an anomaly. Rikuzentakata boasts one of the most beautiful beaches in northeast Japan and is touted as having one of the country’s best 100 views. This seaside city once attracted tourists and elderly Japanese with its gorgeous views and idyllic beaches. Although located quite north, Rikuzentakata has a maritime climate: cool in summer and not as cold as the inland areas in winter, making it a very liveable place.

“In this region where the coastline is saw-toothed, here (in Rikuzentakata) the coastline was straight for 2 km and pine trees were growing, which is very rare, so many people visited from the inland. I wanted to rebuild tourism, as well as the local seafood industry, with the help of many young people. But now the situation is like this.”

– Mayor Futoshi Toba (Kubota 2011)

Rikuzentakata was nearly entirely wiped off the map by the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, when the waves hit the shores only 37 minutes after the quake, wrecking everything in its path. The waves in this region reached a height of about 1415 meters and travelled approximately 1.5 kilometres inland. (The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group 2011) About 13 km2 was inundated by the tsunami, accounting for approximately 86 percent of the main inhabited areas of the city. (Building Research Institute 2011) This event left approximately 2,000 people (nearly 10 percent of its population) dead or missing in this city and affected 3,369 buildings (completely ruining 3,159, severely damaging 97, moderately damaging 85, and partially damaging 27), leaving the main city area unrecognizable. The city centre, which sat on the flat portion of the city, was completely wiped out, and more than 70 percent of all households within the city experienced some amount of damage. (Rikuzentakata City 2011) Furthermore, the earthquake caused the land to subside in parts of the city up to 0.84 metres.

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fig. 05 (above) Rikuzentakata Satellite View: Before fig. 06 (below) Rikuzentakata Satellite View: After

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fig. 07 Rikuzentakata Aerial View: After

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Disaster Disasters are a combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the negative consequences of risk. A hazard becomes a disaster when it coincides with a vulnerable situation, when societies or communities are unable to cope with it with their own resources and capacities.

Hazard A hazard is a physical event, phenomenon or human activity that can cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. Hazards have different origins: natural (geological, hydro, meteorological and biological) or due to human actions (environmental or technological).

Vulnerability Vulnerability is the degree to which someone or something can be affected by a particular hazard and depends on a number of factors and processes: • physical (unstable locations, closer proximity to hazards, fragile unprotected houses).

• economic (no productive assets, limited income earning opportunities, poor pay, single income revenue, no savings and insurance).

• social (low status in society, gender relations, fewer decision-making possibilities, oppressive formal and informal institutional structures, and political, economic and social hierarchies).

• psychological (fears instigated by religious and other belief systems, ideologies, political pressures, mental illness).

• physiological (status in life – young, old, adolescent, pregnant, lactating mothers, chronic illness, disability, exposure to sexual violence and harassment, HIV/Aids and other infections.

(UNISDR 2011)

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FIELD OF INQUIRY

Although the death toll due to natural disasters has decreased due to advances in preparation and mitigation strategies, the occurrence of natural disasters have risen in recent years, and with it, the number of people affected (fig. 09). Natural disasters continue to significantly impact less tangible aspects of society such as a city’s economy and culture with great force. While their destructiveness varies upon numerous factors, these events can indiscriminately devastate communities in one swift motion.

Disasters are a combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the negative consequences of risk. A hazard becomes a disaster when it coincides with a vulnerable situation, when societies or communities are unable to cope with it with their own resources and capacities.

(UNISDR 2011)

The events that cause these disasters – natural hazards, occur naturally and are not considered “disasters” until they cause damage to human lives. An earthquake on uninhabited land for example, would not be a natural disaster unless it somehow affected the lives of human beings and in fact could even be considered a fascinating event in terms of research in the scientific realm. Hence, human presence in the location of hazards is typically the cause of disaster. In fact recent analysis of the more measureable hazards such as earthquakes, storms, and floods, show that even in the case of historically lower intensity events, hazards have increasingly become disasters because they are causing more loss of life and socioeconomic disruption than ever before. (McDonald 2003) Furthermore, natural disasters are often the result of failures in development, which in turn increases vulnerability.

Architecture thus holds a strong relationship to natural disasters both in the cause of damage and in the future of hope in rebuilding. Man-made structures that normally protect us from the elements can become some of the most dangerous places to be when a disaster strikes. How much damage and casualty can be prevented through architecture and how can architecture adapt to these varied but frequently occurring natural events? In post-disaster relief, what are the factors that architects must consider in the process of rebuilding?

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GREAT NATURAL CATASTROPHES WORLDWIDE 1950-2010 NUMBER OF EVENTS WITH TREND 16

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12

10

8

6

4

2

1950

1955

1960

1965

GEOPHYSICAL EVENTS (earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption)

1970

1975

1980

METEOROLOGICAL EVENTS (storm)

1985

1990

1995

HYDROLOGICAL EVENTS (flood, mass movement)

2000

2005

2010

CLIMATOLOGICAL EVENTS (extreme temperature, drought, forest fire)

500 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

fig. 09 Graph: Natural disaster summary 1900 - 2010 (reference source: The International Disaster Database http://www.emdat.be/)

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200,000,000

400 1940

150,000,000

300 1930

100,000,000

200 1920

50,000,000

100 0 1910

0

500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 1900

NUMBER OF PEOPLE REPORTED KILLED NUMBER OF DISASTERS REPORTED NUMBER OF PEOPLE REPORTED AFFECTED

250,000,000

fig. 08 Graph: Great natural catastrophes worldwide 1950-2010: Number of events with trend (reference source: Munich RE http://www.munichre.com)

Natural Disasters

While natural hazards occur throughout the world, there exist several hotspots in which they occur more frequently. Approximately 75% of the global population reside in areas that were affected by one or more of these catastrophic phenomena at least once between 1980 and 2000.(Jha 2010, 1) It is especially important for these places to have planned strategies to mitigate a disaster’s effects on humans.

Understanding the risks related to natural disasters is the first step towards managing a crisis. The following are a few basic facts to aid in the understanding of these events

Disasters often develop in stages (McDonald 2003): •

A hazard is being created or exists as a potential, direct or indirect, threat to human life, property, and the environment

•

A hazard becomes active reality and damage relevant to man is inflicted (and it becomes a disaster). This is usually the result of: o Failure to recognize in time the existence and extent of a potential danger, such as continuing to build on in-fill or flood zones o Inadequate prevention measures when awareness exists but the extent is underestimated, for example, not consolidating buildings in earthquake zones or not providing lightning conductors in storm areas

Natural disasters are generally classified under three major categories: “geophysical disasters” such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, avalanche, and subsidence; “hydro-meteorological disasters” such as flood, drought, storm, extreme temperature, wildlife, and wet mass movement; and “biological disasters” such as epidemic, insect infestation, and animal stampede. (Guha-Sapir, et al.

2011) Within these categories, the three most frequent occurring disasters are wind and storm (38%), earthquake (29%), and flood (27%). (InterAcademy Panel on International Issues 2009) By knowing characteristics such as their magnitude, frequency, duration, area covered, distribution, speed of onset, and occurrence patterns of each, preventative measures can be implemented in communities.

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Human Impacts on Disasters Localized While natural hazards, which are a part of nature, are unavoidable, certain types of hazards are further aggravated by anthropogenic activities, turning them into disasters. Human actions or inactions have the potential to greatly increase risk.

Nature has its own defense system for dealing with certain disasters. For example, wetlands and coastal swamps act in mitigating severe damage by tropical cyclones.

However, such natural defense systems have been destroyed by human activities through consumption of local resources for economic growth. These anthropogenic impacts have caused many hazards to increase in magnitude, providing them more fuel to transform into a disaster.

In terms of inaction, lack of proper building codes increases the risk for the collapse of buildings in earthquake-prone areas after even a low intensity earthquake. In Japan for example, seismic codes have been modified over the years to become extremely strict. This is presumed to have saved the lives of many in recent disasters, whereas no such codes existed in Haiti, causing devastating damage in the 2010 Haiti earthquake event.

Global A more long-term but taxing human induced disaster is global warming. Global climate change can cause alterations in precipitation patterns, a change in different crops and land cover, increased occurrence of large floods, and sea level rise among other adverse effects. Combined with the potential of existing natural hazards, climate change can become the cause of grave natural disasters on our planet in the future. This is especially the case for water related disasters, which are often the most damaging, and are the most likely to increase with Global Warming.

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architecture’s role in disaster relief

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POSITION

Architects’ Obligations In recent years, loss of human lives, livelihoods and property, has forced the issue of disaster reduction and risk management higher on the policy agenda of affected governments as well as many other organizations. Although it is our responsibility to become more involved in the act of thoughtfully rebuilding communities, this agenda has not yet reached a level high priority within the community of architects, who tend to work predominantly for high-income clients.

Questions arise as to the role of the architect. Is it enough to “simply be a service provider who works solely to fulfil commissions for clients who can afford such services?” “How can architects use their training for the greater good?”

(Lepik 2010, 12)

It is important for architects to bear in mind the potential of architecture to enhance the lives of the greater public. In the nature of the profession of architecture, architectural sustainability and the project’s relevance to the client for whom the design was originally conceived, is often lost because originality and one-upmanship is praised far more highly in the design process.

As architecture focused more on functioning like the other arts “and celebrated more frequently the designer as artist and theorist rather than as partner of the client or future inhabitant, the radical potential of transformative architecture was harnessed more for critical practices than pragmatic social engagement.”

(Lepik 2010, 9)

Currently, most humanitarian organizations define themselves solely in terms of humanitarian or emergency work. They come in, and often quickly respond to architectural needs with whatever resources they have. These responses are

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generally unsuccessful because the organizations typically do not have architects who have the knowledge or capability on crew and have therefore rarely considered architectural quality a criterion. Furthermore, they oftentimes neglect to consider long-term resilient systems and provide haphazard solutions to architecture. The result is the construction of temporary buildings with little or no connection or significance to the community in its rebuilding process.

(But) most of these initiatives are focused on the functional requirements of such structures. Architecture that is carefully designed, responds to cultural nuance, adds aesthetic value, and facilitates new or better communication within a community, is by necessity rarely a priority for these programs.

(Lepik 2010, 12)

Architects must realize that they have large and varied roles that they can play in post-disaster situations. Among them are to design structures that are more efficient, resilient, affordable, and better suited for their purpose. In times of disasters, it is important for us to stop and think, “What is the most elemental role of architecture? How can we enhance people’s lives as architects? Who and what are we designing for?�

Beyond Shelter

Post-disaster reconstruction initiatives often concentrate on building houses. They rarely focus on recuperating a sense of domestic and public space and place that is crucial for the long-term recovery of affected populations. The result exacerbates the feelings of loss and deprivation among survivors who could beneficially be enabled to contribute to the decision-making processes concerning their built environment, their spaces and places.

(Zetter and Boano 2010, 206)

Providing and designing adequate shelters is seen as the most crucial first step in post-disaster situations. Even in the rare occasion where architects are involved with the immediate rebuilding process, their focus tends to be simply on shelters.

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Longer-term relief structures fail to be discussed until much later in the process.

One could argue that it is equally as important to design facilities that will bring back community, and can house relief and other organizations immediately as well. As is currently the case with most temporary housing, these buildings should not only be temporary, but also be able to transform or become a more permanent structure over time. In the case of a more public building, it should be able to transform into a centre for the community to come together to rebuild culture, remember, and serve as a catalyst for rebuilding. Perhaps it can also serve as a catalyst of bringing people back into the community.

“The principal difficulty of reconstruction is not so much that of building houses (which in most contexts is relatively easy to solve from the technical point of view) but of creating – through the built environment – the conditions for economic recovery, wellbeing and long-term sustainable development.”

(Lizarralde, Johnson and Davidson 2010)

New Opportunities Although it can hardly be seen as a positive consequence, disasters often provide opportunities to shape the community in a better way than before. For example, they can be re-planned to become more sustainable, be less susceptible to future disasters, and provide better community cohesion. In some instances, disasters can be catalysts to solving issues apparent in the community before the event.

While many urban places are attempting “to use the disaster as an opportunity to reinvent their cities with regard to the environment, urban design, and social justice (however), others are eager to return as they were.”(Birch and Wachter 2006) When working in regions after a disaster, it is important to work closely with the community in every step and assess their needs. The work only becomes meaningful if the residents are able to understand and appreciate it. Henri Labrouste wrote that he “would like to think of the architect as a kind of doctor for society, since he believed the arts could have an influence even on public health, and by extension on the overall health of the society” (Lepik 2010, 11). Architects and planners need to create spaces where former residents feel encouraged to return – a place where they feel like they have the rights.

Carefully assessing the needs of a community and involving them in all stages of design is essential in the process of rebuilding. How can the design process engage the community to include programs that fit their needs? Steps in rebuilding may differ from typical construction processes. What needs to be accomplished

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first, and in what time frame do certain milestones need to be achieved? What sorts of construction methods become relevant in the reconstruction process? What aspects of design should be flexible to allow for future growth?

It is time to take action to incorporate disaster reduction at all levels of society, especially ours.

To increase the social relevance of architecture at the beginning of the twenty-first century, architects must no longer think of themselves simply as designers of buildings, but rather as moderators of change.

(Lepik 2010, 21)

Everyone has the right to return safely. Architecture needs to cooperate in facilitating this right. How can architecture create hope?

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AREA OF STUDY

Many scholars identify four crucial dimensions in approaching responses to disaster – disaster mitigation, disaster preparedness, disaster response, and post-disaster recovery. To look at these dimensions, these can be further grouped into two categories, preparedness and capability.

PREPAREDNESS Many cities exist in locations known to be prone to natural hazards. The development of building codes, hazard mitigation infrastructure, education, and evacuation methods thus become vital. What types of mitigation practices currently exist?

How can these practices be further enhanced and integrated within architecture?

CAPABILITY Evaluating a community’s capabilities for future development, and incorporating them into design is crucial. A few factors to consider are demographics, economic potential native to the area, and products and techniques that originate from the area. What type of organizations and facilities can promote re-enhancement of the region’s economy and culture? What type of organizations and facilities promote community cohesion and environment? How can we aid the community in its goal to be self- sustaining once again?

To rebuild a sustainable community, these dimensions must then be considered as architects, under the following broad views of:

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PR EP A

DN RE

S ES

CULTURE + SUSTAINABILITY CA PA BI

TY LI fig. 10 Diagram: preparedness + capability with culture + sustainability

CULTURE AND MEMORY People are displaced, family and friends are lost, and valuables are taken away in an instant. Memory and culture therefore become ever more important factors to consider for the revitalization of community connections in the process of rebuilding.

While we tend to look at natural disaster events optimistically as an opportunity to build newer and better, it is also important to consider the community’s collective memory and to honour it. What traditions existed in the area and how can they be enhanced and brought back through architecture? What is the relationship between the land, culture, and architecture?

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Climate change due to anthropogenic activities is occurring at a rapid pace. Not only are its effects damaging to the environment, but they also affect the formation and intensity of certain natural hazards. Among the hosts of other reasons, it is therefore important to design buildings that are environmentally sustainable. How can design be economic while still providing benefits for the environment, and how can design gain value over time? Can we design buildings that connect with surrounding landscapes and work with natural forces?

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03 _ ARCHITECTURAL ISSUES, PRECEDENTS

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preparedness

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risk = hazard x vulnerability

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Positions towards natural disasters and their causes can vary from culture to culture and evolve over history. Our attitudes towards natural disasters can determine the actions or inactions that we take in protecting ourselves from harm.

