21st Century from the Philippines and the World

21ST CENTURY LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD TOPIC:

21st Century Literature in Various Regions

21st Century Literature in Various Regions 

Topics under this module

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Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period

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Philippine Literature during the Spanish Colonial Period

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Philippine Literature during the American and the Japanese Periods

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Philippine Literature in the Postwar and Contemporary Period

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Life and Works of Jose Garcia Villa

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Life and Works of Carlos P. Romulo

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Life and Works of Francisco Arcellana

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Life and Works of Nestor Vicente Madali (N.V.M.) Gonzalez

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Life and Works of Edith L. Tiempo Life and Works of F. Sionil Jose

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PHILIPPINE LITERATURE DURING THE PRECOLONIAL PERIOD

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the characteristics of precolonial literature of the Philippines.

What texts are considered precolonial literature?

Learn about it!

The precolonial literature includes all literature produced before the Spanish colonization like chants, proverbs, songs, and folk narratives. These were all passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Philippine folk narratives are varied and distinct. They depict the people’s livelihood, customs, and traditions. 1. Folktale – This is a characteristically anonymous, timeless, and placeless tale circulated orally among a people. 2. Fable – This features animal characters or inanimate objects that behave like people. 3. Legend – This is presented as history but is unlikely to be true. 4. Myth – This is told to explain a belief, a practice, or a natural phenomenon. 5. Epic – This narrative poem celebrates the adventures and achievements of a hero. 

Folktales Folktales about Juan are very popular. Some emphasize certain virtues, and some serve as warning about behavior. Also, some are for the reader’s amusement.

Example 1: Juan Gathers Guavas (A Tagalog Folktale) One day several neighbors came to Juan’s home to visit. His father wanted to give the guests something to eat, so he sent Juan to get some ripe guavas for them.

Full of mischief, Juan decided to play a joke on his father’s guests. He went to get the guavas and ate all of them while thinking of a good joke. Then he saw a wasp’s nest hung nearby. With some difficulty he managed to take it down and put it into a tight basket. He hastened home and gave the basket to his father. Quickly he left the room where the guests were and closed the door and fastened it.

As soon as Juan’s father opened the basket, the wasps flew over the room.

With the door locked, the people fought to get out of the windows. After a while Juan opened the door. When he saw the swollen faces of the people, he cried.

“What fine, rich guavas you must have had! They have made you all so fat!”

Example 2: Juan Pusong and His Father’s Cows (A Visayan Folktale) One day Juan Pusong's father put his cows out to pasture. Juan slipped away from home and took the cows into the forest and tied them there. When his father found out that the cows were missing, he looked around for them. While looking, he ran into his son.

“Where did you come from?” he asked.

“I just came from school, Father. How about you, where are you going?”

“I am looking for our cows.”

“You don’t say!" said Juan.

By that time, everybody knew about Juan’s power as a seer. So, he took a little book from his pocket and looked into it. He said, “Our cows are tied together in the forest.” So, his father went to the forest and found the cows.

Later on, people would discover that Juan could not read even his own name.

Consequently, his father beat him for the trick he had played on him.

Fable The monkey is a common animal character in Philippine fables.

It is often depicted as a cunning animal.

Example:

The Monkey and the Crocodile (A Tagalog Fable) One day, a monkey saw a tall macopa tree laden with ripe fruits, which stood by a wide river. It was hungry, so it climbed the tree and ate all of the fruits.

When it climbed down, it could find no means by which to cross the river.

Then it saw a young crocodile who had just woken up from its siesta. It said to the crocodile in a friendly way, “My dear crocodile, will you do me a favor?”

The crocodile was greatly surprised by the monkey’s amicable salutation. So, it answered humbly, “Oh, yes! If there is anything I can do for you, I shall be glad to do it.” The monkey then told the crocodile that it wanted to get to the other side of the river. Then the crocodile said, “I’ll take you there with all my heart. Just sit on my back, and we’ll go at once.”

The monkey sat firmly on the crocodile’s back, and they began to move. In a short while they reached the middle of the stream. Then the crocodile began to laugh aloud. “You foolish monkey!” it said, “I’ll eat your liver and kidneys, for I’m very hungry.” The monkey became nervous.

Trying to conceal its anxiety, it said, “I’m very glad that you mentioned the matter. I thought myself that you might be hungry, so I have prepared my liver and kidneys for your dinner. Unfortunately, in our haste to depart, I left them hanging on the macopa tree. Let us return, and I’ll get them for you.”

Convinced that the monkey was telling the truth, the crocodile turned around and swam back to the direction of the macopa tree. When they got near the riverbank, the monkey nimbly jumped up onto the land and scampered up the tree. The crocodile came to realize what happened and said, “I am a fool.”

Legend There are different Filipino legends of the great flood. The story of Bukidnon, for instance, tells that a huge crab caused the water to rise by going into the sea. On the other hand, the Igorot story tells that the sons of Lumawig the Great Spirit caused the flood.

Example 1:

The Flood Story (A Legend of Bukidnon)

A long time ago there was a very big crab which crawled into the sea. When it went in, it crowded the water out so that it ran all over the earth and covered all the land.

Now about one moon before the flood happened, a wise man had told the people that they must build a large raft. They did as he commanded and cut many large trees until they had enough to make three layers. These they bound tightly together; when it was done, they fastened the raft with a long rattan cord to a big pole in the earth.

Soon after the raft was done, the flood came. White water poured out of the hills, and the sea rose and covered even the highest mountains. The people and animals on the raft were safe, but all the others drowned.

Soon the waters went down, and the raft was again on the ground. It was near their old home, for the rattan cord had held.

The people on the raft together with the animals were the only ones left on the whole earth.

Example 2:

The Flood Story (A Legend of the Igorot)

Once upon a time, the world was flat, and there were no mountains. There lived two sons of Lumawig, the Great Spirit. The brothers were fond of hunting; since no mountains had formed, there was no good place to catch wild pig and deer. The older brother said, “Let us cause water to flow over all the world and cover it, and then mountains will rise up.”

