TLE 8

Young Ji International School / College

Page 1

Home and Family Life Throughout all the life stages your home and family life embody an essential set of relationships. These are the people you are with 24/7 through good times and bad. The way you treat each other has a direct effect on all other aspects of your life.

The manners or tools we discuss in this section help you build and strengthen these essential relationships and help you work through the difficult and the special times that occur in everyone’s life. In Everyday Etiquette we presented manners as a function of meeting people throughout the day. Here, the emphasis is on the individual. As each person moves through different life stages there are unique needs associated with each one. In addition, throughout our lives we all experience special times that are unique and require special etiquette. 

Home Life Home can look very different from one family to the next. It may be laden with traditions, or laissez-faire. It may include many people, or only a few. Home can be one location with strong roots, or spread over several locations. Regardless of how home life functions, it is where families of all types grow together. This environment is strengthened when it is a place of respect, kindness, consideration, and honesty.



Today's Families Families today are often self-defined and are more diverse than ever.

Travel, culture, different manners of education, adoption, remarriage - there are many facets to a familiy's make-up. Surface values may vary, but consideration and respect are found at the root of the strongest relations. A family, whatever that looks like, should be a foundation for moving through life.



Pregnancy, Birth, and Adoption The decision to grow your family is one of the most significant choices you will make. It is a decision that effects multiple people, as well. While there are many matters that should remain private, there are others that you will want to share. Along with pregnancy, birth and adoption comes an array of etiquette issues, starting with who to tell and when.



Children and Teens Social development is a process in which children learn how to interact with the world around them. They learn about how to do this from family, friends, media and just trying things out for themselves. Manners are one aspect of growing and learning, and they expand from communication basics to table manners to how to act when out and about in various situations.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 2



College and Beyond Starting off at a new school and living on your own for the first time can be difficult to handle at first. With new social situations come new standards.

Similarly, entering the job market for the first time can lead to confusing situations, with questions about interviews, proper appearance, and making good impressions. Keep in mind some basic etiquette, and the perils of independent life can be conquered.



Living with Others Sharing a space with another person may occur at some point in your life (whether at summer camp, college, military barracks, or an apartment or house). The experience is generally more positive when roommates are honest about their expectations of themseves and of others. Communication, although sometimes uncomfortable, will help you to work together to handle any problems which may arise.



People Who Work in Your Home When you employ someone to work within your home, there are many situations to consider. Honesty will be the foundation of good communication.

Whether a person is mowing your lawn, landscaping, cleaning your house or fixing and building, as the employer you have a responsibility to be not only forthecoming in your dealings but also respectful of the employee as a worker and as an individual.



Separation and Divorce The frequency of divorce in modern society has not made the process any easier for those involved. The friends and family of those separating may feel the effects of the anxiety, sadness, or anger. Sometimes there are children and pets to consider. The circumstances of separating and breaking off a marriage, however, still call for basic consideration, respect, and honesty.



Elder Etiquette The aging process often brings about significant health, emotional, cognitive, and social changes. A person may increasingly not seem to be "themself." This is difficult both for the person who is aging as well as for their family and friends. Family members and caregivers should look to the principles of respect and consideration when dealing with the challenges which may accompany this process.



Illness Any etiquette surrounding a minor illness is fairly straightforward. We know to be careful not spread anything contagious, and whenever we're in the

Young Ji International School / College

Page 3

company of someone who's under the weather, we offer sympathy: "Sorry to hear you've been sick with the flu. I hope you're feeling better."

A more serious illness calls for a get-well card, flowers, or perhaps a visit. And dealing with a debilitating or terminal illness makes more demands on loved ones and friends, all of whom want to make such difficult days as comfortable for the patient as possible. 

Loss, Grieving, and Condolences Losing a close friend or relative is a difficult experience. It is often unclear what can or should be done in response. Those who are grieving may "freeze" and require the support and assisstance of friends. Funerals and other events which follow the death of a loved one serve to memorialize them and can be a celebration of their life. While such events can help to console us, respecting the wishes of the deceased should also remain a primary concern.

Your home should become a light that illuminates the entire street and community -- The Rebbe A young father worked hard and had great success, but he seemed very sad. His father noticed this and stopped by to talk to him; the young man was surprised when, instead of asking about work, his father asked how much time he was spending with his family. ―With all the demands of this job, I have very little time for that,‖ he replied. ―That sounds like what my father used to say,‖ his father said. ―Every day I would wait by the window for him to come home, and every day I would fall asleep before he came. For the sake of your children, and for the sake of their children, no matter how much work you have, try to make it home every night in time to tuck them in. You cannot imagine how much you will be doing for them -- and for yourself.‖ After many hours of looking for food, a bird returns to its nest, taking supreme comfort in a place that is warm and safe, far removed from the dangers and distractions of the world outside.

Your home and family are your nest, the center of your life, the hub from which all your daily experiences extend. Both as children and adults, our home and family are where we should feel most comfortable in the world.

They determine how you make your life decisions; they shape your attitudes, your awareness, your self-esteem. A healthy home life is obviously a vital ingredient in the pursuit of a meaningful life.

How do you build a healthy home?

Young Ji International School / College

Page 4

There are three key elements in building a peaceful home life: the relationships between family members, the atmosphere of the home itself, and the way the home is run.

When a family shares principles and values, they grow together. The home becomes a foundation for the family’s shared sense of purpose while providing a springboard for each member to pursue his or her own goals. In such homes, families stay up late talking heart-to-heart about what’s on their minds. Children crowd around grandparents to hear stories. Teenagers debate meaningful issues with each other and with their parents. The whole family gets together -- and not just on holidays -- for evenings of songs, games, and reminiscing. The home becomes alive, a source of energy and hope, of urgency and love. It is not the tranquility of a home that makes it peaceful; it is the life within.

The ultimate beauty in a home is its emotional and spiritual warmth.

There are many ways to beautify your home spiritually, to invite G-d into your home. Place a charity box in each room. Talk with your family about G-d and our responsibilities as good-hearted people. Invite guests into your home, and allow it to be used as a place of study and prayer, or to hold charitable functions or community meetings.

Each healthy home is a macrocosm of the entire universe, helping make the entire world a home for G-d. Harmony at home, within a family, translates into harmony between families and communities and nations. When there is no harmony between people who are related by blood, how can we expect to create harmony between strangers?

After many centuries of exhausting journeys, it is time for all of us to come home -- to ourselves, to our families, to G-d. After the thousands of years of civilizing this world, after the millions of spiritual seeds that human beings have planted through acts of kindness, the time has come for this world to sprout like a garden -- G-d’s garden, a universe filled with goodness and knowledge.

ACTION Make your home truly beautiful by introducing spirituality into your home, welcoming guests, and talking with your family about our responsibilities as good-hearted people. Your children will grow up to remember their home as a place of warmth and kindness, where people felt comfortable to gather and talk about things that mattered to them. In all likelihood, these children will grow into adults who will create the same sort of home.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 5

A beautiful home must also be free from influences that can pollute its wholesomeness and spiritual grace -- television, for instance. People today recognize the damaging effects that television has on impressionable children, and, for that matter, on teenagers and adults. A television must not be allowed to rule the home.

The next time you are sitting in your living room or sharing a meal with your family, ask yourself: Do I truly feel at home? Am I doing everything possible to build a healthy family and household? Do guests feel welcome here? And, above all, Does G-d feel comfortable in my home?

This is an excerpt from ―Toward a Meaningful Life – The Wisdom of the Rebbe‖ by Rabbi Simon Jacobson. (i) Concepts of rationality The main point of this lecture is to give a working definition of what we mean by rationality in Economics. This is a complex construct with many potential meanings across a wide range of literatures. In Economics we generally tend to mean that decision makers are consistent in their behaviour rather than to question their motivations. The basic microeconomic models of the consumer generally assume rational utility maximising behaviour. (ii) Rational choice in conditions of certainty In the simplest case of choice under certainty, consumers are assumed to be able to represent all alternatives, rank them consistently and choose the bundle of goods they prefer the most subject to the constraints that they face. Rational consumers allocate their time to work and leisure and the subsequent income to savings and consumption so as to maximise their life-time utility. The implicit or explicit ability to perform the computations necessary to enact optimal behaviour underlie models of choice of consumer goods, labour supply and saving.

In conditions of uncertainty, the models so far assume that people are able to represent accurately uncertain outcomes efficiently using available information and to choose consistently between alternatives with uncertain outcomes. If people behave in this fashion and markets are open, then we can view their behaviour as revealing their preferences and we can also predict how they will respond to changes in price and other constraints and the effects of these changes on their welfare. We will revise the basic models in the lecture.

Rational decision makers should obey the axioms of (1) completeness i.e. they should consider all possible alternatives and have defined preferences for all alternatives (2) transitivity i.e they should be consistent in their preferences so that if A is preferred to B and B to C then A is preferred to C (3) Diminishing Marginal Utility and Diminishing Rate of Substitution i.e. as the person acquires more of a given good their marginal value of it becomes less relative to other goods (4) Non-Satiation Young Ji International School / College

Page 6

i.e. people do not have so much of everything that they do not want any more (5) Reflexivity - a technical assumption which means that A is worth A. These conditions define people's preferences. If people hold these preferences, they will make choices that are rational provided they have the full information and there is no external obstacle to making their choices. People make these choices subject to the constraints that they face. The main constraints they face are the endowment of wealth and talent they bring into the world, the prices of goods, the wages that they can acquire from working and interest rates. Rational economic actors maximize their well-being (utility) by choosing how much to work at the given wage rate; choosing how much to save in different savings and investment vehicles and choosing the bundle of current consumption goods that they prefer they most from all the available alternatives. (iii) Rational choice in conditions in conditions of uncertainty Under conditions of uncertainty, rational individuals must be able to attach accurate probabilities to all potential outcomes arising from different decisions. They then must attach value to each of these probabilistic outcomes. They must also attach a value to the risk itself, with different people being risk averse, risk neutral or risk loving.

Fig 2. A Rational Gamble The mathematical model of how people attach value to probabilistic outcomes is known as a Von-Neumann Morgenstern utility function. It simply says that people multiply the subjective of an outcome by the probability that it will occur following an action (see Fig. 2 for an example).

Rational individuals try to live their lives by maximising the subjective expected utility arising from all their behaviours. If people behave in this fashion, we can say that their behaviour is the best measure of their welfare - this is called "revealed preference" in economics. Similarly, we can derive the value of goods by looking at how rational people choose between them. The value of something is the rate at which rational people trade the item off against other items - in general in Economics, we choose money as a comparison good and express the value of goods in terms of currency.

We also assume that economic agents care only for their own welfare and act to maximise their own individual utility. Technically, this is a separate assumption from rationality as one can be rational and altruistic or conversely irrational and greedy. In general, we will look at rationality and altruism separately. Furthermore, there is no real separation between the types of decisions that are of interest to economists and those that are not. When we use phrases such as consumption, saving, leisure, investment etc., we are referring to a very broad range of phenomena. Throughout the course, I will use examples from behavioural game Young Ji International School / College

Page 7

theory rather than simple consumption examples as I think these illustrate the realworld importance of these issues. For now, you need to get a working definition of rationality something similar to the above into your mind so that you have a framework for what follows. (iv) Challenges to rational choice Fig 3. The Allais Paradox We examined early challenges to the formal model of rational choice, in particular the Allais and Ellsberg paradoxes. The Allais paradox is relatively simple.

In Figure 3, look at the gambles and decide which one you would choose.

The "paradox" is that most people exhibit preference reversals in an expected utility sense in that they often choose 1A and 2B. If you look at the expected value of the gambles (see Fig.2, just multiply the value by the probability of receiving it) a person with consistent preferences would choose either 1A and 2A or 1B and 2B after all the B gambles are essentially the same as the A gambles, we have just added an 80% chance of receiving 0 to both. In reality we often see preference reversals because many people have a preference for certainty and/or are motivated by regret aversion in the case of 1A. Fig 4. The Ellsberg Paradox The Ellsberg paradox (Fig. 4) is from one of the most cited papers in behavioural economics and is a little more complex. Look at gambles 1 and 2 and decide which ones you would choose.

We know 30 of the 90 balls are red (so a 1/3 chance of drawing red) and 60 are black or yellow, but we can't calculate probabilities for them because we don't know the distribution. It could be 1 black & 59 yellow, 30-30, 59 black & 1 yellow or any other combination. In economics terminology this is is a case of uncertainty (where probabilities are not known) rather than risk (where they are). All we can say for sure is that there's a 1/3 chance of drawing red and a 2/3 chance of not drawing red. Most people choose 1B here. Assuming a person is not just picking randomly, then if they pick 1B we may assume it's because they have deemed the probability of red appearing as greater than that of black appearing, i.e. they think p(black) < 0.33 since we know p(red) = 0.33. In other words we think there are 29 black balls or less.

Gamble 2 is identical to gamble 1 except we now add the yellow balls for both A and B choices. Since we already preferred red to black last time, adding an equal amount of yellow balls to both sides shouldn't matter. If red > black, then red + yellow > black + yellow. The paradox here is that most people, having chosen 1B, now choose 2A. Why is that? Essentially it's because most people display ambiguity aversion. Black + yellow has known risks; there is a 2/3 (66%) chance of winning and a 1/3 chance of failure. Red + yellow is uncertain; the chances of winning could be Young Ji International School / College

Page 8

34.4% (if there's 1 yellow) or 98.8% (if there are 59). Your choice here will depend on how much variance you are willing to tolerate.