Historically, natural disasters were viewed as “acts of God�, as disruptions to normalcy. Consequently, responses were directed towards managing floods as external events that affected an unsuspecting and unprepared society.

(Fleuvrier 1995)

While there may exist a small number of populations that continue to believe so, occurrence of multiple disasters have shown us that they are in fact predictable to a degree, and thus possible to prepare for. Through experience and advancement in technology, strategies can be applied to prevent and/or mitigate disasters through careful assessment and thoughtful planning.

Having survived devastation and loss, the immediate priority for rebuilding a community is to enact measures to prevent its future recurrence and to be prepared and ready to use available resources for relief and rehabilitation. Communities need to implement preparedness strategies by: preventing hazards from developing into disasters altogether, reducing the impact of disasters when they occur, and focusing on the long-term measures for reducing or eliminating disaster risk. Since identification of risks is a prerequisite in the enactment of these measures, risk assessment must be prepared for these communities.

Risk Risk of a community for natural disasters depends on two factors: the intensity of the natural hazard and the vulnerability of the community.

A hazard or threat is the degree of exposure natural phenomena may have within a given period of time on a place or site, regardless of what is built there. It is the potential source of danger. Generally speaking, hazards cannot be mitigated or prevented, but can be hindered from becoming disasters.

Vulnerability refers to the degree to which man-made constructions are susceptible to damage. For architecture, this depends on the design, the quality of materials, and the building techniques employed.

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Risk, therefore, is the result of the vulnerability and degree of exposure of manmade constructions to the hazard in question.

In order to generate and implement strategies to prepare for a given event, basic knowledge of the characteristics of hazards must be known first. The following is a description of the rudimental characteristics of earthquakes and tsunamis – two major hazards that the city of Rikuzentakata faces quite regularly.

fig. 11 Highway in Naka, Japan: After the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake (image source: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/24/japan-disaster-reconstruction-road-recovery)

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Earthquakes

“Strange and mysterious things, though, aren’t they – earthquakes? We take it for granted that the earth beneath our feet is solid and stationary.

We even talk about people being “down to earth” or having their feet firmly planted on the ground. But suddenly one day we see that isn’t true. The earth, the boulders, that are supposed to be solid, all of a sudden turn as mushy as liquid.”

-Haruki Murakami, After the Quake

Earthquakes result from the interior movements in earth’s rigid crust or lithosphere.

Compared to other disasters, earthquakes are sudden can instantaneously destruct vast areas and inflict profound social influences. Due to alterations they can cause to terrains and landforms, it can be extremely difficult to carry out rescues in some serious events. They are therefore often considered the most lethal, and catastrophic earthquakes tend to cause heavy casualties and economic losses.

Magnitude An earthquake’s magnitude is broadly measured in two different ways: through quantifying the amount of energy released (Richter Magnitude scale), or by considering its destructiveness on people, buildings, and natural features (The Modified Mercali intensity scale).

While the Richter Magnitude scale is singular and the most universally used, a number of intensity scales analogous to this Modified Mercalli Intensity scale have been developed and utilized around the world: European Macroseismic scale (EMS09), used in Europe; the Shindo scale, used in Japan and Taiwan; the MSK-64 scale, used in India, Israel, Russia and throughout the ICS; and the Liedu scale, used in mainland China.

In the event of an earthquake, Japan uses the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, Shindo, to measure its intensity. There are 10 levels of earthquakes according to this scale: 0-4, Lower 5, Upper 5, Lower 6, Upper 6, and 7, ranging from shaking being barely noticeable by people (level 1) to being thrown by the shaking and not being possible to move at will (level 7). In the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, a small number of the hardest hit regions experienced Shindo magnitude 7, and many experienced Shindo in magnitude upper 6.

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Using GPS technology, the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan monitors plate and land surface movements in approximately 1,000 locations around the country.

(Japan Echo Foundation 2011) Additionally, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention has set up devices to measure seismic intensity at more than 1,800 locations nationwide, providing seismic monitoring calculated automatically from measurements of ground acceleration on a continual basis. This allows them to quickly gather information in an event, and distribute it to the public.

Frequency Earthquakes occur highly frequently around the world – around 5 million times annually, including 18-20 strong earthquakes above Ms 7.0 and 100-200 strong earthquakes with Ms 6.0-6.9. The latest research shows that the cycle of earthquakes above Ms 7.8 in the world is 16 years, with alternate distribution along the circum-Pacific belt and the equatorial belt. According to the Japan Meteorological Agency, there are on average, 5,110 earthquakes per year in Japan, which accounts for 10% of the earthquakes that occur around the globe each year.

(Japan Meteorological Agency 2011) Area covered Area affected by an earthquake can be vast; a single earthquake event can cause heavy damage to over a dozen regions or countries. For example, the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004 affected more than 20 countries and regions. While the 2011 Tohoku earthquake was not as damaging in terms of area, the quake could be strongly felt even in the city of Tokyo (373 kilometres from the epicentre) and caused a number casualties, significantly disrupted transportation, caused liquefaction in various areas, and caused a small amount of damage to infrastructure.

Distribution Many earthquakes occur at plate boundaries, while others take place mid-plate.

The knowledge of these plates identifies the location of regions on the Earth’s surface where it is likely that large earthquakes will occur. However, while it tells us where 90% of Earth’s major earthquakes will take place, it is impossible to accurately predict when. This is because in the context of millions of years of plate tectonic process, it is difficult to tell exactly where a particular year fits in within the world cycle of stress build-up and stress release. Prediction efforts attempt to establish a stress increase prior to rock rupture by monitoring motions and possible effects of stress accumulation, but these efforts have not been successful. (McDonald 2003) Japan sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. Specifically, it sits on the Pacific plate which moves quickly in tectonic terms, at a rate of 9 cm a year.

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This leads to the rapid build up of huge amounts of energy between the plates, causing for countless earthquakes throughout the year.

Speed of Onset Earthquakes occur suddenly and as previously mentioned, are difficult to predict.

The shift of tectonic plates is a major consideration when attempting to predict these events, but it is difficult to accurately predict seismic parameters such as seismic type (before-shocks, main, shock, aftershocks, etc.), seismic structure, direction, magnitude, time and location. Earthquake effects are instantaneous as opposed to other disasters, and may have effects whose immediate intensity of damage cannot be read.

Considerations for Architecture Improvement of earthquake resistance of buildings requires long-term efforts and construction. It is more difficult to improve the overall resistance capacity of a building to earthquakes than to any other natural disaster, due to an earthquake’s many characteristics.

Earthquakes are additionally associated with a variety of primary and secondary effects and impacts. Primary effects include the shaking of ground, fault rupture and tectonic deformation. Secondary effects include soil liquefaction; rock, mud or landslides; submarine, snow or ice avalanches; fire; and flooding due to tsunamis seiches and alterations to the water table or to stream and river courses.(Parsad 2009) These further affect architecture’s capability to withstand these events.

Architecture must comply with code at the minimum and address other factors that may come with an earthquake’s primary and secondary effects.

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fig. 12 The Great Wave at Kanagawa, by Katsushiga Hokusai (image source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/JP1847) fig. 13 1896 Meiji Sanriku Tsunami aftermath (image source: Imperial Household Ministry, 1912)

Tsunamis Tsunami is a Japanese term derived from the characters “tsu” meaning harbour and “nami” meaning wave. The international scientific community generally uses the term “tsunami” to describe a series of hazardous travelling waves.

Japan has suffered great damage from tsunamis since ancient times. Facts show that over 30 per cent of tsunami victims worldwide are Japanese. (Imamura 2005) The great 1896 Sanriku tsunami in Meiji claimed 22,000 victims with heights up to 38.2 meters high, and the most recent large tsunami before the 2011 event was the Chile tsunami on May 31, 1960, which reached the shores of Japan with heights up to 8 meters, killing 139 in Japan alone. (Geographical Survey Institute, Ministry of Construction 1961). Many of the older residents of these areas have thus now experienced two large tsunamis in their lifetimes.

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Magnitude The magnitude of a tsunami is measured by the maximum wave height and the amount of destruction it causes on the coast, which depend on several factors: the magnitude of the earthquake and its focal depth, the area of Earth’s crust that is dislocated on the sea bed, the propagation route of the tsunami, the variation in direction, the bay configuration, and the topography of the flooded area. (Kuriowa 2004) Frequency The frequency of a tsunami disaster is relatively rare. On average, only two tsunamis that inflict damage near the source occur per year throughout the world. Out of these, a destructive ocean-wide tsunami occurs approximately every 15 years.

Area Covered An earthquake tsunami may be classified into two categories by the location of its epicentre: trans-oceanic tsunami (far-shore tsunami) and local tsunami (near-shore tsunami). Trans-oceanic tsunami spreads from the open sea where the water is up to several thousand or even ten thousand meters deep. The tsunami wave may travel several thousand kilometres in the ocean with small energy decay due to its small friction force. That is why even the extensive coastal areas that are several thousand kilometres away can be affected by tsunami disasters. As for local tsunamis, its source area is the same as the disaster-affected area and its waves hit the shores within a very short time causing serious damage because there is insufficient time for early warning. (InterAcademy Panel on International Issues 2009) When a tsunami reaches a coast, its voyage is not interrupted on shore; rather it penetrates inland advancing as far as topographic conditions and ground friction permit.

Distribution Tsunamis are produced by the displacement of the sea floor associated with submarine earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslide, with most tsunamis being caused by undersea earthquakes where large-area vertical displacement of a seabed rock layer occurs. Ninety percent of strong seabed earthquakes occur in the Pacific Ocean, so the Pacific Rim is undoubtedly the area with the most frequent occurrence of tsunamis. The area of Sanriku coast (extending northward from Sendai to Aomori) where Rikuzentakata is situated, experiences frequent damaging tsunamis. These tsunamis are unfortunately magnified in amplitude due to the rugged landscape of the many picturesque gulfs and capes along the coast.

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fig. 14 Diagram: Tsunami generated by seismicity

Speed of Onset Tsunami waves travel faster in deep sea compared to a shallow one. The tsunami wave in deep sea waters can travel at a wave length of several hundred miles with only one-meter wave height, so its fluctuation generally will not be felt or observed by the travelling ships. The tsunami wave can travel at a speed of above 1000 km/h, and its wave speed will decrease with the sharp increase of its wave amplitude when the tsunami wave moves near to shallow water areas of the coastline. It is in the coastal areas that the tsunami becomes a hazard, posing the greatest threat to life. The wave amplitude of a tsunami may suddenly increase to above 35 meters, and bring with it incredible destructive force. (InterAcademy Panel on International Issues 2009) Contrary to common belief however, tsunamis act more like a flooding wave and are different from a wind-generated wave. They sweep through land destroying everything in its path.

Considerations for Architecture Placement of buildings and their orientations are crucial in determining how well a building will fare against a tsunami event. In water related disasters, looking at layers of topography and putting specific types of buildings in specific zones can become crucial.

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PREPARATION STRATEGIES

Five priorities for action adopted in the 2005 World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe include: •

Ensuring that disaster risk reduction is a national and local priority

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Identifying disaster risks and enhancing early warning systems

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Building a culture of safety using knowledge and education

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Reducing the underlying risk factors

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Strengthening disaster preparedness (Jayasuriya, McCawley and Institute 2010)

Predictability and Evaluation Each natural hazard has different levels of predictability. For example, we are capable of predicting occurrences of earthquakes within a span of a few decades, but their exact date of occurrence is highly unpredictable. Storms on the other hand, are predictable within a few days of its arrival to a specific location, but are impossible to predict years in advance. The level of predictability aids us in enhancing the types of preparedness strategies to be taken, and strongly influences the amount of damage sustained from a given event.

In the process of designing buildings post-disaster, it is crucial to first be aware of the characteristics of hazards likely to hit the area in the future. Furthermore, with the recognized threat, careful evaluation of its danger and potential is crucial in order to assess necessary actions and design accordingly. Measures must then be taken in the levels of not only policy, but through architectural technology and creativity, infrastructure, natural infrastructure, and community education (McDonald 2003). Buildings must be in tune with the threats that it may face, and mitigate its destructiveness.

Preparedness Strategies for preparedness reduce the impact of a natural hazard and deal with the consequences of a potential disaster. They contribute to pre-planned timely and

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effective response of individuals as well as communities. These strategies can be taken in both physical and intangible forms.

Preparedness can be enhanced through: •

obtaining reliable information about similar events and interfacing with other communities

•

increasing public awareness of natural hazards and their causes

•

reducing risk through minimizing the potential for damage

•

recognizing the need to reverse trends in vulnerability to natural and manmade disasters

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improving the ability to provide advance warning (McDonald 2003)

A key element to disaster management is capacity building and strengthening of institutional arrangements at all levels to address risk reduction in the longterm. Many regulatory initiatives have been implemented, some of which affect architectural design. For example, land-use regulations, building codes, and environmental protection put certain constraints on building. These are typically policies that have been implemented for good reason and cannot and should not be easily challenged through architecture. It is important however, for architects to use these constraints to creatively include these policies in their designs instead of designing a building that simply complies.

Preparedness is achieved with two main objectives: prevention and mitigation of disasters.

Prevention United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines prevention in disaster risk reduction as, “a measure that integrates all the activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards and the means to minimize related environmental, technological and biological disasters.” (UNISDR 2011) Policies must be made with strong consideration for social and economical factors and without haste before being enacted. For example, one could propose to

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simply ban construction in certain areas prone to disasters. In the case of the city of Banda Aceh, affected by the 2004 Asia Tsunami, the National Development Planning agency of Banda Aceh banned all construction within 2.4 kilometres of the coastline. However, they did so without recognizing residents’ degree of value for their land and need to stay close to the ocean for business purposes. Instead of simply banning all building in areas prone to disaster, factors such as these must be considered and alternatives for the community made before implementation.

Additionally, prevention is a harsh method of dealing with hazards and sometimes gives the community false impressions of safety against hazards. Tsunami mitigation was conceived of as a preventative measure and gave many the impression that it would stop the waves from entering their towns during the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. They did not realize until it was too late that in fact the walls were incapable of withstanding the strong force of nature.

Mitigation Architecture and Infrastructure must be designed with mitigation strategies in mind. Greatest threats to the particular structure in the particular location must be considered within available budgets. Architecture can save many lives if they are properly designed. However, it has been proven to us that infrastructure cannot always prevent disaster.

Mitigation measures cope with disasters by aiming to lessen its impacts rather than prevent. It focuses on structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation, and technological hazards. (UNISDR 2011) As with prevention measures, mitigation measures are made after assessing potential hazards.

Examples of some mitigation measures include the implementation of building codes and education of communities at risk. These measures needs to be enforced at both individual and community scales.

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In Japan, because of the frequent occurrence of earthquakes and relatively frequent occurrences of tsunamis, many measures are taken to mitigate their effects on society. Experts consider Japan’s disaster planning and infrastructure the best in the world. While the events of the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami could not be prevented to a substantial degree, Japan fared relatively well compared to other countries if put in the same position.

When the threat of a hazard is recognized, the response involves measures and activities that facilitate evaluating its danger and potential, in order to assess what action would be necessary to avoid, preempt or limit the damaging effect likely to result in loss of life and property.

(McDonald 2003)

Planning and Policies In preparation for natural disasters, policies become vital. Lubell states in his article, Housing Displaced Families, that there is a substantial need for the government to play a leadership role in addressing issues of: temporary relocation, displaced homeowners, displaced renters, affected rental property owners, insurance, and building codes. (Lubell 2006) In the case of a developing country, the most logical and economic solution for areas in high tsunami risks, may be to leave a strip of land by the sea that is to be occupied only by construction necessary for the port, and structures required to be close to the sea. However, in developed countries, larger measures to mitigate harm from natural hazards can be put into place, and for better or for worse, allowing these policies to be more lax.