So, the brothers caused water to flow over all the earth. When it was covered, they took the head-basket of the town and set it for a trap. They were very much pleased when they went to look at their trap, for they had caught not only many wild pigs and deer but also many people.

Lumawig looked down from his place in the sky and saw that his sons had flooded the earth. However, there was just one spot which was not covered. All the people in the world had been drowned except a brother and a sister who lived in Pokis.

Then Lumawig descended, and he called to the boy and girl, saying, “Oh, you are still alive.”

“Yes,” answered the boy, “we are still alive, but we are very cold.”

So, Lumawig commanded his dog and deer to get fire for the boy and girl. The dog and the deer swam quickly away. Lumawig waited a long time, but the dog and the deer did not return. All the time the boy and girl were growing colder.

Finally, Lumawig himself went after the dog and the deer. When he reached them, he said, “Why are you so long in bringing the fire to Pokis? Get ready and come quickly while I watch you, for the boy and girl are very cold.”

Then the dog and the deer took the fire and started to swim through the flood.

When they had gone only a little way, the fire was put out.

Lumawig commanded the dog and the deer to get more fire, and they did so.

However, they swam only a little way again when that of the deer went out.

That of the dog would have been extinguished also had not Lumawig gone quickly to him and taken it.

As soon as Lumawig reached Pokis, he built a big fire which warmed the brother and sister. The water evaporated so that the world was as it was before, except that now there were mountains. The brother and sister married and had children, and thus there came to be many people on the earth.

Myth There are Philippine versions of the creation myth. The Igorot’s story tells that Lumawig the Great Spirit created people. On the other hand, the Tagalog story tells that the first man and woman came from a bamboo.

Example 1:

The Creation (An Igorot Myth) In the beginning, there were no people on the earth. Lumawig, the Great Spirit, came down from the sky and cut many reeds. He divided the reeds into pairs which he placed in different parts of the world, and then he said to them, “You must speak.” Immediately the reeds became people, and in each place was a man and a woman who could talk. However, the language of each couple differed from that of the others.

Then Lumawig commanded each man and woman to marry, which they did. By and by there were many children, all speaking the same language as their parents. The children married and had many children of their own. In this way, there came to be many people on the earth.

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Now Lumawig saw that there were several things which the people on the earth needed to use, so he set to work to supply them. He created salt and told the inhabitants of one place to boil it down and sell it to their neighbors. However, the people could not understand the directions. The next time he visited them, they had not touched the salt. So, he took the salt away from them and gave it to the people of a place called Mayinit.  The people of Mayinit did as Lumawig directed. Because of their obedience, he told them that they should always be owners of the salt and that the other peoples must buy of them.  Then Lumawig went to the people of Bontoc and told them to get clay and make pots. They got the clay, but they did not understand the molding; the jars were not well shaped. Because of their failure, Lumawig told them that they would always have to buy their jars, and he removed the pottery to Samoki.  Lumawig told the people of Samoki what to do, and they did just as he said.

Their jars were well shaped and beautiful. Then Lumawig saw that they were fit owners of the pottery, and he told them that they should always make many jars to sell.  In this way, Lumawig taught the people and brought to them all the things which they now have.

Example 2:

The Creation (A Tagalog Myth) When the world first began there was no land. There were only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite. One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to alight on one of the islands to build its nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.

Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a bamboo as their child. One day when the bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo. Out of one section came a man and from the other a woman.

The earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with the man and the woman, and it was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different races of people.  After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around. They wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on, and the children became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides.  The beating frightened the children so much that they fled in different directions. Some seek hidden rooms in the house. Some concealed themselves in the walls. Some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace. Several fled to the sea.  Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they were the white people. 

Epic The Philippine epics are sung or chanted in episodes. They feature supernatural characters and reflect the society where they originated. Also, there are different versions of a story.

Examples:

Biag ni Lam-ang This Ilocano epic tells the adventures of Lam-ang, a man with supernatural powers.

He goes to war at nine-months-old and seeks the killers of his father. He embarks on a quest with his animal friends and meets his future wife, Innes Kanoyan. He is swallowed by a fish and resurrected from death by his animal friends.

Hinilawod This epic is of the Sulod, a group of people living in the mountains of central Panay. It tells the story of three very strong men, namely, Labaw Donggon, Humadapnon, and Dumalapdap. They are the sons of Datu Paubari, the ruler of Halawod, and the goddess Alunsina. The exploits of each son concerns beautiful women that he wants to have as a wife.

Darangan This Maranao epic depicts the adventures of a brave warrior named Bantugan. He owns a magical sword protected by a spirit. After a battle, he rests and accidentally falls into the water. A crocodile finds him and brings him to the enemies. He fights, regains his strength, and wins the war.

Summary The precolonial literature of the Philippines includes all literature produced before the Spanish colonization. It includes chants, proverbs, songs, spells, and different folk narratives like folk tales, fables, legends, myths, and epics that were all passed down from generation to generation through the word of mouth.

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE DURING THE SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD

Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: • Name some literary works published during the Spanish Colonial Period, and • analyze some literary works.

Learn about it!

Notes on the Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)  Expeditions to the Philippines were sent by Spain in the 16th century. In their conquest, the Spaniards brought Christianity with them. The clergy made a great impact on faith, education, and government.  Through the Manila-Acapulco trade (1565–1815), liberal ideas entered the country. Also, the trade gave rise to a wealthier middle class. Children in middle class families could then be sent to Europe to get an education. Upon their return, they brought European ideals of liberty and freedom with them. Such ideals would then give rise to Filipino nationalism.

Philippine Literature during the Spanish Occupation The Spanish missionaries taught the gospel through the native language, so they hired natives to translate Spanish religious instructional materials.