In addition to these paradoxes, Rabin (2003) gives a thorough but accessible discussion of the main tenets of rational choice in economics and the potential problems with these assumptions. Much of the rest of the course will evaluate the evidence on how people make decisions and how this compares with the basic textbook model.

It is worth pointing out at this stage that the rationality assumptions in Economics at first appear ridiculous. We know that people do not perform billions of explicit calculations each time they choose a product. However, it should be kept in mind that most accounts of rationality do not need to assume that they do. Instead, many economists believe that the markets contain sufficient cues to allow people to act rationally even if they cannot perform the computations explicitly or that suboptimal behaviour will simply not survive in a competitive market. I might decide tomorrow to set up a business exporting sand to North Africa but I will quickly find out that this is not a sensible thing to do or else I will just go broke. When we are evaluating the rationality postulates it will be important to push them to their limits.

The ultimate test will be whether groups of people systematically act inconsistently in important areas of their life in a persistent fashion. We will go through Rabin's account in the lecture and form an initial impression of the overall argument. (v) Loss aversion and the endowment effect: The fifth part of the lecture introduced the ideas of loss aversion and the endowment effect. The basic idea of losses relative to a reference point being valued more than gains was developed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979) and has had a major influence on economics and related fields. See Fig. 3 to see the main insight of their Prospect Theory visually; note than a gain of 1 unit causes 1 extra utility, whereas a loss of 1 unit results in a disutility of almost 1.5. This is a simple example but gets at the idea that people asymmetrically value losses and gains.

Fig 5. Prospect Theory and Loss Aversion Fig 6. The Endowment Effect We examined experimental evidence on the endowment effect, in particular the famous mugs experiment of Kahneman et al, demonstrating that experimental subjects assigned to owning and selling mugs valued them more highly than those assigned to purchase them. To explain the experiment briefly, there were 3 groups: (1) buyers, who got some money and were asked how much they were willing to pay (WTP) for the mug, (2) sellers, who got a mug and were asked how much money they were willing to accept (WTA) to give it up and (3) choosers, who could choose the mug or say how much money they were willing to accept instead. The results (Fig. 6) are striking; the sellers demanded about twice as much to give up the mug as the buyers were willing to pay. The choosers, who were not subject to the Young Ji International School / College

Page 9

endowment effect because they were not in physical possession of the mug, were willing to pay about the same as the buyers.

There is now a massive literature on the endowment effect and loss aversion that we will review later in the term. (vi) Implications of rationality assumptions and threats to their validity for policy: Beshears et al (2008) is an interesting and accessible account of why people's behaviour may not be fully rational in the sense used in the textbook.

Beshears et al argue that many choices are characterized by conditions where the chooser does not have much experience, where third-party pressures are operant, where the chooser does not have much scope for trial-and-error and where starting points and consumer inertia dominate active choice. In such conditions, there may be a big gap between what people choose and what they would choose were they making fully informed and deliberative choices. This is an enormous challenge to basic economic theory and also potentially has major policy implications.

C - DECISION MAKING IN ORGANISATIONS INTRODUCTION. Managers within organizations make decisions and permeate everything an organization does.

Decisions are the means by which organizations turn ideas into action and can have a positive or a negative impact.

The conditions under which decisions are made in organizations is shown on the following diagram Types of Decisions Made In Organisations.

A choice made from among a set of alternatives is a decision. Decision making is the process of identifying alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and selecting an alternative.

Organizational decisions can be described in terms of two dimensions: whether they are programmed or nonprogrammed and whether they are made under conditions of certainty, risk, or uncertainty.

Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions.

The degree to which decisions are programmed depends upon the number of times similar decisions have been made in the past.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 10

Programmed decisions are decisions that occur often enough in an organization that standardized rules are used to make them. These standardized rules can take the form of decision guidelines, standard operating procedures, or check-lists. Programmed decisions help ensure that tasks are performed smoothly and consistently.

Nonprogrammed decisions are decisions that occur infrequently enough in an organization that standardized rules cannot be used to make them. When making nonprogrammed decisions, managers must rely on their experience and intuition.

Decisions about new products or building new manufacturing facilities are examples of nonprogrammed decisions.

Certain, Risky, And Uncertain Decisions.

The following figure illustrates how to distinguish among certain, risky, and uncertain decisions.

If, at the time a decisions is made, only a single outcome is likely, the decisions is certain. Certain decisions are "sure things". Organizations rarely make decisions under conditions of certainty, though some decisions come close.

If, at the time a decision is made, the probabilities of several alternative outcomes are known, the decision is risky. For risky decisions, several different outcomes are possible and the probability of each outcome's actually occurring is known. Many organizational decisions are made under conditions of risk.

If, at the time a decision is made. the range of possible outcomes is not known and the probability of these different outcomes' occurring is not known, the decision is uncertain.

These decisions are among the hardest to make because managers do not know what the outcomes might be. Managers make them because they believe the chosen course of action is the right thing to do. Managers try to make uncertain decisions succeed by marshalling the organization's resources.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR DECISION MAKING. Different types of decisions are made at different levels in the organizational hierarchy.

Generally top managers make both nonprogrammed decisions and risky and uncertain decisions.

Middle managers often have the task of transforming nonprogrammed decisions into programmed ones and transforming risky decisions into certain ones.

Lower-level managers generally make programmed and certain decisions.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 11

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS. The steps in the decision-making process are identifying alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and selecting from among alternatives. The classical model of decision making provides the logic for much decision making. Behavioral aspects of decision making create deviations from this approach.

The Rational Decision-Making Model.

Rational decision making keeps the decision maker focused on facts and logic and helps guard against inappropriate assumptions and pitfalls. The approach is aimed at; Obtain complete and perfect information, Eliminate uncertainty Evaluate all information rationally and logically.

The output from this process is to produce a decision that best serves the interests of the organization The six steps in the classical decision making model are; 1.

Recognizing the need for a decision: Decision making is necessary when there is a gap between the actual state of the organization and the desired state.

2.

Diagnosing the problem: Diagnosis allows managers to understand why a gap between actual and desired states exists. In diagnosing the problem, managers usually collect data and information about each plausible explanation for the gap.

3.

Developing alternatives: Only after identifying the cause of a problem can an organization begin to develop alternative solutions. According to classical decision-making theory, all possible alternative solutions should be explored.

4.

Selecting alternatives: Managers must decide which alternatives to implement. Optimal solutions are alternatives that address a particular problem in the most complete way possible but at lowest cost.

5.

Implementing alternatives: Implementation occurs when the ideas and principles represented in a decision are actually put into operation by organizational members.

6.

Exercising control and follow-up: Classical decision making is completed only when organizations exercise control and follow-up.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 12

BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF DECISION MAKING. The classical decision-making model is very logical, very linear, in its approach. Limits on the information-processing capacities of decision makers sometimes make it impossible to use the classical model. Moreover, decision making in organizations is often influences by a variety of social and psychological phenomena.

The administrative model describes how decisions often actually are made based on the assumptions that managers have incomplete and imperfect information, are constrained by bounded rationality, and tend to satisfice when making decisions.

1.

Bounded rationality describes the limited capacity of decision makers to process information. Most organizational decisions are made under conditions of bounded rationality. In general, the more complex a decision is or the longer the time frame of knowing the consequences, the more decision makers are limited by bounded rationality.

2.

Optimizing is searching for optimal solutions. Satisficing is searching for satisfactory solutions. Typically organizations search not for optimal solutions but for satisfactory solutions. Costs and time factors are considered as organizations decide whether to satisfice or optimize.

3.

Three powerful social and psychological factors limit the application of classical decision making in organizations.

Escalation of commitment is a psychological process whereby decision makers become increasingly committed to their chosen course of action even as the ineffectiveness of that action becomes more apparent.

Organizational politics is a set of individual or group activities carried out for the purpose of acquiring, developing and using power to influence the outcomes of decisions.

Managerial intuition is the ability of decision makers to make successful decisions while drawing on incomplete, inconclusive, and contradictory information.

GROUP DECISION MAKING. Any decision-making process that is performed by several individuals is group decision making.

Advantages Of Group Decision Making.

The amount of information and experience available can be increased by including more individuals in the decision-making process. Group decision making Young Ji International School / College

Page 13

tends to generate more alternatives, possibly allowing the organization to optimize more. Communication and understanding are also increased when group decision making is used. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of the decision's being accepted and supported.

Disadvantages Of Group Decision Making.

The amount of time needed for making a group decision is a big drawback.

Group decision making can also force compromises when strong, decisive actions might be needed. Finally, group decision making can encourage groupthink, which is a phenomenon that emerges in a group when the group members' desire for consensus and cohesion outweighs their desire to make the best possible decision.

TECHNIQUES FOR GROUP DECISION MAKING. Several specific group decision-making techniques can be employed by organizations.

Interacting group technique: An interacting group is a decision-making group in which members openly and freely discuss, argue about, or agree on the best alternative. It is the least structured of the group techniques.

Nominal group technique: More structured than the interacting group is the nominal group. Group members do not talk freely with one another. A group leader facilitates the decision process by describing the decision situation and asking for input from the participants. Alternatives are ranked, and a decision is chosen.

Role-assigning technique: The role assignment approach lies between the extremes of the interacting and nominal group techniques. Two particularly important roles are the devil's advocate and the group facilitator. The responsibility of the group facilitator is to ensure that every group members feels free to express opinions, even controversial ones, and that no one person dominates the group.

A Delphi group is sometimes used for developing a consensus of expert opinion. The Delphi procedure solicits input from a panel of experts who contribute individually. Their opinions are combined and "averaged." These results are feedback to the experts and the process continues until a solution is reached.

Lectures to Parents Lecture 5 THE FAMILY ECONOMY Every family has its economy. In distinction from bourgeois society, our family has only a work economy which can not have exploitation of people as its aim. This economy may grow and increase not because some member of the family receives profits but only as a result of increased wages for some one in the family and by Young Ji International School / College

Page 14

family economies....0ur economy consists only of things for individual use, means of production cannot be included since these, in our country, belong to all society....

Naturally, every family tries to improve its standard of living, but this we can do not by plundering exploitation of other people but only by labor participation of members of the family in the general life and work of the whole Soviet people.

Riches in our family do not depend as much on the strength of the family as on the successes of the entire country, on its victories on the economic and cultural front.

Every child, as member of a family, is to a degree a participant in the Soviet economy. Our children must, therefore, be brought up to be not only participants in the family economy but to be working citizens....Everyone will take part in the governmental economy and the better prepared a person is for this, the more useful it will be for all Soviet society and for himself....

Family economy is a fertile field for developing the dualities needed for a good working citizen and manager....

Collectivism In simple terms, collectivism means the solidarity of man with society.

Individualism is the opposite of collectivism. In some families, because of lack of attention to this question, children are brought up to be individualists. If a child from earliest childhood does not know where the family means come from, if he is to satisfy only his needs and does not notice the needs of other members of the family, if he fails to relate his family to all Soviet society, if he grows up greedy, demanding then he has been brought up an individualist. This may be harmful to him and to society.....The child should know as young as possible where his parents work..., what they do, what they produce, and what u their product is to society. They should meet the parents' co-workers and hear about their work too......

It should be explained that the money parents bring home is not only something pleasant to spend, but something that has been earned by much socially useful work....

As the child grows up, they should tell him about projects in other parts of the country....If possible, the child should be shown the factory, the process of production should be explained.

If the mother does not work in industry or some institution, but as a housewife, the child must know about her work, respect it and understand that this kind of work too requires strength and effort.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 15

Even a very young child should know about the family budget. He should know how much his parents earn and be involved in family discussions of finances...When the question of purchasing items of general use, such as a piano or radio are under consideration, he should be involved.....

If the family is well-off the child must be taught to understand that wealth is no reason for boasting....When there is a surplus, money should be spent not to satisfy the desires of the child alone but for the whole family. Better to buy books instead of an extra suit!

If the family is, for various reasons, having a hard time financially, one must see that the child does not envy other families. He should understand there is more to be proud of in the immediate struggle to improve living conditions than in having superfluous kopeks. In such a family one must develop the child's patience and ability to look forward toward the better future which is being prepared in our land, and the ability to share joyfully with his friends. Parents should never complain or whine in the child's presence but be cheerful and emphasize the bright side of things as they try to increase their earnings and so improve the family situation. Every improvement should be emphasized and pointed out.....

Honesty Honesty does not fall from heaven! It has to be developed. Dishonesty can also be developed in the family; it all depends on correct parental methods. What is honesty? It is an open, sincere attitude. Dishonesty is secret,...If the child asks for an apple, this is honest. If the desire is secret and he tries to take it without being seen that is dishonest. If mother gives the child an apple and keeps it secret from the other children... she is developing a secretive attitude - consequently, dishonesty.

From earliest years, parents must teach children not to take anything without asking, even if it is in plain sight...Very precious things should not be hidden but the child should learn to treat them carefully....(This means that the family must be orderly)....

If the child has been sent to shop, ask for the change, check with him....Do this until the time when he has worked out strict rules of honesty. This checking must be done very tactfully so that the child will not think that he is somehow suspected.

