European Union Topic Guide

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LETTER FROM THE DAIS Dear Delegates, Dear Delegates, Hey y’all!

I’m Kate could not be more leadEmily, the European Hello everyone!

Myand name is Wendy and I,excited along to with am yourUnion seniorCommittee staffer alongside39’s Emma.

I am a junior in Status Calhoun from I am YMUN Commission on the of College, Women.originally Currently, I’mWashington, a sophomoreD.C. at Yale, majoring in and plan focus on adaptations of Shakespearean in relation majoring in English Psychology withto a Neuroscience track with plans to go todrama graduate school. to their performance mediums. When not camping out at the library, I’m working on plays Outside the classroom YMUN, I am in also part of Yale’s Mock team, atomentor in producedofthrough the Yaleand Drama Coalition capacities ranging fromTrial dramaturg WYSE (Women and Youth Other), a mentoring group local middle producer.

Additionally, I am Supporting a copy editorEach for the Yale Daily News and also for enjoy school girls, and I am running a non-profit, Codi’s Hats. fields. representing the Calhoun blue and yellow on the intramural

With the ever-evolving policies on reproductive health rights and women’s rights, I’m exThe focus on the continuation of the European Union is the perfect discussion topic for this cited to see the different stances and cultural clashes that the topics may bring out. I look year’s committee. It comes at time when global attention has shifted from the financial forward to seeing how you all respond in the committee. See you soon! meltdown itself to determining whether this union is a viable entity for both the economical and political future. I can’t wait for the conference to start so we -community’s Wendy Cai, Yale ‘15 can begin working through your solutions.

Hi guys! I’m Emily, and I will also be working as one of the directors for CSW. A NorthHi guys—my is Emma and, along with Kate,atI will this committee for in ern Californianame native, I’m currently a sophomore Yalebe in leading Branford College, majoring Economics possibleadouble major in EastCollege, Asian Studies.

AfterBrooklyn, graduation, I hope YMUN XL.with I am acurrently junior in Trumbull hailing from New York. to livepursuing and work in China for several before pursuing graduatefordegree, possibly in I am a major in history, withyears a focus on Europe.

As asecretary the College business or law.

Democrats of Connecticut, I help unite college chapters of democrats across the state.

Additionally, I volunteer for New Haven Reads, helping young kids learn how to read and When going todesigner classes or for YMUN, work asnot a costume onpreparing student directed plays. I also serve as a mentor in ReadySetLaunch, an organization providing college counseling services to low-income students, participate in Danceworks, a dance group at Yale, and I serve on the alumni fundraising I could not be happier to be staffing the EU Committee this year. It has never been more board for my high school. I also enjoy cooking, baking, and playing softball. important to be cognizant of the physical borders that divide nations and their current state they aretoin,hear which has led to a both antopics economic and social crisisfor across the European Ithat can’t wait your thoughts on the we have prepared committee this year.

Union.

I am confident that each and every one of you will bring the skills needed to makes Women’s rights remain a hotly debated topic globally, and I know you all are going to this a successful committee. come up with informed, innovative solutions to these pressing problems. Please don’t hesitate to email either Wendy or me with any questions or concerns.

All the best, -Kate Emily Harris, Yale ‘15 Pincus (katharine.pincus@yale.edu) Emma Janger (emma.janger@yale.edu) All the best, Wendy Cai (wendy.cai@yale.edu) Emily Harris (emily.harris@yale.edu)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS History of the Committee Status of the Euro Topic History Current Situation Bloc Positions Questions to Consider Cross-border Migration and Human Trafficking Topic History Bloc Positions Role of the Committee Structure of the Committee Suggestions for Further Research "##$%#$&'! ! ! ! ! !

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5 6 11 18 19 20 38 40 41 43 ((!

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History of the Committee !

A history of the formation of the European Union must begin with the devastation brought on by the World War II. For the second time in as many generations, the world was ransacked by global powers and many European countries were left wondering if they would continue on this path of destruction. To this end, the leaders of Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Netherlands came together in 1951 to establish the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).i The hope was to equalize these cosigning states’ access to coal and steel, the materials predominantly required for industrial use.ii This agreement began a partnership between these nations on the premise of economical stability and equality that was furthered by the Treaty of Rome in 1957.iii With this treaty, the same six nations established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community.iv The aim of the EEC was to further the economic stability created by the ECSC by removing trade barriers between member states, thus forming a single economic market.v In 1973 the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland joined the European Communities, followed by Greece in 1981 and Portugal and Spain in 1986.vi The next step in bringing together these countries was the ratification of the Single European Act (SEA) in 1987.vii In addition to further combining the economic policies of member states, this act was the first step in creating a “single market.”viii While these countries began to create a cohesive and forceful European Parliament to reflect this legally established community, it was not until the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that they were truly successful.ix In effect amending the Treaty of Rome, this agreement streamlined economic, security, immigration, and

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law enforcement policies of the constituent states.x This cohesion not only strengthened the European Parliament, but it also implemented European citizenship and gave way to the possibility of a unifying currency.xi The treaty required member states to meet criteria in order to take up the currency, including budget deficits under 3% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), public debt under 60% of GDP, and inflation rates relative to those of the lowest inflation rates in the EU.xii These stringent measures were meant to ensure that the currency would not be affected by risky economies and thus remain stable. These precautions were a reminder of the perilous state of many economies after World War II and the desire to avoid the mutually assured economic destruction that that war had brought with it.

The solidification of the European community through the creation of a governing body and single currency brought with it an influx of new states. In 1995, Sweden, Austria, and Finland joined the EU and the Treaty of Amsterdam followed their entrances in 1997, with an expanded legislative agenda of the EU to enforce human rights and promote employment opportunities across the community.xiii The Treaty of Nice, in 2001, put in safeguards for the expected entrance of nations from Eastern Europe, ensuring that this influx would not overrule the original countries.xiv In 2004, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the EU and Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007.xv The most recent admittance is Croatia as the 28th member of the EU in 2013.

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Status of the Euro Topic History !

An understanding of the euro’s current place within the European Union is only possible when the formation of the union and subsequent introduction of the currency is taken into account.

Although it would take until the 1990s for an official union to form, the idea was in place as early as the middle of the 19th century. Victor Hugo, famed author of “Les Miserables” and “The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,” gave a speech in1851 calling for the unification of Europe: [Nations of Europe] will be conscious of a common thought, common interests, and a common destiny. You will clasp each other’s hands and you will acknowledge that you are sons of the same blood and the same race. A day will come when we shall see the two immense groups, the United States of America, and the United States of Europe, stretching out their hands across the sea…and joining together to reap the wellbeing of all.xvi

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At the time, this idea was ridiculed and written off as the ramblings of an eccentric writer.

World War II, however, would push the need for a unified continent to the forefront of many European minds.

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The end of WWII brought about the need for considering a serious approach to unifying Europe. The grand scale devastation that this war had wrought forced European counties to consider the benefits that unification would create. A united Europe would not only ensure economic stability, but would also create a lasting peace that seemed intangible while the ruin from the war was fresh.

Germany and France, the two greatest advocates for a unified Europe, supported the idea for very different reasons. Germany wanted to edge away from its recent oppressive role in an attempt to become known as a peacemaker and unifier instead of a destroyer. France saw Germany’s desire as lucrative because a “United States of Europe” would finally be able to take on the staunch superpower of the United States of America.xvii Additionally, France found the confederation acceptable only if they were able to maintain their national identity, something that Germany found as a hindrance to real unification.

The difficulty in truly uniting Europe would be that such unification required a unified currency, which frightened Germany—the hyperinflation of the mark in the 1920s was fresh in many minds.xviii The end of WWI came with the Treaty of Versailles and, with it, huge debts that Germany needed to repay. In order to keep up with payments to the rest of the world, Germany tried to buy foreign currency with the German mark by printing vast unfunded amounts, which resulted in devaluing the mark.xix Inflation connotes an increase in the cost of living, which means that a set amount of money will not buy as much today as it did yesterday.

This occurs because a government prints more money than it is actually able to cover and, as a

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result, that money is worth less. If you have $100 in your economy with 100 one-dollar bills in existence, each bill is worth $1. However, if you then print 100 more one-dollar bills, each dollar bill is worth half as much as it was previously.

This type of devaluing was prevalent in Germany after WWI when, on November 1, 1923, one pound of meat cost 36 billion marks and a glass of beer cost 4 billion marks.xx In order to buy the makings of a meal, Germans had to cart around enough paper money to fill a wheelbarrow.

Germany saw an overarching government that could control the amount of currency printed as the only way to keep inflation under control, effectively abolishing the sovereignty of individual nations.xxi The French, however, saw this monetary control as a form of utilitarianism and could not abide the loss of their national identity for the sake of a unified Europe.xxii Thus the countries entered a stalemate as how to proceed.

The Treaty of Paris (1951) established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in an effort to create a common market between its signees: France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands.xxiii This would allow steel and coal to be monitored by an

European Union 8 authority higher than individual nations. The treaty’s signees gave up their autonomy of regulation in order to break down economic barriers in the hopes of increasing trade. The Treaty of Rome furthered this with the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957.xxiv The EEC expanded the services and goods governed by the ECSC, and the creation of this common market lifted trade barriers between fellow EEC countries and created universal policies of agriculture and trade.xxv The success of the EEC brought Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom aboard as new members.xxvi The growth of the EEC highlighted the need for a universal economy, which would ultimately lead to the creation of the euro. The implementation of the European Monetary System (EMS) in 1979 was an attempt to monitor exchange rates and create economic sanctions.xxvii This increased enforcement became especially important when the total membership grew to 12 countries with the additions of Greece, Spain, and Portugal.