Eventually, the natives became fluent in Spanish and became known as ladinos.  Ladinos mainly wrote devotional poetry. Two of them were Fernando Bagongbanta and Gaspar Aquino de Belen. Bagongbanta wrote “Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas,” which appeared in Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala (1605), a book containing basic Catholic doctrines. On the other hand, de Belen wrote “Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola” (1704), the earliest version of pasyon.  Also, the native drama called the komedya or moro-moro was popular. It depicted the war between Christians and Muslims, wherein the former always wins. The poet Jose de la Cruz (1746–1829) was a master of such art form.  Native literature continued. Though the Spaniards destroyed the written literature in their effort to replace it with their own, the oral tradition survived and flourished in areas beyond the reach of the Spaniards. 

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Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862), the master of traditional Tagalog poetry, became well-known for his work Florante at Laura (1838– 1861), the most famous metrical romance of the country. Pedro Paterno (1857–1911) wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias (1880), the first poetry collection in Spanish by a Filipino; and the novel in Spanish Ninay (1885), considered to be the first Filipino novel. Jose Rizal (1861–1896), a prominent ilustrado and the country’s national hero, is famous for the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These novels portray the corruption and abuse of the Spanish officials and the clergy. Andres Bonifacio (1863–1897), the founder of the Katipunan, wrote the poem “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa.” This poem appeared in the Kalayaan, the official newspaper of the Katipunan, in March 1896. Leona Florentino (1849–1884), known as the “mother of Philippine women’s literature,” was a poet in both Ilocano and Spanish. Twenty of her poems were preserved and exhibited in Europe. The poems were included in the Encyclopedia International des Oeuvres des Femme in 1889.

Summary Philippine Literature during the Spanish occupation was mostly influenced by Christianity as well as the European ideals of liberty and freedom through trade. Filipino writers either wrote in Spanish or in their own tongue or both.

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE DURING THE AMERICAN AND THE JAPANESE PERIODS

Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: • identify some Filipino writers who produced significant works of literature during the American and Japanese Periods (1898–1945), and • analyze a poem by the Filipino poet Fernando Maramag.

Learn about it!

Notes on the American Occupation  (1898–1940)  The US established a civil government in 1901. Free public education was introduced. Also, English was the medium of instruction.  In 1934, President Roosevelt signed a bill making the Philippines a commonwealth. On May 14, 1935 Manuel L. Quezon was elected president.

Literary Works Produced  The production of literary works in English is the direct result of the American colonization of the Philippines. The first collection of poetry in English is Filipino Poetry (1924), edited by Rodolfo Dato. The short story “Dead Stars” (1925) by Paz Marquez Benitez is considered as the first Filipino modern short story in English. A Child of Sorrow (1921) by Zoilo M. Galang is the first Filipino novel in English. The novel His Native Soil (1940) by Juan C. Laya won first prize in the First Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.  Filipino writers in English during the apprenticeship period (1900–1930) imitated American writing. The poet Fernando Maramag writes in the Romantic tradition in his sonnet “Moonlight on Manila Bay” (1912). Filipino fictionists copied Sherwood Anderson, William Saroyan, and Ernest Hemingway. Jose Garcia Villa used the Anderson pattern. Manuel Arguilla and N. V. M. Gonzalez were influenced by Anderson and Hemingway. Francisco Arcellana was influenced by Saroyan.

Notes on the Japanese Occupation (1941–1945)  On December 8, 1941, the Japanese attacked Manila. On January 2, 1942, Japanese occupied Manila. They set up a Council of State in the country and started propaganda to remold the Filipinos.  In October 1943 the Japanese declared the Philippines “independent.” On September 20, Jose P. Laurel was elected president.  MacArthur and his Allied forces returned to the country in 1944. They landed on Leyte on October 20, and the biggest naval battle in history ensued.  The Japanese surrendered formally on September 2, 1945. 

Literary Works Produced  During the occupation, publications were censored by the military. Also, Tagalog was declared an official language (together with Nihonggo). In effect, Philippine literature in English came to a halt. Some Filipino writers then turned to writing in Filipino.  The Tagalog short story reached its maturity during the period. The best works were compiled by the Liwayway magazine editors in Ang Pinakamabuting Maikling Kathang Pilipino ng 1943, which came out in 1944.

It is a collection of stories that won a contest sponsored by the Japanese. The top four stories were “Lupang Tinubuan” by Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” by Liwayway Arceo, “Nayon at Dagat-dagatan” by N. V. M. Gonzalez, and “Suyuan sa Tubigan” by Macario Pineda.

Summary The American occupation of the Philippines spurred the writing of Filipinos in English.

On the other hand, the Japanese occupation censored literary works yet contributed to the maturity of the Tagalog short story.

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN THE POSTWAR AND CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify postwar and contemporary literary authors and their works and name their contributions to the development of literature in the Philippines.

Learn about it!

Postwar and Contemporary Literature Postwar and contemporary literature include all literary works written and published in the Philippines from 1946.  After World War II, the Philippines had to deal with the economy and the need for rehabilitation and reconstruction of infrastructures. There was political, economic, and social confusion, as well as great poverty, and these issues found their way into the short stories and novels during that time.ď€

During the postwar period, Filipino writers got their inspiration from American teachers and were able to learn their techniques, which also helped in mastering the English language.