Care ...A good manager must learn to notice ahead of time what needs to be replaced or repaired, must learn to buy only what is really necessary, not buy casually what he sees in the stores or someone's home....Not all care is good....0ur kind of care must be relaxed...the ability to choose what is needed...to look ahead. It Young Ji International School / College

Page 16

must not be like greed. The child should display this care more in relation to other members of the family than to himself and especially in relation to things of general family use. In this care there is an important beginning of planning, foreseeing.

Parents should teach their children to plan...from time to time, they should discuss various needs of the family and work out a plan for satisfying them.

Thrift This is one aspect of care. Care is manifested in the ideas and thoughts of man, thrift is manifested in his habits. One may be a very careful manager, yet have no habits of thrift. Such habits must be developed early. Even a young child should know how to eat without soiling the tablecloth or his clothes, know how to use things without spoiling or breaking them...This thrift must be applied not only to family things but those of others and especially to objects of general use. Never allow the child to be careless with things on the street, in the park, in the theater.

Responsibility Responsibility consists not only in the fact that a person fears punishment, but just in the fact that, without punishment, he feels uncomfortable if he spoils or destroys something. This is the kind of responsibility we must develop in the Soviet citizen and this is exactly why it is not necessary to punish a child or threaten punishment for spoiling things, but necessary that the child see for himself the harm he did by carelessness and that he be sorry for it. It is necessary, of course, to tell the child about it, to explain the result of his carelessness. But it will be most useful if the child feels the results through his own experience. If the child breaks a toy, for example, do not hurry to buy a new one and do not throw it away. Let it be in sight and in need of repair for some time. Father or mother should discuss the repair of the toy so that the child will see that he has given trouble to his parents and that they are more careful with his toys than he is....If there is a correct collective tone in the family, it will not be hard to develop a feeling of responsibility in the child.

Ability to Orient Oneself ...What is this ability? It consists in knowing how to see and to understand all the details in a given situation. If a man is doing something, he must not forget that behind him are on the other side of him are people who are also busy. It is not possible to orient oneself if the person is only accustomed to see what is before his eyes and not to see or feel what is being accomplished around him...When doing one task, the child must not forget all his other business and the people around him.....To develop this ability, it is useful to give the child not only one order but two or three, to give combinations of directions....This ability is developed by continual exercises in housekeeping chores, in knowing all the details and aspects of housekeeping.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 17

Organizational Ability This is needed to carry out long-term jobs in the family... Even seven year olds, often even younger children, should be given very long-term tasks, for example watering the flowers, keeping the books in order, feeding the cat, looking after younger brother. The matter of spending money is very important....Every family should give the child some independence in spending money for the satisfaction of his own and, in some cases, the family needs. Once or twice a month he should be given a definite sum of money with exact indication of what it should be spent for.

The list of such expenditures should depend on the age of the child...For a boy of 14, for example, the list might consist of buying notebooks, carfare, buying soap and toothpowder for the family, money for movies for himself and his younger brother.

The older the child the more complicated the list.

One must see that the boy or girl carries out the task, not misuing or wasting money for pleasure and not for the business assigned....Sometimes the child does not take his responsibility seriously enough...Then simply talk with him, call attention to his mistake and advise him to correct it. In any case, do not bore the child with continual checking...even more with continual suspicion.

Every parent can find many varied exercises for training his children to be good managers...The family economy should be organized collectively, quietly, and in a disciplined manner so that there will be no unnecessary tension or whining and so that there will be a cheerful, friendly striving to better the life of the family.

So the family economy is the place to develop: collectivism, (i.e., real solidarity with the work and interest of other people, with the interest of society as a whole); honesty (i.e., an open sincere attitude toward people and things); care and thrift, responsibility, the ability to organize and to orient oneself. The family economy must be the economy of a collective and be handled quietly, without tension.

Personal budget Example of a personal budget in Excel format A personal budget is a finance plan that allocates future personal income towards expenses, savings and debt repayment. Past spending and personal debt are considered when creating a personal budget. There are several methods and tools available for creating, using and adjusting a personal budget.

Sample budget A budget allocates or distributes expected income to expected expenses and intended savings. The following sample illustrates how income might be allocated.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 18

Category

Percentage

Total Income

2000

Taxes

0

Net Spendable

1500

Annual Amount

Monthly Amount

Percentages below are for percent of Net Spendable Net Spendable Housing

1000

Food

300

Automobile

200

Insurance

100

Debt Repayment Entertainment and Recreation

200

Clothing Savings

200

Medical/Dental Miscellaneous School/Childcare Investments Average annual expenses (2012) per household in the United States are Category

% Change 2010-11

% Change 2011-12

2010

2011

2012

Food at home

3,624

3,838

3,921

5.9

2.2

Food away from home

2,505

2,620

2,678

4.6

2.2

Housing

16,557 16,803 16,887 1.5

0.5

Apparel and services

1,700

1,740

1,736

2.4

-0.2

Transportation

7,677

8,293

8,998

8.0

8.5

Health Care

3,157

3,313

3,556

4.9

7.3

Entertainment

2,504

2,572

2,605

2.7

1.3

Cash Contributions

1,633

1,721

1,913

5.4

11.2

Personal Insurance and pensions

5,373

5,424

5,591

0.9

3.1

Young Ji International School / College

Page 19

Category

2010

2011

2012

Other Expenditures

3,379

3,382

3,557

Total

48,109 49,705 51,442

% Change 2010-11 0.1

% Change 2011-12 5.2

3.3%

3.5%

Tools A variety of tools are helpful for constructing a personal budget. Regardless of the tool used, a budget's usefulness relies on the accuracy and currency of the data.

Computer generated budgets have become commonly used as they replace the need to rewrite and recalculate the budget every time there is a change.

Pencil and paper A simple budget can be written on a piece of a paper with a pencil and, optionally, a calculator. Such budgets can be organized in ring binders or a file cabinet. Simpler still are pre-formatted budgeting books or bookkeeping forms in which a budget can be created by filling in the blanks.

Spreadsheet software Spreadsheet software allows budgeting by performing calculations using formulas, for example in keeping track of income and expenditure. A drawback of budget spreadsheets is that some do not offer date-shifting, so information has to be reentered or moved at the end of each month.

Money-management software Some software is written specifically for money management. Products such as Fortora Fresh Finance, Moneydance,Quicken, Microsoft Money (discontinued), and GnuCash are designed to keep track of individual account information, such as checking, savings or money-market accounts. These programs can categorize past expenses and display monthly reports that are useful for budgeting future months.

Money-management websites Several websites, such as Mint.com and Housebudgetplanner.com, have been devised to help manage personal finances. Some may have a privacy policy governing the use and sharing of supplied financial information.

Spending-management software Spending-management software is a variation of money-management software. Unlike typical budgeting that allocates future personal income towards expenses, savings and debt repayment, this type of software utilizes a known amount of money, the cash on hand, to give the user information regarding what is left to spend in the current month. This method eliminates some of the guesswork associated with forecasting what a person might receive for income when it comes to allocating budgeted money. Like money-management software, some spendingYoung Ji International School / College

Page 20

management software packages can connect to online bank accounts in order to retrieve a current status report.

Concepts Personal budgeting, while not particularly difficult, tends to carry a negative connotation among many consumers. Sticking to a few basic concepts helps to avoid several common pitfalls of budgeting.

Purpose A budget should have a purpose or defined goal that is achieved within a certain time period. Knowing the source and amount of income and the amounts allocated to expense events are as important as when those cash flow events occur.

Simplicity The more complicated the budgeting process is, the less likely a person is to keep up with it. The purpose of a personal budget is to identify where income and expenditure is present in the common household; it is not to identify each individual purchase ahead of time. How simplicity is defined with regards to the use of budgeting categories varies from family to family, but many small purchases can generally be lumped into one category (Car, Household items, etc.).

Flexibility The budgeting process is designed to be flexible; the consumer should have an expectation that a budget will change from month to month, and will require monthly review. Cost overruns in one category of a budget should in the next month be accounted for or prevented. For example, if a family spends $40 more than they planned on food in spite of their best efforts, next month's budget should reflect an approximate $40 increase and corresponding decrease in other parts of the budget.

"Busting the budget" is a common pitfall in personal budgeting; frequently busting the budget can allow consumers to fall into pre-budgeting spending habits. Anticipating budget-busting events (and underspending in other categories), and modifying the budget accordingly, allows consumers a level of flexibility with their incomes and expenses.

Budgeting for irregular income Special precautions need to be taken for families operating on an irregular income. Households with an irregular income should keep two common major pitfalls in mind when planning their finances: spending more than their average income, and running out of money even when income is on average.

Clearly, a household's need to estimate their average (yearly) income is paramount; spending, which will be relatively constant, needs to be maintained below that amount. A budget being an approximate estimation, room for error should always be allowed so keeping expenses 5% or 10% below the estimated income is a prudent approach. When done correctly, households should end any given year with Young Ji International School / College

Page 21

about 5% of their income left over. Of course, the better the estimates, the better the results will be.

To avoid running out of money because expenses occur before the money actually arrives (known as a cash flow problem in business jargon) a "safety cushion" of excess cash (to cover those months when actual income is below estimations) should be established. There is no easy way to develop a safety cushion, so families frequently have to spend less than they earn until they have accumulated a cushion.

This can be a challenging task particularly when starting during a low spot in the earning cycle, although this is how most budgets begin. In general, households that start out with expenses that are 5% or 10% below their average income should slowly develop a cushion of savings that can be accessed when earnings are below average. Whether this rate of building a cushion is fast enough for a given financial situation depends on how variable income is, and whether the budgeting process starts at a high or low point during the earnings cycles.

Allocation guidelines There are several guidelines to use when allocating money for a budget as well. Past spending is one of the most important priorities; a critical step in most personal budgeting strategies involves keeping track of expenses via receipts over the past month so that spending for the month can be reconciled with budgeted spending for the next month. Any of the following allocation guidelines may be used; choose one that will work well with your situation.

The 60% Solution The 60% Solution is a budgEting system created by former MSN Money's editor-in-chief, Richard Jenkins. The name "The 60% Solution" originates from Jenkins' suggestion on spending 60% of a household's gross income (before taxes) on fixed expenses. Fixed expenses includes federal, state and Social Security taxes, insurance, regular bills and living expenses- like food and clothing, car and house payments.[2] The other 40% breaks down as follows, with 10% allocated to each category:  Retirement: Money set aside into an IRA or 401(k).  Long-term savings: Money set aside for car purchases, major home fix-ups, or to pay down substantial debt loads.  Irregular expenses: Vacations, major repair bills, new appliances, etc.  Fun money: Money set aside for entertainment purposes.

If an individual has a high amount of non-mortgage debt, Jenkins advises that the 20% apportioned to retirement and long-term savings be directed towards paying off debt; once the debt is paid off, the 20% (Retirement + Savings) is to be immediately redirected back into the original categories. According to Jenkins, tracking each individual expense is unnecessary, as the balance of his primary checking account is roughly equivalent to the amount of money that can be spent in this plan.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 22

Software designed to easily set up and track a 60% Solution Budget is built into the "deluxe" and higher versions of Microsoft Money 2007 and Microsoft Money Plus.

Housing as 25% of spendable income[edit] Another allocation principle is that housing expenses (mortgage or rent) should be limited to 25% of spendable income. This rule especially applies to families moving to new housing; if a house payment for a $300,000 house, plus taxes, will result in a $2,000 monthly mortgage bill, will it take up too large a portion of the budget? (To calculate, find income level, tax rate and mortgage interest rate.)

In housing markets with exceptionally high prices, such as California, New York City, or Boston, Massachusetts, in the early 2000s, this rule of thumb may be difficult to follow. A high percentage of income spent on housing will necessitate lower percentages in other categories.

One of the critical factors that many people overlook during the budgeting process is the "supplier-replacement cost-cutting technique". This is the process of scrutinizing each current expenditure, comparison shopping and replacing with a lower cost, equal quality alternative. The newfound savings is then reapplied to debt, savings accounts and enjoyment spending.

Following a budget Once a budget is constructed and the proper amounts are allocated to their proper categories, the focus for personal budgeting turns to following the budget. As with allocation, there are various methods available for following a budget.

Envelopes Envelope Accounting or the Envelope System is a method of budgeting where on a regular basis (i.e. monthly, biweekly, etc.) a certain amount of money is set aside for a specific purpose, or category, in an envelope marked for that purpose.

Then anytime you make a purchase you look in the envelope for the type of purchase being considered to see if there are sufficient funds to make the purchase.

If the money is there, all is well. Otherwise, you have three options: 1) you do not make the purchase; 2) you wait until you can allocate more money to that envelope; 3) you sacrifice another category by moving money from its associated envelope.

The flip side is true as well, if you do not spend everything in the envelope this month then the next allocation adds to what is already there resulting in more money for the next month.

With envelope budgeting, the amount of money left to spend in a given category can be calculated at any time by counting the money in the envelope.

Optionally, each envelope can be marked with the amount due each month (if a bill is known ahead of time) and the due date for the bill.

Spreadsheet budgeting with date-shifting Budget spreadsheets with date-shifting typically offer a detailed view of a 12 month, income and expense, plan. A good way to follow and manage a budget when Young Ji International School / College

Page 23

using a spreadsheet that offers date-shifting is to set the current month a few months before the current month along the 12-month cycle, month 4 for example. In this way previous expenses and results can be viewed when creating or adjusting the budgeting planning.

Step 1 Identify your goals.