The greater acceptance towards the unification of Europe gave the EEC more power worldwide. However, the global recession of the 1980s brought the idea of a single currency to the forefront of discussion. Strong proponents for a single monetary system included Jacques Delors, President of the European Commission in 1985.

Delors argued that incorporation of a single

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currency would lead to complete integration throughout Europe and therefore a more stable economy. This became actualized with the Single European Act and the creation of the Central European Bank in an attempt to unify monetary policies with the creation of a single currency.xxviii The decision to move forward with one currency was enhanced with the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992, which created a strict calendar for the incorporation of a single currency throughout the constituent countries.xxix The European Economic Community was renamed the European Community and ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of the European Union after its formation.xxx Currently the EC focuses on the implementation of the Treaty of Rome, while the EU moderates the constituent countries.xxxi The euro was introduced as a currency in 1999 but not adopted until 2002.xxxii The unveiling of the euro on January 1, 2002 was met with extreme excitement from the continent but seemed to go unnoticed in America.xxxiii The constituent countries engaged in this currency comprise what is known as the Eurozone. Interest rates plummeted overnight because with a single strong economy, lending money to the people of supplementary economies did not constitute a financial risk. International lenders measure interest rates by a number of factors, including the rate of inflation, and since

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the Eurozone was designed to have incredibly low inflation, lending money in these markets was not considered risky. Interest rates decreased and loans became extremely easy to obtain, regardless of an individual’s financial portfolio. The stability of the euro covered past individual and national financial indiscretions.

Governments took part in these record low interest rates as well. Countries throughout the Eurozone began projects that would have previously gone unfunded because of their low priority but were now backed because of the security of the euro.xxxiv These economies had already been vetted prior to their entry into the Eurozone and thus were thought to have the seal approval from their fellow countries. This essentially cheap money allowed countries that had been in poor financial straits previously to inject money into areas that had never had the benefit of solely funded government projects.

However, the governments began to borrow more than was necessary and fritter money away on projects that were not just low priority, but pointless: [You] will know la Mancha as the area where Don Quixote lived. And it’s as empty as it was in the time of Don Quixote. It’s a big plain.

Imagine it as completely empty. And in the middle of that plane there is an airport, to which nobody wants to fly…And yet, there is an airport. The local people wanted one, and the euro gave it to them.xxxv

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Governments often take on loans from outside lenders in order to reinvest in areas that will generate more revenue for their countries, such as infrastructure and tourism.xxxvi However, when governments begin to invest in projects that will not pay back dividends, then they have to rely on the money to pay back the loans from elsewhere, which these countries did not have Not all members of the European Union chose to incorporate the euro, however. Most famous among these countries is the United Kingdom, where debate raged over whether to adopt the currency. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was incredibly outspoken against renouncing the pound, but it was not until Black Wednesday that public opinion began to back her position.xxxvii On September 16, 1992 the value of the pound plummeted and Britain was forced to withdraw from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM).xxxviii The UK, under Prime Minister John Major, had attempted to steady the value of the pound, along with other currencies, by tying to the German mark. The ERM allowed for low interest but caused high inflation for the UK and therefore the events of Black Wednesday were unavoidable when the pound essentially became

European Union 10 worthless and was sold off by speculators as fast as possible.xxxix In an effort to stabilize the value of their currency, which was what the ERM was meant to do in the first place, the UK withdrew from the ERM and attempted to regroup. Naturally, this disaster made the country cautious about ever joining a monetary system that fully tied them to other economies—they had been shunted into a recession by merely tying their currency to the currencies of others and so anything deeper might prove irreversible. Therefore, when Prime Minister Tony Blair directed the government to examine joining the euro, it came as a relief to show that the currency did not have the same rigor as the pound and therefore should not be taken up.xl While the British had reservations over joining the Eurozone because of economic insecurities, Germany and France had doubts over the applying countries’ credentials. In order for the single currency to accomplish its goal of a stronger unified economy, it would need to be used in countries whose current economies were strong enough to meet certain criteria, including low inflation and a budget deficit less than 3% of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Despite data that showed that such countries as Greece and Italy were inadequate to join the Eurozone, Pascal Lamy, aide to Jacques Delors, says that everyone

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knew that “Greece was fudging its statistics” but did not challenge what the Greeks presented because it would have been diplomatically incorrect.xli Therefore, while the Greeks and Italians presented economic statistics that everyone recognized as inaccurate, they went unchallenged so as to avoid an international incident. Lamy notes that allowing countries into the Eurozone, despite the disqualifying data, was the “definition of a mistake. Something you believe is not a problem and then you realize, whooo, I shouldn't have done that.”xlii This allowance would change the fate of the euro and lead to the situation that we must discuss at this meeting of the European Union.

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Current Situation The crash of the Eurozone is one that has carried on for over four years with no clear end in sight.

Beginning in separate economies, the unity of the euro allowed the crisis to spread and ultimately created the international repercussions that we are dealing with today. Not only does the devaluation of individual countries have the possibility to destroy the livelihoods of their own citizens, but it also stands to do the same throughout the world.

The roots of the crash take place in the availability of money to countries that should not have been eligible to join the Eurozone due to their actual rates of debt and inflation. The downgrading of these countries has led to a withdrawal of investments and therefore an inability to pay back their high debts. It comes down to this committee to decide whether the solution to this crisis lies in disbanding the Eurozone, and thus reverting to a unique currency for each country, expelling members with downgraded economies from the Eurozone, or maintaining the Eurozone in the hopes of receiving aid for the currency from the whole of the European Union. It is undeniable that the decision of the European Union will have lasting effects and only stands as to which path they will pursue in order to right the economy.

Easy Money in the Eurozone The Eurozone refers to the set of countries in the European Union that have adopted the euro as their currency. Greece joined the Eurozone in 2001 with a debt over 100% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which refers to the market value of all official goods and services produced in Greece in a given time period.xliii This means that the money that Greece produced in a year would

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not be enough to pay off its debts. Owing this much money meant that Greece would realistically have a very hard time getting a loan anywhere in an attempt to keep its economy afloat; however, joining the Eurozone allowed Greece to receive very low interest rates on loans. The more money that the country could borrow at a low rate meant that the citizens could borrow money at a similarly low rate and, hopefully, inject that borrowed money back into Greece’s economy.xliv Money became very cheap to the people and governments of the Eurozone, meaning that they could effectively borrow money for anything they wanted.xlv

Governments can actively borrow money in order to reinvest that money in their own economies, thereby hopefully reinvigorating their economy to the point that they would generate enough revenue to pay back the loan. These bonds were available to these countries at very low rates, meaning that if Italy bought a bond for $100 million dollars, they would pay back $100 million dollars plus a set amount of interest over a set

European Union 12 amount of time.xlvi The interest rates were so low only because these countries were now members of the Eurozone, which made them seem like there was very little risk associated with lending them money since their economies had been stringently vetted in order to be allowed into the Eurozone.

Downgrading Debts In 2009 when the new socialist party gained control of the Greek government, it came to light that the deficit was more than double previously established numbers.xlvii With the Greek debt having been immediately downgraded, bondholders started selling off Greek debt and the country’s rating plummeted. The downgrading of debt to junk status means that it is rated below investment grade and therefore has a higher risk of default, meaning it will most likely not be paid back. While these lower rated bonds are typically more attractive, since with greater risk comes greater reward, these debts have currently been deemed too risky for investment without first undergoing economical intervention. Italy underwent similar circumstances as well, deemed as entirely the fault of a greedy nation. These countries, apparently, were so eager to join the Eurozone that they lied about their rate of inflation and only worsened their debts after joining.

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In jockeying for international media attention, Italy often gets left out of the spotlight because its economy has not down spiraled as quickly as Greece, until recently. A downgrading for Italy’s government bond from Moody’s Investors Service points to the constant deterioration that has been occurring.xlviii This means that buying any of Italy’s government issued bonds, essentially buying Italy’s debt, would be extremely risky for investors on the chance that they would never see any returns on their venture. Italian government bonds have a 6% interest on them, compared with the less than 2% interest that German government bonds have.xlix Moody’s sited part of the downgrade from the effects of worsening economies, like those of Greece and Spain, but others see it as a cautious approach to a possible bailout that may be in Italy’s future.l The downgrade forced Italy to face the possibility that its future lies in the hands of Germany. With the debates over a Greek bailout going on for months, Italy has seen first hand how difficult Chancellor Angela Merkel has been in dispensing the much-needed bailout for Greece.

In an economical and political climate where the Germans seem to hold all the power, the Italians feel stymied by any efforts that they need in order to eventually heal their ailing economy.li

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constituent countries. Due to the poor decisions of individual nations, Portugal, Ireland, and Greece have had their debt ratings lowered to junk, with the promise that Spain and Italy will soon follow suit. In order for these debts to become attractive to potential investors, the EU will have to come up with a way to moderate and alleviate the worst of the debt.

Although Germany clearly holds the bulk of the economic stability, and thus will be responsible for bailing out its fellow Eurozone countries, Italy in particular feels that Germany is being miserly when it comes to bailouts.lii Italy’s feeling of inequality amongst its EU brethren hints at deeper fissures within the makeup of the Eurozone that may prove to be the breaking point in the union.