These policies form the shape and character of the built environment of a city and can put certain restrictions on building design.

Seismic Codes In the design of earthquake-resistant structures, it is most important for buildings to be designed so that they have both flexibility and cohesion. Principal areas identified as vulnerable and requiring specific design attention are: the ground and the ground-foundation-structure interaction, the geometry of the load-bearing structure, and the resistance of the structure to earthquake forces.

The Japanese seismic code was one of the first regulations in the world concerning seismic actions and has one of the most effective ones out of necessity.

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The seismic building design code was first developed in 1924, when the Urban Building Law was revised as a consequence of the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake disaster. (Gioncu and Mazzolani 2009) While slowly evolving over the years, an important revision was made in the New Building Standards Act enacted in 1981, following the widespread damage to buildings caused by the 1978 magnitude 7.4 earthquake off the coast of Miyagi prefecture. The regulations made in this Act required all new houses, apartment buildings, and high-rise buildings to be designed to sustain only slight cracks in the event of an earthquake up to Shindo Upper 5, and to not collapse even in the event of a major earthquake measuring Shindo Upper 6 or Shindo 7. Since then, they were again revised following the 1995 Kobe earthquake, which caused many fatalities and severe damage or collapse of buildings.

Because of these code revisions, loss of lives due to the frequently occurring earthquakes in Japan is kept at a relatively low number. In fact, had the earthquake not triggered the destructive tsunami, this event may have become better known as a success story in which Japan’s strict building code saved countless lives. In the case of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake, the building code proved effective and with the development of further revisions, casualties due to buildings affected by earthquakes will become preventable.

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fig. 15 Diagram: Tsunami resistant building structures

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Tsunami’s effects on buildings Although seismic codes are well developed in Japan, similar codes for tsunamis are not, likely due to the relative lower frequency of these events.

In the observation of the tsunami’s effects on buildings, it was found that buildings made of reinforced concrete fared much better than lightweight wood construction buildings. Almost all wooden structures were either destroyed by debris impact or carried away due to strong currents. Unfortunately in Rikuzentakata, most buildings were wooden structures. The difference in survival between wooden structures and reinforced concrete buildings was striking.

In the case of smaller buildings, in some instances air trapped between the ceiling and door and window frames increased the buoyancy of structures and uplifted them, moving them far distances or overturning them. Concrete structures more than three storeys high were found to have adequately resisted the tsunami.

However, when the strong and long lasting currents hit these concrete buildings, strong streams were generated around the corner of the buildings, resulting in many large holes on the ground bored by scouring and in turn, buildings being overturned.

In the Tohoku tsunami, overturning was observed mainly in buildings four stories high or lower where the maximum inundation depth exceeded their heights. While most of the overturned buildings had mat foundations, some had pile foundations where piles were pulled out by the force of the waves. It was found that there were more overturned buildings with small openings compared to those with larger ones.

Consequently, the size of opening or an exterior wall is considered to have greatly affected overturning. (Building Research Institute 2011) It has been found that buildings that fare with resisting the forces of tsunamis best are those made of reinforced concrete with foundations protected against erosion and walls parallel to the direction of the waves that offer the smallest possible front to hydraulic pressure. Therefore in the Sanriku area with its rugged coastal edges, it is crucial to determine the direction of the assault of the waves and take it into consideration when designing buildings.(Kuriowa 2004) Wood construction provides flexibility in the event of tremors. However, they do not hold well against tsunamis. Concrete structures fare well against tsunamis but not as well against quakes. In considering the effectiveness of wood construction against earthquakes with a concrete structure’s capability of better resisting damage from a tsunami, a mix of these two materials may be considered. Can there be a play between permanence and flexibility in the construction of new buildings?

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SANRIKU COAST

fig. 16 Region of Sanriku Japan (reference source: Kuroiwa, p. 238)

Construction and Protection of Critical Facilities After earthquakes, delays in protecting buildings from the weather and repairing damaged buildings, increase the cost of repairs and cause unnecessary hardship.

(McDonald 2003) Certain buildings play a crucial role during disasters. Examples include hospitals, fire stations, police stations and schools, which aid in attending to the injured, rescuing trapped people, maintaining public order, and serving as a place of refuge for the victims. These indispensable buildings must be designed in tune with the building codes and be very carefully planned in terms of location, design, construction, supervision and maintenance. They must also be designed so that they will remain operative even after an intense event and are necessary for the effective and sustainable functioning of a society in order to avoid disruption or compromise post-disaster. In tsunami situations, this suggests that they be built on higher ground or as taller, stronger structures. In Rikuzentakata, much of the city’s main infrastructure was swallowed up, including its main hospital, City Hall and the Community Hall. The Community Hall, which had been designated as an evacuation centre and was filled with many people who had fled there thinking it would be safe. While the structure was strong enough to remain mostly intact, the building was not tall enough, drowning everyone inside.

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Breakwaters, seawalls and structures In Sanriku, the topography is highly unfavourable in the event of tsunamis. To protect the coasts, high and very resistant reinforced concrete walls have been built around the ports with huge steel gates that close in the event of a tsunami alert, thereby reducing the hazard. The Japanese coastal area saw a rapid construction of emergency countermeasures for tsunamis after the 1960 Chilean tsunami.

(United Nations ISDR 2005) Numerous tsunami resistance walls exist on the coasts vulnerable to tsunamis. However, one must keep in mind that these solutions come with a high cost and can only be applied to wealthy countries, as well as the number of issues associated with their construction and use.

The efficiency of these structures can be argued. Fairly large tsunami breakwaters had been constructed at the entrance of the many cities. However, these breakwaters were not capable of completely withstanding the strong tsunami forces in most cases.

In Rikuzentakata, a floodgate that regulates the flow of the river, swamp, and inlet as well as a seawall of 5.5 meters was erected after the Chilean tsunami. However, much like in many other cities affected by this tsunami, the sea gate failed to close during the event and 49 fire fighters were killed attempting to manually shut the gates. Additionally, this tsunami far surpassed the height of the seawall at 14 – 15 m and easily flowed inland. The city has now been approved to build a 12.5 m flood gate and seawall, but is currently negotiating with the government to have them built at 15 m in height.

The sea wall in the city of Kamaishi was completed in 2009 as the world’s largest tsunami protection breakwater. It was 1,660 meters long and 63 meters in height.

Even being the world’s largest, it could only reduce the tsunami height by 40 per cent and delay its arrival time by approximately six minutes. While this undoubtedly saved numerous lives and decreased its impact, one-third of the structure collapsed under the pressure of the wave and much of the city was destroyed. When one weighs the cost of construction and environmental damage sustained through the construction process, with its capability to protect cities, the efficiency of these structures may be questioned.

This event proved to us that while floodgates and seawalls may mitigate the effects of a tsunami to a large extent, they cannot be solely relied upon. Additionally, one must carefully consider the environmental and social impacts associated with its construction.

A range of environmental issues and impacts on marine ecology may arise from the construction of these structures, which can be considered on two time scales: impacts associated with the construction of the seawall, and those associated with the maintenance of the structure. Examples of the former would be the disruption

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of sediment movement and transport patterns while an example of the latter would be that seawalls constructed with smooth concrete blocks or dressed stone have limited potential to provide habitat for marine organisms, thus reducing local biodiversity. All types of coastal protection infrastructure affect the natural habitat and local biodiversity to some extent.

Furthermore, there are potential social impacts associated with such structures.

For example, the construction of a seawall could reduce recreational beach amenity, reduce public access to beaches, and intensify safety risks from the seawall, including effects of wave overtopping due to smooth and hard structures.

Finally, breakwaters, seawalls and other structures regulating the flow of water have traditionally been constructed solely for these purposes, thus visually being simply an eye sore. If the construction of these structures continues to be considered, they must evolve from their current forms as something to not be completely reliant upon and to reduce its natural and social impacts. Thinking of creative ways in which these structures can be integrated into daily lives and serve as something more, becomes something to consider as a designer.

Evacuation Routes The essential feature of an evacuation route is that it will get people to high ground as quickly as possible. Sites with a moderate upward slope should be chosen, where people can walk without much difficulty. Evacuation routes need to be perpendicular to the contour lines to gain elevation. Principle routes should be sufficiently wide to ensure that the rubble from collapsed buildings will not obstruct them completely and vehicles will be able to circulate. Secondary routes are narrower and should be used for pedestrian evacuation only. Evacuation maps should have both types of routes clearly indicated.

fig. 17 Tsunami warning sign noting evacuation centre location: Rikuzentakata (image source: http://www.bo-sai.co.jp/tunamihyoujiban.htm)

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fig. 18 Diagram: Trees planted on coasts can lessen the intensity of tsunami waves

Natural Defences Coastal forests and trees can, under certain conditions, act as bioshields to protect lives and valuable assets against coastal hazards including: tsunamis, cyclones, wind and salt spray and coastal erosion. “In Japan, thick rows of trees and shrubs are planted to increase resistance to the waves. Stakes are even driven into the ground for this purpose.�

(Kuriowa 2004, 240) These measures however, are not able to provide effective protection against all tsunamis (e.g. extremely large tsunami waves). Provisions for other forms of protection and (in extreme events) for evacuation must therefore also be planned.

Care must be taken not to create a false sense of protection against coastal hazards.

When considering the use of this type of strategy, it is important to match the species with the site in order to avoid high mortality and low performance of the planted trees. Some forest types and tree species cannot survive or thrive in areas exposed to specific coastal hazards, therefore will not be candidates for protective measures. Additionally, there is a need to recognize that many years are required to establish and grow bioshields to a size and density that could offer protection against coastal hazards. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2006)

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Warning Systems Warning is generally given out as a form of communication. Improving the ability to provide advance warning through technology is crucial, but introducing ways of providing it through architectural form can be an effective technique. Buildings can help us be more in tune with our surroundings and remind us of the potential hazards. By being more connected to the environment, early warning signs may become more tangible and effective.

There will always be natural hazards, and continuously emerging new and related threats, which threaten people wherever they may live; it is more of a matter of people’s own knowledge, decisions and behaviour that determine their vulnerability to those hazards. A failure to act, or to dedicate resources to protect items of greater value, invites disaster.

While most natural hazards cannot be totally prevented, many of their associated risks and consequences can be reduced or mitigated.

(United Nations ISDR 2005, 28) Earthquake Early Warning System The Earthquake Early Warning system has been officially running since 2007 and provides to the public advance announcement of the estimated seismic intensities and expected arrival time of principal motion. These estimations are based on P-waves close to the epicentre, which the system measures to automatically calculate the exact location and scale of the earthquake, as well as the predicted seismic intensity in various locations. If the predicted maximum seismic intensity is Shindo 3 or more, or the predicted magnitude is 3.5 or more, the system automatically sends a signal to public facilities, factories, and transportation networks. If the predicted seismic intensities are at or above Shindo Lower 5, the system alerts the broader public through devices such as radio, TV broadcasting and through alarms sent to cellular phones.

The aim of this warning system is to mitigate earthquake-related damage by spreading it to the public and allowing countermeasures to take place immediately.

For example, in the case of transportation, trains are promptly slowed down, and in the case of buildings, elevators are controlled to avoid danger. Although the timing of the warning depends on different conditions, it may give individuals a few seconds to take action, enabling them to quickly protect themselves in various environments.

Further integrating these systems into everyday life, and thinking of creative uses for this system could further prevent casualties. Architecture can perhaps accommodate these warning systems more comprehensively into its built form with the integration of technology through systems such as changes in the colour of

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facades.

Tsunami Warning System The 9.5 magnitude earthquake tsunami in Chile in 1960 urged over 20 countries and regions along the Pacific Ocean to jointly establish the Pacific Ocean earthquake tsunami warning system. Along with this, in Japan, the Japanese Meteorological Agency takes the epicentre and magnitude of an earthquake and puts this information in a tsunami modelling database of coastal attacks of tsunamis obtained prior to the event, to estimate tsunami arrival time and height in a relatively short time. (Imamura 2005) Tsunami warnings rang across town three minutes following the quake at 14:49.

Announcements were made through speakers throughout town, warning residents to evacuate and move to higher ground. According to one resident in an interview

by Asahi News, they initially announced that the tsunami would be approximately two meters high. However, a few minutes later it was announced that waves were likely to reach a height of ten meters or more, and communication through these speakers were abruptly cut off soon after. (The Asahi Shimbun Company 2011) This sense of panic and uncertainty can also be observed in videos taken during the event, where fire fighters can be heard shouting for people to move up to even higher ground because the waves had far surpassed the sea wall.

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Education Disasters alone do not revolutionalize planning. Once people have settled back into their lives, initiatives to improve the cityscape often slow down.

(Vale and Campanella 2005, 230) Well-designed mitigation systems such as those that exist in Japan, can give citizens the false belief that they will not be affected by events such as these. Furthermore, since built systems and mitigation strategies cannot be solely relied upon, education of communities is necessary to reduce social vulnerability and human casualties.

Education which could be to understand the threats or know the measures needed to take to protect lives, health, and property at the time of an event, becomes an extremely important measure in preparing a community susceptible to disaster.

Increasing public awareness of natural hazards and their causes facilitates self-help and reduces the confusion that compounds the disaster effects in the immediate aftermath. Preparedness through education can include: equipping people who may be impacted by a disaster or who may be able to help those impacted with the tools to increase their chance of survival and to minimize their economic and other losses; proper maintenance and training of emergency services, including mass human resources such as community emergency response shelters and evacuation plans, and; development of organizations of trained volunteers among civilian populations reducing the impact of hazards/disasters (Jha 2010).

Emergency plans must be made and known to the public, in which the most important component is evacuation measures. Evacuation routes must be clearly identified and known to the public, and evacuation drills should take place on a regular basis, at least once a year.

In Japan, earthquake drills are a part of everyone’s lives – drills are held once a month at public elementary schools throughout Japan and in coastal areas prone to tsunamis, Tsunami drills are also conducted. Rikuzentakata conducted annual Tsunami drills, and evacuation centres and evacuation routes were well known and marked.

The passing down of stories of past disasters experiences can be understood as a form of education as well. Markers can be spotted in the form boulders engraved with writing and more recently through road signs written in both Japanese and English in numerous places where tsunamis have devastated these coastal cities in the past. Although the waves of the 2011 event far surpassed the areas indicated as tsunami inundation areas they still have the potential of giving residents a general idea of effects of an event could be.

Hazards maps with tsunami inundation simulated by numerical analysis and historic observation is an essential tool. Teaching residents in high-risk areas the importance

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of evacuation is the key step in reducing human casualty. Education and drills need to continue to be a large part of the community’s lives and clear evacuation routes need to be redeveloped from lessons learned from this event.

A combination of these measures needs to be integrated into communities and into building design. While Japan was thought to have been able to “manage” large disasters, the Tohoku tsunami and earthquake gave those a strong reminder of the power of nature. With the further development of these strategies and increased awareness amongst the communities, human casualties can be prevented entirely, and damage to infrastructure may be mitigated.

But the city – already more than $100 million in debt – doesn’t have the funds to build new walls on its own. It is still waiting on Tokyo to decide how much it will spend and how high the walls will be. The lower the walls, the more land near the shore will have to be left undeveloped, and until a final decision is reached, city leaders say they can’t move ahead with the other parts of their plan.