What are your financial goals? Do you have debts you need to pay off? Do you want to minimize the debt you graduate with? Are you trying to save for a car, a vacation, or your future? Budgeting involves tough choices, but having a goal will make budgeting a little less painful.

Step 2 Unravel the mystery of where all your money goes.

Do you check your bank account at the end of the month or semester and wonder where all the money went? Before you can manage your money, you have to know how you’re spending it. Use a spreadsheet to track and categorize your expenses for one month. Get in the habit of recording your expenditures once a day.

It's useful to separate your expenses into three categories: Fixed Needs – Necessary expenses that stay the same from month to month, e.g., rent, phone bill Variable Needs – Necessary expenses that may vary from month to month, e.g., gas, food Wants – Nonessential expenses, e.g., lattes, movies, eating out, electronics Is this just another rote exercise in organization and formatting? No! As you will see in Step 5, categorizing your expenses will help you balance your budget by identifying which expenditures should be cut back on first.

If you have a monthly savings goal (and you should!), include it as an expense. It is much easier to save money if you've planned for it in your budget. And it's important, too: if you run into unforeseen expenses, you'll want to be able to pay them without going into debt. And even if nothing goes wrong, having some savings will help you follow your dreams in the future.

These links offer tools and advice for tracking your expenses and savings: NPR article with online resources Tracking expenses – article Top 5 apps to track spending Tips from savingsaccount.com A spending plan Step 3 Identify your sources of income.

Where does your money come from? List the sources of your income (e.g., work, student loans, parents) and the amount that comes in from each source each month.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 24

If you get one disbursement per semester (e.g., student loans and scholarships), determine the monthly allowance by taking the amount that's left after paying nonrecurring costs (e.g., tuition, books, dorm room) and dividing it by the 5 months in a semester.

Example: If you earn $400/month at work and you have $1000 left over from student loans after paying your once-per-semester costs, then your total monthly income is $600.

Step 4 Add it all up.

When you compare your income and expenses, do you have a monthly surplus, or will you be needing another job and begging your parents for help by the end of the semester?

If you already have a surplus in your budget, congratulations! You can invest in your future.

On the other hand, if your expenses exceed your income, Step 5 will help you make some adjustments.

These links offer comprehensive budgeting tools: Budget builder (free) If you prefer to store your data on your home computer, try a personal finance application such as Quicken Step 5 Make adjustments if needed.

If you're over budget, you need a strategy for controlling costs. Balance your budget, starting with the ―wants‖ identified in Step 2.

When you added up your monthly expenses, did you notice any surprisingly large numbers? Did you spend $100 at restaurants or on yet another new outfit? Did you spend more on electronics than food?

Begin with such "wants" that you may be overindulging in. For each type of "want," decide on a reasonable monthly limit that will help you balance your budget. Would it help you reach your goals if you limited yourself to spending $40 a month at restaurants and did more shopping at the grocery store? Can you get by without a monthly clothing or electronics expenditure, making such purchases only after you reach savings goals? Set a cap on your "want" expenses and see if you've balanced your budget.

If you can't trim enough from your "wants" in order to balance your budget, you will need to reduce your variable needs expenditures in the short term and perhaps your fixed needs expenditures in the long term.

FOODS AND NUTRITION II – MEAL PLANNING LECTURE OBJECTIVES: 1. Identify quality meal planning elements.

2. Incorporate the current Dietary Guidelines and My Plate when Planning nutritionally balanced meals.

3. Plan, prepare and evaluate aesthetically pleasing meals by Young Ji International School / College

Page 25

incorporating the aesthetic guidelines.

4. Incorporate food costs as part of meal planning element.

STANDARD: Students will apply skills for consumerism and budgeting as it applies to meal planning, meal management, and meal service.

BELL RINGER DESCRIPTION: Bell Ringer Question MATERIALS: Bell Ringer Cards TIME: 5 min.

CONTENT: 1. Have the students answer the following question on their bell ringer cards, ―What are some things to consider when planning a meal?‖ (answers will vary) 2. When done, have the students return their cards to the class basket.

MOTIVATOR DESCRIPTION: Introduction to Meal Planning MATERIALS: Meal Planning for the Family PowerPoint TIME: 5 min.

CONTENT: 1. Display slide 2 to the class. Ask the students what is wrong with that meal.

(Answer: All the same color. Barely meets the requirements of MyPlate) 2. Display slide 3 to the class. Ask the students what is wrong with that meal.

(Answer: Lacks the dairy group) 3. Display slide 4 to the class. Ask the students what is wrong with that meal.

(Answer: Very high in fat and there are no fruits) ACTIVITY 1 (Individualistic) DESCRIPTION: Discussion of the Meal Planning Elements MATERIALS: MEAL PLANNING FOR THE FAMILY STUDY GUIDE TIME: 30 min. Meal Planning for the Family PowerPoint CONTENT: Young Ji International School / College

Page 26

1. Hand out the ―Meal Planning for the Family‖ study guide to the students and have them take notes throughout the discussion today.

2. Review with the students the dietary guidelines. They were taught in length during Foods I. Help them fill in the blanks. (slide 6-7) 3. Review with the students the MyPlate food groups and recommendations. (slide 812) 4. Discuss with the students about nutritional balance. (slide 13) 5. Show slide 14 and ask the students if that meal would be appealing to eat.

(Probably not because it is all one color) 6. Discuss the importance of color in a meal. (slide 15) 7. Discuss the importance of texture in a meal. (slide 16) 8. Discuss the importance of size and shape in a meal. (slide 17) 9. Discuss the various flavors that can be found in a meal. (slide 18) 10. Discuss the different temperatures meals can be presented in. (slide 19) 11. Discuss the various heavy and light foods found within a meal. (slide 20) 12. Introduce the different parts of a meal and food examples of each. (slide 21) 13. Discuss the differences families have when it comes to meal planning. Ask the students to share their own family experiences concerning preparation and planning. (slide 22) PROCESS QUESTIONS: 1. What are the current dietary guidelines for Americans?

2. What are the MyPlate food groups and recommendations for each group?

3. Why is nutritional balance important when planning for a meal?

4. What does color do for a meal?

5. Why is it important to use different textures throughout a meal?

6. What is the importance to implementing different sizes and shapes of food during a meal?

7. What different types of flavors are there? Why would you want to consider flavor when planning a meal?

8. What is the benefit to using cold and hot foods throughout a meal?

9. How can you properly balance a meal when using heavy and light foods?

10. Name the different parts of a meal and a food example of each.

11. What are the differences between families that may arise in regards to meal planning?

REFERENCES: Information found in the Foods & Nutrition II Curriculum Guide – Utah State Office of Education ACTIVITY 2 (Individualistic) Young Ji International School / College

Page 27

DESCRIPTION: Discussion of Meal Management Resource Skills MATERIALS: MEAL PLANNING FOR THE FAMILY STUDY GUIDE TIME: 25 min. Meal Planning for the Family PowerPoint CONTENT: 1. Discuss with the students the different time management skills that should be implemented when planning and preparing a meal. (slide 24) 2. Discuss the cost of convenient foods with the students. (slide 25) 3. Discuss the various shopping tips that are helpful when planning a meal. (slide 26) PROCESS QUESTIONS: 1. Name the three meal management resource skills important to implement when planning a meal.

REFERENCES: Information found in the Foods & Nutrition II Curriculum Guide â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Utah State Office of Education SUMMARY: When planning a meal for your family, donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t forget these main points: 1. Include the meal planning elements.

2. Understand the different parts of a meal.

3. Be aware of various needs among the family.

4. Use your meal management resources.

STUDENT EVALUATION: Instruct the students to fill out the study guide throughout the lecture today.

Encourage discussion and answer any questions the students may have throughout the lesson.

At the end of class, have the students keep their study guides to prepare for the upcoming test.

There will be two homework assignments given today.

1. Hand out the FAMILY FOOD PROFILE packet to the students. Read through and explain how to complete the assignment. Stress to the students that they are not to cook for this assignment. They just need to complete the packet and turn it in for a grade.

2. Hand out the HOME COOKING ASSIGNMENT #2 worksheet to the students.

They are to plan, prepare, evaluate and serve an aesthetically pleasing meal for their family.

Remind them to take a picture of their completed meal and turn that in with their worksheet.

TEACHER EVALUATION: OPTIONAL ACTIVITY: If time allows, instruct the students to choose a magazine from the back. Have them search for Young Ji International School / College

Page 28

pictures of food and create a collage of a meal that would meet the criterion discussed in class today. Have the students present their collages to the class.

Table Setting Guides Setting a table is not as difficult as it seems. The basic rule is: Utensils are placed in the order of use, that is, from the outside in. A second rule, with only a few exceptions is: Forks go to the left of the plate, and knives and spoons go to the right.

What kind of setting do you want to create?

Click on any of these illustrations for detailed information about each setting: Basic Table Setting:

Informal Table Setting:

Formal Table Setting:

The Proper Way to Set a Dinner Table Want to set a table properly? Follow the general guideline below, or take a look at my basic table diagram below.You can also find all of this information in more detail in my formal dinner table setting guide.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 29

Now, let's start with the basics: Tablecloth and Placemats If you have placemats, put one at each spot, centered in front of each chair. Place mats should be about 1" back from the edge of the table (making your plate about 2" back). Ditto on the spacing if you're using a table runner-- make sure it's evenly spaced between each side of the table.

Plates and China Your serving plate/dinner plate will go right in the center of your placemat, if you're using one, or in area directly in front of the center of the guests' chair. If you're serving soup or an at-table salad, the soup/salad bowl goes on top of the plate.

Optional: Most simple table settings don't use one, but if you opt for a bread or roll plate, it goes above your forks on the left.

Silverware Silverware gets set up adjacent to the plate with a knife tight on the right (blade in) and the main fork on the left. If you use salad or appetizer forks, they go on the outside of the main fork further left. The spoon goes on the right adjacent to the knife. (see diagram below) This basic table setting silverware arrangement is a lot simpler and more "instinctual" than with a formal table-- but uses the same concepts. There's just less of it!

Glasses and Glassware When planning your glasses and glassware, it's a good idea to plan your menu first.

If you've got limited space, ask your guests in advance if they want wine, water, or coffee (or simply plan what you'd like to serve). This will save you putting out three different beverage containers for each place setting.

In most cases, a simple table setting will require a wine glass and a water glass, and no more. But in all cases, the drink glasses go up above the knife and to the right of the plate-- but not so far as people have to over-reach.

Napkins When putting together a basic table setting, one of the ways you can really get creative is with napkins. Now, there's nothing wrong with opting for a nice paper napkin-- the proper way to set a table doesn't always have to include a cloth napkin.

That said, a cloth napkin is inexpensive, reusable, and a great way to add a touch of elegance to your dinner table. Either way, napkins can be placed at the center of the plate, to the left of the silverware, or even tucked into a wine glass.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 30

Basic Dinner Table Set-Up Diagram

Table Decorations and Centerpieces On of my favorite things about opting for a basic table setting rather than a more formal one? You have a lot more flexibility when playing with color and with table decorations. There's no need to stick with white... you can always go with the colors, patterns, and themes you like best. Be bold and have fun with it!

If you're going to include a centerpiece, it's a good idea to keep it low and tasteful.

People should be able to see over the dinner table centerpiece easily-- so they can carry on conversation. And check out these pages for centerpiece ideas: ď&#x201A;ˇ 12 Inexpensive Table Centerpiece Ideas ď&#x201A;ˇ 10 Cheap and Simple --but Elegant!-- Table Centerpieces Letting the Kids Help Out Do the kids want to help prepare for the party? Letting children set the table makes them feel more involved in the event-- a great way to start off a Christmas or Thanksgiving dinner. However, you have to give children a little more leeway than adults in terms of making a so-called proper table.

Be careful that you don't give a child a part of the table setting that they're really not able to handle. For example, let the older children handle good china, and show younger children how to lay out tableware and napkins. As you're teaching children how to set a table, it helps to have one sample place setting as a model they can follow.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 31

How to Take Body Measurements for Pants Before you rush to the fabric shop in search of the perfect pants pattern, remember to take your measurements first in order to get the best fit possible. Follow these simple steps on how to take body measurements for pants to make your sewing experience both easy and pleasurable.

Other People Are Reading

ď&#x201A;ˇ

How to Measure a Woman's Pant Size

ď&#x201A;ˇ

How to Measure for Pants Size

1. o

o

o

o o

Instructions Put on the undergarments and shoes that you plan to wear with the finished pair of pants. This will help ensure accurate measurements.

2 Hold the measuring tape so that it is neither too tight nor too loose. Keep in mind that there will be 6 different measurements you will need to record before you begin sewing your pants.

3 Obtain your waist measurement by measuring around your natural waistline, which is located just above the navel. For your hips, you should measure about 7 inches below your waistline around the widest part.

4 Measure the crotch length by starting at the front center waistline and extending your tape measure in between the legs and up to the back center waistline. The crotch depth is measured by sitting on a chair and measuring from the side waist to the chair seat.

5 Stand up and measure from the side waist down to the hem.

6 Determine the upper-leg circumference by measuring around the widest part of the thigh.

Tips on How to Measure the Body for Sewing Pants

by Webmaster on February 4, 2012 in Sewing How-To, Sewing Tips It is never interesting to have clothes sewn for you and then you find out that they do not fit when you want to wear them. To avoid such kinds of situations, it is very advisable that prior to running out to the fabric shop to shop for the perfect pattern Young Ji International School / College

Page 32

for your pants, you are aware of how to measure the body for sewing pants. Below are a number of simple steps on taking body measurements for sewing pants that you can follow and your sewing experience is guaranteed to be both pleasurable and easy.