A distinction within these depressed economies comes from the causes of the current circumstances. While Italy and Greece are seen as having lied in order to enter the zone, and therefore faulted for defaulting, Ireland and Spain suffered from a burst real estate bubble.liii Ireland and Spain had huge parts of their economies, up to 25%, tied up in residential construction, which made the economic crash of 2008 incredibly swift in undermining their markets.liv Whatever the reasons, however, the euro suffers because of unparalleled debt devastation in several of its

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Implementing Inflation An important component of the subsistence of the euro within the European Union is the European Central Bank (ECB). While some countries, including Greece, Portugal, and Italy, point to this bank as an intensifier of the crisis, others, namely Germany, see it as the savior of the union as a whole. The ECB keeps inflation in check by ensuring that no single country can print as much money as it wants. Germany, in particular, finds assurance in the ECB and its ability to regulate the euro by not printing unlimited amounts of money to cover the debts of individual countries. However, this aggravates those countries with soaring deficits because if they could print more money, they would be able to expediently pay off their debts. The debt crisis has become so severe in select nations that it seems that no bailout or stimulus program from individual nations could provide adequate assistance—rather only the allowance of the ECB to print more money would provide any true help.lv However, there currently is no supreme authority over the ECB—this would require a change in policy by the countries in the Eurozone.

Currently the ECB has not played a role in the monetary policies of individual member states and such a decision would be unprecedented, particularly when only a select number of

European Union 14 countries have been extremely disturbed by this crisis.lvi In an attempt to steer these countries out of the debt crisis and prevent future economic catastrophes, some in the Eurozone have voiced the need for a finance ministry to be created to govern the euro.lvii This discussion has been continually stopped because it would force the countries to lose most of their economical autonomy.

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France has been especially nervous that this governing body would lead to a more united Eurozone but force nations to lose their distinctiveness. Ultimately individual countries must either renounce their claims on individuality or dissolve the union entirely.

The Role of the European Central Bank While there are those that view the ECB as stagnant in the face of wide scale economic depression, its leadership has a different take. In a speech on July 26, 2012 to a group of London bankers, Mario Draghi, President of the ECB, stated the following: “Within our mandate, the ECB is ready to do whatever it takes to preserve the euro. And believe me, it will be enough.�lviii This directive ushered in a policy known as Outright Monetary Transitions (OMTs), announced on August 2, 2012.lix Under this program, the ECB will purchase governmentissued bonds when requested by a Eurozone government.lx The bank will be able to do so with funds made available by the European Financial Stability Facility and the European Stability Mechanism programs.lxi The goal of this measure is to decrease bond yields to levels that lower borrowing costs for countries that have suffered in the financial crash.lxii

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Despite this bold pronouncement and following program, the OMT has yet to prove itself as the savior of the Eurozone economies.lxiii In the year since its creation, the OMT has yet to be activated.lxiv Instead, it serves as a backup to these economies, allowing them to have a last resort if they become incredibly volatile. That position of the OMT, however, is incredibly precarious. For example, if a country’s economy began to down spiral, it could apply for an OMT, but in doing so it would have to have its national parliament approve the bailout.lxv In accepting the ECB purchases of government-issues bonds, the aided country would have to additionally agree to fiscal and economic reforms included in the fine print of the OMT.lxvi This move would essentially make them beholden to the ECB, an authority that countries such as France and Germany would not take lightly. In fact, Germany’s constitutional court is expected to rule on the OMT’s legality under German law.lxvii While this decision will not matter in the sense that Germany is unexpected to need such a bailout, it will set the standard throughout Europe as to whether these funds can and should be legally accepted.

While OMTs exist as a final bailout, one that Draghi is sure will preserve the euro, they are not the reason for the current improvement in Eurozone economies. Despite the lack of ECB intervention, in the past 12 months Spanish government bonds have returned 22.9%, with Italian government bonds returning 19%.lxviii Additionally stocks are up in Spain, Italy, and Greece, by 31.2%, 24.4%, and 46.7% respectively.lxix The euro, which the OMT was implemented to protect, is up 8% against the dollar.lxx This data seems to indicate that the OMT is most useful in raising the economic spirits of the Eurozone, thereby staving off disaster instead of reacting to it.

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The Future of the Eurozone On July 1, 2013, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union. Croatia will continue, however, to use its currency, the Croatian kuna. This is because while Croatia has joined the European Union, it has not adopted the euro since it has not yet fulfilled the criterion required of European Union members as stated in the Maastricht Treaty. These tenets, as previously discussed, are intended to ensure that a country’s deficit and debt are at reasonable levels, thereby guaranteeing that a single nation does not drag down a league of economically united countries.

While Croatia has not yet adopted the euro and therefore its financial woes do not weigh on the currency specifically, its entry speaks to the future of both the euro and the union. Croatia’s entrance to the EU forced it to revitalize its economy and institute legislative reforms, as well as giving it access to the favorable trade negotiations and bailouts that have been hallmarks of the union.lxxi However, this addition also highlighted a region of countries, some of the poorest in Europe, that are hoping to join the EU.lxxii These countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia, were all formed out of the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and have stated interest in joining the EU.lxxiii Other countries created from the breakup have already been accepted, with Slovenia in 2004 and Croatia in 2013.lxxiv And while it is a sign of trust in both the European Union and the shared currency of the euro that these Balkan countries are eager for membership, it should also be troubling given the current state of the Eurozone.

Since its entry into the European Union, Croatia has had its share of troubles, both social and economic. Unfortunately, these seem to be linked in Croatia’s excessive levels of corruption,

European Union 16 previously so rampant that a former prime minister was jailed for taking bribes.lxxv With a potential 14 billion euros that Croatia stands to receive in financial aid from 2014 to 2020, concerns of corruption are at the forefront of the minds of both EU and Croatian officials, as evident in the statement from finance minister Slavko Lini! that “We are very clear that we try to fight with any kind of corruption.”lxxvi The potential for failure on this international stage has many Croatian officials concerned about the ramifications, including Ruža Tomaši!, a newly elected Member of the European Parliament of Croatia: We weren’t ready. We were supposed to walk into the EU with our heads held high saying, ‘Look at us — our economy is fantastic, our exports are fantastic, we don’t have too many underemployed, we are bringing you something.’ This way, they are looking at us like we only joined because we need a handout.lxxvii The above statement is indicative of ambivalence towards Croatia’s new status as a member of the EU, and should be used as a note of caution for its fellow Balkan countries. In addition to examining Croatia’s concerns, these countries seeking membership should look to the faults of the EU and Eurozone as well.

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While there are many countries jockeying to join the European Union and, subsequently, the Eurozone, they should first consider the viability of their country and that of the Eurozone itself. In May 2013, the Eurozone unemployment rate reached 12.2%, equivalent to more than 19.3 million people without work.lxxviii With unemployment rates in Spain and Greece expected to stay above 27% until 2015, there is currently no viable work strategy on an individual country basis or for the Eurozone as a whole.lxxix

Additional statistics continue to be discouraging, especially the rates of government held debt within the Eurozone. Greek government debt will reach 175% of GDP by the end of 2013, while Italy’s government debt will reach 131% of

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GDP, and the government debt in both Ireland and Portugal is predicted to reach 123% of GDP.lxxx All of this data does not present a positive view of the European Union and, in fact, shows the particularly negative effects of countries partcipating in the Eurozone. The task of this year’s committee of the European Union will be to determine whether the benefits for eager countries such as those in the Balkan region outweigh the negative aspects for countries already in the union; whether the EU is able to withstand the recent economic hardship, but the Eurozone is not.

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Bloc Positions! !

Germany As the largest economy in the European Union, and one of the more financially secure countries in the Eurozone, Germany is in the unique position of being able to generate real change. In a recent poll, 66% of Germans were in favor of keeping the euro, demonstrating a clear show of support for the Eurozone itself.lxxxi Instead of ridiculous bailouts and lending rates, Germany looks to legislation that could secure the Eurozone economy from any future disruptions of this magnitude.

France Despite its place as Europe’s secondlargest economy, France has deviated away from Germany in its opinion as to how to handle the euro. While 91% of French felt there were bad economic conditions in 2013, only 25% of Germans felt the same way.lxxxii French President Francois Hollande’s comment that the Eurozone crisis is over points to a desire to leave this economic

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tumult in the past and instead look to solve the social issues, such as poverty and unemployment, that have developed as a direct result.lxxxiii Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal As the countries with the most publicized financial crises and bailouts, these four have a vested interest in not only remaining in the Eurozone, but also in ensuring that the system does not fail as a whole. Their dependence on this shared currency is evident, as is their support for bailout programs and lending rates, which have allowed their countries to remain solvent.

United Kingdom Although a founding member of the European Union, this country has a sustained absence from taking up the euro. However, being tasked with helping to bail out its fellow EU members with down spiraling economies has left this nation unsure of whether to remain in the union at all.

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Questions to Consider! ! !

1 How does this economic crisis differ from others that have occurred, both domestically and internationally? Ultimately what makes this deserving of global solutions?

2 Can the European Union exist without the Eurozone? In other words, would the elimination of the euro allow this union to continue functioning?

3 Should there be new terms implemented for the addition of members to the European Union and the Eurozone? Is the Maastricht Treaty sufficient?

4 What can be done to rectify the egregious unemployment rates and debt to GDP ratios? Are there any broad reforms that could be implemented or would it have to be done on an individual basis?

5 What incentives and safeguards could be provided to ensure the prevention of a future crisis of this magnitude?

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TOPIC II.

Cross-border Migration and Human Trafficking Topic History !