Writers wrote fiction that focused on courageous deeds as well as the sacrifices and suffering in the lives of Filipinos. It was also common for writers to write about the experiences of the Filipino people under the Spanish and American rule and the Japanese Occupation. Other subjects and themes include:  religious faith  superstitions  fantasy   social problems  poverty  politics  nationalism  morality

Literary Works  Philippine literature flourished even more during the postwar and contemporary period. Writers were able to produce short stories, novels, essays, and poems that continue to be read by Filipinos today. Examples:  Some works written in the postwar and contemporary period are:  May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947 Waywaya by F. Sionil Jose, 1983 We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers by Alejandro Roces, 1948 The Return by Edith L. Tiempo History and Philippine Culture by Horacio de la Costa, 1965 Without Seeing the Dawn by Stevan Javellana, 1947

Explanation:  Nick Joaquin, a National Artist for Literature awardee, wrote articles under the name of Quijano de Manila. His short story "May Day Eve," published in 1947, is about love in a patriarchal society. It also made use of magic realism.  F. Sionil Jose, one of the most widely read Filipino writers in English, wrote the short story "Waywaya," which is about preHispanic society and the people’s struggle for moral order.  Alejandro Roces, a Filipino author, essayist, and dramatist, wrote the short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." This story focuses on the drinking habits and culture of Filipinos and Americans.  Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return" is a sentimental piece that talks about life in old age.  Horacio de la Costa wrote the essay "History and Philippine Culture," which emphasizes the importance of understanding and presenting a nation’s culture.  Stevan Javellana wrote the first postwar Filipino novel in English, Without Seeing the Dawn. This novel narrates what people experienced during World War II under the Japanese rule in the Philippines.

Tip To be able to fully appreciate literature in the Philippines, as a reader and a critic, you must also be aware of the country’s history, culture, society, and psyche (human spirit).

LIFE AND WORKS OF JOSE GARCIA VILLA

Objective At the end of the lesson, you should be able to recognize Jose Garcia Villa’s contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Learn about it!

Jose Garcia Villa  Jose Garcia Villa was a Filipino literary critic, poet, painter, and short story writer. He was born on August 5, 1908 in Manila.  He gained both local and international recognition for his works. He was named as the National Artist for Literature in 1973, and he was also a recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship.  During his college years, he wrote Man Songs, a collection of controversial poems that was considered too bold by the University of the Philippines and became the ground for his suspension from the said institution.  Some of his well-known literary works are "Mir-i-nisa" (won in the Philippines Free Press in 1929), and "Footnote to Youth" (published in 1933).

Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet 

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As a poet, Jose Garcia Villa is known for introducing the reversed consonance rhyme scheme. According to Villa, in this method, the last sounded consonants of the last syllable, or the last principal consonant of a word, are reversed for the corresponding rhyme.

Thus, a rhyme for light would be words such as tile, tall, tale, etc. He is also known for his comma poems, where he employed a comma after every word. He used the pseudonym Doveglion, which is derived from dove, eagle, lion. He died on July 7, 1997.

Analyzing a writer's works will help you understand and identify his or her contributions to Philippine literature.

Example: One of Jose Garcia Villa's well-known works is "Footnote to Youth." 

a. Setting The short story is set in a small town.

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b. Plot 

Exposition Dodong, a seventeen-year-old boy, tells his parents that he wants to marry his girlfriend Teang.

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Rising Action Teang secretly regrets marrying Dodong at a young age. She wonders what can happen if she has married Lucio, who is nine years older than Dodong.

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Climax Dodong wonders why life does not get to fulfill all of a youth’s dreams.

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Falling Action Blas tells Dodong about his plan to marry Tona.

Conclusion Dodong wants to keep Blas from marrying Tona, but he cannot do anything about it. He feels sorry for Blas. c. Theme The story focuses on the consequences of marrying at an early age and starting a family.

Explanation:  In the story "Footnote to Youth," Dodong is the symbol for the Filipino youth. His decision to marry his love interest, Teang, at the age of seventeen demonstrates the passion of teenagers when it comes to relationships.  Those of the younger generation usually strive for new pursuits to learn things on their own, often rejecting their elders’ guidance. From the story, it is depicted that lessons are learned through experience. Dodong, as well as Teang, had many realizations when he became a parent.

Tips In analyzing a literary work, make sure that you read it thoroughly and analyze it well. • Study the background of the author, as this will give you insights regarding the setting of the story and the historical and/or social influences of the time and place in which the author lived. • Analyze the concepts presented in the literary work by relating them to practices and traditions in the Philippines or in the place used as the setting of the story. •

LIFE AND WORKS OF CARLOS P. ROMULO

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Carlos P. Romulo's contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Learn about it!

Carlos P. Romulo Carlos P. Romulo was a Filipino diplomat, statesman, journalist, and soldier. He was born on January 14, 1898 in Intramuros, Manila and grew up in Camiling, Tarlac.

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He was the first Filipino journalist who was awarded with the Pulitzer Prize in Journalism.

He was also the first Asian who served as the president of the United Nations General Assembly. "I am a Filipino" is one of the many essays written by Carlos P. Romulo. It was published in The Philippines Herald in August 1941. 

He also wrote the book entitled I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, in which he narrated his personal experiences as an aide-de-camp to General Douglas MacArthur in Corregidor. This book was followed by a sequel, I See the Philippines Rise, a journalistic account of the Philippine War in 1944. Among his other famous literary works are Mother America: A Living Story of Democracy, a discussion of his political ideals about American democracy in the Philippines, and I Walked with Heroes, his autobiography. He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 1982. He died on December 15, 1985. 

About the Essay I am a Filipino I am a Filipino is one of the valuable contributions of Carlos P. Romulo to Philippine literature. Analyzing it would help one understand what he thinks of the Filipino and what it means to be one. In the essay, the author speaks of the pride and dignity of the Filipino race, which is something he wants the future generation to uphold and cultivate. The essay also explains the Filipino identity as a product of the fusion of Western culture (Spanish and American) and Eastern culture (Japanese occupation and Malayan roots). Carlos P. Romulo stresses that the fight for freedom sprung up from one’s pride of being a Filipino. He takes pride in the bravery and sacrifices of the heroes who fought for freedom like Lapu-Lapu , Diego Silang, Jose Rizal , Gregorio del Pilar, Antonio Luna, and Manuel L. Quezon. He also emphasizes the beauty of the Philippines as blessed with bountiful natural resources and colorful history and culture. 