(Fairclough and Barta 2011)

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capability

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crisis: danger + opportunity

ĺ?ą ćŠ&#x;

The principal goal for a city in its recovery process is to become self-sustaining to its original or better state as quickly as possible.

Having strong goals such as: promoting a place where food is produced and sold in-situ; where water systems contribute to a productive landscape of forestry and food; where private space and public spaces are coordinated and available; and where energy is produced and managed as part of the open space network at both block and neighbourhood levels raises a region’s capacity to recover from a disastrous event.

A sustainable city is defined as one which is safe, orderly, healthy, culturally and physically attractive, a city that is efficient in its functioning and development, does not have a negative impact on the environment or on its cultural/historic heritage, and, as a result of this, is governable. The final goal is to achieve a competitive city, capable of producing goods and services efficiently, which will attract investment to create new job opportunities, thereby making it possible to raise the standard of living of its inhabitants.

(Kuriowa 2004)

Community recovery following a disaster has three interdependent components – physical, economic, and social. Identifying these components can provide for various opportunities.

The Chinese ideogram for “crisis” is composed of two separate characters: one means danger and the other means opportunity. The proper translation is that a crisis is a dangerous opportunity. When confronted with a crisis you need to recognize both the danger and the opportunity. Often the danger is more readily seen and the opportunity can be well hidden. Be sure to look for the opportunity as well as the danger.

-Interview with local planners in Kobe city, summer 1995 (Edgington 2010)

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RESILIENCY

The United Nations’ International Strategy for Disaster Reduction has defined resilience as:

The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social system is capable of organizing itself to increase this capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures.

(Bosher 2010, 232)

In relation to hazards and disasters, the term ‘resilience’ is opposite of vulnerability and is a measure of susceptibility to avoid losses. It involves the capacity to restore not only buildings but also social systems. Because hazards can strike with little or no warning, an important component of a community’s resilience is the degree of its capability to increase their ability to cope with, adapt to, and recover from the hazard impact.

Different levels of resiliency involving different types of stakeholders exist. When looking at the resiliency of a community, one must identify the varied key components to the livelihoods of the community. For example, if a community’s agriculture is on the wane, an economic alternative needs to be established. Hence, resilience refers to the capacity to deal with change and continued development (i.e. to adapt and learn). Robustness and flexibility are considered the most relevant mechanisms that enhance resilience. (Ryan 2010, 45)

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RECOVERY

The aim of recovery is to restore victims’ lives to the normal/previous condition or better, following the impact of a disaster. Recovery efforts are commonly concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs are addressed, and primarily involves the actions such as rebuilding destroyed property and service systems, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure. These phases generally start after the urgent response has ended and may continue for months or years thereafter.

Part of recovery, is reconstruction which is the set of actions taken after a disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, repair physical damage and community facilities, revive economic activities, and support the psychological and social well-being of the survivors. (UNISDR 2011) This is the stage that architects can contribute the most to.

TIME FRAMES

In particular, speed is important when recovering victims; proper planning when rebuilding the city is even more crucial. For instance, putting up temporary housing for victims of a disaster may be relatively fast and easy, whereas rebuilding a vibrant community is not.

(Edgington 2010)

A number of time frames exist for disaster relief of a community, and with each time frame, varying vulnerabilities are associated. In a building housing community support systems, varying needs need to be accommodated at these specific stages and must be considered in the original conception of the design. For example, speaking of post-Katrina in New Orleans, Gans states that, “To move back onto an empty block in New Orleans East is to make oneself vulnerable to crime in the short term and water in the long term.�(Gans 2011) Such vulnerabilities must be thoughtfully addressed and mitigated for the effective recovery of a community through careful planning of needs at different points in time and allowing for flexibility.

Short-term responses typically consist of emergency response and actions to

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reduce or eliminate the impacts of the disaster to prevent further suffering, and financial loss. This is a stage where needs vary and evolve quickly. Critical facilities such as hospitals and places that can act as temporary shelters for refuge are crucial in this phase. Additionally, a large number of volunteer and other aid workers are brought in during this phase.

In the Mid-term, action such as the restoration of main services and the providing of temporary housing for those who have lost their homes, fall under this category.

This is a stage where communities are still facing some degree of chaos, but are transitioning to acceptance.

Replacement construction and developmental reconstruction are considered longterm responses. These require the understanding of needs in the community and an extremely careful planning of factors such as the building materials and techniques viable for the given area. These long-term projects may take months or even years to accomplish.

In conclusion, the short-term responses require high flexibility and impermanence, while the long-term responses are generally less so. Furthermore, short-term responses need to accommodate higher numbers of volunteer and other aid workers, while mid- and long- term responses will need to be more catered towards permanent residents.

Proposed Strategy As noted above, typical post-disaster reconstruction follows the time frames of: emergency, restoration, replacement reconstruction, and developmental reconstruction (fig. 19). However, often the process does not reach the developmental reconstruction phase and instead, ends at replacement reconstruction. Moving the developmental reconstruction phase to the same time period as the restoration phase, immediately following the emergency phase would allow for quicker recovery of community and give hope to residents for a renewed city. This may require more careful planning in mitigation strategies within the community ahead of time, but if architects focused on these strategies along with the restoration of buildings, many of the vulnerabilities at each time frame could be addressed.

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TYPICAL POST-DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION TIME FRAME PERIODS

EMERGENCY

RESTORATION

REPLACEMENT RECONSTRUCTION

DEVELOPMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION

CAPITAL STOCK

damaged or destroyed

patched

rebuilt (replacement)

major construction (commemoration, betterment, development)

returning and functioning

return at predisaster levels or greater

improved and developed

RESTORATION

REPLACEMENT RECONSTRUCTION

NORMAL ceased or changed ACTIVITIES

PROPOSITION EMERGENCY

DEVELOPMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION

fig. 19 Post-disaster reconstruction according to Kates and Pijawka (1977) fig. 20 Post-disaster reconstruction proposition

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Six main instructions that a policy maker must follow when restarting regional economy in the wake of a natural or manmade disaster: 1. Supplying short-term income and other financial assistance to distressed households 2. Reviving the regional economy’s disrupted exportoriented business 3. Providing financial, legal, and regulatory forbearance 4. Reconstructing public infrastructure and institutions 5. Implementing tax incentives for housing and business development 6. Facilitating a well-functioning insurance market (Zandi et al. 2006)

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RIKUZENTAKATA’S ECONOMIC CAPABILITY

Rebuilding is a logical and necessary way to jump-start the regeneration of local economy. It can provide employment opportunities to those affected and give them an incentive to come back to rebuild the affected location. It may additionally provide opportunity to re-evaluate local capabilities and identify ways of sustaining future economy.

The longer it takes to restore economic viability in a devastated community, the more relocated families will settle into their new communities, and fewer families will return. Therefore, such capabilities need to be identified and addressed as quickly as possible.

Seafood Industry Having one of the best fishing grounds in the world, the seafood industry greatly supported this city. Seaweed, scallops, abalone, and oysters were cultivated in this area, and along the coastline, there were a host of small mom and pop businesses including fresh seafood restaurants and museums introducing marine life. Unfortunately 6,000 fishing boats were lost and shellfish beds were ruined in the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. While boats can be fairly easily recovered, it is estimated that shellfish beds will take approximately three years to recover.

Tourism Tourism played a significant role in the economy of Rikuzentakata. With its location being at the intersection of two major highways, numerous restaurants and stores existed in the main city area of Takata-cho. Additionally its unusual landscape of sandy beaches amongst its mountainous coast, and famous forest of pine trees (Takata-Matsubara) along the coast, Rikuzentakata flourished with tourists especially during the summer months. Working with the city plans to revitalize this district and create a memorial park, a cultural resiliency centre could serve to display culture distinct to Rikuzentakata and introduce visitors to the city as a whole.

Self-Sufficiency Residents of Rikuzentakata describe the city as being highly self-sufficient in terms of food. With abundant seafood and flat land for agriculture, fishermen were able to trade fish with their neighbours for home grown vegetables, and vice versa. With irrupted neighbourhood connections, a community centre can host markets, where residents can come and trade/sell their food, to become self-sufficient as a city once again.

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COMMUNITY

Historically, communities have bought and sold, laboured and produced, and had their being in their trade and trading relationships. Their key was in localised production, trade, and exchange, resulting in a corresponding developed social structure; where there was need to know a neighbour as part of daily life and sustenance; where spaces were established as a framework for life’s gathering, selling, socialising, and communicating.

(Shinkfield 2010)

Community networks act as a powerful driver for the recovery of a city, postdisaster. Public facilities where community can gather, thus serve as vital stations for community members to re-connect and build associations and networks oriented to larger common goals and to aid each other in their grief and difficulties following a disaster. On a large scale, architecture has the powerful potential to “increase the quality of life for all inhabitants, bolster civic pride, and have a positive impact on a city’s economy.”(Lepik 2010, 12) Such design can be created to enhance the quality of life for the people in the community to higher levels than before.

Post-disaster interventions are not only an opportunity to rebuild but also an opportunity to reduce the vulnerabilities of the population.

(Bosher 2010, 231)

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FACTORS AFFECTING RIKUZENTAKATA’S CAPABILITIES

“I’m worried the town will disappear. I would like to hear the young people say, ‘Don’t worry about it,’ but many of them have died” – Yukiko Yamaguchi (Kubota 2011)

The current population in Rikuzentakata has dropped from 24,246 to 21,246 (as of October 1, 2011). These numbers can be attributed to people moving away from the city because of their loss of homes and livelihoods and due to the city’s slow reconstruction process.

Additionally, Rikuzentakata has had an increasingly high aging population (much like other many other areas in the Tohoku region) where nearly 35% was over the age of 65.

Since the hardest hit area was that of the city centre, many of those killed were the younger generation, which were the vitally needed workers. The government had employed younger people in the area by creating “public works” which mainly consisted of construction work in the past. However, with the economic crisis, these jobs had been fading in the recent past. With the city almost totally devastated, it is now predicted that even more of the young population will leave.

“It would not be very convincing to invest in areas where no one will be living in 20 years. So the key to whether these areas could be rebuilt is whether the people there would be prepared to live there in the long-term, produce things there, and have children.”

- Akira Yamasaki (Kubota 2011)

While the future may look grim, with the collaboration of the local government, and innovative new ways to promote local economy, jobs can be created for younger generations in the process of rebuilding the city. While jobs related to rebuilding the city are non-permanent, lasting only until the city is substantially rebuilt, by thinking of new potential for jobs in the future that feature local products and skills, one can imagine the potential for the city flourishing once again. Through the integration of features considering these possibilities into program, architecture can aid in revitalizing the city.

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age:

20

40

60

80

100

POPULATION OF RIKUZENTAKATA BY AGE POPULATION OF JAPAN BY AGE fig. 21 Graph: Population of Rikuzentakata and Japan by age

Rikuzentakata will undergo many changes in the following years. Most housing will be built above the flooded levels, making the downtown areas all along the coast of Tohoku a green belt. These areas have to potential to become destination points for those to interact with the beautiful nature along the coast.

The city has risen from tsunamis numerous times in the past. With its forward thinking attitude and new plans for rebuilding, the possibility of the city flourishing again one day is not too far-fetched. Although devastated by the disaster, this is the time to rebuild the city, solving the issues that it once had and creating new jobs and infrastructure to draw people back. One elderly man in the city of Ofunato commented to news reporters after being rescued from a hotel 3 days after the event,

“I’ve experienced the Chile tsunami (in 1960) too. It’s okay. Let’s rebuild again.”

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culture

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“bunka” culture

文 化

CULTURE

Culture refers to the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements that a community collectively shares. It is often unique and distinct to a specific group of people tied to a specific location and can encompass traditional, skills, practices, and languages, which are often generated as a result of the vibrant interaction of people with each other and their surroundings. Although culture draws from the past, it is not a static phenomenon, but is rather shaped from a continually fluctuating relationship of past and present experiences. As an important part of our past, it plays a significant role in all aspects of our lives.

Cultural production, things made in a particular a cultural context, is a complex and powerful expression of human life.

(Findley 2005, 29)

In the past, most disaster sites have remained populated, often because of the inability to mobilize to better grounds due to increased poverty, but also simply out of faith in tradition and continuity embedded in the culture. Communities build up certain characteristics for themselves that give their inhabitants a sense of belonging. When a place inhabited by their ancestors is suddenly abandoned, much can be lost in the culture and memory of those people.

Built forms, which have no connection with their location, (for example,) tend to generate environments in which it is difficult to know exactly where we are, let alone feel any sense of belonging there.

(Nute 2004)

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Identifying Culture Particularly in post-disaster situations where there is often an initial influx of foreign aid, issues of globalization resulting in loss of traditional knowledge and culture become a large concern. Areas vulnerable to multiple disasters often have a repository of traditional knowledge for resistant construction that is handed down from generation to generation, through communication and practice. However, these techniques can become lost to standardized structures, rising costs of materials, etc. in post-disaster situations. Architects and aid workers must attempt to identify such cultural values that may exist in a location prior to design in attempts to preserve cultural assets.

Integrating Culture into Architecture Oftentimes architects will attempt to build completely from scratch, with barely any consideration to the history and culture of the land. However, this approach to rebuilding is flawed especially in a post-disaster situation. Communities need a place that they feel they can connect with, and share their common values with to rebuild bonds. Cultural identity is sustained through the power of cultural practices.

To bring back a sense of community in a location, cultural aspects cannot be neglected. Through the careful selection of building programs and spatial qualities made to suit and accommodate these factors, architecture can facilitate in bringing back this faith and continuity in tradition while integrating it with new techniques.

Every new work of architecture intervenes in a specific historical situation.

It is essential to the quality of the intervention that the new building should embrace qualities, which can enter into meaningful dialogue with the existing situation. For if the intervention is to find its place, it must make us see what already exists in a new light. We throw a stone in the water.

Sand swirls up and settles again. The stir was necessary. The stone has fond its place. But the pond is no longer the same.

(Zumthor 1998)

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Community Resilience Centre Cultural and communal connections between people often become lost without places to share them. With public buildings not being of immediate or initial concern in the rebuilding process, places for people to gather and interact become lost, increasing the probability for loss of community connections and culture.

Since most of the important parts of our cultural pasts such as traditional skills, practices, and languages are carried on through the interaction of people with each other and their surroundings, providing public spaces for people to share and continue to pass on their cultures is vital. A building that can serve as a community resiliency centre could provide home to existing community based organizations, and be used for future education. These spaces should serve a variety of roles at the city and neighbourhood levels as a flexible space.

MEMORY

I believe that places where people feel happy are related to aesthetics and, perhaps even more importantly, memory.

(Schwartz 2008, 136)

Nostalgia can act as both an opportunity and a constraint in rebuilding. As an opportunity, it facilitates the connection of the building to the site and community through shared emotional attachments to elements of culture. This can induce a renewed importance for certain traditions or elements of culture that could otherwise be lost in the changes of structure that occur post-disaster. However, as a constraint, it can promote the design of a set point in time that never adapts to the most current conditions. While a careful balance must be achieved when integrating forms of memory into design, nostalgia embedded in architecture can act as a tool to promote the continuance of tradition and strengthening of a society.

Architecture provides the stage on which we can enact our lives. Memory, however, creates a special relationship with space, holding on to the essence of it, the best and the worst, letting the rest of the details fade into gray.