The European Union unites numerous countries allowing for the opening of their markets and the movement of their people. However, this does not mean there is a unified “European� identity. Rather the European Union was founded with the intent to put an end to the interEuropean wars and conflicts that date back to the fall of the Roman Empire. With new technological advances and growing ideas of the nation state, these conflicts became especially deadly in the 1800s and 1900s. From the Napoleonic Wars to World War II (and then the Cold War), Europe was consistently at war. The European Union aimed to put an end to this, however it must now reconcile its united future with its divided past.

Historically Europe developed in culturally distinct groups. These groups typically share some sort of self-recognition, and aside from the Roma and the Jews, are concentrated in the territorial homeland.

In Spain, for instance one sees this with the Castilians, who speak Catalan rather than Spanish.

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Some groups may share a common language but remain separate from each other because of differing historical paths. The Walloons (Southern Belgium) and the Jurassiens (Jura, Switzerland), both speak French. However they are distinct from each other and see themselves as not French, since their communities and culture developed outside the boundaries of French. This divergence can also happen within the same nation-state. When Czechoslovakia was a unified country, the historical ties of Slovaks with the Hungarian kingdom and Czechs with the Austrian Empire played a role in keeping the two groups apart; the country was divided into two separate states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.lxxxiv This sense of identity, apart from common religion, common language, and even common statehood, pervades European communities. It illustrates the inherent diversity of experience and culture of the European peoples, but also fundamentally raises issues between

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factions of people who do not share a common identity, and yet are situated in a common union.

History of Migration In (and from) Europe Despite problems of migration, human trafficking, and more in the European Union today, Europe has always seen large scale movement of its peoples. This is clearly seen with large scale immigration to America; although this began as immigration from England and then Ireland, later immigrants would come primarily from Italy and Eastern Europe. During the 19th and 20th centuries approximately 60 million people left Europe for overseas. In earlier centuries people left Europe for the new world for both “push” and “pull” reasons. Push reasons, those that pushed people from their homes, were sheer poverty, the desire to escape persecution, and the loss of jobs through economic change. Pull reasons were opportunities for a better quality of life (for them or for their children). The combination of these push and pull factors led vast number of Europeans to develop the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. However, these factors continue to motivate the movement of immigrants in Europe today.lxxxv European migration has historically been focused on other countries (often colonies or otherwise dependent states on the home nation).

However inter-European migration is not a purely modern phenomenon. On the highest level of society, elites often traversed borders for the sake of marrying the ruler of another nation in order to solidify an alliance. One of the most famous examples of this is the Austrian Marie-Antoinette being brought to Versailles to marry Louis XVI

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and be Queen of France. Their marriage, and other international marriages of the elites illustrates that national borders have never confined the culture of European countries. British women dressed in French fashions, Parisian children ate Austrian pastries, Russian elites spoke French, and the Italian Renaissance transmitted the Classical world to all of Europe. This is not to say that European countries have been a happy fraternity throughout history; wars between England and France, and France and Germany, and more have also permeated European history. However this cultural exchange provides credence to the idea of a European community and puts the nationalistic arguments against immigration in a different light.

European Union 22 Not only has there been cultural exchange throughout Europe’s history, but there have also been large-scale movements of people. The reasons for these movements, and the problems they encountered in their new homes, give context to today’s problems with immigration and illustrate how Europe has adapted in the past.

Each country has its own distinctive history and flow of its people.

By looking at French history one sees the pattern of immigration that is repeated throughout Europe with different specifics. In the 17th century, France lost more the 400,000 Huguenots (Protestants), who fled (Catholic) France due to religious persecution, and ended up in Holland, England, Prussia, and America. More recently France has seen a substantial immigrant population. Between 1850 and 1914 about 4.3 million foreigners entered France, and between World Wars I and II nearly 3 million people immigrated. Through World War I, immigration was free and most of the immigrants came from neighboring countries, such as Italy, Spain, Belgium, and Switzerland. As the immigrants came from similar societies, they were quickly assimilated into the national population. However France became more resistant to immigration, as more and more people emigrated from Africa (especially from French colonies). This led to the rise of a type of nationalism that excluded new

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immigrants. As the numbers of immigrants grew, so did incidents of racial discrimination in housing and employment, as well as social activism among immigrant groups. Initially, immigrants were predominantly male Africans who lived in lowstandard housing and working in undesirable, low-skilled occupations. With the economic downturn in 1974 French workers began to reclaim some of the jobs held by immigrants, this led the government began to restrict immigration.

Restricted immigration has remained in place and in the early 21st century the net annual increase of population from legal immigration averaged little more than 50,000 people.lxxxvi

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This flux between open immigration and restricted immigration is not confined to France.

Most European countries have at various times been the source of immigrants to other countries (or continents), and the new home for immigrants from other countries. Similarly attitudes about immigration commonly changes based on the perception of if the immigrants are taking jobs from those already in a locale or on how well they assimilate to the dominant culture.lxxxvii Much of the attitude towards new immigrants is based on economic factors, however, as will be seen in the current situation, attitudes are also fundamentally shaped by ideas about the immigrants themselves. These ideas often fundamentally are based in a concept of a racial hierarchy. Western Europeans think they are better than Eastern Europeans, Northerners think they are better than Southerners – and all of this has been flipped at different times in history, or depending whose vantage point you are looking from. National pride is often tied to defining a group that is outside the nation. These hierarchies were also seen in America. When the Irish first emigrated, the English saw them as other, but when Germans, and later Italians began it emigrate, the Irish were considered as white Anglo-Saxons, while the new immigrants were considered other. The understanding of who is “us” and “them” has constantly been in flux. This is often based on a racial hierarchy that expands (or sometimes contracts) the idea of who is White and who is American. This same dynamic is seen in Europe in response to immigrants.lxxxviii This pattern was seen in the Serbian conflicts that led to World War I. Much of the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was based on the idea that Serbia should be under their control; and

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more importantly that a free an strong Serbia would strengthen the pan-Slavic movement. The pan-Slavic movement sought to bring together ethnically defined Slavics in one nation, as compared to being divided under European control. Although opposition to this was certainly political and economic, it is important to understand the racial element as well.lxxxix Looking to the WWI, WWII and the Cold War one only has to look at the how the “other” was portrayed to see that the antagonistic relationship between European countries that has extended throughout the 20th Century. Be it the French and English opposition to the Germans, or the Western European depictions of “godless” Soviets, no such thing as a “European” identity could possible exist. It is only with the end of the Cold War that West and East Germany were reunited. As other formerly Soviet satellites have come into the EU this separate history must be reconciled with a sense of European unity.

Schengen Area Despite, or in fact because of, a Europe that had been warring for centuries, the European Union was created to put an end to this destruction. A key component of the European Union is the Schengen Area, which allows for free travel between European Union member countries. Many of the issues surrounding interEuropean migration rest on this freedom of travel.

The free movement of people within Europe was a key part of the Treaty of Rome, which founded the European Economic Union in 1958. The Treaty of Rome was an international treaty based on international law, designed to help reconstruct the economies of the European continent, prevent war in Europe and ensure a lasting peace. From the

European Union 24 early days of the European Economic Community nationals of EEC member states could travel freely from one member state to another on production of their passports or national identity cards.

However identity controls were still in place at the border between most member states.

The Schengen Agreement was signed on June 14, 1985 by five of the then ten European Union Member States. It led to the creation of the Schengen Area on March 26, 1995. The rules adopted under this agreement were entirely separate from the EU government until 1997. In 1990 the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention, which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa policy for all signatory countries. The Schengen Agreement was signed independently of the European Union, in part owing to the lack of consensus amongst EU member states over whether or not the EU had the legal jurisdiction to abolish border controls.

In 1990 the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention, which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa policy. It was this Convention that created the Schengen Area through the complete abolition of border controls between Schengen states, common rules on visas, and police and judicial cooperation. The Schengen Agreement along with its implementing Convention was

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implemented in 1995 only for some signatories, but in 1997 during the Amsterdam Intergovernmental Conference, all European Union member states except the United Kingdom and Ireland had signed the Schengen Agreement.

This established the free movement of people across borders that had been contentious for decades. This provides for synchronized visa policies, allowing residents in border areas freedom to cross borders away from fixed checkpoints without systematic identity controls.

Passport checks have been replaced with visual surveillance of vehicles at reduced speed vehicle checks that allowed vehicles to cross borders without stopping. The unified visa policy also means that once one has flown into a Schengen Area country, internal travel is not subject to passport control. This means that if you are flying from Paris to Rome you have the same level of “border control� (customs, passport checking, visas) as you do when flying from Seattle to Boston.

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Migrant Labor In the two decades that followed the end of the Second World War, labor migration flows occurred mostly within Europe itself; in particular as workers from southern Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece) moved north. Unlike longerdistance migration, this intra-European migration was characterized by frequent returns to the country of origin once the period of employment ended.

The defining feature of migratory labor is that the worker, for economic reasons, leaves home (beyond the distance of commuting) in order to find employment. Although during their stay away from home, certain migrant workers set up communal households, migrant workers often leave home with the intention of returning, and thus often on their own rather than as a family unit.

Workers have been travelling to gain employment, often for seasonal farm work, for much of human history. Certain parts of Europe have always acted as a magnet to workers from less prosperous parts. Throughout the modern period several clearly defined systems (or flows) of labor migration have been apparent. Many types of work attracted migrant workers: mowing, harvesting of grain and industrial crops such as flax, land reclamation; peat cutting, brick making, and floating logs down rivers. Much of this work was seasonal, though not all migrant workers are employed in seasonal work.