Summary Carlos P. Romulo is a profound writer who wrote the essay I am a Filipino, which is one of the great contributions to Philippine literature not only because it shows one’s love for his country and freedom but also of being proud as a Filipino.

LIFE AND WORKS OF FRANCISCO ARCELLANA

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the contributions of Francisco Arcellana to Philippine literature by analyzing his literary works.

Learn about it!

Francisco Arcellana  Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino teacher and a contemporary writer. He is one of the prominent Filipino fictionists in English. 

He is known for innovating and exploring new literary forms and experimenting with different techniques in short story writing.

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He was a member of the group The Veronicans, which was composed of influential Filipino writers who aimed to use sensible literature in order to create a greater impact on the Philippines.

He was also the first director of the University of the Philippines Creative Writing Center.

Some of his well-known literary works are the short stories "The Man Who Would Be Poe," "Death in a Factory," "A Clown Remembers," "The Mats," and "Lina."

In 1990, he was awarded as the National Artist for Literature.

His short stories "Flowers of May," "Christmas Gift," and "The Mats," were adapted as screenplays.

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Analyzing a writer's literary works will help in identifying his contributions to Philippine literature.

Example: Below are details regarding Francisco Arcellana's "The Mats."  a. Setting The short story is set in the afternoon until evening at the house of the Angeles family.  b. Plot 

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Exposition Mr. Angeles comes from a periodic inspection trip in Mariveles. During the trip, he writes to his family and gets them excited about the exceptionally beautiful and colorful mats he bought from an artist.

Rising Action Upon arriving, he gives the mats one by one to his children. Each mat is woven with his child’s name and symbols. They are all happy to receive the mats.

Climax There are three mats that are to be unfolded. In a loud voice, he offers the three mats to his dead children named Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion.

Falling Action Nana Emilia, anguished, said he should not have bought mats for them, but Mr. Angeles insists that they must be remembered.

Conclusion The children feel the tension and see the grief in the face of Mr. Angeles and the sadness of Nana Emilia. The father unfolds the three mats in silence.

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c. Theme Coping with the death of a loved one is a struggle.

Commemorating his or her life is painful, but it must be faced with courage and faith.

Explanation:  Francisco Arcellana presented the story using a distinct style. He focused on the characters' actions and dialogues to reveal the innermost feelings and motives of the characters, which set the dramatic tone of the short story.ď€

Summary Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino fictionist who demonstrated his craftsmanship in writing great literary pieces such as "The Mats," a story that highlights Filipino family values and pictures an interesting character coping with the death of loved ones. In this short story, he uses writing techniques such as emphasizing the characters’ actions and dialogues to reveal their inner motives and emotions.

LIFE AND WORKS OF NESTOR VICENTE MADALI (N.V.M.) GONZALEZ

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze literary works by N.V.M. Gonzalez and name his contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Learn about it!

N.V.M. Gonzalez 

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Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez is an award-winning Filipino poet, essayist, fictionist, journalist, editor, and teacher of creative writing. He is the first president of the Philippine Writers’ Association.  He is also honored as one of the great Filipino writers who advanced literary traditions and culture. He was a recipient of the following awards: The Republic Cultural Heritage Award, the Jose Rizal Pro-Patria Award, the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature, and the National Artist Award for Literature in 1997. Some of his published works are Seven Hills Away (1947), Children of the Ash-Covered Loam and Other Stories (1954), and The Bamboo Dancers (1949), which appeared in Russian translation in 1965 and 1974. Seven Hills Away is a collection of short stories that sketch the daily lives of the Filipino kaingeros in his hometown province, Mindoro. The Bamboo Dancers is a diasporic novel that features the challenges faced by Filipinos in America.

Carefully analyzing the works of a writer will help in determining what his works have contributed to literature.

Example: "Children of the Ash-Covered Loam" is a short story that depicts Filipino family practices and beliefs in a rural setting.  a. Setting The story is set in a provincial place where kaingin is a common practice.  b. Plot 

Exposition  The story begins one sunny afternoon when Tarang’s father arrives with a pig to be taken care of by Tarang, a seven-year-old boy.

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Rising Action  Tia Orang, an old midwife, sees Tarang and tells him to inform his mother of her passing by.

Climax Tatay and Nanay, Tarang’s parents, together with their neighbors are all set for performing religious rites after kaingin (burning of trees). They believe that these practices will take away all evil spirits and will give them a bountiful harvest. Tatay lays the pullet’s neck and lets the streaks of blood drop on the ash-covered loam.

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Falling Action After the clearing of the land, Tia Orang visits the family and performs hilot on Nanay and tells her that she is ready to bear a child. She also shares stories of evil ones and spirits.

Conclusion Tarang, half-awake, hears the noise outside, gets up, and accidentally strikes a tree stump with his big toe. The hurt does not concern him, for he is more interested in seeing how life emerge from the land as the rice grains peek through the dirt c. Theme Death forms new life. Death and new formations of life are recurring motifs in the story. When a living thing dies, a new life emerges. The story paints a cycle of life and death for the family. The kaingin practice and the killing of the pullet as a ritual are some forms of deaths that the family believes will bring new life like a bountiful harvest and another child.

Explanation: 

The use of words such as kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay is part of N.V.M. Gonzalez's writing style, as even his other works showcase terms that are unique to the setting of the story. Analyzing a story will help readers see details such as this that will give them ideas regarding the writer's contributions to Philippine literature.

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N.V.M. Gonzalez is known as a local colorist writer. Local color is a literary technique that features the unique regional traditions of people and emphasizes the ordinary events in their lives. This is used by N.V.M Gonzalez to present the sociocultural dimensions of Filipino families and farmers in the provinces. In "Children of the AshCovered Loam," words that show local color include kaingin, hilot,ď€ Nanay, and Tatay.

Tip Since the terms used by local colorists may be unfamiliar to you, you should analyze and infer their meaning by taking note of context clues in the story.