(BastĂŠa 2004, 1)

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夢 羽藤英二 私たちは一緒に逃げた。別れ道があっ た。私は右だと言い、彼女は左だと言っ た。私は村の小さな神社に辿り着いた。 彼女の姿はそこのなかった。濁流が押し 寄せ、村を飲み込んでいった。あれから ３週間すぎた。 ３年が過ぎた。今年は烏賊が豊漁だ。信 じられないくらい採れるのだ。港は貧相 な集落からは遠かった。不便だった。ひ とりの男が港のそばに家を建てた。男は 大金持ちになった。 しばらくするとわれ もわれもと港のそばに町ができ上がっ た。私たちは神社よりも高い場所に暮ら してた。今そのことを思い出す人はいな い。 ３０年が過ぎた。男にも孫ができた。小 さな孫を連れて男は港から？？と折れ曲 がった道を歩き、高台によく登った。そ のうちに男は死んだ。男の子どもたち は、遺言に従い高い場所に墓をつくっ た。その場所から海がよく見えた。孫は 青年になり恋人ができた。６０年が過 ぎてまたその日がやってきた。濁流が押 し寄せ、村を飲み込んでいった。それが 何度も無限にただ繰り返された。

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Dream

by Eiji Hato We fled together, There was a fork in the road. I said right; she said left. I eventually arrived at the small shrine of the village. She was nowhere to be seen. The muddy waters surged and swallowed the village. Three weeks have passed since then.

Three years passed. This year the sea is full of cuttlefish. An incredible number are netted. The port is far from the shabby village. It is inconvenient. One man built a house near the port. The man grew rich.

Others followed his example and in time a village rose next to the port. We used to live on high ground above the shrine. No one remembers that now.

Three years passed. The man too had a grandchild. He often took his small grandchild and climbed a winding road that led from the port to high ground. In time the man died. The man’s children built a greave in a high place in accordance with his will. That place afforded a good view of the sea. The grandchild became a young man and had a sweet heart. Sixty years passed and that day came again. The muddy waters surged and swallowed the village.

For countless times that has simply been repeated.

(Hato 2011)

Things and buildings will fall apart, but spirit remains. Architecture can form these spiritual aspects into built form. Louis Sullivan famously described the architect as, “a poet who uses not words but building materials as a medium of expression.�

(Sullivan 1947)

Objects and memorabilia are often lost or destroyed in the event of a disaster.

Displaying individual and collective memories in public facilities is one example in which architecture can serve as a means to commemorate memories. Architectural space allocated for memory must have the capacity to change as well as accept different forms of memory; memory as an object, memory as an orally transmitted experience, etc. Stories of before the disaster as well as those during the disaster need to be passed down to future generations, lest we forget the power of its destruction. Providing spaces where people can come together and share their memories is an effective way of bringing community cohesion. By doing so, architecture can not only aid in preserving and reconstructing old memories but act as a host for new ones as well.

Formal memorials may take years to come to fruition, but the process of remembrance beings almost instantly.

(Vale and Campanella 2005, 13)

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Cultural Preparedness Looking into traditional forms of construction can help in preparing a city for future disaster. These locations have often been hit by similar disasters in the past and have traditional ways of dealing with the hazards that it faces.

Just as it is vital to understand the needs of a given community before designing a building, it is also important to understand what building materials and techniques are viable for a given area.

(Lepik 2010, 12)

Cultural Capability Culture has a strong influence on a community’s capability. With different cultures come different values and knowledge that influence a community’s ability to recover.

Promoting culture and enhancing the bonds that it can create, is an important element of cultural capability. This can aid in creating a stronger identity for a community, thus increasing its vibrancy and means for sustaining itself.

As well as being sites of cultural consumption, historic sites are economic commodities for various strategies of economic regeneration and place promotion.

(Handal 2006, 53)

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JAPAN’S CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS NATURAL DISASTERS

Japan boasts strong and distinct cultural traits partially due to its homogenous society. Its uniquely distinct culture is a main attraction of Japan. It is these types of intangible factors that are not immediately destroyed post-disaster but can deteriorate with time, and must be carefully preserved in the process of rebuilding.

Although buildings disappear easily, lifestyles have changed only gradually, and they keep traditional Japanese building elements alive.

(Vale and Campanella 2005, 230)

Contemporary architectural design and building materials differ strongly from traditional construction. However, the deeper layers of building culture remain largely unchanged. In the rapidly changing built environment in Japan, building forms and styles have changed but the structures of the traditional neighbourhoods generally remain as before. These underlying layers help identify and differentiate Japan from other countries and unify its larger community.

Culture affects the way in which the reconstruction process is carried out as well.

Due to its frequent exposure to both natural and man-made disasters in recent history, Japan has been forced to rebuild its cities numerous times. While certain prevention and mitigation measures have proved effective, its traditional recovery methods have changed minimally. This can be owed to the fact that the regulations are imposed by national legislation and tied to the national government’s tight budgetary requirements. This system has its advantage in that it guarantees funding for infrastructure repair and replacement in most cases, but it lacks in autonomy for local governments.

Therefore, the probability of the availability of design work is high, but room for innovative design is more difficult to achieve within the tight budget. This serves as an issue, since most public works that end up being funded by the government, become of typical design, not taking into consideration cultural and environmental factors that tie it to the site. An additional issue is that governmental projects, which usually consist of public facilities, often take long periods of time to be implemented.

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Continuity vs. Change

Japanese citizens have not expected a great deal from their governments.

Japanese culture has fostered traditional forms of self-reliance, and little has been demanded of government even in times of great disaster.

(Vale and Campanella 2005)

Speedy recovery has been based upon individual action in Japan, and private sectors have undertaken the actual reconstruction efforts more so than the government. Historically, “it was commonly accepted that a merchant had to be back in business in three days, lest his business be ruined.” Rapid reconstruction was capable because the former buildings typically had been burned to ashes, and the site entirely cleared, allowing for construction to begin immediately. However, the hastily put up buildings were rarely built to better withstand conflagration; instead, cheap construction continued to be favoured as a means of reducing financial loss for owners.

Even when water, fire, or earthquakes wiped away the buildings, existing land divisions and the reliance on traditional building materials and techniques favoured a return to previous urban forms.

(Vale and Campanella 2005, 215)

Fukkyu vs. Fukko Alike other countries, Japanese legislation traditionally focuses solely on providing immediate relief and shelter to victims. There exist no recognized procedure at local or national levels for the planning of medium- to long-term revival of communities in the event of a major disaster. In the Japanese system, the government has by tradition only been responsible for “recovery” (fukkyu), which refers to “bringing back the devastated area to its pre-disaster state” – for example, by rebuilding roads and important public infrastructure. By contrast, the term “reconstruction” (fukko) suggests long-term recovery – “making the devastated areas better than what they were in the pre-disaster days”. Usually there has been little or no government support in Japan for this latter concept. (Edgington 2010, 27) The government’s main objective has chiefly been the simple restoration of damaged infrastructure, not of community renewal.

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Toshikeikaku vs. Machizukuri There are mainly two types of planning that exist in Japan. The first is toshikeikaku (“town planning”), which is the method taken more frequently. This “top-down” approach was adopted by Japan’s government during the Meiji period (1868-1912) as part of the nation’s drive to catch up with Western countries. This method is centralized around national and local government bureaucrats, who celebrate largescale infrastructure projects more so than smaller community based projects.

The other approach to planning is machizukuri (“city building”), which is more recent and has as of yet been used sparingly. This approach is “bottom-up” in style, local and small-scale in nature, and more sensitive to local needs requiring civic participation. In the wake of the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, the city of Rikuzentakata has decided to take on this approach.

While this approach can be initiated in any location, a more permanent location for community to come together to discuss such ideas becomes necessary in the longer-term.

“The term resilient city implies finality, but like culture, it is always coupled with an ongoing recovery process that, for many people, will never quite end. It seems a mistake to view the resilience of cities in terms of any such search for “closure.” Rather, the goal should be productive openness, an ability to structure and confront the contradictory impulses inherent in the contested processes of recovery and remembrance.

The challenge for planners and designers is to navigate between the extremes of triumphalism and despair. We don’t always get over traumatic events, but we do get through them. This, too, is a form of resilience.”

(Vale and Campanella 2005, 14)

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fig. 22 Fumonji: Tower showing detailed ornamentation (image source: http://www.epix.co.jp/kesendaiku/takuminosato/kesendaiku/ksndik.html) fig. 23 Segai-zukuri (image source: http://www.kesendaiku.com/kesendaiku3-1.htm) fig. 24 High levels of ornamentation by Kesen-daiku (image source: http://www.epix.co.jp/kesendaiku/takuminosato/kesendaiku/ksndik.html)

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CULTURALLY SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF RIKUZENTAKATA

Kesen-daiku Rikuzentakata has historically been known to have a large number of carpenters for a city. There are a group of highly skilled carpenters called Kesen-daiku who are migrant carpenters that spend most of the year away from home, raising money for their wives, children, and elders, while they stay at home tending to other tasks such as farming. It is said that in the old days, they only returned home during Obon (a festival to commemorate deceased ancestors) and New Years.

Kesen-daiku have been known since the Edo period for their masterful skills at building a variety of buildings and even sculptures across Japan, called Kesendaiku (Kesen carpenters) located in this area. They do not specialize in any one type of construction, but are instead capable of a wide range of carpentry ranging from the architecture of temple and shrines to western style architecture. They are particularly well known in their capability of constructing Jibtusu-do, Segai-zukuri, and through their level of high ornamentation on the buildings they construct.

Jibutsu-do is a small shrine placed on the premises of a person’s property. Although small, it can be about the size of a small house and are found on large properties.

On typical houses built by Kesen-daiku, segai-zukuri can be seen in the form of carved ornamentation on beams and the creation of large eves. High levels of ornamentation, commonly seen as inappropriate on typical houses are often seen on fixtures as well.

These features can be attributed to Kesen-daiku’s admiration of the architecture of temples and shrines. Kesen-daiku’s ability of detailed construction and level of ornamentation show their capability for rebuilding. Providing for a local wood shop as part of a more public building, could facilitate rebuilding, and promotion of the local trade.

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fig. 25 Kenka-Tanabata (image source: http://www.takumi-in.co.jp/Pages/kankouF/kenkatanabata-2.html) fig. 26 Kaijo-Tanabata (image source: http://kenkatanabata.fc2web.com/images/sel.jpg) fig. 27 Ugoku-Tanabata (image source: http://nakanotosou.com/frem_folder/frem-kanri.html)

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Matsuri People living in rural areas are found to have much stronger community connections amongst each other compared to those living in the large city areas of Japan.

(Tsuka and Yamamoto 2010) However, with the population rapidly shrinking with its aging society, and the decline of collaboration and interaction between community members due to factors such as changes in agricultural techniques and modern technology, this sense of community is weakening even in these rural cities such as Rikuzentakata. Festivals, or “matsuri” thus play an important role in maintaining community connections and fostering new ones each year. These events can be considered one of the most important events in sustaining communities in Japan.

The matsuri is many things to the Japanese people: an opportunity for communion with their gods and ancestral spirits; an avowal of their common past reaching far back into mythical times; a celebration of nature and renewal with the cycle of the seasons; and, not least of all, an excuse for exuberant merrymaking with family and neighbours, thereby reaffirming communal bonds and providing welcome relief from the work and routine of daily life.

(Japan National Tourism Organization 2011)

Although matsuri originally come from the Shinto tradition, they are not only the rites of true believers or initiates of the religion, but celebrations for all. However, considerable attention is always devoted to the ritual attire and accoutrements where the finest materials and workmanship are devoted, and ancient practices are extremely well preserved. Details receive painstaking care and enormous amounts of money and time are invested, clearly reflecting Japan’s renowned dedication to quality. Japan’s matsuri are numerous and varied from place to place giving each a sense of pride, and they display a society striving to hold on to its identity in a fastchanging world.

Matsuri play a particularly large role in Rikuzentakata - mainly there is the KenkaTanabata festival and the Ugoku-Tanabata festival that take place each year. These festivals are community-wide events that help create a sense of cohesion and strengthen their sense of community. Each year, residents look forward to, and participate in these lively events.

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Kenka-Tanabata Every year in the Kesen-machi district of Rikuzentakata on August 7th, four floats – each representing a different neighbourhood (Ara-machi, Kamiyokamachi, Shimoyokamachi, Teppo-machi), are manoeuvred through the street with festival musical accompaniment. Legend says that this festival began over 900 years ago as a memorial event for ancestors. This event was named an intangible cultural asset by the Iwate prefecture in 1997.

Kenka-Tanabata (“fighting Tanabata”) is an elaborate day long event that is broken up into different segments. During the noon portion, the floats are pulled their neighbourhoods with musical accompaniment, and the morning and night portions are when the floats “fight” each other. These fights occur by facing the floats towards each other and people on each float pulling them towards each other at the start signal. They proceed to pull on their floats and the winner is determined in a similar manner to tug-of-war. At night, everyone is welcomed to join in the “fight” and the event becomes even livelier. Many former residents come back from afar to participate in the festivities.

Up until the day of the event, people in the community young and old come together and work hard to decorate the floats and practice their music. This act in itself brings everyone in the community together and naturally builds close bonds between them.

The float bases are made with high quality “Kesen-sugi” (Kesen Cedar) and reflect the high quality carpentry of Kesen-daiku. They are built to be able to manoeuvre through narrow streets and are built durable to be able to win the “fight”. The wheels are also made out of wood, and direction change is achieved through pushing the single trunk of cedar that penetrates through the float on the front and back.

The ones entrusted with the steering are the community group’s men at their prime ages and are called the “kajitori”. There are many other positions for the people.

There are those who are stationed on top of the float giving directions as to where to go and lifting power lines, the one who leads the float with the microphone and shouts out “yoiyasa!” and “yo-yoi!”, those that play the taiko drums on the float, those who pull the float, etc.

Young adults take the main role in the building of the floats and playing of the taiko drums and are at the heart of the event. The floats weigh approximately 4 tons and need many participants to pull, which has also become a problem with the aging population.

Regarded as one of the most valuable community events, hope was brought to the community when the base of one of the four floats was discovered after the tsunami. This event even took place in 2011 approximately 5 months after the

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tsunami stemming from the town’s desire to bring back hope into the community.

It brought back members of the community that had been displaced in different shelters, and facilitated community cohesion and spirit.

Ugoku-Tanabata Ugoku-Tanabata (moving Tanabata) occurs on the same day as the KenkaTanabata, but in the district directly east of it (Takata-cho). 12 neighbourhoods within the district participate, each with their own floats. These floats are smaller and easier to manoeuvre and in recent years have become more modernized with rubber tires. During the day, these floats are pulled throughout their respecting neighbourhoods, by members of each community, and at night, they are all lit up and gathered by the train station. Unlike the Kenka-Tanabata, the Ugoku-Tanabata does not have a fighting component to it, but is nonetheless a vibrant event. At the end of the event, the floats are taken to the “michi-no-eki” (street station) located by the major highway in Takata-cho, and displayed there for a week. Like the KenkaTanabata, these floats are ornamented each year.

Kaijo-Tanabata Until 2003, Otomocho also held their own Tanabata festival where 3 small fishing boats holding 21 meter-high bamboo poles adorned with over 20,000 tanzaku (strips of paper to write haiku on), sailed the ocean. This festival had gone on for approximately 200 years, but was cancelled in 2003 due to growing sizes of fishing boats, and the town’s inability to procure small boats on which to use for the event.

These events are an integral part of the community and are events that should, and will continue to occur. A community building could facilitate in this since there are several phases of these events that require space – namely the construction and storage phases. These could become display spaces as well, introducing this cultural asset to visitors.