Instructions The first step in taking body measurements for sewing pants is to wear the underpants and also the shoes that you intend to wear together with the complete pair of pants. It will really aid you in obtaining accurate measurements.

The second step on how to measure the body for sewing is to hold the measuring tape in such a way that ensures that it is not too loose or too tight. Bear in mind that prior to the start of sewing your pants; you will have to take six different measurements.

So as to be able to get your waist measurement as you are taking body measurements for sewing pants, you will be required to take measurements around your natural waistline. The natural waistline is found just on top of the navel. For the hips, you ought to measure approximately seven inches under your waistline around the region that is widest.

So as to get the length of your crotch, take the tape measure and start from the front center waistline then move it to between your legs and then move back up to your back center waistline. So as to measure the depth of your crotch, first sit on a chair and then measure from the side of the waist to the seat of the chair.

When taking body measurements for sewing pants for the length of the pants, you will be required to stand up after which you measure starting at the side waist them move on down to the hem. You have to be very careful as to where the hem is owing to the fact lack of proper knowledge of this will result in your having shorter than expected pants.

The final step on how to measure the body for sewing is to determine the circumference of the upper leg. How tight or loose you hold the tape measure at this point is all dependent on how fitting you would like the pants to be. You get the circumference through measuring around the part of the thigh that is widest.

Ensure that you are very careful and as accurate as possible as you take these measurements. This will help you to avoid getting pants that do not fit or getting pants that are uneven having other areas longer or shorter than others or having other parts of the pants not fitting you. Keen following of the above steps will allow you to get perfectly fitting pants.

ACTIVITY Note: Solid lines are the final cutting lines. Dotted lines are only for reference.

Part 1: Starting 1. Draw a rectangle as follows: From point 1 to point 2 half the hip measurement.

From point 1 to 3 and 2 to 4 the desired pant length. Connect point 3 to 4.

2. From point 1 towards point 2 apply Âź the hip circumference and mark it as point 5.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 33

3. From point 3 towards point 4 do the same as in the previous step and mark point 6. Connect points 5 and 6 with a straight line.

4. From point 1 towards 3 and 2 towards 4 apply the hip drop (points 7and 8), front crotch (points 9 and 10), and knee level (points 11 and 12). Connect each set of points with a dotted line. These lines are for reference.

5. Mark the the points where the horizontal dotted lines intersect the vertical center line (starting from the top) as points "a", "b" and "c".

Part 2: Front Pattern 1. From 2 towards 8 go down 2.5 cm and mark point 13.

2. From 13 towards the center of the rectangle measure in 2.5 cm and mark point 14.

3. From 14 to the horizontal line connecting 1 and 2 apply ¼ waist measurement and mark point 15.

4. Connect point 15 with point "a" with a dotted line.

5. Find the center point of the segment 15-a and measure out 0.5 cm on the perpendicular.

6. Draw the hip curve (in a solid line) connecting points 15 and a passing through the new point.

7. From point 10 draw a line to the right applying the front crotch measurement.

Mark that point 16. The front crotch measurement is calculated as follows: 15% of ¼ the hip measurement.

8. From point 10 draw a 45º line measuring 1.5 cm.

9. To draw the front crotch connect points 14 and 8 with a straight line and from point 8 to 16 with a curve passing through the very end of the 45º line.

10. Connect points 16 and 12 with a dotted line. Find the center between these and raise a squared line 0.5 cm (as in step 5).

11. Draw the inseam by connecting points 16 and 12 with a curve passing through the end of the line.

12. From c towards 12 mark point d 3 cm in and apply the same distance from point 6 towards 4 to create point e.

13. Draw the front side by connecting points a-b-d-e.

14. Connect points 12 and 4 and finish the front pattern connecting the hemline points e with 4.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 34

Part 3: Back Pattern 1. From 1 towards 5 apply 2.5 cm and mark point 17.

2. From 17 move upwards 2.5 cm and mark point 18.

3. From 18 to the top line (1-2) apply ¼ the waist measurement + 2 cm and mark that point 19.

4. Connect point 19 to point a with a dotted line.

5. Measure to the center of segment 19-a, and square a 0.5 cm line outward (towards the right) .

6. Draw the hip curve connecting 19 to a passing through the end of the new line.

7. From point 7 towards point 1 apply 2.5 cm ad mark point 20.

8. From point 9 towards the left draw a line applying the back crotch measurement, which is calculated as: 45% of ¼ hip circumference or front crotch multiplied by 3. The end of that line is point 23.

9. Mark the center point between points 18 and 19 and and mark it point21.

10. Draw a perpendicular line about 5 cms long from point 21 and mark the end point 22. Mark off 1 cm to either side of point 21 and connect two more straight lines from point 22 to these forming a dart which is 2 cms in depth.

11. Draw a line about 4.5 cms long from point 9 at a 45º angle.

12. Draw the back crotch by connecting points 18 to 20 with a straight line and from point 20 to 23 with a curve passing through the end of the new line.

13. From point 11 to outside the rectangle mark 2 cm (point f). Apply the same distance from point 3 outwards (point g).

Young Ji International School / College

Page 35

14. Connect the points 23 and f. In the middle of this segment raise a short 0.5 cm line.

15. Draw the inseam 23 to f again with a slight curve which passes through the new point.

16. From c towards 11 apply 1 cm (point h).

17. Mark the same distance from point 6 towards point 3 (point i).

18. Draw the side connecting points a-b-h-i.

19. Connect points f and g and finish the back pattern by connecting the hemline points g and i.

20. Confirm that the distance between points 16 and 12 and points 23 and fmatch.

If the back inseam is longer simply move point 23 down accordingly and redraw the inseam.

Factors Affecting Growth of Fruit Trees

To facilitate drainage, plant fruit trees on slopes.

Growing fruit trees requires lots of TLC, but your efforts will be rewarded with a delicious crop of apples, oranges, cherries or another tasty treat. For trees that bear lots of fruit, various factors affecting growth come into play, making the difference between sickly trees and ones that are healthy and productive.

Special Fertilizers Production of organic and chemical fertilizers.

Sunshine Exposure to sunlight is vital the growth of fruit trees, with most species requiring six to eight hours of full sun every day. Planting fruit trees in a shady area results in weak, stunted trees that produce few fruits and flowers, according to the University of New Hampshire. However, the trunks of free trees burn in bright sun and should be painted with a protective layer of whitewash or white latex paint, diluted with water to half its regular strength.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 36

Soil Proper soil is imperative to the survival and growth of fruit trees. If planted in soggy, poorly drained soil, the roots of fruit trees will rot, obstructing growth and development. Though pear, plum and apple trees can withstand moister soil than other fruit tree varieties, loam soils are ideal, as they drain quickly. Also avoid planting fruit trees in dense clay soil, which prevents roots from properly taking hold.

No Matches Found. Please try your search again.

Fertilizer Fruit trees have different fertilization needs than most trees. Applying a typical 4-1-1 fertilizer with nitrogen, phosphorus and potash to fruit trees results in heavy foliage growth, but few flowers and fruits, according to This Old House. Instead, give fruit trees a fertilizer with a low amount of nitrogen, half of which should be water insoluble. Such a fertilizer breaks down slowly, providing fruit trees with a steady diet of the nutrients required for steady, paced growth.

Weeds Weeds and fruit trees are a bad match. The roots of trees are ill-equipped to compete with hungry weeds for nutrients and water, which leads to poor growth. The roots of trees also suffer when weeds flourish, as they must reach further into the ground, away from the nutrient-rich top 2 feet of soil. Weeds also steal nitrogen, making fertilizing ineffective. Additionally, various pests and rodents hide in weeds, exposing trees to harm.

The Importance of Climate, Soil and Water in Fruit Tree Production The orchard grower should not only rely on the quality of seeds to be planted. There are still several environmental factors to be considered for successful tree farming. a. Climate Different tree species are suited to different climatic conditions that affect their growth and yield. The climatic conditions to which the trees are exposed are rainfall, sunlight, high and low temperature, humidity and wind. Among the mentioned conditions, the long light rain is the most suitable for tree crops because water slowly penetrates the soil that will keep it moist for a period of time.

High temperature will affect the quality of fruit such as color and taste. b. Soil Soil is a naturally occurring body made up of minerals and organic constituents. It holds the trees and provides water and nutrients for them to grow. The best kind of soil for fruit trees is warm, porous, sandy and loamy. c. Water Water is needed in the formation of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and other nutrients. It serves as the carrier of food to be distributed to other parts of the tree.

Transplanting of trees should not be below the level of water supply.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 37

Soil and climate change Human and ecological systems rely on soil for the provision of water and nutrients for plant growth, the regulation of the water cycle and the storage of carbon. Climate change and its impacts — increases in temperature, changing precipitation patterns, floods, droughts — will not only affect us but may also affect how soil provides these services. Importantly soil is a major factor in our response to tackling climate change as it is the second largest carbon pool after the oceans.

It is estimated that in the EU around 75 billion tonnes of carbon is stored in soil (EC, 2009) [. To illustrate its importance in 2006 the total carbon emission in the EU amounted to approximately 1.5 billion tonnes ( EEA, 2008).

EU soils may act as a modest sink for carbon. However, current estimates of changes in soil carbon stocks have high uncertainties. A recent study, based on the extrapolation of the results of studies on the changes occurring in three land uses (grassland, cropland and forest soils), estimates a net yearly accumulation of carbon in the EU soils in the range of 1 to 100 million tonnes [2] (EC, 2009). Larger accumulation would be possible with proper management.

Soil carbon sequestration cannot be alone the solution due to the limited magnitude of its effects and its potential reversibility. Nevertheless, it could play an important role in climate mitigation in the short term together with other measures, especially because of its immediate availability and the relatively low cost.

These figures illustrate that soil is essential in the debate on how we tackle climate change, as the release of just a small fraction of the soil carbon stock could offset the savings achieved elsewhere.

Soil carbon losses are driven by changes in land use — especially drainage of peatlands —, land management and climate, which may lead to soil degradation and the loss of soil organic matter. In the northernmost parts of the continent, the melting of permafrost, with the consequent release of methane and CO 2, is also contributing to the atmospheric carbon pool.

For example, in the United Kingdom, losses may amount to more than 13 million tonnes since 1990 (Bellamy, 2008). This estimated loss corresponds to about 10 % of the annual UK industrial carbon emissions (2006), which is approximately the same as the reduction of industrial CO2 emissions in the period 1990-2006.

Climate change is expected to have an impact on soil (EEA, 2009a; EEA, 2009b; EEA-JRC-WHO, 2008). However, the interrelations between climate change and changes in soil quality are complex and still under study. As a consequence predictions, which are based on hypothetical scenarios and data obtained under controlled conditions, are still more qualitative than quantitative. But, it is clear that tackling climate change cannot be done without a better understanding and management of our soils.

Asexual propagation is the best way to maintain some species, particularly an individual that best represents that species. Clones are groups of plants that are identical to their one parent and that can only be propagated asexually. The Bartlett Young Ji International School / College

Page 38

pear (1770) and the Delicious apple (1870) are two examples of clones that have been asexually propagated for many years.

The major methods of asexual propagation are cuttings, layering, division, and budding/grafting. Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the parent plant; layering involves rooting a part of the parent and then severing it; and budding and grafting are joining two plant parts from different varieties.

Rooting Media The potting soil, or medium in which a plant grows, must be of good quality. It should be porous for root aeration and drainage, but also capable of water and nutrient retention. In order for a plant to form a new root system, it must have a ready moisture supply at the cut surface. Oxygen, of course, is required for all living cells.

The coarse-textured media choices often meet these requirements. Most commercially prepared mixes are termed artificial, which means they contain no soil.

The basic ingredients of such a mix are sphagnum peat moss and vermiculite, both of which are generally free of diseases, weed seeds, and insects.

Rooting media for asexual propagation should be clean and sterile. Cuttings are not susceptible to damping-off, but they are attacked by other fungi and bacteria which may come along in the medium. Most commercially prepared media are clean when purchased.

The media should be low in fertilizer. Excessive fertility will damage or inhibit new roots. High-quality artificial mixes sometimes contain slow-release fertilizers.

Coarse perlite alone can be used to start some cuttings. This doesn't hold much water for long, but it is fine for rooting cuttings of cactus-type plants which would ordinarily rot in higher moisture media. Coarse vermiculite alone has excellent waterholding capacity and aeration, but may dry out rapidly via evaporation if not covered in some way. A mix of 50% peat moss and 50% perlite favors good aeration. An equal mix of peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite is also good and favors moisture retention.

Plain water can be used to propagate some cuttings. This is possible and actually works quite well for some species which root easily. It certainly provides the needed moisture, but if the water is not changed on a weekly basis, it will become stagnant, oxygen deficient, and inhibitory to rooting. Furthermore, roots produced in 100% water are different from those produced in solid media; they may undergo greater transplant shock with a greater incidence of death. So, it is not the most desirable methodfor most plants, but certainly feasible.