After World War II most migrant workers were men from Mediterraean countries looking for work in more prosperous Western Europe. Since the end of the Cold War many from former Soviet Bloc countries have also migrated to the more developed capitalist countries in the West.xc

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Sex Trafficking The trafficking of sex workers is the trafficking of human beings for the purpose of sex work. It is considered a modern form of slavery (though it is in no way only a modern issue). The term refers to the movement of people, usually women, between countries and within countries for sex work with the use of physical coercion, deception and bondage through forced debt.

Sexual trafficking includes coercing a migrant into a sexual act as a condition of allowing or arranging migration to a new country or locale.

Sex trafficking victims are generally found in dire circumstances and easily targeted by traffickers. Individuals, circumstances, and situations vulnerable to traffickers include homeless individuals, runaway teens, displaced homemakers, refugees, job seekers, tourists, kidnap victims and drug addicts. Primarily they are women or girls who are vulnerable and looking for a chance for a better life, regardless of ethnic and social background. Traffickers exploit this lack of opportunity, and offer promises of marriage, employment, education, and/or an overall better life. However, in the end, traffickers force the victims to become prostitutes or work in the sex industry, including as prostitutes, strippers,

European Union 26 performing in pornography, and other types of forced servitude. They are often brought to brothels, which they cannot leave as their passports and other identification papers are confiscated. They may be beaten or locked up and promised their freedom only after earning – through prostitution – their purchase price, as well as their travel and visa costs.

In 1949, the first international protocol dealing with sex slavery was the 1949 UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and Exploitation of Prostitution of Others. This convention followed the abolitionist idea of sex trafficking as incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person. It served as a model for future legislation and came into force in 1951. These early efforts have led to other UN and European laws and conventions that aim to combat sex trafficking. (See current situation).

In Europe, sex trafficking is often a flow from East to West; Eastern European women being brought West where they believe they will be able to obtain better employment. In UNODC’s analysis of sex trafficking to Europe, for example, the majority of victims come from developing countries in the Balkans and the former Soviet Union. However women from Africa, Asia, and the Middle East are also trafficked into Europe. Once they reach their destination, the women discover the purposes for which they have been brought, and struggle to find a way out.xci

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Refugees “Refugees are the iconic image of the 20th century” so says First World War historian Jay Winter. A refugee is a person who is outside his or her country of origin or habitual residence because they have suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, or political opinion. They can also be a member of a persecuted social, ethnic, or religious group or be fleeing a war.

Various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I, including many French and Belgians fleeing German invasion. Although they may have been from Eastern France and fled to Western France, they were still refugees as they left their homes (including possessions and livelihoods) to avoid occupation. After World War I, the League of Nations established the High Commission for

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Refugees to assist those displaced by the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1923, the mandate of the Commission was expanded to include the more than one million Armenians who left present-day Turkey in 1915 and 1923 due to the forced deportations and death marches of the Armenian Genocide.xcii In 1930, the Nansen International Office for Refugees was established as a successor agency to the Commission. Its most notable achievement was the Nansen passport, a passport for refugees. xciii The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive amounts of enforced migration. By the end of World War II, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe. This included returning over seven million refugees to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camp (as refugees were then referred to) for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated. At the end of World War II, there were more than 5 million "displaced persons" from the Soviet Union in the Western Europe.

After World War II the International Refugee Organization resettled, repatriated, transported, and maintained more than one million European and Asian refugees. It was abolished in 1952 and replaced by a new international refugee structure. In 1951 ECOSOC drew up, and the General Assembly approved, a Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) was then appointed and directed to act under this convention, and

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ECOSOC appointed an Advisory Commission to assist the high commissioner.

The work of the UNHCR has become increasingly important since the late 1980s, involving major relief operations in Africa, Asia (particularly Southeast and Central Asia), Central America, western and central Europe, and the Balkans. At the end of the 1990s approximately 20 million people had been forced to migrate or had fled oppression, violence, and starvation. The UNHCR works in more than 120 countries and cooperates with more than 450 NGOs to provide relief and to aid in resettlement. For its services on behalf of refugees, the Office of the UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1954 and 1981.xciv Roma The Roma people (previously referred to as Gypsies) are often considered an ethnic and cultural group. They are sometimes referred to, and refer to themselves as a “nation without a state” or a “non-territorial European nation.” They have traditionally been seen as an ethnic minority group of migrants with a shared, and distinct, cultural tradition. The traditional Roma way of life is seasonally nomadic. They arrived in Europe in the 14th century from the Middle East. Romani were originally Hindu, though most are now Muslim or Christian, many of their cultural traditions, and emphasis on bodily purity can be traced to Hinduism. Romanies often adopt the dominant religion of their host country in the event that a ceremony associated with a formal religious institution is necessary, such as a baptism or funeral (their particular belief systems and indigenous religion and worship remain preserved

European Union 28 regardless of such adoption processes). The Roma continue to practice "Shaktism", a practice with origins in India, whereby a female consort is required for the worship of a god. Adherence to this practice means that for the Roma who worship a Christian God, prayer is conducted through the Virgin Mary or her mother, Saint Anne. Shaktism continues over one thousand years after the people's separation from India.

Additionally, they speak their own language, which is Indo-Aryan, and has many dialects. They also typically speak the language of the country they inhabit.xcv Romani have been subject to persecution throughout European history. They were enslaved in the Byzantine Empire, notably in present day Romania. They have also been subject to forced assimilation. Although in the Ottoman Empire, where many of them lived, they were allowed to continue this way of life, this was a rarity. In the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Romani children were forcibly separated from their parents as early as the 18th century and adopted by Hungarians.

Romanis were forced to abandon their tradition dress, language, and music. However in Kosovo many Romanis settled in ethnic towns or villages, while others were able to maintain their traditional semi-nomadic life.

In Germany during World War II the Romani were designated as a threat and thus targeted for extermination by Hitler. They were

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sent in large numbers to concentration camps and then to death camps. There were no accurate prewar census numbers for the Romani so it is difficult to know how many were killed, however current estimates range from 225,000 to 1 million Romani.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roma communities were smashed among the combat forces of Serbs, Muslims and Croats. After the cleansing of Kosovar Albanian settlements before and during the events of 1999, Serbian security

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and military forces permitted Roma to pillage property and bury the dead without observing the appropriate funeral rituals. The Kosovo Roma then fled from Kosovo after the intervention of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces. The first wave of refugees took place in March of 1999, when hundreds of thousands of Albanians were expelled en masse from Kosovo.

Many were pushed into refugee camps in Macedonia and Albania; from there certain groups were sent to Central and Western Europe, to the United States and to Australia.

A second, much larger wave of Roma refugees took place in July 1999, when most of the nonAlbanian population of Kosovo left (again en masse) for Serbia, as well as for Montenegro, Macedonia or Western Europe.2929 Perhaps the heaviest burden felt by displaced Roma is the rejection they experience from neighboring communities. Residents of many localities have spent a decade or more accepting refugees and IDPs, and in many places displaced Roma are victims of a double stigmatization. Facing this hostility, displaced Roma often seek shelter with other Roma, living with relatives or friends in some of the poorest parts of the Balkans. The construction of temporary accommodations (bidonvillas) next to the dilapidated homes of their hosts is not uncommon. However, because outsiders do not notice these additions to the Roma ghetto (which was ‘always there’), they can easily fall outside of the scope of e orts to address the problems of the displaced.

For a variety of reasons, many Romanies choose not to register their ethnic identity in official censuses. There are an estimated four million Romani people in Europe (as of

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2002), although some high estimates by Romani organizations give numbers as high as 14 million.

Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkan Peninsula, in some Central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine.xcvi

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Current Trends of Migration In the two decades that followed the end of the Second World War, labor migration flows occurred mostly within Europe itself, in particular as workers from southern Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece) moved north. Unlike longerdistance migration, this intra-European migration was characterized by frequent returns to the country of origin once the period of employment ended. Countries that had traditionally served as sources of labor, however, saw the number of potential leavers decline and by the late 1980s, had themselves become countries of immigration.

Total net migration in the member states thus rose from 1.1 million in the 1960s to almost 10 million in the 1990s. The biggest influx of immigrants is to be found in the foreign communities of northern Europe (Scandinavia and the United Kingdom) and the Netherlands. Western Europe as a whole does not really fit any one pattern where immigration is concerned.

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Migrant Labor Migrant workers within the EU have special rights. All EU15 nationals can enter other member states without a visa for a period of up to 6 months on production of valid identification. EU nationals can reside in another member state for more than 6 months if they meet one of the following criteria: are employed or self-employed, have sufficient resources and health insurance to ensure they do not seek state or social benefits, are a student,!or are a family member (including nonEU citizen spouses) of an EU citizen who falls into one of the above categories. They are entitled to these things without a work permit; however there are till some restrictions on persons from Bulgaria, Croatia, and Romania.xcvii The 1990s saw a sharp decline in labor migration to countries experiencing an economic downturn, such as Austria, Switzerland, Germany and France. Over the past few years, however, labor immigration has been on the rise,

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particularly in the United Kingdom, Hungary and Italy. Germany is a main host country for seasonal workers.

In Germany, France, and the Netherlands, annual data on immigration rates and GDP from the early 1970s to the late 2000s reveal that increases and decreases in GDP directly correspond to increases and decreases in immigration rates. Thus, if economic growth is strong in the coming decades, one expects immigration to increase and to remain a vital factor in meeting expanding European economies’ demand for labor.