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fig. 28 View of Takata-Matsubara and beach from sea (image source: http://www.pinerescue.jp/jiten/matsu/tsunami/tsunami.html) fig. 29 Takata-Matsubara Park: Pathway through pine forest (image source: http://www.miraikioku.com/item/5643143959082417682)

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Takata-Matsubara One of the largest attractions of Rikuzentakata was the Takata-Matsubara (Takata pine forest). Takata-Matsubara was a two-kilometre stretch along the shoreline of Rikuzentakata that was lined with approximately 70,000 pine trees. This area was planted with 6,200 pine trees in 1667 to screen rice fields from sand and salt spray, and protect the community from nature’s effects such as tsunamis. It was an important part of the community and attracted numerous tourists – 1,040,000 visitors in the year 2009. (The Asahi Shimbun Company 2011) In the past tsunamis that had hit the city, large areas were destroyed, but residents were able to replant. However, on March 11, 2011, all but one tree was destroyed in the tsunami waves that were generated by the Tohoku earthquake.

The lone 200 year-old pine tree standing at 30 metres high has been called “Kibou no Matsu” or the “Tree of Hope”. It has become a symbol of the city as well as a symbol of reconstruction in the Tohoku region and throughout Japan. However, due to the fact that the land around this area has subsided and it now only stands five metres from the sea, it is at threat from increased salinity. The salt level in May was roughly three times the survivable limit for the tree, and while efforts are being made to save it, it appears to be slowly dying. There are now plans to preserve this tree and keep it on site to continue to serve as a symbol of hope and strength.

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PRECEDENT STUDIES: The Red Location Museum of Struggle Port Elizabeth, South Africa _ 1998-2005 _ Noero Wolff Architects

This museum serves as a poignant example of how architecture can play a role in commemorating memory.

Founded in 1902, Red Location is one of the oldest townships in South Africa. It was designated for the occupation specifically by black workers, but developed into one of the centres of the antiapartheid movement in 1948, making it into a place of historic protest actions. A museum memorializing the apartheid era was decided upon following the abolition of apartheid in 1994, where the site of resistance could become an integral part of the experience.

One of the main features of this building is the series of multipurpose “memory boxes� that exist inside it, housing a variety of small installations that visitors are

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fig. 30 (opposite left) The Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum interior with auditorium at right fig. 31 (top left) The Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum exterior fig. 32 (top right) The Red Location Museum of Struggle: Memory box working section fig. 33 (bottom left) The Red Location Museum of Struggle: Museum interior with memory boxes (image source: http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/red_location_museum_of_struggle)

encouraged to explore on their own. These galleries are constructed of the rusted corrugated iron that gave the township its name.

The overall aim of this museum is to reverse the segregation that has characterized the site for so long. The building memorializes the history of apartheid while also looking forward and addressing concrete issues that continue to face the community. In the construction process, a third of the labourers were to come from the museum’s immediate environs, so that they would receive training on the project. Furthermore, to ensure that a large number of the community could participate, workers were only allowed to spend three months on the site before being replaced. This raised the skill levels of the community and gave them a sense of communal ownership of the building. On this site where no public amenities existed, it is hoped that this building will act as a vibrant centre for new urban development, infrastructure and culture, and will have a transformative effect on the entire area.

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fig. 34 Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Windflow diagram of Inujima

fig. 35 Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Aerial view

Inujima Art Project Seirensho Inujima, Okayama, Japan _ Hiroshi Sambuichi _ 2008 A small island on the Seto Inland Sea, Inujima was once one of Japan’s leading quarries. Established in 1909, the Inujima Copper refinery was a bustling enterprise that contributed to a peak island population of more then 3,000 during its busiest decade. However, the refinery closed only 10 years later due to a massive plunge in the price of copper, gradually decreasing to its current population of 56, with the average age being 75. Following the closure of the refinery, it gradually fell into ruins over decades of neglect.

The project truly embraces the concept of a recycling-based society as a model for a new type of regional revitalization through industrial heritage, architecture, art, and the environment.

(Benesse Art Site Naoshima 2011) This museum preserves and reuses the remains of this copper refinery, based on the concept of using the existing to create the yet-to-be. The architecture makes use of the existing smokestacks and karami bricks from the refinery as part of its structure, and to promote the passage of air through the museum. It uses solar and geothermal to source its energy, and employs a sophisticated water purification system. For its water circulation, special plants work to purify human waste, which is then utilized to fertilize plants covering the museum. This recycled waste also enables on-site cultivation of fruit, which in turn nourishes the visitors, completing the loop. This museum incorporates people into the natural cycles of the earth.

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01. Entrance Hall

06. Sun Gallery

02. Energy Hall

07. Cafe

03. Chimney Hall

08. Restrooms

04. Existing smokestack

09. Courtyard

05. Earth Gallery

10. Brick wall fragments

fig. 36 (top left) Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Air cooling system with Earth gallery fig. 37 (top middle) Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Air heating system with Sun gallery

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fig. 38 (top right) Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Art installation by Yukinori Yanagi 03

02

01

fig. 39 (bottom left) Inujima Art Project Seirensho: Section

(fig. 35 image source: http://www.worldbuildingsdirectory.com/project.cfm?id=459) (fig. 34, 36, 37, 39 image source: The Japan Architect 81: Hiroshi Sambuichi, Spring 2011) (fig. 38 image source: http://iwan.com/photo_Inujima_Art_Project_Hiroshi_Sambuichi.php)

This project is only one of the many projects on the islands in the Setouchi Inland Sea developed by Benesse Corporation, which has directed the creation and operation of the island’s museums and other projects since the late 1980s. Their vision is to “create a physically and mentally rejuvenating haven where you can find yourself musing on the true meaning of “living well and at the same time, a place where art is not experienced by studying set attitudes but appreciated on your own terms, as another opportunity to ponder living well”. (Benesse Art Site Naoshima 2011) The love of an island and its beauty has inspired a vast development project that started with the construction of a relatively traditional museum, followed by site-specific projects that establish a flourishing relationship between culture and agriculture, and have ultimately led to reviving a village once destined to disappear, there creating an astonishing place of poetry and a vital reunion with the past.

(Martin 2011)

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fig. 40 Old City Centre of Banyoles 01 fig. 41 Old City Centre of Banyoles 02 fig. 42 Old City Centre of Banyoles 03 (image source: http://www.miasarquitectes.com/proyectos-ficha.php?id=20)

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fig. 43 Old City Centre of Banyoles: Pedestrian pathway with canal exposed (image source: http://www.miasarquitectes.com/proyectos-ficha.php?id=20)

Old city centre of Banyoles Banyoles, Girona, Spain _ MiAS Arquitectes_ 1998 Historically Banyoles was a deteriorated area in which vehicles and pedestrians cohabited a layout of narrow streets and old sidewalks. The goal of this intervention was to “pedestrianize” the area and restoring the circulation of people and water through the town by removing the old sidewalks and repaving them with travertine – a material that has always been present in the city’s subsoil and was used in many significant buildings of the town.

Additionally, irrigation canals that formerly carried clean water, were covered up and turned into part of the sewer system of the town. Originally, these waterways ran from a nearby lake through the town, bringing water to the backyards of houses.

However, the eventual disappearance of such private gardens generated the progressing covering and thus the decrease in water quality of these canals.

While repaving the streets, the irrigation system was uncovered intermittently across pedestrian pathways, in ways that broke the linearity of the paths so that the flow of water could be felt. Larger sections were opened at certain points to make small pools around which children could play with the water. These moves allow pedestrians to enjoy the historical centre that surrounds this site, while being accompanied by the pleasant presence of water.

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environmental sustainability

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But the most progressive rebuilding plan of all may be blessed on a new interpretation of an old idea: building with respect for nature rather than arrogantly dismissing it.

(Kamin 2010, 8)

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“With the advance of science and technology, man has significantly improved his ability to cope with nature’s might, but at the same time, he has also brought onto himself a new set of problems: global warming, ecological disasters, mutating life forms.”

(McDonald 2003)

Environmental degradation and natural disasters are often closely linked to one another. It is a major factor that can transform a natural hazard or a climatic extreme into a disaster. For example, deforestation, cultivation, and construction on mountains has destabilized already fragile slopes, causing landslides, and when forests and plant cover of hills and high-lying river basins of the valleys are eliminated, their capacity to retain water cease to exist, and floods and other phenomena become intensified. For tsunami events, loss of habitat such as mangroves and coral reefs that provide protection against coastal flooding has increased vulnerability in many coastal areas.

The overuse of natural resources also causes pollution, ultimately leading to global changes in the environment. Buildings put an enormous strain on natural resources; three billion tons of raw material are extracted annually from the earth for their creation, and more than 3 billion cubic feet (85 million cubic meter) of timber are harvested yearly. (Van Breda and Smith 2011) Changes in temperature and rainfall variation due to human-induced climate change, according to recent projections of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is likely to result in more water-related disasters, which happen to be the most damaging.

Global Warming Global warming is occurring more rapidly than would naturally occur due to increased greenhouse gases concentrations in the atmosphere because of irresponsible human activity. Greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone, with the most human induced of these gasses being carbon dioxide, which is emitted naturally through the carbon cycle, but is largely emitted through human activities such as the burning of oil, coal, and gas, and through rapid deforestation. In 2005 global atmospheric concentrations of CO2 were 35% higher than they were before the Industrial revolution in the 1700’s. (Environmental Protection Agency 2011) Such greenhouse gasses absorb thermal radiation and re-radiate it in all directions in the

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U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

BY SECTOR

BUILDING OPERATIONS 43.5% BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS 5.5% TRANSPORTATION - LIGHT DUTY 16.6% TRANSPORTATION - OTHER 11.7% INDUSTRY 22.7%

U.S. CO2 EMISSIONS

BY SECTOR

BUILDINGS 46.9% TRANSPORTATION 33.5% INDUSTRY 19.6%

fig. 44 U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector (data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009) fig. 45 U.S. CO2 Emissions by Sector (data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009)

earth’s atmosphere, causing for an increase in Earth’s surface temperatures, which has various adverse effects associated with it.

One example of an effect of Global Warming and natural disasters is its relationship to hurricane events. It has been observed by the scientific community, that the recent increase in the number and intensity of tropical hurricanes can be attributed to global warming, in particular to the rise in Earth-surface temperatures over the last 150 years. (Giegengack and Foster 2006, 23) A major concern for many coastal communities with global warming is the sea level rise that it is causing, which is estimated to be approximately 3 mm every year.

Not only do buildings and their construction put a strain on resources, they play a large role in the cause of global warming. 46.9% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions in 2009 came from the building industry. (Architecture 2030 2011)

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SUSTAINABLE REBUILDING

Building in Harmony with Nature

For a species that prides itself on knowledge, our wanton destruction of life’s diversity is all the more remarkable because we do it with no idea of the real value, the real meaning of what we are destroying. Ignorance in this instance is not a case of paradisiacal bliss; on the contrary, all the feedback about climate change is telling us we have to change our ways.

To truly change we need new values.

(Weller 2010)

We know that we are making life harder for our future generations, and ourselves, and ruining biodiversity by excessively exploiting our environment as we currently are. However, we have not made strong collective effort to change our habits and have instead chosen to take the easy way out. Our built environments have enabled us to distance ourselves from nature with its lack of integration, facilitating the disengagement of ourselves with the environmental issues that surround us.

We have become more involved with our rapidly evolving electronic gadgets and cease to take the time to enjoy the nature that surrounds us.

“Some kids these days only see fish when it’s already processed and at the supermarket. We’re losing touch with where our culture comes from.”

Masaru Kumagai (Fairclough 2011)

Building with the idea of enabling the community to gain a new appreciation towards the natural environment and the way humans can interact with it is crucial in connecting people back to nature. This can be achieved through the creative utilization of techniques that engage us to the natural environment through our various senses. Designing with local flora and fauna in mind will additionally help a community engage with nature once again and may even aid in preventing future disasters.

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fig. 46 Aluminium Forest: Exterior view fig. 47 Aluminium Forest: Building entrance fig. 48 Aluminium Forest: Longitudinal section (image source: http://www.abbinkdehaas.nl/images/pdf/10_012+Aluminiumbos.pdf)

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Building With Water With the subsidence of land experienced in the low-laying regions along the coast of Rikuzentakata, plans have been made to raise the ground level up to less vulnerable heights. Here, while recognizing the importance of this plan and the reduction of vulnerability it will allow for, one must also consider the environmental impacts that this action could inflict to the area. One can think of new opportunities of engaging with water rather than simply raising the height of land.

Humans have long been attracted to coastal areas as a source of food, water natural resources, and employment. The nature of the waterfront provides a unique realm for development, entailing social, recreational and environmental benefits as well as serving political and economic interests. Many communities have attempted to live against water, putting themselves at risk in case of failure of these systems that they rely so heavily upon. Instead of attempting to entirely prevent water from touching our built environment, architecture in coastal regions must begin to exist in harmony with it. The potential synergy between the built environment and water is an exciting one, and is increasingly important with the rapidly rising sea levels caused by global warming.

Water can be extremely damaging as a hazard, such as in the instance of a tsunami and flood events. However, it is also an element that provides us joy, therapeutic qualities, and life-support. It is an extremely valuable element to us that we cannot exist without. While individuals may be hesitant of approaching it post-disaster, architecture can connect with it in creative ways to show its playfulness and ease people into interacting with it once again. Through making use of the dynamism of shifting water levels in building with water, architecture can also teach people to live and adapt with changes in water levels and be more aware of its nature.

PRECEDENT STUDIES: Aluminum Forest Houten, Utrecht, the Netherlands _ Abbink X de Haas Architectures _ 2002 Conceived as a simple floating box, this 880-square-metre building is partly built on land and partly floats on water with 368 tubular columns ranging from 90 to 210 millimetres in diameter for support. These stilts help to stabilize the volume and maintain the visual relationship between the built structure and the surrounding waterscape when one enters the building from underneath the main structure.

Although this building is built above an artificial lake in Houten, with this stilt system it can be presumed that if located on a coast, this building would be able to largely accommodate for sea level rise, as well as tsunamis up to a certain height.

Additionally, it treads quite lightly on the ground, mitigating its environmental impact on the site.

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fig. 49 National Opera House: Site plan fig. 50 National Opera House: Public stepped terraces around building fig. 51 Kastrup Sea Bath: View from the beach (fig. 49, 50 image source: http://www.archdaily.com/440/oslo-opera-house-snohetta/) (fig. 51 image source: http://www.archdaily.com/2899/kastrup-sea-bath-white-arkitekter-ab/)

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National Opera House Oslo, Norway _ Snøhetta _ 2008 “Rather than building a barrier or hard edge to the sea, the building ramps gently into and up from the water making it possible to actually engage directly with the water.”

-Craig Dykers, Principal of Snøhetta (Ryan 2010) Openness and accessibility were key concepts in this design of the National Opera House and Ballet. This structure rises from the water at an angle and forms a public space that is accessible 24 hours a day. Their intention was to create a direct link between the urban context and the natural condition of the fjord.

“The new opera house promotes an architectural and cultural identity that is both urban and natural. Its main plaza directly connects the sea to the sky via the form of the building. Also because the building is low to the ground it promotes connectivity rather than creating a wall between the city centre and the surrounding city.”