Rooting Enhancement Conditions Once you've selected the right medium, your first priority is to get roots produced as quickly as possible. The consequences of slow rooting may be death because the cutting must rely on its limited water reserves. Water is required for major chemical reactions in plants which will be shut down in its absence. Even though the exposed cells on the cut surface of the cutting ordinarily transport water throughout the plant, they are not equipped to adequately absorb it from the medium. This can only be done in most plants by roots, and particularly root hairs. Root hairs are tiny, single cell projections from the root ends or tips.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 39

Make sure the medium is moist prior to inserting cuttings. If incompletely moist, then the cut surface may contact a dry pocket and have its own water absorbed away by the medium component. Try to keep both the air and medium temperature warm: 7075°F. Higher temperatures enhance growth, but excessively high temperatures do not allow for photosynthesis to keep up with food breakdown in normal cell energy use (respiration). You can buy electric heating pads to put beneath containers holding cuttings to maintain a constant temperature.

Get air circulation around the cuttings as much as possible to discourage fungal growth. Place in bright, but not direct light. An east window is fine but a west window is too warm and a south facing window too bright. North is too dim.

One way to provide good environmental conditions for asexual propagation by cuttings is through the use of a mist bed. This system sprays a fine mist of water over the cuttings once every few minutes, and the time is adjustable. It should only be on during the day, as nighttime operation would keep the medium too wet and encourage rotting. Misting inhibits transpiration and forces the plant to conserve water while it forms new roots. If a mist system is unavailable, one can be imitated in a small propagation tray in the home. Choose an appropriate medium, moisten it, and place it in a tray. Place the tray in a perforated or slitted clear plastic bag. This increases the relative humidity and inhibits water loss by the plant and medium, yet allows air circulation. Tug gently at the cuttings after 2-3 weeks to test for rooting and transplant to individual pots when roots resist your tugs. Dig them out, do not pull them out! Different plants require different rooting times, so do not expect them all to root at the same time.

Cuttings Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated by cuttings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new plant. Take cuttings with a sharp blade to reduce injury to the parent plant. Dip the cutting tool in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one part bleach to nine parts water to prevent transmitting diseases from infected plant parts to healthy ones. Remove flowers and flower buds to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored carbohydrates for root and shoot formation rather than fruit and seed production. With large-leaved cuttings (i.e., Rhododendron) and limited space in the propagation container, trimming up to half the leaf length can improve efficiency, as well as light and air circulation for all the cuttings. To hasten rooting, increase the number of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting (except on soft, fleshy stems), use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing a fungicide. Prevent possible contamination of the entire supply of rooting hormone by putting some hormone in a separate container for dipping cuttings. Discard this hormone after all the cuttings are treated.

Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright, indirect light. Root cuttings can be kept in the dark until new shoots appear.

Stems Cuttings Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings. Most can be taken throughout summer and fall, but stem cuttings of some woody plants root better if Young Ji International School / College

Page 40

taken in the fall or in the dormant season. Success with herbaceous plants is generally enhanced when done in the spring; these plants are actively growing then, and more apt to root quickly on their own. There are several different types of stem cuttings depending on the part of the stem needed. At least one node (the point on a stem where leaves are attached and buds form) should be below the media surface.

Although some plants root at internodes (the space between nodes), others only root at nodal tissue.

Tip cuttings Detach a 2- to 6-inch piece of stem, including the terminal bud. Make the cut just below a node. Remove lower leaves that would touch or be below the medium.

Dip the stem in rooting hormone if desired. Gently tap the end of the cutting to remove excess hormone. Make a hole in the medium with a pencil or pot label, and insert the cutting deeply enough into the media to support itself.

Medial cuttings (also stem-section cuttings) Make the first cut just above a node, and the second cut just below a node 2 to 6 inches down the stem. Prepare and insert the cutting as you would a tip cutting. Be sure to position right side up. Buds are always above leaves. Make sure the cutting is inserted base down.

Cane cuttings Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one or two eyes, or nodes. Dust ends with fungicide or activated charcoal. Allow to dry several hours. Lay horizontally with about half of the cutting below the media surface, eye facing upward. Cane cuttings are usually potted when roots and new shoots appear, but new shoots from dracaena and croton are often cut off and rerooted in sand.

Single Eye The eye refers to the bud which emerges at the axil of the leaf at each node. This is used for plants with alternate leaves when space or stock material are limited. Cut the stem about 1/2 inch above and 1/2 inch below a node. Place the cutting horizontally or vertically in the medium with the node just touching the surface.

Double Eye This is used for plants with opposite leaves when space or stock material is limited. Cut the stem about 1/2 inch above and 1/2 inch below the same node. Insert the cutting vertically in the medium with the node just touching the surface.

Heel cutting This method uses stock material with woody stems efficiently. Make a shield-shaped cut about halfway through the wood around a leaf and axial bud. Insert the shield horizontally into the medium so that it is Young Ji International School / College

Page 41

completely covered. Remove any leaf blade but keep a portion of the petiole intact for ease in handling this small cutting.

Leaf Cuttings Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor plants. Leaves of most plants will either produce a few roots but no plant, or just decay.

Whole leaf with petiole Detach the leaf and up to 1 1/2 inches of petiole. Insert the lower end of the petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will form at the base of the petiole. The leaf may be severed from the new plants when they have their own roots, and the petiole can be reused. (Example: African violet).

Whole leaf without petiole This is used for plants with sessile leaves (no stalk or petiole). Insert the cutting vertically into the medium. A new plant will form from the axillary bud. The leaf may be removed when the new plant has its own roots. (Example: donkey's tail).

Split vein Detach a leaf from the stock plant. Slit its veins on the lower leaf surface.

Lay the cutting, lower side down, on the medium. New plants will form at each cut. If the leaf tends to curl up, hold it in place by covering the margins with the rooting medium. (Example: Rex begonia).

Leaf sections This method is frequently used with snake plant and fibrous rooted begonias. Cut begonia leaves into wedges with at least one vein. Lay leaves flat on the medium. A new plant will arise at the vein. Cut snake plant leaves into 2-inch sections.Consistently make the lower cut slanted and the upper cut straight so you can tell which is the top. Insert the cutting vertically. Roots will form fairly soon, and eventually a new plant will appear at the base of the cutting. These and other succulent cuttings will rot if kept too moist. (Note that with variegated snake plant, the new shoot will develop from cells that do not display the variegation.)

Root Cuttings Root cuttings are usually taken from 2- to 3-year-old plants during their dormant season when they have a large carbohydrate supply.

Root cuttings of some species produce new shoots, which then form their own root systems, while root cuttings of other plants develop root systems before producing new shoots.

Plants with large roots: Make a straight top cut. Make a slanted cut 2 to 6 inches below the first cut. Store about 3 weeks in moist sawdust, peat moss, or sand at 40°F. Remove from storage. Insert the cutting vertically with the top approximately level with the surface of the rooting medium. This method is often used outdoors. (Example: horse radish).

Young Ji International School / College

Page 42

Plants with small roots Take 1- to 2-inch sections of roots. Insert the cuttings horizontally about 1/2 inch below the medium surface. This method is usually used indoors or in a hotbed.

(Example: bleeding heart).

Layering Stems still attached to their parent plants may form roots where they touch a rooting medium. Severed from the parent plant, the rooted stem becomes a new plant. This method of vegetative propagation, called layering, promotes a high success rate because it prevents the water stress and carbohydrate shortage that plague cuttings.

Some plants layer themselves naturally, but sometimes plant propagators assist the process. Layering may be enhanced by wounding one side of the stem or by bending it very sharply. The rooting medium should always provide aeration and a constant supply of moisture.

Tip layering Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it with soil. The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the bend, and the recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and plant it in the early spring or late fall. Examples: purple and black raspberries, trailing blackberries.

Simple layering Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving the last 6 to 12 inches exposed. Bend the tip into a vertical position and stake in place. The sharp bend will often induce rooting, but wounding the lower side of the branch or loosening the bark by twisting the stem may help. Examples: forsythia, honeysuckle.

Compound layering This method works for plants with flexible stems. Bend the stem to the rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover and expose stem sections. Wound the lower side of the stem sections to be covered.

Examples: heart-leaf philodendron, pothos.

Mound (stool) layering Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the ground in the dormant season.

Mound soil over the emerging shoots in the spring to enhance their rooting. Examples: gooseberries, apple rootstocks.

Air layering Air layering is used to propagate some indoor plants with thick stems, or to rejuvenate them when they become leggy. Slit the stem just below a node.

Pry the slit open with a toothpick. Surround the wound with wet unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic or foil around the sphagnum moss and tie in place. When roots pervade the moss, cut the plant off below the root ball.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 43

Plants to Propagate Layering: Tip

purple and black raspberries, trailing blackberries

Simple

forsythia, honeysuckle, spider plant, most vine-type (philodendron, grape ivy, devilยบs ivy, swedish ivy, etc.)

plants

Compound heartleaf philodendron, pothos Mound

gooseberries, apple rootstocks

Air Layering

plants with rigid stems such as dieffenbachia, ficus, rubber plant, aralia, croton

Division Propagation from the following plant parts can be considered a modification of layering, as the new plants form before they are detached from their parent plants.

Stolons and runners A stolon is a horizontal, often fleshy stem that can root, then produce new shoots where it touches the medium. A runner is a slender stem that originates in a leaf axil and grows along the ground or downward from a hanging basket, producing a new plant at its tip. Plants that produce stolons or runners are propagated by severing the new plants from their parent stems. Plantlets at the tips of runners may be rooted while still attached to the parent, or detached and placed in a rooting medium. Examples: strawberry, spider plant.

Offsets Plants with a rosetted stem often reproduce by forming new shoots at their base or in leaf axils. Sever the new shoots from the parent plant after they have developed their own root system. Unrooted offsets of some species may be removed and placed in a rooting medium. Some of these must be cut off, while others may be simply lifted off the parent stem.

Examples: date palm, haworthia, bromeliads, many cacti.

Seperation Separation is a term applied to a form of propagation by which plants that produce bulbs or corms multiply.

Bulbs New bulbs form beside the originally planted bulb. Separate these bulb clumps every 3 to 5 years for largest blooms and to increase bulb population. Dig up the clump after the leaves have withered. Gently pull the bulbs apart and replant them immediately so their roots can begin to develop. Small, new bulbs may not flower for 2 or 3 years, but large ones should bloom the first year. Examples: tulip, narcissus.

Corms A large new corm forms on top of the old corm, and tiny cormels form around the large corm. After the leaves wither, dig up the corms and Young Ji International School / College

Page 44

allow them to dry in indirect light for 2 or 3 weeks. Remove the cormels, then gently separate the new corm from the old corm. Dust all new corms with a fungicide and store in a cool place until planting time. Examples: crocus, gladiolus.

Crowns Plants with more than one rooted crown may be divided and the crowns planted separately. If the stems are not joined, gently pull the plants apart. If the crowns are united by horizontal stems, cut the stems and roots with a sharp knife to minimize injury. Divisions of some outdoor plants should be dusted with a fungicide before they are replanted. Examples: snake plant, iris, prayer plant, day lilies.

Division: Stolons/Runners strawberry, begonia, spider plant Offsets

date palm, haworthia,bromeliads, cacti and succulents,

Bulb

tulip, narcissus, hyacinth, amaryllis, lilies

Corm

crocus, gladiolus, freesia sansevieria, iris, prayer plant, day lilies, boston fern, cast iron plant, peace lily

Crowns

Asexual Propagation of Perennials Division Most perennials left in the same place for more than 3 years are likely to be overgrown, overcrowded, have dead or unsightly centers, and need basic fertilizer and soil amendments. The center of the clump will grow poorly, if at all, and the flowers will be sparse. The clump will deplete the fertility of the soil as the plant crowds itself. To divide mature clumps of perennials, select only vigorous side shoots from the outer part of the clump. Discard the center of the clump. Divide the plant into clumps of three to five shoots each. Be careful not to over-divide; too small a clump will not give much color the first year after replanting. Divide perennials when the plants are dormant just before a new season of growth, or in the fall so they can become established before the ground freezes. Stagger plant divisions so the whole garden will not be redone at the same time; good rotation will yield a display of flowers each year. Do not put all the divisions back into the same space that contained the original plant. That would place too many plants in a given area.

Give extra plants to friends, plant them elsewhere in the yard, or discard them.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 45

Cuttings Many plants can be propagated from either tip or root cuttings. Generally, tip cuttings are easier to propagate than root cuttings. Select second growth of dianthus, candytuft, and phlox for cuttings. Make tip cuttings 3 to 6 inches long. Treat the base of the cutting with a root stimulant. Leave all foliage on the cutting except the part that will be below the soil line. Insert one cutting per peat pot. Place peat pots of tip cuttings in a lightly shaded place. Cover with a sheet of clear plastic. Check regularly to make sure the cuttings do not dry out. When cuttings do not pull easily out of the soil, they have begun to root. Make holes in the plastic sheet to increase the exposure of the cuttings to the air. This will harden the cuttings. Every few days, enlarge the holes or make new ones.

Make root cuttings of phlox, baby's breath, and oriental poppy. Dig the plants in late summer after they have bloomed. Select pencil-sized roots; cut them into 4-inch sections. Put each piece in a peat pot. Prepare a tray of peat pots as for seeds, except the soil mix should be 2 parts sand, 1 part soil, and 1 part peat moss. Water thoroughly.