LIFE AND WORKS OF EDITH L. TIEMPO

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Edith L. Tiempo's contributions to Philippine literature by analyzing her literary works.

Learn about it!

Edith L. Tiempo 

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Edith L. Tiempo was a Filipino writer in English. She was a poet, fiction writer, and literary critic. She was known for using intricate and witty representations to portray significant human experiences. Some of her well known poems are "The Return," a poem that describes the characteristics of old age, "Lament for the Littlest Fellow," a poem that presents a metaphor to describe the plight of a submissive wife under her domineering husband, and "Bonsai," a poem that gives a look at how tangible objects could be keepers of memories and emotions. As a fictionist, she was known for her moral profoundness. One of her remarkable short stories, "The Black Monkey," won third prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award. "The Black Monkey," which is set during the time when guerrillas were fighting against the Japanese during World War II, narrates the tormenting encounter of a woman with a monkey. She also wrote the novel A Blade of Fern, which depicts the problems of Filipino miners of Nibucal in southern Philippines. She was awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1999. She founded with her husband the Silliman University National Writers Workshop, which produced great young writers of her time.

Analyzing the literary work of a writer would help in determining what her contributions are to literature.

Example: Below is an excerpt of Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return."

The Return

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If the dead years could shake their skinny legs and run As once he had circled this house in thirty counts, he would go thru this door among those old friends and they would not shun Him and the tales he would tell, tales that would bear more than the spare Testimony of willed wit and his grey hairs.

And he would live in the whispers and locked heads. Wheeling around and around turning back was where he started: The turn to the pasture, a swift streak under a boy’s running; The swing, up a few times and he had all the earth he wanted; The tower trees, and not so tall as he had imagined; The rocking chair on the porch, you pushed it and it started rocking, Rocking, and abruptly stopped. He, too, stopped in the doorway, chagrined.

He would go among them but he would not tell, he could be smart, He, an old man cracking the bones of his embarrassment apart.

The excerpts cited in this material are copyrighted by their respective authors.

Quipper ensures that the use of these works has permission from their authors and this effort is ongoing. Should you have concerns regarding the proper use of these works, or if you have not received communication from us regarding this matter, please let us know immediately.

Explanation:  Old age is the subject of the given poem. This poem describes the life of an old man who loved to travel in his youth. The phrases dead years, skinny legs, and thirty counts denote the physical weakness and isolation that the old man feels. The old man wants to visit his friends to bond with them and share to them his travel stories and experiences. Hopelessly, he sees only the things associated with old age: irritability and illness, rocking chair, pasture, and the tower tree.  The themes or messages of the poem are:  Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.  Old people face physical weakness and emotional challenges such as feelings of isolation, sadness, and frustration.  Old age is an inevitable period in human growth and development.

Author’s Style 

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Edith L. Tiempo used a very contemplative style in writing the poem "The Return." The theme and the subject of the poem are very serious. Her narrative tone and vivid visual imagery allow readers to think deeply about old age and evoke emotions of nostalgia and sadness from the old man’s perspective. Edith L. Tiempo is one of the foremost Filipino contemporary writers in English who is known for her style and substance. Her language is considered descriptive but without scrupulous detailing. Her literary works are hailed for their artistic representation of significant human experiences.

Tips In analyzing and interpreting a poem, a reader must not confuse the subject and the theme of the poem. The subject is what the poem is about whereas the theme is the poem's underlying idea or message. • A poem could have two or more themes. •

LIFE AND WORKS OF F. SIONIL JOSE

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify F. Sionil Jose’s contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Learn about it!

F. Sionil Jose Francisco Sionil Jose, widely known as F. Sionil Jose, was born on December 3, 1924 in Rosales, Pangasinan.  His life and most of his works are influenced by Dr. Jose P. Rizal.  He edited various literary and journalistic publications, and he founded the Philippine PEN, an organization of poets, playwrights, and novelists.  He opened Solidaridad Publishing House in 1965. A year after, he founded Solidarity, a magazine that produces content mainly focused on "current affairs, ideas, and the arts."  He was a recipient of numerous awards. Some of which are the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communications in 1980, the Pablo Neruda Centennial Award in 2004, and the Officer in the French Order of Arts and Letters in 2014.  He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2001.

F. Sionil Jose's Literary Works 

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F. Sionil Jose’s are generally written in English and are translated to more than twenty languages and produced worldwide. Among his most celebrated works is the Rosales Saga. It is a series of novels that are set from the Spanish colonial period to the proclamation of Martial Law in the 1970s. This saga includes the following novels: Po-on, Tree, The Pretenders, Mass, and My Brother, My Executioner. He has also written several short stories, including the notable "The God Stealer". It is a story about the friendship of Philip Latak, an Ifugao, and Sam Christie, an American who wanted to buy a bulol, a sculpture of an Ifugao god. The story depicts the relationship and truths about the colonizer and the colony. Waywaya: Eleven Filipino Short Stories is a compilation of short stories about pre-Hispanic Philippine society. In 2004, he published the children’s book The Molave and Other Children’s Stories.

To identify a writer's contributions to Philippine literature, it is important to analyze and take a close look at his literary works.

Example:  In a nutshell, F. Sionil Jose’s "The God Stealer" tells the story of Philip Latak and Sam Christie. Philip was residing in the city for years against his family’s wishes. Sam, his colleague, was an American who wanted a bulol, an Ifugao god sculpture, as a souvenir before he gets back to Boston. Philip stole his grandfather’s bulol for Sam, as he felt indebted to repay Sam’s kindness. Then Philip’s grandfather died, and he no longer wanted to come with Sam back in the city. Explanation:  The story tackles one of the many effects of colonization, that is, losing one’s identity. Philip represents the Philippines, while Sam represents America. Philip’s way of offering the bulol to Sam out of gratitude shows how he tried to denounce his roots by embracing a new one, thus losing himself in the process.