-Craig Dykers, Principal of Snøhetta (Ryan 2010) Kastrup Sea Bath Kastrup, Denmark _ White Architects _ 2005 “My idea was to achieve a sculptural, dynamic form that can be seen from the land, from the sea and from the air. The silhouette changes as the spectator moves around it” -Fredrik Pettersson, project architect (Ryan 2010) The Kastrup Sea Bath is a simple 870-square-metre wooden structure that creates a sheltered platform out on the water for recreational activities. The circular construction of the structure offers shelter whatever the wind direction, and encourages swimming in this area protected from the wind. Housing changing rooms and areas for sunbathing, it provides an assortment of spaces for individuals and groups to relax and congregate while being close and open to the water. It faces the sea in a welcoming manner.

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fig. 52 Emergency Shelter: Shelter on site fig. 53 Emergency Shelter: Panel system

(image source: http://www.designindaba.com/article/good-half-house)

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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN DISASTER RELIEF

Temporality Many temporary housing shelters are made to be just that – temporary. Particularly in developing countries, they often do not include instructions for post-emergency use or disposal, and as a result are abandoned when no longer needed. This is extremely wasteful of resources and energy and is harmful to the environment.

Innovative ideas addressing this issue have recently emerged by designers such as Alejandro Aravena’s firm ELEMENTAL. Emergency Shelter Solution Chile _ ELEMENTAL _ 2010 “Emergency requires fast action. But urgency tends to be wrongly associated with delivering disposable solutions. We proposed to frame the problem of emergency shelters as an advance of the definitive reconstruction so that once emergency is over, shelters can be dismantled and become part of final solutions. Shelters seen as a kind of down payment allow for better quality of temporary units, but also make definitive reconstruction easier, since part of the square meters to be delivered, are already in use by the families.”

-Alejandro Aravena (Aravena and Doi 2011) This idea can be applied to a community centre that serves different uses over different periods of time as well. Through the careful consideration of materials and its reuse, architects can reduce the amount of strain put on the environment in the process of rebuilding in a quickly changing environment.

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fig. 54 Air Tree: in use by public fig. 55 Air Tree: diagram fig. 56 Air Tree: structure

(image source: http://www.archdaily.com/6303/eco-boulevard-in-vallecas-ecosistema-urbano/)

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Ecological Systems Natural disasters not only cause human harm, but put an enormous strain on ecological systems as well. While buildings can be restored within a few months at the fastest, restoring ecological systems can take years or even decades.

For example, in the case of Rikuzentakata, the Takata-Matsubara stood with the purpose of screening rice fields from sand and salt spray, and protecting the community from nature’s effects such as tsunamis. However, all but one of the 70,000 pine trees were wiped away by the tsunami. Replanting of these trees will occur, but they will take decades to reach their original potential.

In an attempt to mitigate the environmental elements that these trees protected the rice fields and city centre from, design can serve as substitutes during this interim period.

Air Trees Vallecas, Madrid, Spain _ ecosistema urbano This project acts in providing an immediate solution to a problem in conjunction with a longer-term solution. Due to conditions filled with large swaths of brick and asphalt disrupted only by a few saplings, the landscape of Vallecas is one of extreme temperatures. In response to this harsh condition, ecosistema urbano proposed a type of “urban prosthetic” that could temporarily act as trees by acting as a grove of real trees would act, alleviating the discomforts of the barren surroundings until the saplings are fully grown, since it would take them fifteen to twenty years via natural growth.

In the form of three cylindrical structures approximately 20 metres in diameter, these “trees” create outdoor microclimates, lower temperatures by as much as 8 – 10 degrees Celsius in hot summer months. They are covered with vegetation on either the inside, outside, or both, and a system of evaporation and condensation takes place providing a form of air conditioning. They additionally carry solar panels, which will generate sufficient energy to meet the power needs of the Air Trees and allow for excess energy generated to be sold back to the grid.

They are open to the public and are capable of accommodating multiple functions.

For example, one of the Air Trees has a large viewing screen with seating and a canopy to protect viewers from the elements while people enjoy their screening.

They invite people to engage with the structure and with each other

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Rebuilding after natural disasters offers an opportunity for a community to build on newer, more sustainable models. Considering buildings’ impact on the environment and its relationships to natural disasters, it is important to design buildings and communities with strong environmental principles such as the optimization of ecofriendly placement of buildings, design techniques, materials, and construction management practices in mind.

There are currently many regulations and assessment tools based on issues regarding architecture and environmental sustainability. These measures have been successful in promoting awareness of architecture and its relationships to the issues of environmental degradation, and have acted as a motivator for many architects.

CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environmental Efficiency), in Japan is one such policy that evaluates and rates the environmental performance of buildings and built environment through the “quality of the built environment”, which evaluates improvement in living amenity for the building users within the hypothetical enclosed space (the private property), and “built environment load”, which evaluates negative aspects of environmental impact which go beyond the hypothetical enclosed space to the outside (the public property). Through the assessment of these, an environmental label using “Built Environment Efficiency (BEE)” is made, ranking the building with a letter grade.

While these evaluation systems are certainly effective in raising the bar for environmentally designed buildings, oftentimes so much focus goes into achieving these that outside factors equally important to design and its relationship to the environment such as cultural preservation and placemaking, get neglected. This in turn allows architecture to disengage further from its community. When designing buildings, architects must follow the most progressive evaluation tools, but also ensure that they think beyond those guidelines to ensure that our communities are socially responsible to their citizenry.

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fig. 57 Kibou no matsu: Tree of Hope (image source: http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/04/135036104/tree-of-hope-stands-as-poignant-symbol-in-japan)

While nature can take away life, it is also nature that gives us incredible hope. In Rikuzentakata the one remaining pine tree out of the 70,000 in Takata-Matsubara has given the immediate community and even others around the world, hope. It is therefore imperative that we live in harmony with nature and protect its invaluable resources.

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04_ SITE & SITE ANALYSIS

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陸前高田市民憲章 昭和60年10月1日 告示第69号

わたくしたちの陸前高田市は、白砂青松 の高田松原をはじめ、海・山・川の資源 に恵まれ、先人ののこした歴史と伝統の あるまちです。 わたくしたちは、陸前高田市を愛し、豊 かな心をもち、広い視野にたって力をあ わせ、より住みよいまちづくりに努める ため、 この憲章を定めます。

1 自然をたいせつにし、美しいまちを つくります。 1 家族の和と、健康に心がけ、明るい まちをつくります。 1 働くことに意欲をもち、活気にみち たまちをつくります。 1 思いやりの心をもち、 うるおいのあ るまちをつくります。

The Charter of Rikuzentakata City October 1, 1985 Notice number 69

Our city Rikuzentakata is picturesque with its white sandy beach with pine forest beginning with Takata-Matsubara, is blessed with the elements of ocean, mountains, and rivers, and is rich with history and tradition of our predecessors.

We will love the city Rikuzentakata, have open minds, combine forces over broad outlooks, and will establish this charter to make our city an even more livable one.

1 教養を深め、文化の高いまちをつく ります。 We will value nature and create a beautiful city.

We will aim for harmonious families and good health to create a cheerful city.

We will have motivation for work and create a city full of vigour.

We will have caring hearts and create a city full of richness.

We will further educate ourselves and create a city with high culture.

110

fig. 58 Rikuzentakata’s City Flower: Tsubaki fig. 59 Rikuzentakata’s City Bird: Seagull fig. 60 Rikuzentakata’s City Tree: Cedar

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TOP THREE FACILITIES USED IN DAILY LIFE PRIOR TO DISASTER

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06

OCCUPATION 01.

02.

03.

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08.

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agriculture forestry fishery mining construction manufacturing public utility services information-communication transportation services whole sale

11.

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finance / insurance real estate food and hospitality healthcare / welfare education compounded services? other services governmental (other than listed above) miscellaneous

survey total: 11,616 people

fig. 61 Graphs: Rikuzentakata prior to the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/)

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other

post offices, banks

businesses (super markets, conveninet stores, restaurants, etc.) tourist facilities (road station, etc.)

cultural facilitiles (city assembly hall, museum, etc.)

community centre

home nursing 10

08

sports facilities (baseball field, pool, gym, etc.)

0 07 09

city hall

hospitals / clinics

other

no answer

JR Ofunato Line

bus

rapid bus

car (driven by self) 03

car (driven by others)

bicycle 01

motor bike

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TOP THREE MODES OF TRANSPORTATION USED IN DAILY LIFE PRIOR TO DISASTER

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HISTORY

The History of Rikuzentakata is recorded up to the early Heian Period (794-1185).

Rikuzentakata also houses one of the few gold mountains in Japan, Tamayamakinzan, which has been mined since the Nara Period (710-794). It is told that the gold mined from this mountain was even used on the famous Big Buddha (Daibutsu) at Todaiji-Temple in Nara.

Imaizumi highway, which connects Imaizumi and Ichinoseki, and Kesen highway, which connects Kamaishi and Sendai, were both developed early on in the history of Rikuzentakata, and intersected at the centre of the city. The city centre area thus developed as a posting station, and grew by gathering resources such as marine products. It is recorded that many of the old city’s signs and shops (Machiya) remained before the tsunami hit, and the historic prosperity of the town could be observed through them.

“The city has countless amounts of things that they must do, but the preservation of history and culture is mentally and psychologically vital.”

– Michiko Sato (The Wall Street Journal 2011)

fig. 62 View of Kesen River: before (image source: http://www.miraikioku.com/)

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MISSING

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DEGREE OF DAMAGE ON BUILDINGS

CURRENT ADDRESS completely destroyed largely destroyed moderately destroyed partially damaged undamaged no answer

fig. 63 Graphs: Effects of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami on Rikuzentakata (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/)

same as before emergency temporary home other within the city outside of the city no answer

handed out collected collected people in emergency temporary homes: 2,184 114 83.7% others: 1,658 879 total: 3,842 2,707

percenta 1,828

58 73.3%

ON FUTURE LIVING ARRANGEMENTS

CURRENT ADDRESS

house owned house (mixed use) rental house apartment public housing apartment undecided other no answer

same as before emergency temporary home other within the city outside of the city no answer

THOUGHTS ON REBUILDING

ON LOCATION

will rebuild new/ renovate/ repair on own 20.2% would like to rebuild new/ renovate/ repair on own 33.5% rent or live in an apartment building 15.7% move in with relatives 10.4% undecided 11.5% other 1.2% no answer 7.5%

same as before 14.3% on higher ground in the same city 53.0% outside of the city 34.0% undecided 17.4% other 1.0% no answer 10.3%

no risk of tsunami inundation escape routes and paths are organized easily able to evacuate to higher ground maintain neighbourhood connections from prior to

tsunami

close / easy to go to place of work tsunami inundation only below floor other 0

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CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HOME / PLACE OF RESIDENCE

fig. 64 Graphs: Considerations for construction of new home / place of residence (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/)

collected

percentage

2,184

1,828

8

879 2,707

58.2% 73.3%

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retail

hospitality

public facilities

medical facilities

parks and agriculture

fig. 65 Map of Rikuzentakata City: Before the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami event

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fig. 66 Rikuzentakata mapping: grids fig. 67 Rikuzentakata mapping: central commercial activity area fig. 68 Rikuzentakata mapping: central recreational activity area

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fig. 69 Rikuzentakata mapping: tsunami inundation area fig. 70 Rikuzentakata mapping: proposed sakura planting around tsunami inundation line fig. 71 Rikuzentakata mapping: buildings with structure mostly remianing

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fig. 72 Map of Rikuzentakata City: Buildings partially intact after 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami event

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fig. 73 Map of Rikuzentakata City: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami Event tsunami inundation

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fig. 74 Map of Rikuzentakata City: Before 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami event

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CREATING A BEAUTIFUL CITY THAT WE CAN BE PROUD OF

CREATING A CITY THAT NURTURES PEOPLE AND PROTECTS LIVES AND CONNECTIONS

CREATING A CITY FULL OF VITALITY

building a disaster resilient and safe city

building a city full of vitality

building a comfortable and charming city

building a sustainable city

building a city whose citizens are able to have a stable lifestyle

building the city together with the cooperation and work of its citizens

DESIGINING A NEW SEASIDE CITY IN SYMBIOSIS WITH THE OCEAN, GREENERY, AND SUN fig. 75 Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Main Proposal (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/) Rikuzentakata’s main goals for rebuilding

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THE CITY’S PLANS FOR THE FUTURE

The city has identified three main ideas for it rebirth, which are to build: a beautiful city that they can boast to the world, a city full of vitality, and a city that fosters people and protects lives and relationships. Under these categories they aim to create a city that: holds strong against natural disasters, is comfortable and charming, provides a stable life to its inhabitants, is full of vitality, is environmentally sustainable, and will cooperatively build towards common goals. Through these, they aspire to create a new coastal city that lives in symbiosis with the ocean, greenery, and sun.

In accordance to this, Rikuzentakata has set out preliminary plans for rebuilding into a number of zones (fig. 80): Disaster Prevention Memorial Park Zone (Takata-Matsubara area) Since Takata-Matsubara is in many ways seen as a symbol of Rikuzentakata, this zone will become a disaster prevention memorial park. It will be a park that commemorates the lives lost and where memories of the event will be passed down to future generations.

History and Culture Zone (Imaizumi area) This area once flourished as one of the centres of the Kesen district and has a long history. Therefore, it will become a history and culture zone.

Health and Education Forest Zone (Hyojyo-Sanroku area) A prefectural high school, a health centre, a hospital and an athletic cultural centre will be built in this area, and housing will be built in the surrounding areas. This area will be called the health and education forest zone.

Solar Power Generation Zone (Takata-Oki area) Renewable energy sources such as solar energy will be placed in this zone.

Environmentally sustainable city building will be introduced here, which will also act as an independent emergency energy supply in the event of a disaster.

Horticultural Zone (Hamadagawa area) Agricultural production will be proposed in this zone to boost the economy of the city.

Regeneration of Reclaimed Tideland Zone (Otomoura area) Area for reclaimed tideland. Athletic fields and parks will be in this zone.

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While these city plans are and certainly thinking in the right direction, each zone is currently highly segmented from one another. The creation of separate zones for residential and commercial is understandable considering the probability of future tsunamis. However, what occurs on the edges of these zones? How can there be more spaces for community interaction within each of these zones?

On a larger scale, Rikuzentakata is part of a large district called Kesen, which consists of the cities of Rikuzentakata, Ofunato, and the town of Sumita. This district has also set up a planning scheme, which focuses on “Creating a city that promotes new human centred values focusing on the environment and rapidly aging population�. While still in its initial stages, this plan addresses problems related to environmental issues, rapidly aging communities, and the promotion of other industries. This thesis project works with these plans to be in accordance with their goals to aid my project in being relevant to the city.

HOUSING

COMMERCIAL & ACTIVITY CENTRES (NO HOUSING)

TSUNAMI INUNDATION AREA: NO HOUSING ZONE

fig. 76 Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Proposed housing zone (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/)

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road station etc.

municipal sports centre heated water pool

BUSINESS AREAS (INCLUDING HOUSING)

PUBLIC FACILITIES HOUSING

sports park

ROAD-SIDE FACILITIES

PUBLIC DISASTER HOUSING

Rikuzentakata sanitation centre

INDUSTRIAL ZONE

PARK FACILITIES

yoshikawa swamp (restored)

national highway route 45

pine forest (disaster mitigating)

Takata-matsubara Disaster Memorial Park

soil pile behind seawall

1st seawall line (coastal protection facility T.P.+12.5m)

0

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daytime uses

night time uses

summertime uses

wintertime uses

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fig. 77 (above) Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Zones (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/) fig. 78 (below) Rikuzentakata City Reconstruction Plan: Projected temporal uses (reference source: http://www.city.rikuzentakata.iwate.jp/)

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TAKEKOMA

NARUISHI-DANCHI

YONESAKI/ KOTOMO

TEMPORARY HOMES

CURRENT TEMPORARY TOWN CENTRES

fig. 79 Rikuzentakata City: Projected city growth

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GRADUALLY MOVIN MAIN COMMERCIA

SAKI/ MO

PORARY ES

NTRES

GRADUALLY MOVING TO THE MAIN COMMERCIAL CENTRE

A NEW VIBRANT CITY

Many of the residents are currently living in temporary homes scattered throughout the city. While there exist three temporary town centres located nearby these areas, people are not housed together with their neighbours and are unable to interact with friends and family with ease. Although the main inundated areas are unsafe to live in, it is projected that the three temporary towns will eventually move back to the main commercial centre in the inundation zone in accordance to city plans. From here, a new vibrant city will arise under the guidelines of the city’s new zoning plans.