Plant Propagation Tom Clark Mount Holyoke College Botanic Garden Propagating new plants is both a science and an art. The study of it can provide a lifetime of challenges and opportunities to learn more about this fascinating craft, or a basic knowledge of it can provide the home gardener with the skills and techniques to keep their garden well stocked with new plants. Plant propagation is the multiplication of plants by both sexual and asexual means. From the home gardener starting a few tomato plants from seed on the kitchen windowsill, to the conservationist growing endangered species of orchids in test tubes, to the nurseries that grow the millions of annuals, perennials, bulbs, shrubs and trees sold ever year, a working knowledge of plant propagation makes all of these endeavors possible.

Propagation Methods There are probably as many methods of propagating plants as there are reasons for wanting to do so, but there are basically two types of propagation -Young Ji International School / College

Page 46

sexualand asexual. Nearly all plants in nature have the ability to reproduce sexually, that is, by seed. Along with producing seed they have developed many modifications that aid in the dispersal of that seed. Such modifications include:  Seeds being enclosed in colorful fruits that are attractive to animals that eat the fruits and deposit the seeds elsewhere.  Seeds with wing-like or tufted appendages that enable the seed to be carried by the wind.  Seeds that are hooked or barbed that are easily attached to the coats of animals or out clothing and carried away.  Seeds that can float thousands of miles away to wash up on a tropical island (such as a coconut).

Many types of plants in nature have also evolved means by which they can reproduce asexually. Some such means include strawberry runners, potato tubers, and Johnsongrass rhizomes.

Along with all the natural modifications, people have developed many ways to propagate plants more efficiently and ways that meet the needs of both the agricultural communities and the horticultural trade. Seeds can be treated in various ways to achieve better and more uniform germination rates. Cuttings of various plants can be rooted in greenhouses when the parent plants are under three feet of snow. The highly specialized techniques involved in micropropagation allow growers to produce thousands of genetically identical plants, tissues (thus the term tissue culture), or cells. Learning about these procedures and many others makes plant propagaton a tremendous way to expand one's knowledge of plants and gardening, and can lead to an interesting and rewarding profession.

Sexual Plant Propagation Sexual propagation of flowering plants, as opposed to ferns and mosses, begins with flowering, followed by pollination, fertilization and seed production. Seeds are used in large-scale agriculture and forestry operations for growing wheat, corn, alfalfa and tree seedlings for reforestation projects. Propagation by seeds is also critical to many aspects of horticulture including the establishment of many turfgrasses, bedding plants, and a wide range of trees and shrubs, although propagation of many of these types of plants is not restricted to sexual propagation. Sexual propagation has several advantages when compared with asexual methods.  It is generally the cheapest method.  It generally requires the fewest skills, specialized equipment or facilities, and is thus the easiest method.  Seed can be easily stored, often for several years, and still successfully germinated.  Seeds are cheaply and easily shipped or transported around the world.  If properly cleaned and stored, seeds are less likely to carry diseases.

Seedlings are likely to be genetically different from the parent plant – this may be desirable for research, breeding, plant selection and conservation work, but may be undesirable in regards to other interests.

Some disadvantages of using this method include: Young Ji International School / College

Page 47

  

Some plants don’t produce live, (viable), seeds, and thus can not be grown this way.

Seeds may take a long time to grow into mature plants.

Seedlings are likely to be genetically different from parent plant, and may not have the same desirable characteristics.

The genetically difference is often especially true for many cultivars and hybrids.

Development of Seeds For centuries people have grown plants for the beauty of the flowers – the spectrum of colors, the multitude of shapes, the intoxicating fragrances and the meaning we have associated with various flowers in relation to holidays and traditions. However, the basic function of flowers is to be pollinated so seeds can develop, grow and perpetuate the species. It is obvious just by casual observation that all flowers are not created equal, but flower types can be grouped in terms of their structure and how it relates to pollination and seed production.

Perfect flowers are individual flowers that have both male and female parts. The male part of a flower is known as the stamen and is made up of the anther and the filament. The female part of the flower is known as the pistil and is composed of the stigma, style and ovary. Perfect flowers may have one or many stamens and pistils in each flower. Imperfect flowers lack one or more of the parts that make up the stamen or pistil.

Some flowers contain only male or only female parts. When a plant develops separate male flowers, (staminate flowers), and separate female flowers, (pistillate flowers), and both occur on the same plant, the plant is referred to asmonoecious.

Examples of monoecious plants include corn, walnuts and many conifers. With corn, the tassels at the top of the plant are the male flowers, and the silks and young ear represent the female flowers.

Dioecious plants have separate pistillate and staminate flowers, but they arealways on separate plants, thus you will have plants with only female flowersand others with only male flowers. Dioecious plants include hollies, date palm, asparagus and Ginkgo biloba. Male plants will never produce seeds or fruit. Females will only set fruit if a compatible male plant is nearby, neither male nor female plants will die if they are not close to each other however.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 48

Pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. A variety of bees, butterflies, moths and birds are responsible for pollinating a wide range of plants. Flowers often attract pollinators by various characteristics such as color and color patterns, shape, fragrance, offer of food, or, in the case of many orchids, resembling a potential mate for the would-be pollinator. Other plants rely on wind to carry the pollen grains. Conifers and grasses, including many of our grain crops, are wind pollinated.

Once the pollen grain lands on a receptive stigma a pollen tube begins to grow downward through the style to the ovary where fertilization occurs. Often there are many ovules (eggs) within the ovary. The ovary will develop into the fruit and each ovule will develop into a seed.

Growing Plants from Seed The success achieved when growing plants from seed is dependent on several factors including the seed itself, the medium and the conditions to which the seed and seedlings are subjected. The seed used should be of high quality and, usually, the newer the seed, the better the germination and subsequent seedling growth will be.

The medium refers to the soil into or onto which the seeds are sown. Whatever seed sowing mix is used, it should be free of weed seeds, harmful insects and pathogens that may prevent germination or kill the young seedlings.

A disease known as damping-off is one of the most troublesome problems encountered if soil and sowing containers are contaminated. The mix should also be free-draining and should not remain soggy after watering. There are several ingredients that can be used to create a suitable medium. Common components include peat moss, vermiculite (a mineral), perlite (a material of volcanic origin â&#x20AC;&#x201C; often mistakenly identified as Styrofoam in soil mixes), sand, fine milled bark, Young Ji International School / College

Page 49

compost and milled sphagnum moss. Fortunately there are several very good, bagged mixes available in garden centers, but as you experiment with growing various types of plants from seed you may prefer to mix your own special blend.

The most common bagged mixes contain peat moss and vermiculite, and often a small amount of fertilizer to get the seedlings off to a strong start. Whatever seed mix is used, it need not be particularly rich in nutrients. It is much more important to have a mix with proper physical qualities. Once the seedlings are growing, attention can then be shifted to proper feeding with a dilute, water soluble fertilizer if necessary.

Seeds can be sown into almost any type of container, but of course, clay or plastic pots or flats are logical choices. The pots or flats should be sterilized before use (a dilute solution of bleach and water works well), and there must be drainage holes to allow excess water to drain away. When sowing the seed, the surface of the media should be even, firm (but not compacted), and slightly moistened. The depth of planting will vary with the type of plant being grown.

A general rule is to plant seed at a depth of one to four times the thickness of the seed. There are, however, some seeds that require light for germination and should be left uncovered, and just to keep you on your toes, there are others for which light can inhibit germination! This is one reason why it is wise to do a little background check on the seed you are about to sow, or at the very least, read the seed packet that often has much useful information. Once sown, it is essential that the medium remains moist but not overly wet. Maintain the correct moisture level by placing seed pots in a plastic bag or a propagating case (creating an enclosed environment for high humidity), but keep a close eye on the temperature within. The widest range of the most commonly grown annual and biennial flowers, and vegetable plants germinate best between 65-75°F.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 50

Depending on the seeds, germination will often occur within one to three weeks, but there are others that will take longer. Once the seedlings emerge, it is important that they receive good light, otherwise seedlings will be spindly, weak and quite difficult to transplant. It is often a good idea to lower the temperature by 5-10°F which will slow growth, but will help to keep the plants stocky.

Seeds of many plants, especially woody plants and perennials, have physical or chemical inhibitors within the seed that prevent the seed from germinating even if the proper medium, temperature and moisture levels are present. The good propagator has several techniques that will effectively overcome these natural barriers to germination. One such method is called stratification. This involves giving the seeds a moist, cool treatment. Frequently seeds are mixed with moist peat moss, vermiculite or sand, put in a plastic bag and placed in the refrigerator, (35-40°F), for a certain length of time - 90 days is a common duration.

The process of soaking up water is known as imbibition, and is the first step in germination. Certain seeds have hard, impervious seed coats that prevent water from being absorbed thus delaying germination. Scarification is a method often used to overcome this problem. Scarification involves wearing away at the seed coat to allow water in to the embryo. This can be done mechanically with a file, piece of sandpaper, or by carefully nicking the seed coat with a knife. Some propagators dealing with large numbers of seed will use various acids to eat away at the seed coat, but this is a very refined technique in which great attention must be paid to the concentration of acid, and to the duration for which the seeds are soaked.

There are many other techniques and ―tricks‖ that propagators employ to get certain seeds to germinate. Many plants that have adapted to habitats prone to fire have developed seeds that rely on fire as a precondition to germinating. Other seeds germinate only when a certain microorganism is present in the soil, or when a particular plant is already growing. With many South African plants, exposing the seed to smoke is beneficial or necessary to germination. As much as we know about seeds and how to grow them, there is still much that we do not fully understand. Until we have all the ―recipes‖ for germinating seeds down to an exact science, a good basic knowledge of the techniques along with personal experience will go a long way in bringing success to your seed sowing efforts.

Ferns from Spores Ferns are one of the first groups of plants to be trendy. They were all the rage in Victorian times, but have since quietly gone out of favor. That is, up until recently Young Ji International School / College

Page 51

when there has been renewed interest in this diverse group of plants, largely from native plant enthusiasts. Ferns belong to a group of plants known as Pteridophytes which also includes mosses and others. In terms of plant classification, they are amongst the most primitive members of the plant kingdom. As a group, the pteridophytes are often referred to as the lower plants with flowering plants being known as higher plants. Ferns do not flower and thus do not produce seeds, but rather produce spores. Because of this, ferns have a distinctly different life cycle.

Ferns typically produce a great abundance of spores that makes it possible to grow thousands of plants from a single, mature fern plant if the conditions are suitable.

To propagate ferns from spores, the spores must be ripe (just as with seed). The medium onto which spores should be sown can be the same as that used for seed sowing, although it is critical that it be sterile. Spores are dust-like, therefore sow them very sparsely, as it is very easy to sow too many! The pot containing the spores should go in a plastic bag and then be placed in a warm, bright spot, but not in direct sun. The humidity within the bag should remain high. The speed at which fern spores germinate varies greatly depending on the species. Check the bag frequently to make sure the pot doesn’t dry out. The first signs of life will be a green film developing on the surface of the medium. When this appears, mist the surface often. Gradually, young fern plants will begin to develop. When the young plants are large enough to handle easily, they can be transplanted to individual pots.

Many ferns can also be propagated using various asexual methods including division, bulblets, plantlets and micropropagation.

Asexual Plant Propagations Asexual propagation is the production of plants using the vegetative parts of a plant.

Vegetative parts include stems, leaves, roots, bulbs, corms, tubers, tuberous roots, rhizomes, and undifferentiated tissue often used in micropropagation. Propagation by division, cuttings, layering and grafting are all forms of asexual propagation.

Although many plants can be propagated by at least one asexual method, there are some that for one reason or another can not. When compared to sexual methods, asexual methods have certain advantages.  Plants are genetically identical to the parents so plants with desirable characteristics can be reliably cloned.  It allows propagation of plants that do not produce seed, produce little seed, or are difficult or impossible to grow from seed.  A grower can get a saleable or mature plant more quickly for many plants.

Some disadvantages include:  Asexual methods are generally more expensive.  Many asexual methods require greater skill, and/or special equipment or facilities.  There is an increased likelihood of spreading or perpetuating certain diseases.  Clones can become weakened and lose vigor after years of asexual production, although this is by no means a general rule.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 52

Division Dividing plants is probably the simplest form of asexual propagation. This method is regularly used in the propagation of a wide range of herbaceous perennials such as daylilies, Siberian iris, bee balm and ornamental grasses. It essentially involves splitting a single large plant with many crowns or growing points into several individual smaller plants. It is labor intensive, and for that reason is a last option for commercial nurseries when there is no other viable method of propagating a particular plant.

Cuttings Cuttings can be taken from a variety of plant parts – stems, leaves, roots, buds – but not all plants can be propagated by cuttings and certainly few, if any, can be grown from all types mentioned. The plant from which the cuttings are taken is referred to as the stock plant or parent plant. There are many factors that effect the type of cutting used as well as the success achieved with a certain type of cutting, and include:  The type of plant being considered for propagation,  The age and health of the stock plant,  The time of year, and  The facilities, equipment and material available for propagation.

When taking any type of cutting, keep in mind that by removing the cutting from the parent plant, it is cut off from its supply of moisture and is instantly under stress. This is a particularly important consideration when dealing with leafy cuttings such as herbaceous, softwood and semihardwood cuttings. To reduce stress on the cuttings, take cuttings on cool, cloudy days; place cuttings in a plastic bag along with a damp paper towel until they can be inserted in the rooting medium; and prepare cuttings quickly. Also, make sure that cuttings are labeled with the plant name, the date taken and any special treatment given the cuttings, such as a particular hormone used.