Summary F. Sionil Jose is among the most widely read Filipino writers in English whose novels and short stories depict a wide scope of social underpinnings and struggles of the Filipino masses. He is the country’s most influential living writer who employs realism through his narrative techniques and styles.

LIFE AND WORKS OF VIRGILIO S. ALMARIO

Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: • identify the valuable contributions of Virgilio S. Almario to Philippine Literature; and • analyze one of his poems.

Learn about it!

Virgilio S. Almario Virgilio S. Almario, popularly known by his pen name Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for his poetry and literary criticism. He was proclaimed National Artist for Literature in 2003.  Almario, together with poets Rogelio Mangahas and Lamberto E. Antonio, pioneered the second modernist movement in Filipino poetry. In his own words, he defines modernist poetry as sparing, suggestive, and restrained in emotion; its vocabulary and subject are immersed in the now. Among his poetry collections are Makinasyon at Ilang Tula (1968), his very first collection; Peregrinasyon at Iba Pang Tula (1970), which won first prize in poetry in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards; Doktrinangď€ Anakpawis (1979); Mga Retrato at Rekwerdo (1984); and Muli Sa Kandungan ng Lupa (1994).

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Almario’s earliest works of literary criticism were published in the Dawn, the weekly organ of the University of the East. Some of those works were later included in Ang Makata sa Panahon ng Makina (1982), now considered as the first book of literary criticism in Filipino. His other critical works include Taludtod at Talinghaga (1965), which tackles the traditional Tagalog prosody; and Balagtasismo Versus Modernismo (1984), in which he presents the two main directions of the Tagalog Poetry.

Almario performed significant deeds in the field of Philippine literature. He founded the Galian sa Arte at Tula (GAT) with the other poets Teo Antonio and Mike Bigornia in 1970; and the Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika, at Anyo (LIRA), an organization of poets who write in Filipino, in 1985. From 1986 to 1992, he served as chairman of the Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas (UMPIL), considered to be the biggest umbrella organization of writers. From 1998 to 2001, he served as executive director of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). In 2013 he became the chairman of the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF).

Example: High Zoociety Ni Rio Alma

Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw, Parang birheng-birheng manang Na di-madapuan ng langaw Sa ibabaw ng karosa patungong simbahan; At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa, Maluluma ang mga donyang nakahilata Habang ibinibilad ang kuto at muta.

Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit, Parang mga binibining umiikot ang puwit, Sa bulwagang hitik sa masalapi’t makikisig; At ang mga burukratang unggoy Sa tuktok ng mala-palasyong kahoy, Pulu-pulutong kung magpulong Kung paanong mas lalapad ang papel at tumbong.

Naghahari’t matitikas na oso’t agila, Nagkikikil lang ng kuko’t pangil tuwing umaga Para isakmal sa karne’t isuob na barya Kaya tumatambok ang tiyan at bulsa.

Samantala, matatalinong kuwago’y naghihilik, Malalaki nga ang mata’y lagi namang pikit, Marahil, bagong paraiso ang laman ng panaginip.

Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala Sa paghanap ng kahit butiking mabiktima, Bundat na’y lagi pa ring nakanganga.

Pero higit na mag-ingat sa hunyango’t ahas Na sa damuhan ay nagkalat; Tuwing maghuhunos ng kulay at balat, Pakay ay kay-hirap madalumat.

(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Virgilio S.

Explanation:  The poem "High Zoociety" is part of the collection Doktrinang Anakpawis (1979). Published during the martial law years (1972–1981), the poem and the rest of the collection are considered committed poetry, that is, of social awareness and concern. The title is a play on the term "High Society," which refers to the rich and powerful.  "High Zoociety" has eight stanzas following this pattern of number of lines: 4-3-3-4-4-3-3-4. It uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as "tugmang karaniwan," wherein the last word of each line has the same sound. The second, fifth, and seventh stanzas use "tugmang patinig," wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel wound. On the other hand, the rest of the stanzas use "tugmang katinig," wherein the last words of the lines end in a consonant preceded by the same vowel sound. However, the poem has no regular meter.

Key Points Virgilio S. Almario, or Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for his works of modernist poetry and literary criticism on Filipino poetry, which are valuable contributions to Philippine literature.

LIFE AND WORKS OF ALEJANDRO ROCES

Objective At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Alejandro R. Roces’s contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Learn about it!

Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer 

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Alejandro R. Roces was a Filipino literary writer. He was born on July 13, 1924. He was a playwright, an essayist, and a short story writer. He was also a columnist at the Philippine Star, the Manila Times, and the Manila Chronicle. He attended the Ateneo de Manila University for his primary and secondary education and the University of Arizona where he earned his degree in fine arts. He pursued further studies at the following institutions: Far Eastern University (master’s degree); Ateneo de Manila University, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, St. Louis University, and Tokyo University in Japan (doctorate). Alejandro R. Roces was known for his short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers," a story about an American soldier in the Philippines who brags about his drinking habits, but becomes overly drunk after drinking lambanog offered by a Filipino farmer.

From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Secretary of Education under the regime of former president Diosdado Macapagal. He has also served as chairman of the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) in 2001.

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From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Secretary of Education under the regime of former president Diosdado Macapagal. He has also served as chairman of the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) in 2001.

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His other literary works are "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken," a story which talks about two brothers who were arguing whether the chicken they caught was a hen or a rooster; Something to Crow About, the first Filipino zarzuela in English about a man named Kiko who earns a living by means of cockfighting; and Fiesta, a collection of essays about various Philippine festivals.

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Alejandro R. Roces was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2003. He died on May 23, 2011.

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Read the synopsis of “My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken” below, one of Alejandro R. Roces’ notable works.

Synopsis:  Kiko and his brother found a peculiar chicken. They argued whether it was a hen or a rooster. Kiko believed that it was a rooster, while his brother thought otherwise. Kiko’s brother emphasized that it could not be a rooster as the chicken has neither wattles nor comb.