In April 2013, the European Commission said there was no evidence migrant workers took jobs from nationals of the country they moved to.

It further said that high jobless levels in some states made it important to help anyone wishing to migrate for work. Employment and Social Affairs Commissioner Laszlo Andor said: "The free movement of workers is a key principle of the EU's single market. With much higher levels of unemployment in some member states than others at the moment, it is all the more important to make it easier for those who want to work in another EU country to be able to do so." Figures from 2012 show that only about 3% of the EU population is working outside their country of origin.xcviii However these trends are not always well received in the countries that receive large numbers of new workers. Since Poland and seven other Eastern European countries joined the EU more than a million citizens have come to work in Britain. In 2012 there were more than 216,000 EU citizens working in the country who had arrived in the previous two years. This is an increase of over 10 per cent compared to 2010 levels. The numbers

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of EU workers moving into Germany – which opened its doors to Eastern European member states in May 2011 - doubled to 166,500 over the two years before 2012, going up from 80,500 recorded in 2010. Meanwhile, countries such as Spain and Ireland, who were worst hit by the Eurozone crisis, experienced a drop in the number of immigrant workers.xcix Furthermore, increased migration affects the hiring practices of the host country. The UK Chartered institute of Personnel and Development released a report on British hiring practices in March 2013.

The CIPD report finds that, while there is insufficient evidence to conclude that employers are overtly favoring migrant workers, there are a number of factors that contribute to a situation in which some employers expect a greater pay-off from recruiting migrant workers. The report identifies the risk that, as a result, UK-born workers find it difficult to secure low-skilled, entry-level positions. This can create resentment towards foreign born workers in their received countries, creating tensions especially in lower income neighborhoods. c

European Union 32 Sex Trafficking The victims of human trafficking are often the most vulnerable in society – the poor, minorities, women and children. Because trafficking affects vulnerable groups, such as women and children, the EU has focused its strategy against human trafficking on protect as well as prevention. It has aimed to strengthen cooperation and coordination between the police and judicial authorities of EU member states.

Likewise, the EU is introducing a framework of common provisions to tack criminalization and penalties in the case of human trafficking. This is integrated in a broader context of protection against violence, sexual tourism, and child pornography.

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In November 1993 the Council adopted a set of recommendations to combat trafficking in human beings. In June 1996 the first European conference on trafficking in women was held in Vienna. It was organized by the Commission and brought together players from various sections of society (universities, NGOs, police and immigration services, government and parliaments). One of the measures proposed by the conference was the development of a comprehensive action plan with a structured approach. The EU communication takes up these proposals and formulates practical solutions to combat the phenomenon of trafficking in women from third countries who are brought to the European Union and sexually exploited through intimidation.

Information on trafficking, and in particular accurate figures with which to evaluate it, is elusive. The International Organization for Migration estimates at 500 000 the number of victims, increasing numbers of whom come from Central and Eastern Europe and the former members of the Soviet Union. Whole networks have been set up that have political support and significant economic resources. Often, trafficking in human beings is also linked to other forms of crime (drug trafficking, money laundering), making it harder to target and prevent.ci The EU approach to tackling the trafficking of human beings encompasses law enforcement, prevention and victim support. On June 19, 2012,

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the European Commission adopted the "EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings (2012-2016)”. The Strategy is a set of concrete measures to be implemented over the next five years. It is based on five key priorities: Identifying, protecting and assisting victims of trafficking; Stepping up the prevention of trafficking in human beings; Increased prosecution of traffickers; Enhanced coordination and cooperation among key actors and policy coherence; Increased knowledge of and effective response to emerging concerns related to all forms of trafficking in human beings.cii According to the report, over 23,000 identified or presumed victims of human trafficking were registered between 2008 and 2010, representing an 18 per cent increase, however the official figures do not come close to describing the crime, which likely has hundred of thousands of victims. During the same time period, however, the number of convictions for human trafficking fell by 13 per cent. Agreed to in 2011, Directive 2011/36/EU on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims proposes higher penalties for offenders, increased protection for victims and aims to make cross-border prosecution easier. It also provides a common definition of human trafficking – worth an estimated 2.5 billion euros in Europe alone – to ensure greater equality in the severity of sentencing for the crime across EU territories.

But so far, only six out of the 27 EU member states – Czech Republic, Finland, Latvia, Hungary, Poland and Sweden – have fully transposed the EU Anti-Trafficking Directive into their national legislation, despite a deadline of April 6. Three other countries – Belgium, Lithuania and Slovenia – have reported partial

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transposition of the directive. Most of the victims identified by the report were citizens of Romania and Bulgaria. Outside of Europe, citizens of Nigeria and China make up the biggest number of victims. Eighty per cent of all victims were women and girls.

According the Commission report, the majority of trafficking victims are forced into sexual slavery, but also forced labor, criminal activity, organ removal and the selling of children.

There are various initiatives to tackle human trafficking, including the Global Trade Union Alliance to Combat Forced Labor and Trafficking, led by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). In order to contribute to the anti-trafficking response, the ITUC also recently started an EU-funded project focused on developing partnerships and identifying new trends in trafficking for labor exploitation.ciii Refugees: The political crises in the Balkans triggered a mass influx of migrants or refugees from these regions. In particular, 380,000 former

European Union 34 Yugoslavs came to Germany in 1992 and 280,000 the following year. In total, some 4 million people migrated as a result of the war in Yugoslavia.

Asylum-related migration accounted for the bulk of migration flows observed in the 1990s. As far back as the end of the Second World War, 40 million formerly displaced persons were repatriated or settled in a host country. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, furthermore, triggered a mass exodus from Albania to Italy, and also flows of asylum seekers from former Yugoslavia. The number of asylum applications filed in European countries increased from 70,000 in 1983 to almost 700,000 in 1992, after which it declined until 1996, when it began to rise again. Germany was the prime destination for asylum seekers in Europe in the 1990s.

Although the largest foreign populations are thus to be found in non-Mediterranean western European states, the other states also have what may be described as a “peripheral� foreign population: France, for example, has a high proportion of Africans (45%) derived from its former colonies (mainly Algeria) or Frenchspeaking African countries. Spain and Italy have a large number of Moroccans while Portugal is home to a large Cape Verdean community. In other parts of Western Europe, the foreign communities tend to be more diverse in terms of their origins. The situation is very different in the former Eastern bloc countries.

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There are approximately 1.5 million refugees living in the 27 EU member states, plus Norway and Switzerland. Globally there are 16 million refugees. EU member states have sovereignty over how asylum seekers and refugees are treated, thus conditions and benefits for refugees and asylum seekers vary in each EU member state. Because of this the EU has taken steps to harmonize the treatment of refugees. The Common European Asylum System is pushing for this; this system has legal authority to determine which member state is responsible for hearing an individuals asylum claim, how the claim should be reviewed, and the living conditions while a decision is pending. The Common European Asylum System has not eliminated the differences in the way member states treat refugees. civ Therefore in 2012 the EU countries agreed on a uniform asylum system. The law promises similar standards for refugees in all 27 EU countries, where the rules and duration of asylum

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proceedings have now been harmonized. But, the controversial Dublin II regulation of 2003 remains largely untouched. Under Dublin II, every refugee who reaches Europe can only apply for asylum in the country he or she enters first. Refugees who receive a residence permit are generally permitted to travel in the Schengen zone for up to three months. However, they are barred from working or living in countries other than the one that granted them residence.

The United Nations estimates that 56,000 people fled by boat from African countries to Italy in 2011. More than one in three refugees is given a residence permit in Italy. Few other European Union countries are as generous with their residence permits, but in Italy the refugees are left to fend for themselves. Few manage to find work and a place to stay. They live in parks or in slums like the Ghetto in Apulia, where they have no medical care. The refugees have become the targets of attacks by right-wing radicals. The men work for low wages in the fields or in construction.

Meanwhile Dublin II benefits countries such as Germany, which is surrounded by EU countries.

The German government invokes the Dublin II regulation when it sends refugees back to other EU countries. Italy, like many countries on the EU's external border, is unable to cope with the asylum seekers. But by treating the new arrivals so poorly, the government in Rome also creates incentives for them to leave the country.cv Moreover, in 2011 the economic crisis kept the EU looking inward, unrest in Northern Africa and elsewhere has forced many to leave their homes. In the first half of 2011, over 75 per cent of all asylum applications were made in only six EU member states. That leaves a long row of European countries that can do more. And as over 700,000

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people were forced to flee the violence in Libya, many ended up in refugee camps in neighboring countries. Of the 8,000 people identified by the UN as being in particular need of help, all EU member states only managed to promise to receive 400. Norway, a non EU-country, accepted nearly as many.cvi Recently a press release from Eurostat said that EU member states granted protection to 102,700 asylum seekers in 2012, compared with 84,300 in 2011. Syrians were the single largest group of persons granted protection status in the EU in 2012. Of the 18,700 Syrians granted protection status, more than 70% were recorded in two Member States, Germany (8,400) and Sweden (5,000). Along with these numbers the statement highlighted the importance of the final adoption of The Common European Asylum System: “It will provide better access to the asylum procedure for those who seek protection; it will lead to fairer, quicker and better quality asylum decisions; it will ensure that people in fear of persecution will not be returned to danger and it will guarantee dignified and decent conditions for those who seek shelter in the EU.�cvii Roma: In 2008, following the brutal murder of a woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment, the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and that swift action was required to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad emergency).

Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas. One police raid in 2007 freed many of the children belonging to a Romani gang who used to steal by day, and who

European Union 36 were locked in a shed by night by members of the gang.cviii In the summer of 2010 French authorities demolished at least 51 illegal Roma camps and began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin. This followed tensions between the French state and Roma communities, which had been heightened after French police opened fire and killed a traveller who drove through a police checkpoint, hitting an officer, and attempted to hit two more officers at another checkpoint. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars. The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda. EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". cix

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For the European Union, Jan. 1 2014 is going to be a charged day. It's the day that Romanians and Bulgarians will be given free, unlimited access to the European labor market.

Both countries have been full members of the EU since 2007, but under the terms of accession, they were not to be given full freedom of labor movement for a transitional period of seven years.

With this last barrier scheduled to fall in less than a year, a major, pan-European debate on immigration is now unfolding.

David Cameron has already announced his intention to cap social services for immigrants to Britain from other EU countries. Among the measures being considered is a plan to apply fees to newcomers for a national healthcare system in Britain that is currently free. But other ideas, like the briefly considered notion of creating an advertising campaign in Bulgaria and Romania that would discourage potential immigrants from making their way to England, have been scrapped.

In France, the extreme right has taken up the issue in an attempt to mobilize voters. After the Socialist Party government of President Francois Hollande moved in autumn to expand the number of fields in which Romanians and Bulgarians are permitted to work within in the country, from 150 to 291, Marine Le Pen of the Front National (FN) party described the move as a "scandalous decision, especially given that France is already suffering from mass unemployment." Given a high unemployment rate that may reach a record 10

European Union 37

percent by mid-year, unions are also eyeing with suspicion the arrival of potential labor-market competition from the east. Meanwhile, in Germany the debate is being carried out under the slogan "poverty immigration." In a report released last month, the German Association of Cities wrote that municipalities are no longer capable of addressing issues related to the growing number of immigrants on their own.cx More than 1 million Romanians currently work in Italy; in Spain there are 900,000.

Linguistic similarities have made those two countries the favored destination of Romanians.

According to the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, there are 209,000 Romanians and 121,000 Bulgarians currently living in Germany.

How many of those are Roma is not documented.

Thousands of additional immigrants from southeastern Europe arrive every month, with some cities reporting a six-fold increase since the two countries became EU members. The migration will continue for as long as there is a lack of jobs and career opportunities in the two countries.

Despite the coming change in the rules, expulsions from France are increasing. In 2012, an election year, 12,841 citizens of Romania and Bulgaria, nearly all of them Roma, were deported from France, compared with 10,841 in 2011, an

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increase of 18.4 percent; 9,529 were deported in 2010, according to the Interior Ministry.

Although Romania and Bulgaria joined the European Union in 2007, special restrictions were put in place requiring their citizens to obtain work permits, and only in certain industries, within three months of visa-free entry or leave France. The Hollande government eliminated a special tax on employers for each person hired, but with France in a triple-dip recession and unemployment high, jobs are scarce. The politicians have also focused on petty crime, like pickpocketing and the theft of smartphones, which they associate with Roma, in order to block their migration to France, with similar tactics being undertaken in other Western European countries.cxi

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Bloc Positions! ! !

Germany As the economic situation as worsened in Eastern and Southern Europe, increasing numbers of migrants have come to Germany looking for work. From only a few thousand immigrants in previous years, in 2012 there were over 70,000 immigrants and the number of Bulgarian and Romanian immigrants is expected to rise to over 100,000 in 2014 when the EU labor market is fully opened. Although recent reforms have lowered restrictions for highly-skilled migrants, lower skilled migrants face brutal working conditions and German political opposition.cxii Along with France, Germany is one of the top two European countries receiving asylum-seekers.

France The French Roma Repatriation is a program initiated in July 2010 by the French Government to repatriate thousands of Bulgarian and Romanian Roma. In 2009, France deported 10,000 Roma to Romania and Bulgaria and since 2010 over 50 Roma camps have been destroyed.

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The French government has claimed they are doing this based on a criminal basis, the Romani often lack work papers, not an ethnic basis.cxiii The EU Justice Commissioner, Viviane Reding, stated that the European Commission may take legal action against the French government over the forced deportations.

Along with German, France is one of the top two European countries receiving asylum-seekers.

Italy EU law obliges all refugees to stay in the country where they receive asylum and Italy’s current economic problems mean that there are very few opportunities for newly arrived migrants. The United Nations estimates that 56,000 people fled by boat from African countries to Italy in 2011, while this number has decreased Italy continues to receive thousands of refugees. Few other European Union countries are as generous with their residence permits, but in Italy the refugees are left to fend for themselves; few manage to find work and most end up living

European Union 39

in slums. Furthermore the refuges have become the targets of attacks by the Italian right-wing.cxiv United Kingdom Although Britain is not in the Shenghen Zone it has received a large number of European immigrants. In a recent poll for the Independent newspaper, two-thirds of those questioned thought British companies should give British citizens priority over other candidates from elsewhere in Europe when hiring new workers; even if this means Britain has to leave the European Union. Moreover the idea of welfare tourism, migrants coming to Britain for healthcare and other benefits, has become a large political problem. cxv Romania and Bulgaria Roma often leave Romania and Bulgaria to seek employment in more prosperous European countries. Bulgaria and Romani are set to officially enter the Shenghen zone in 2014, though other European Union member countries, primarily France, have looked to delay this. Currently 8 countries keep restrictions requiring work permits for Romanians and Bulgarians, these countries are: Germany, Austria, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Malta and United Kingdom.

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European Union 40

Role of the Committee The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member countries. The European Union functions as a federation of states; it is operated by independent institutions and intergovernmental decisions negotiated by the member states. The founding treaties of the EU declare that it is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities… in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.”cxvi The European Union is based on a system of treaties, which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal power to implement these goals. National courts are required to enforce treaties ratified by the member states, and the laws enacted under said treaties, even if they must ignore conflicting national law to do so. However, EU members retain all powers not explicitly handed to the EU. Those handed to the EU are areas in which the member states have renounced any ability to legislate; in these areas the EU has exclusive competence.. There are other areas of law where the EU and member states share the competence to legislate. However member states can only legislate to the extent the EU has not. Finally in some areas the EU can only support member state legislation but not cannot enact its own. For a breakdown of these areas, see table. cxvii The goal of European Union policy is to allow for the “free movement, of peoples, goods, services, and capital.” To allow for the free movement of people 22 European Union countries are members of the Schengen Area, allowing for free travel between them. There is no passport or immigration control at their borders and they share a common visa policy. Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus and Romania have not yet joined the area, but are legally obliged too. The United Kingdom and Irelands have obtained opt-outs. To allow for the free movement of capital the European Union shares a single market, through laws that apply in all member states. The Eurozone, which is composed of 17 member states, is an economic and monetary union that uses the euro as their only legal currency.

The European Central Bank manages the monetary policy of the Eurozone, though the heads of states of the member countries have also begun to meet regularly to enact Eurozone reforms.

The European Union does not have one military. 22 EU members are also members of NATO, while the other member states follow policies of neutrality. However follow the Kosovo War the EU Battlegroups Initiative was established, a rapid reaction force consisting of 18 battalions of 1,500 troops, two of which are always ready for deployment and would be able to undertake two rapid-response deployments of “limited duration” if it were deemed necessary.cxviii Thus although war is outside the purview of the European Union, it does have limited, and untested as of yet, defense capabilities.

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European Union 41

Structure of the Committee The European Union consists of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom.

Additionally there four countries in the European Free Trade Association that have partly committed to the EU’s economic regulations: Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.

To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria: they must have a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law.

Laws passed in the EU: Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures and those which specifically require national implementation measures.[64] The EU issues three main types of legal acts: regulations, directives, and decisions.

Regulations become law in all member states upon enactment, without the requirement of implementing measures. They automatically override conflicting domestic provisions. Directives requires members to achieve a certain result, but leave it to the state how do to so. Decisions are legal acts only applied to specified individuals, companies, or member states. They are often used in rulings on state aid or for administrative matters within the institutions. cxix The European Union has numerous institutions, as well as many ancillary bodies which help to set European Union policy. In the governance of the EU, the European Commission promotes the interests of the EU. The Commission members are appointed by their national government. Additionally governments defend their different national interests in the Council of the European Union. The institutions of the government are: European Council – The summit of the heads of the respective governments, it sets general objectives and priorities, but does not legislate.

European Parliament – The lower legislative house, it acts with the council, It shares with the Council budgetary power, exerts democratic control over the EU institutions Council of the European Union – The upper legislative house, it shares budgetary power with the Parliament, ensures coordination of broad economic and social policy, and concludes international agreements European Commission – The executive branch, it submits proposals for new legislations, implements EU policy and administers the budgets, ensures compliance with EU law, negotiates international treaties

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European Union 42 Court of Justice of the EU – Judiciary branch, ensures uniformity of interpretation of European law, has the power to decide legal disputes between member states, institutions, businesses, and individuals, European Court of Auditors – examines the proper use of revenue and the expenditures of EU institutions European Central Bank – determines the monetary policies of the EU, ensures price stability in the Eurozone by controlling the money supply.cxx Although the laws passed by the European Union are valid in all 28 countries, member states do occasionally negotiate “opt-outs” from legislation or treaties, such as the United Kingdom’s opt-out from the Schengen Zone. These must be negotiated in addition to the treaty.

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European Union 43

Suggestions for Further Research!