This can help you learn more about a plant and may be useful if you want to take cuttings again next year.

The rooting medium used can vary greatly from grower to grower, and may vary depending on the type of plant being propagated. The medium must provide support for the cutting to keep it upright. It must also hold an adequate amount of moisture and allow for oxygen to reach the root zone. Although rooting media are similar to seed sowing mixes, they are generally coarser. A mix of half peat moss and half

Young Ji International School / College

Page 53

perlite is commonly used, but many mixes exist to meet the needs of different plants, or simply produce good results for the nursery or gardener using them.

Water is the most critical aspect in the rooting process â&#x20AC;&#x201C; too much and the cuttings are deprived of oxygen and the likelihood of disease is greatly increased, too little and the cuttings suffer, wilt and will root slowly, if at all. Professional growers and nurseries use mist or fog systems to maintain ideal moisture and humidity levels.

These systems are controlled by a humidistat, timer, or a unit called an electronic leaf.

Light is also an important factor, at least for stem cuttings with leaves and leaf cuttings. Light is necessary for these types so the plant can continue to photosynthesize and produce carbohydrates needed for the development of roots.

Too much sunlight, however is to be avoided as this can cause the cuttings to dry out too quickly. The temperature can also have an effect on root formation. Good success can be achieved with an air temperature of around 65°F for a wide range of cuttings. Often, roots will form even more quickly if bottom heat maintains the rooting media about 10°F warmer.

Auxins are one class of plant hormones that occur naturally in plants. Rooting hormones used by propagators are synthetic versions of these compounds. Used correctly, these types of hormones can hasten rooting, lead to denser root systems and help avoid certain disease problems. They are available as liquids or powders and vary in their concentrations of active ingredient. The bases of stem cuttings are dipped into the material and then inserted in the medium.

Two common rooting hormones are napthaleneacetic acid, (NAA), and indolebutyric acid, (IBA). Care should be taken when using hormones as certain cuttings can be damaged by the incorrect strength. These materials break down quite quickly in light so they should be stored in an appropriate manner.

Types of Cuttings

Young Ji International School / College

Page 54

Stem cuttings are certainly the most important type of cuttings in regards to commercial plant production. They can be divided into four groups based on the nature and maturity of the piece of stem used â&#x20AC;&#x201C; hardwood, semi-hardwood, softwood and herbaceous. With the exception of hardwood cuttings which are often longer, cuttings of approximately three to five inches are ideal, although cuttings taken from certain dwarf plants will necessarily be shorter.

When taking cuttings work with a clean, sharp, knife or hand pruners. Cuts should generally be made just below a node, (the point at which a leaf joins the stem, and the point at which roots form most readily), and the leaves on the lower one-third to one-half of the stem should be removed prior to insertion into the media. The basic cutting is referred to as a simple or straight cutting. Heal cuttingsare made by breaking a small, young shoot from the side of a branch. This will keep a small portion of the stem attached to the cutting. Mallet cuttings are similar but have a complete cross section of the main stem. Some evergreens root better when heal or mallet cuttings are used.

Wounding the base of cuttings of certain plants such as rhododendrons, hollies, magnolias and others can promote root production. Wounds are generally made by stripping lower leaves and some bark from the cutting or by cutting off a thin slice of bark from the lower third of the cutting.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 55

Leaf cuttings and leaf bud cuttings are useful for propagating plants such as African violets, snakeplant, piggy-back plant and some begonias. A section of leaf, the entire leaf or the leaf and associated bud are inserted into a typical cutting media. In all cases, the cutting does not became a permanent part of the plant, but gradually disintegrates after the new, young plant is established.

A fairly wide range of plants can be propagated by root cuttings. Oriental poppies, certain species of phlox and roses, blackberries, raspberries, Japanese flowering quince among others are all likely candidates for this method. The biggest drawback to this technique is that it involves digging the parent plant out of the ground, or at the very least, severing much of the root system to get at the necessary root pieces.

Root pieces can be from 1-6 inches long depending on how coarse the roots are â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the finer the roots the shorter the segments. If root cuttings are inserted into media vertically it is essential that they avoid being put in upside down, thus maintaining correct polarity. In other words, the end of the root closest to the crown of the plant should be up and the farthest point should be down. Root cuttings of some plants can be laid horizontally, side stepping this problem altogether.

Bulbs are specialized organs with a growing point surrounded by thick fleshy scales.

Tulips, onions, lilies and daffodils are all bulbous plants. Techniques for propagating bulbous plants include scaling, basal cutting, offsets and micropropagation.

Layering is yet another form of asexual propagation and is a method that encourages the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. Tip layering involves bending a branch to the ground, wounding the branch where it touches the ground and covering it with some soil. Roots develop and soon send out new shoots. At this point the new plant can be cut off from the stock plant, lifted from the ground and transplanted. Black and purple raspberries, forsythia, spirea and many other common shrubs can be grown from tip layers.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 56

Air layering is a similar technique but is a bit more involved and is used when a branch can not be bent to the ground. This technique can be used to propagate several tropical and sub-tropical trees and shrubs such as croton, rubber trees, and philodendron. The stem is wounded and the wound is covered with a generous amount of longfibered sphagnum moss. The moss is then wrapped in a sheet of plastic that is tied off above and below the wound. The new plant can be cut off and planted once roots are visible through the plastic.

Underground Structures Many plants produce specialized structures beneath the soil that are generally used as food storage organs on which the plant relies during adverse growing conditions.

Bulbs, corms, tuberous roots, tuberous stems, tubers, rhizomes and pseudobulbs are all such organs. Frequently, though technically incorrect, all or several of these structures are referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x2022;bulbs.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; To the propagator they are often convenient means of producing plants that have developed these sorts of structures.

A corm is made up of the swollen base of a stem surrounded by dry, scaly leaves.

Crocus and gladiolus grow from corms. Corms are propagated by inducing the natural reproduction of new corms and by the cultivation of cormels, which are also naturally produced during the plants life cycle.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 57

A rhizome is a specialized stem structure that grows at or just below ground level such as in bearded Iris, lily of the valley, sugar cane and many grasses. Typically they are easily propagated by simple division or by a special type of cutting.

A tuber is a swollen stem structure that serves as an underground storage organ with nodes, often called eyes, from which shoots emerge. The potato, Jerusalem artichoke and caladiums are all tuber-producing plans. Tubers are easily propagated by dividing them into sections, with each section containing at least one eye.

Pseudobulbs, (meaning, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;false bulbâ&#x20AC;&#x2013;), are typical storage structure of members of the orchid family. Pseudobulbs are readily separated from the parent plant as a means of propagation.

Grafting and Budding Grafting and budding are both forms of asexual plant propagation. They both consist of connecting two pieces of living plant tissue in a way that allows the parts to unite and subsequently grow and develop as a single plant.

In any form of grafting, a piece of stem or shoot with dormant buds is the part that will grow and develop with branches. This part is known as thescion. In budding, the scion is reduced to a single bud with an attached pad of bark and cambium. The part of the graft that will develop into the root system is known as the stock, rootstock orunderstock. The stock can be comprised of a root system, a sapling or, for the purposes of topworking, a mature tree that has been reduced to a trunk and main scaffold branches. Fruits and nuts, as well as roses, lilacs, dwarf conifers and many ornamentals with unique habits are examples of plants that are frequently grafted.

There are several different types of grafts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; splice, whip, cleft, approach, wedge, and others are all variations that have different applications for different situations and reasons for wanting to graft in the first place.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 58

The reasons for grafting are quite varied and, among others, include:  To perpetuate clones that can not be propagated, or are not easily done so by other methods.  To obtain the benefits of certain root stocks, such as to control height, habit or vigor, or to impart disease resistance.  To change the cultivar of established plants through a technique known as topworking.  To obtain special growth habits or forms.  To repair damaged parts of trees.

There are, however, certain disadvantages:  It is frequently more expensive.  Grafting and budding are fairly specialized skills, thus require great experience to be able to make grafts.  Diseases are readily transmitted.  Rootstock suckers can be troublesome and can weaken the growth of the scion.

Not just any scion and stock can be grafted successfully.

The two parts must be from closely related plants. Plants from different families are incompatible and this is frequently true for plants in different genera within the same family. A scion and stock that can be successfully grafted are said to be compatible. A pairing that is incompatible will simply not grow, or will grow but never form a successful graft union leading to failure sometimes years from the time when the graft was first made. The time of year can also play a role in the success or failure of a graft. One technique that is sometimes employed to overcome the problem of incompatibility is to use an interstock. An interstock is a piece of stem inserted between the scion and stock that forms graft unions with both. An interstock is also useful, in some cases, for imparting hardiness or a growth regulating property.

When it comes to the actual act of grafting, the most critical point is that the cambium layers in the scion and stock be in close contact. The cambium is a layer of cells between the bark and the heartwood. This layer of cells is capable of dividing and forming new cells, forming callus in the process, that are necessary in order for the graft to be successful. It is important that the cambium layers do not dry out during the grafting process. The graft union is where the scion and stock are joined.

Micropropagation Micropropagation, or tissue culture as it is also called, is the most cutting-edge means of propagating plants. It involves propagating plants from small plant parts, tissues or cells in specialized conditions in which the growing environment and nutrition are strictly controlled.

The basic principles of tissue culture have been known for about 100 years and such theories were suggested as long ago as the early 1800’s. By 1939 scientists in the United States and France had made significant discoveries. Within another ten Young Ji International School / College

Page 59

years, researchers had laid a solid foundation for today’s large-scale tissue culture laboratories, propagation facilities, and further advances through ongoing research.

It was not until recent decades that micropropagation became a feasible means of producing plants for the nursery industry. Today, many plants are propagated in this way. In catalogs, the names of plants that have been propagated by tissue culture methods are often followed by ―TC‖ in parentheses. With every passing year more and more advances are made, and an increasingly wide range of plants find their way into the many tissue culture facilities which are appearing at an equally rapid pace.

Tissue culture makes use of an in vitro system. In vitro is from the Latin for ―in glass,‖ that is in reference to the fact that plant tissues are developed in test tubes and flasks under laboratory conditions. The multiplication of plants in vitro does not create a new process within the plant, it simply directs and enhances the plants natural potential to put forth new growth and multiply in a highly efficient and predictable way.

There are several advantages to micropropagation when compared with traditional asexual methods of propagation.  Plants can be mass-produced rapidly.  A new plant can generally be introduced to the nursery industry more quickly.  Tissue cultured plants are free of insect and disease pests when removed from test tubes.  The growth of in vitro cultures requires little care on a day to day basis, apart from casual surveillance.

There are also several disadvantages.  More expensive. The start-up costs for a commercial micropropagation facility are high.  The techniques used require greater skill and training.  Not all plants can be produced through tissue culture.  Mutations may occur during the culturing process resulting in plants different from the parent. This can be disastrous if not noticed at an early stage.

The success of tissue culture for reproducing new plants is based on the ability of small plant parts, tissues or cells to undergo rapid cell multiplication under the proper chemical and physical conditions, and then to differentiate into the various parts that make up an entire plant. The plant part, tissue or cell type that is removed from a stock plant for purposes of being cultured is known as the explant. The explant can be a shoot tip, root tip, leaf tissue, pollen grain, seedling tissue, bulb scales and others.

There exist a number of factors that will effect the success of generating new plants by micropropagation. Sterility is of the utmost importance at all stages. Lab conditions are essential and much of the great expense is attributable to the need for such facilities. All surfaces with which the explant may come in contact, including countertops, tools and human hands, need to be sterile. The growth medium and glassware in which the new plants will be cultured must also be sterile. Apart from Young Ji International School / College

Page 60

sterility, the explant itself and the culture conditions (light, medium, temperature) all play significant roles in the success.

The type of explant taken from a parent plant will also effect the generation of new cell growth and the subsequent new plants. Certain explant types work better for certain plants.

The medium used in tissue culture is unlike that used in any other type of plant propagation. A semi-solid, gelatinous material called agar is used. This provides support for the culture, but by itself is essentially inert. What is mixed in with the agar is what stimulates new growth. These ingredients will vary depending on the plant being cultured, as will the concentrations used. Ingredients include inorganic salts of many essential plant nutrients and organic compounds like carbohydrates, vitamins, various hormones and growth regulators.

The four sequential stages in all tissue culture systems are: 1. Establishment 2. Multiplication 3. Pre-transplant 4. Transplant The purpose of the establishment stage is to establish a sterile explant in culture.

The initial explants from the first stage have developed a mass of shoots that are separated into individual propagules and transferred to a fresh medium culture. This second medium is frequently the same or similar to that used in Stage 1, but the concentrations of certain ingredients may be altered.

The pre-transplant stage is necessary to prepare the grown propagules, now known as plantlets, for the shift from the rigidly controlled in vitro environment to that of a more typical plant growth environment, usually in a greenhouse. The pretransplant stage also offers an opportunity to cull mutated propagules or ones that somehow became infected with a disease.

The transplant stage is the point at which the plantlets are moved to a pasteurized soil mix essentially as seedlings would be transplanted. At this point the plantlets are very tender and dry air and/or bright sunlight can easily burn them. Gradually, humidity levels can be reduced and more sunlight provided to the young plants at which point they should be established and growing under standard conditions.

Young Ji International School / College

Page 61