Their parents took turns in looking at the chicken and had different thoughts about it; thus, they ended up arguing like their children.

Kiko and his brother asked the chieftain about it, and he thought that it was a bird of a different kind. They also asked Mr. Eduardo Cruz, someone who studied poultry raising, and he suggested examining the insides of the chicken, to which Kiko refused. They both agreed to bring the chicken to a cockpit and have it fight with a rooster from Texas. However, the rooster performed a love dance around the peculiar chicken. It turned out that the peculiar chicken was waiting for a chance to attack. It stubbed its spur into the rooster, and won. Kiko’s brother was convinced that the chicken was a rooster. However, when he was holding the chicken, it suddenly quivered and laid an egg.

Humor is a literary device which aims to make the audience or readers laugh or be amused. Alejandro R. Roces employed humor in most of his works. There are various types of humor. Some of which are exaggeration/hyperbole, surprise, and sarcasm.  Sarcasm – is a literary device used to mock. In the story, the chicken crowed and Kiko triumphantly asked his brother if he heard it. Kiko then mocked his brother by saying “I suppose you are going to tell me now that hens crow and that carabaos fly.”  Exaggeration/Hyperbole – is a literary device used to make an event appear better or worse than what it really is. In the story, Kiko’s brother shared how they were almost whipped for arguing too much.  Surprise – is a literary device commonly found in unlikely situation or an unexpected turn of events. As the brothers ran from the mob, Kiko’s brother was convinced that the chicken was a rooster based on how it defeated its opponent, until it laid an egg.

Summary Alejandro R. Roces was best known for his short stories, "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken" and "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." He employed humor in most of his works, usually tackling the Filipinos’ fascination of cockfighting.

LIFE AND WORKS OF BIENVENIDO S. LUMBERA

Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the valuable contributions of Bienvenido S. Lumbera in the development of Philippine literature, and analyze two of his poems.

Learn about it!

Personal Life : 

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Lumbera, who was called Beny when he was a young boy, was born in Lipa, Batangas on April 11, 1932. His parents had passed away before he turned five.

Beny and his older sister were raised by Eusebia Teru, their paternal grandmother.

When Eusebia died, Beny came to live with his godparents, Enrique and Amanda Lumbera.

Beny showed natural aptitude for English. In sixth grade, his writing impressed his teacher so much that she once asked him, in an accusatory tone, if he did write his composition himself. In his third year in high school, his teacher gave him difficult works of literature to read.

Lumbera took a degree in journalism at the University of Santo Tomas in 1950 and graduated cum laude in 1954. A year before his graduation, his first published work, the poem “Frigid Moon,” appeared in the Sunday magazine of the Manila Chronicle.

On a full scholarship granted by the Fulbright Committee, Lumbera obtained his masters and doctorate degrees at Indiana University.

Literary Background  Lumbera writes in English and Filipino. Below are some of his works. Poetry Collections  Likhang Dila, Likhang Diwa (1993) Balaybay: Mga Tulang Lunot at Manibalang (2002) Critical Works  Abot Tanaw: Sulyap at Suri sa Nagbabagong Kultura at Lipunan (1987)  Writing the Nation/Pag-Akda ng Bansa (2000) Tagalog Poetry, 1570–1898: Tradition and Influences in Its Development (2001) Librettos  Tales of the Manuvu (1977)  Rama Hari (1980) Sa Sariling Bayan: Apat na Dulang May Musika (2003)  Lumbera is a strong advocate of the Filipino language. According to him, the gap between the well-educated Filipinos and the majority cannot be bridged until Filipino becomes their true lingua franca.  Lumbera has received numerous awards for his work. The most notable ones were the Special Prize from the Palanca Awards for his poetry collection Sunog sa Lipa at Iba Pang Tula in 1975, the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts in 1993, and the Philippine Centennial Literary Prize for Drama in 1998.  Lumbera received the title of National Artist for Literature in 2006.

A Eulogy of Roaches

by Bienvenido Lumbera Blessed are the cockroaches.

In this country they are the citizens who last.

They need no police to promulgate their peace because they tolerate each other’s smell or greed.

Friends to dark and filth, they do not choose their meat.

Although they neither sow nor reap, a daily feast is laid for them in rooms and kitchens of their pick.

The roaches do not spin, and neither do they weave.

But note the russet coat the sluggards wear: clothed at birth, roaches require no roachy charity.

They settle where they wish and have no rent to pay.

Eviction is a word quite meaningless to them who do not have to own their dingy crack of wall.

Not knowing dearth or taxes, they increase and multiply.

Survival is assured even the jobless roach; his opportunities pile up where garbage grows.

Dying is brief and cheap and thus cannot affright.

A whiff of toxic mist, an agile heel, a stick —the swift descent of pain is also final death.

Their annals may be short, but when the simple poor have starved to simple death, roaches still circulate in cupboards of the rich, the strong, the wise, the dead.

(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Dr. Bienvenido S. Lumbera.)

Analysis of the Poem 

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Published in 1965, “A Eulogy of Roaches” is a piece of Bagay poetry. Its subject, the roaches, represents a deeper meaning. However, the poet merely focuses on giving precise visual images of the subject and not on explicitly stating its representations.

The poet uses imagery, a literary technique in which figurative language is used to appeal to the reader’s physical senses. An example is the poet’s description of roaches as “friends to dark and filth.” Also, the poet uses juxtaposition, a literary technique in which two (or more) ideas are placed side by side for comparison and contrast. In the last two stanzas, the poet draws both a comparison and a distinction between the roaches’ life and the life of the poor: that the poor die simply of starvation, but the roaches still go on living their short lives in the “cupboards of the rich, the strong, the wise, the dead.”

Summary Bienvenido S. Lumbera is a poet, critic, and librettist. He has made valuable contributions in the development of Philippine literature especially in the vernacular language. He has published works in English and Filipino and received numerous awards including the National Artist for Literature title in 2006.

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