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fig. 80 Rikuzentakata City’s Disaster Prevention Park: Site plan with section cut line (not to scale)

SEA

FLAT LAND

fig. 81 Rikuzentakata City: Section cut through city with proposed seawall (not to scale)

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DISASTER PREVENTION PARK

This thesis project situates itself within the disaster prevention park zone. This expands on the original Takata-Matsubara park. The black pine trees that existed along the coast will be re-planted in accordance to city plans, acting as natural mitigative barriers against future tsunamis. Additionally, due to its location on the shoreline, this park includes a proposed 12.5 meter seawall proposed for the city through its site.

While the construction of this massive piece of infrastructure may be highly contested for its intrusiveness against natural ecologies and obstruction of views, it can certainly be argued for in Rikuzentakata, where a large stretch of flat land usable for activities such as agriculture and industry exists between the mountains and the sea, from which many of its residents obtain their livelihoods.

TYPICAL 50 YEAR TSUNAMI HEIGHT 5m

12500

3.11 TSUNAMI HEIGHT 14-15m

fig. 82 Typical seawall: Cross section

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05_ DESIGN THESIS

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Happiness is a by-product of numerous human emotions triggered by the convergence of many things: a sense of security and belonging, an association of pleasant memories, a connection to the past and to the place, a ‘positive’ (of course, relative and subjective) aesthetic where one feels uplifted, a sense of possibility and openness, and an impression of choice.

(Schwartz 2008)

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OBJECTIVE

The ultimate goal of this design thesis is to explore ways in which architecture can bring back hope and happiness to the city through promoting the regeneration of a vibrant city that: increases preparedness; enhances capability; memorializes the natural disaster event; re-establishes and promotes local culture; and improves the city’s environmental sustainability to culturally and economically nurture the city.

This idea is explored through the planning of the Disaster Prevention Park, followed by a focus on one particular building that can act as a prototype for the construction of other structures along the site and beyond.

This project aims to create spaces that enable people to feel safe and to foster new friendships and relationships between people of all ages.

What does it mean to be safe? Safety, I have learned, is not only anchored in better technologies or better buildings. Safety lies somewhere beyond shelter, in the freedom of being secure enough to relax, play, aspire, and dream for generations.�

-Marie Aquilino (Aquilino, Beyond Shelter: Architecture and Human Dignity 2011)

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site concept

Proposed on this site of the planned Disaster Prevention Park is a new interactive experience.

Working with the 12.5 meter high seawall proposed by the city, this project softens the massive seawall edge, and is intended to be built in the early stages of reconstruction at the same time frame as the wall. The main pathway runs along the seawall and loops back through the black pine forest, giving an array of views of the city and its surroundings, while architecture interacts with this infrastructure and breaks up this 2 km stretch of seawall.

This site is intended to be used by the community and tourists alike. Walking along the paths one will be able to learn about the culture and natural ecologies native to the city of Rikuzentakata, while remembering and learning about the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami event.

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Sustaining and Promoting Culture and Memory

I believe that a sense of connection to one another is fundamental to happiness. Even if that connection is a painful one and therefore not ‘happy’, we value the feeling that we are not alone. The sense of community is fundamental to our mental health, and, ultimately, if one does feel connected to family, to community and to a wider world, the propensity for happiness is better enabled.

(Schwartz 2008, 135)

Along the seawall, a number of different programs can be proposed in various buildings, such as archival space to showcase cultural artefacts, workshop, classrooms and larger event performance space all aiding in sustaining and promoting culture and memory. Additionally, these spaces could change in function with time. For example, during the initial stages of reconstruction, certain spaces could be dedicated to the cleaning, storage, and showing of items lost in the tsunami event, while these spaces could transform in the later stages to become a museum in which unclaimed objects can be showcased.

Promoting Local Economy

With food, comes many elements associated with joy. Having control over choice and good food leads to happiness. Furthermore, the act of eating is a communal activity that leads to interaction, promoting cultural vibrancy.

Food contributes around one quarter of our ecological footprint. It can therefore be a significant factor in the development of sustainable communities. As planners, architects or developers, we can consider how to facilitate more healthy and sustainable diets. On a regional scale, we have the opportunity to re-invent the relationship between urban areas and their rural hinterland to increase the availability of local, organic and seasonal food – so called “bioregionalism”.

(Desai and Blake 2008)

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With the abundance of local agriculture in this area, a centre where residents can drop off home-grown food to sell or trade, would stimulate local economy through agriculture. A restaurant and café located along the seawall path will act as a facility to feature local food as well as promote social interaction.

Local culture could also be promoted through woodshop, studio and exhibition spaces for artist and craftsmen in the city. Here, visitors would be able to observe the talents of the city’s inhabitants which could promote apprenticeship programs, which may encourage new residents and enhance local economy.

Environmental Sustainability

Fortunately, science is now telling us that what makes us happy can also promote sustainability – indeed happiness can be a strategy for us to achieve sustainability. It might even be that promoting happiness will turn out to be the most important strategy to achieve sustainability – perhaps even more far-reaching than the calls to reduce carbon emissions.

(Desai and Blake 2008)

Each building located on this site will use passive design principles to reduce its impact on the environment, and will be designed to have minimal impact on its site. The buildings will become catalysts for sustainable building and will encourage users to become aware of their natural surroundings, which in turn will encourage their sense of belonging.

Because the construction of the seawall will have an enormous negative impact on the natural ecologies of the site, strategies to promote the restoration of these ecologies will be implemented throughout the site in various ways.

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fig. 83 Site diagram: Natural ecologies

CULTURE NATURE

MEMORIAL ZONE

fig. 84 Site diagram: Proposed zoning on site

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fig. 85 Site diagram: Building orientation towards landscape

fig. 86 Site diagram: Building on remaining land

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In accordance to the site diagrams, a series of buildings are placed along the seawall in the following configuration. The program for these buildings (listed on fig. 90) are proposed to relate to each other and to break up the long seawall structure, but are merely suggestions on the different type of spaces that could exist along this site.

Different ways in which the buildings could interact with the seawall are explored in figures 90 and 91, where it is important to note that the buildings will not compromise the structural integrity of the seawall and will not subtract or puncture through the wall, but will instead attach to or hover over it in various ways. fig. 87 Site Plan: 1:10,000

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LOOKOUT TOWER MULTIFUNCTIONAL COMMUNITY BUILDING RIKUZENTAKATA INFORMATION CENTRE WORKSHOP SPACE AND CULTURAL CENTRE RESTAURANT YOUTH HOSTEL COMMUNITY MARKET ATHLETIC CENTRE AQUARIUM

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fig. 88 Possible building-seawall sectional interactions (drawing not to scale)

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fig. 89 Possible building-seawall interactions

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fig. 90 Rikuzentakata Youth Hostel remains & Tree of Hope (image reference source: http://kobayashi05.blog.shinobi.jp/Entry/33/)

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building concept

The new experience of the seawall begins with a building situated close to the western end of the Disaster Prevention Park site. With paths leading from the major road and parking areas, one is led to walk through this building to arrive at the seawall path.

This building is located in the proposed “memorial zone” within the site. This zone is proposed as such because of the location of the 3 large artefacts that the city is proposing to keep untouched: the remains of the street station - TAPIC 45, located closer to the major road; the lone pine tree - the“Tree of Hope,” that has served as a symbol of hope throughout Japan after the tsunami event; and the remains of the youth hostel located nearby this tree.

The proposed building acts as a place for people to gather, learn, pass down cultural values, share thoughts and memories, and celebrate life. Although the city is proposing to fill up the land that subsided throughout the park, in this zone this project proposes to leave the land as is, memorializing the effects that the event had on the geographic form, and also connecting and making people aware of the water surrounding them as they walk towards the building.

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fig. 91 Site plan: Building location

fig. 92 Perspective: Aerial view

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01 fig. 93 Roof Plan: 1:2000

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fig. 94 Building diagram: Access to building

fig. 95 Building diagram: Pathways through building

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BUILDING DIAGRAMS

ACCESS TO BUILDING: Two access bridges to the building are provided: The access to the east, approaches the building along a path that passes the remains of TAPIC 45 located near the major street. It then takes one across the water and through the first floor of the building, which frames the view of the tree and the youth hostel.

The other access takes one from the city side of the park, passes by the tree and the youth hostel, and allows one to continue directly onto the ramp up to the seawall, or head straight to entrance of the community oriented space located on the first floor.

Along both access routes exist benches and steps down to the water, inviting people to walk along the pathway at leisure.

PATHWAYS THROUGH BUILDING: An experiential ramp leads one up to the seawall level from the city-side of the wall.

This ramp changes direction at the halfway elevation and allows users to see the city, the mountains, and eventually the ocean on the other side of the seawall, as they slowly approach the seawall height.

From the ocean side of the seawall exists a pathway that allows one to have a quick and direct route up the evacuation tower located in the building in case of an emergency where one is not able to escape to higher ground on the mountains in time.

These access routes and pathways are finished with wood decking, in contrast to the other spaces, to encourage flow along the path.

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fig. 96 Building diagram: Remembering

fig. 97 Building diagram: Multipurpose public spaces

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REMEMBERING: The roof canopy set at the height of 2011 tsunami (15 m) reminds people that the actual height of the tsunami exceeds the height of this new seawall and that it cannot be solely relied upon. This canopy is made with salvaged wood from the tsunami event and is constructed as a light screen that does not protect from weather as to remind people of the event but not be an oppressive space and show how architecture can relate to nature. At one end, this roof canopy is supported by a screen made with the same material, acting as a screen that images can be projected on, and connecting the roof down to the water.

On the mid-level of the building is a memorial space where artefacts such as significant debris and photographs will be displayed. This is also at the turning point of the ramp, and visually reminds people of the tsunami event while passing through the unenclosed pathway space to continue up the ramp. At this point, those interested in learning more about the event are welcomed to enter this memorial space.

MULTIPURPOSE PUBLIC SPACES: A large outdoor space just above sea level become usable as a large performance space at low tide. Plenty of seating is available at a variety of levels: on stairs leading to stage, on the ramps, and from on the seawall allowing for use during large events.

An encloseable performance space is located on the mid-level, allowing for more private activities. When not in use, this space can act as a means for quick access to the seawall level.

At the seawall level, an additional space is made available for people to utilize spontaneously. The stairs leading up to the emergency evacuation tower acts as seating, allowing users to sit and view people walking along the seawall and with its orientation towards the ocean, allows users to see the ocean past the pine trees.

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fig. 98 Perspective: On pathway to building

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UNFOLDED PLAN This drawing portrays the experience of walking along the pathway, through the building, and up to the seawall.

Rings indicate where the plan has been unfolded along the path.

fig. 199 Unfolded Plan: 1:500

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fig. 100 North Elevation: 1:500

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fig. 101 Plan at 3 m: 1:1000

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fig. 102 Perspective: Approaching building from east entrance

From the main pathway to the structure on the east, one enters the structure following the pathway across the water. Continuing along the path through the building, one sees the youth hostel and Tree of Hope straight ahead, framed by the structure through the large screen extending from the roof. Along this entry passage, one can catch glimpses of community activity in the community oriented space, through the wooden screen that extends out of the structure to the right.

Most of this community oriented space is left open in plan, to allow for a variety of activities, with an area dedicated for tatami mats that can be partitioned off for people to use freely if more privacy is needed. This space is intended for use by people of all ages.

This first level of the structure is 3 meters above sea level, in consideration of sea level rise, and in allowing for safety in the case of a small tsunami event.

Passing through the structure, one enters a large outdoor multipurpose space that can be utilized for performances. When in use as a performance space, this location allows the ramps and seawall to act as seating for spectators, allowing for a large number of people to spectate. The structure also steps down, where there is a stage space just above sea level. This allows for a dynamic relationship between the rise of tides and the users, creating a space only available for use at low tide.

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fig. 103 Plan at 7.5 m: 1:1000

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fig. 104 Perspective: Approaching building from the pathway to the west

One begins the path up to the seawall level at this point. The slopes are accessible by wheel chair, allowing people of all ages to experience this path. Additionally its broad width allows for it to be used as a bike path.

Above, the roof canopy reminds one of the height of the tsunami in the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami event.

At the end of the first ramp, one approaches the mid-level. Here there is second performance space, where one can walk through to reach the seawall level when not in use as well as an enclosed space where artefacts and photos are openly displayed. One can chose to enter the enclosed portion of this level, or simply continue up the path without entering this space, while seeing these artefacts as they change directions.

In the enclosed portion of this level, there is a small more private gallery space, connections to the community oriented level below, and seating and circulation to the cafe above.

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fig. 105 Plan at 12 m: 1:1000

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fig. 106 Perspective: Under roof canopy on seawall, looking down at the mid-level memorial space

Continuing up the ramp, one again sees the Tree of Hope and youth hostel, this time from a higher level. One also sees the large screen extending down from the roof where images may be projected onto at times. Reaching the end of the ramp, one is at the top of the seawall where one is rewarded with a full view of the ocean and pine trees on the south side of the seawall.

Turning around and continuing along the seawall, the roof canopy is seen to be much higher than the seawall, reminding one that this massive wall will not necessarily protect from a large tsunami event.

Walking under the canopy again, Activity on the level below can be seen (fig. 108).

On this level a cafe is located as well as an access staircase down to the ground on the ocean side.

Ahead, other buildings interacting with the seawall can be seen, and one is encouraged to continue walking along the seawall, experiencing different views of the city, and passing through other structures that orient them to the culture and different activities of the city.

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fig. 107 Plan at 16.5 m: 1:1000

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fig. 108 Perspective: Under roof canopy at seawall level from cafe

One can also continue up the “evacuation stairs� which are a continuation of the staircase from the ocean-side of the seawall so that one can easily reach the emergency evacuation tower located in this structure in the case of an emergency.

These stairs can also act as seating allowing the large open space in front of it to act again as performance space, or for one to sit and enjoy the view towards the ocean.

The stairs merge with the core staircase located in the building to higher ground in case one does not escape to higher ground away from the sea in time.

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fig. 109 Perspective: Approach to building through the pine forest from the sea-side

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fig. 110 Perspective: Approaching the building from the west on the seawall

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fig. 111 Site Model: 1:500

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fig. 112 Section Model: 1:200

fig. 113 Section Model: 1:200

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READING ROOM AUTHORIZATION

In presenting this report in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the advanced degree in the Architecture Program at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Architecture Reading Room shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this report for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Chair of Architecture or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.

Name of Author: Yuko Angel Okamura Date:

May 7, 2012

Signature:

.........................................................

Title of Report: Resilient Landscape: Rebuilding community through culture and sustainability Degree: Master of Architecture Program: Architecture Year of Graduation Ceremony: 2012