The Guardian, Eurozone Crisis: A timeline of key events: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/interactive/2012/oct/17/eurozone-crisis-interactive-timeline-three-years This American Life, Continental Breakup: http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radioarchives/episode/455/continental-breakup/ European Union Website: http://europa.eu/index_en.htm The Guardian, Rebranding the euro: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/oct/17/rebranding-the-euro Reinhart and Rogoff, Growth in a Time of Debt: http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/rogoff/files/growth_in_time_debt_aer.pdf Pew Research Center, The New Sick Man of Europe: the European Union: http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/05/Pew-Research-Center-Global-Attitudes-Project-European-UnionReport-FINAL-FOR-PRINT-May-13-2013.pdf

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European Union 44

NOTES !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! i

"A Brief History Of The EU." NPR, 8 July 2010. Web. 13 May 2013. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128389419>. ii "European Union." World History: The Modern Era. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 13 May 2013. iii NPR, 2010 iv NPR, 2010 v NPR, 2010 vi "European Union (EU)." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online Academic Edition.

Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/196399/European-Union>. vii Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 viii Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 ix ABC-CLIO, 2013 x ABC-CLIO, 2013 xi ABC-CLIO, 2013 xii Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 xiii Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 xiv Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 xv Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013 xvi Hugo, Victor. "Address to the International Peace Congress." Address. London. 1851. Victor Hugo Central.

Web. 28 May 2012. <http://www.gavroche.org/vhugo/peacecongress.shtml>. xvii "Continental Breakup." Audio blog post. This American Life. Ed. Ira Glass, Alex Blumberg, Zoe Chace, and Chana Joffe-Walt. Chicago Public Radio, 20 Jan. 2012. Web. 12 June 2012. <http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/455/transcript>. xviii Glass, 2012 xix Glass, 2012

xx

"Weimar Republic Hyperinflatoin - A Brief History." Weimar Republic Hyperinflatoin - A Brief History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 July 2012. <http://www.stamp-collecting-world.com/weimarrepublic_hyperhistory.html>. xxi Glass, 2012 xxii Glass, 2012 xxiii Prono, Luca. "European Economic Community (EEC)." In Ackermann, Marsha E., Michael Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, and Mark F. Whitters, eds. Encyclopedia of World History: The Contemporary World, 1950 to the Present, vol. 6. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2008. Modern World History Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp? ItemID=WE53&iPin=WHVI109&SingleRecord=True (accessed May 28, 2012). xxiv Prono 2008 xxv Prono 2008 xxvi Prono 2008

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European Union 45 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! xxvii

Prono 2008 Prono 2008 xxix Prono 2008 xxx "European Union." World History: The Modern Era. ABC-CLIO, 2012. Web. 1 July 2012. xxxi “European Union,” 2012 xxxii “European Union,” 2012 xxxiii Glass, 2012 xxxiv Glass, 2012 xxxv Glass, 2012 xxxvi Glass, 2012 xxxvii Chapple, Irene. "How the Euro Became a Broken Dream - CNN.com." CNN. Cable News Network, 04 Nov. 2011. Web. 01 Aug. 2012. <http://edition.cnn.com/2011/09/23/business/europe-euro-creation-maastrichtchapple/index.html>. xxxviii "Q&A: The ERM and Black Wednesday." BBC News. BBC, 02 Sept. 2005. Web. 01 Aug. 2012. xxviii

<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4249425.stm>. xxxix “Q&A: The ERM and Black Wednesday,” 2005 xl Chapple, 2011 xli Glass, 2012 xlii Glass, 2012 xliii Matthews, Dylan. "Everything You Need to Know about the European Debt Crisis in One Post." Weblog post.

The Washington Post, 5 Aug. 2011. Web. 20 June 2012. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezraklein/post/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-european-debt-crisis-in-onepost/2011/08/05/gIQAg69QwI_blog.html>. xliv Continental Breakup." Audio blog post. This American Life. Ed. Ira Glass, Alex Blumberg, Zoe Chace, and Chana Joffe-Walt. Chicago Public Radio, 20 Jan. 2012. Web. 12 June 2012. <http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/455/transcript>. xlv Glass, 2012 xlvi Glass, 2012 xlvii Matthews, 2011 xlviii "Moody's Downgrades Italy Debt Rating 2 Notches." USA Today. Gannett, 13 July 2012. Web. 09 Aug. 2012. <http://www.usatoday.com/money/world/story/2012-07-12/moodys-downgrades-italy-debt-rating/56181958/1>. xlix “Moody's Downgrades Italy Debt Rating 2 Notches," 2012 l “Moody's Downgrades Italy Debt Rating 2 Notches," 2012 li Schlamp, Hans-Jürgen. "Italian Economy Struggling as Euro Crisis Visits Rome." SPIEGEL ONLINE. N.p., 13 June 2012. Web. 09 Aug. 2012. <http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/italian-economy-struggling-aseuro-crisis-visits-rome-a-838598.html>. lii Schlamp, 2012 liii Matthews, 2011 liv Matthews, 2011

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European Union 46 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! lv

Rowe, Nick. "The Euro Money Supply." Weblog post. Worthwhile Canadian Initiative. Permalink, 28 Apr. 2010. Web. 18 June 2012. <http://worthwhile.typepad.com/worthwhile_canadian_initi/2010/04/the-euromoney-supply.html>. lvi Matthews, 2011 lvii Castle, Stephen. "Plans to Ease Euro Crisis Are Ambitious but Long-Term." New York Times. 26 June 2012.

Web. 27 June 2012. <http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/27/business/global/daily-euro-zonewatch.html?pagewanted=all>. lviii Blackstone, Brian. “Measuring Mario Draghi’s Promises One Year On.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, 26 Jul 2013. Web. 27 Jul 2013. <http://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2013/07/26/measuring-mariodraghis-promises-one-year-on.html>. lix “Technical features of Outright Monetary Transactions.” The European Central Bank, 6 Sep. 2012. Web. 27 July 2013. <http://www.ecb.int/press/pr/date/2012/html/pr120906_1.en.html>. lx “Technical features of Outright Monetary Transactions,” 2012 lxi “Technical features of Outright Monetary Transactions,” 2012 lxii Blackstone, 2013 lxiii Blackstone, 2013 lxiv Blackstone, 2013 lxv Blackstone, 2013 lxvi Blackstone, 2013 lxvii Blackstone, 2013 lxviii Barley, Richard. “Look to Economy Now, Not ECB.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, 26 July 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323971204578629553602312878.html>. lxix Barley, 2013 lxx Barley, 2013 lxxi Bilefsky, Dan. “Joyous Croatia Join Europe Amid a Crisis.” New York Times, 1 July 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/02/world/europe/croatia-joins-european-union.html>. lxxii Bilefsky, 2013 lxxiii Bilefsky, 2013 lxxiv Bilefsky, 2013 lxxv Castle, Stephen. “As Croatia Struggles, Some Wonder if It Won Entry to European Union Too Soon.” New York Times, 23 July 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/24/world/europe/as-croatiastruggles-some-wonder-if-it-won-entry-to-european-union-too-soon.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.html>. lxxvi Castle, 2013 lxxvii Castle, 2013 lxxviii Bruce, Andy. “Unemployment set to rise further in euro zone’s hardest hit.” Reuters, 22 July 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. < http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/07/22/uk-economy-europe-pollidUKBRE96L0LT20130722.html>. lxxix Bruce, 2013 lxxx “Taking Europe’s pulse.” The Economist, 18 July 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2013/07/european-economy-guide>. lxxxi "The New Sick Man of Europe: The European Union." Pew Global Attitudes Project. Pew Research Center, 13 May 2013. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/05/Pew-Research-Center-Global-AttitudesProject-European-Union-Report-FINAL-FOR-PRINT-May-13-2013.pdf>. lxxxii “Taking Europe’s pulse,” 2013

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European Union 47 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! lxxxiii

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lxxxvi "France." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 17 Sep. 2013. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215768/France>. lxxxvii

Exploring the Future of Migration in Europe. Rep. International Migration Institute at the University of Oxford, 8 July 2011. Web. 15 Sept. 2103. lxxxviii

Hunt, Michael H. Ideology and US Foreign Policy. New Haven U.a.: Yale Univ. Pr., 1987. Print.

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European Union 48 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! xcviii "EU Unveils Plans to Help Migrant Workers." BBC News. BBC, 26 Apr. 2013. Web. Sept. 2013. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22318291>. xcix Dixon, Haley. "Britain Still Europe's Biggest Magnet for Migrant Workers." The Telegraph. 11 June 2013. Web. Sept. 2013. <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10112078/Britain-still-Europes-biggestmagnet-for-migrant-workers.html>. c Exploring the Future of Migration in Europe. Rep. International Migration Institute at the University of Oxford, 8 July 2011. Web. 15 Sept. 2103. ci"Trafficking in Women for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation." Europa. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/fight_against_trafficking_in_human_beings/ l33095_en.htm>. cii "New European Stategy: 2012-2016." Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings. European Commission, 2012. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/EU Policy/New_European_Strategy;jsessionid=s2DbS2TFxjW4sJTgq6QTX0n34110Y4NwrTBrxTXKdLK6vsbxsVX Q!444076514>. ciii Chappell, Bill. "European Union Report Details Growth Of Human Trafficking."NPR. NPR, 15 Apr. 2013.

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European Union 49 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! cxvi "Citizenship of the European Union and Its Attributes." Europedia. Web. Sept. 2013. <9.1. Citizenship of the European Union and its attributes>. cxvii "European Union (EU)." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition.

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