A History of Western Music, 9th Edition (Part 3 of 3) by Yarm School

758

C H A 1> T E R 3 O •

Subjects

Conventions

Oiverging T,ad,tions in the Later Nineteenth Century

The Umted States

was a widening gulf between art so11gs and popula.r so11gs. Art songs, such as those of Pau ré and Wolf, had precisely notated pia no pa1is, tended to be through-composed rather than strophic, werc meanl to engage listeners on a high artistic plane, and required high professional standards of both pianist and singer. Composers of popu lar songs sought instead to entertai n their a udience. accommodate amateur performers. and sell as many copies of Lhe sheet musicas possib le, so immediate appeal and SLick- in-your-head catchin ess we1·e the most imp orta nt attributes. Topics for popular songs included !ove. hea rlbreak, birth, death, racial and ethnic satire, new inventions like tbe bicycle and te lephone, sentimental thoughts of mother and tbe old fa mily home, aod Amel'ica's favorile pastime, basebaU. Songs were pressed into service for every possible ca use: abolition, the Civil War, temperance (the campaign against drnnkenness), labor orga niz:ing, political campaigns, anel evangelism, as ln gospel songs s uch as Joseph P. Webster's ln Lhe Sweei By-o.nd-By ( 1868). Popular a11 depends upon lhe inlerplay of convention and novelty, and both are evident in the best popula r songs. The standard form remained verse and refrain, wi th a four · or eip;bt-measure introduction for· the piano; an eight-, sixteen- , or thirty-two-measure verse; anda refrain of similar size. Often the refrain was scored in paris for chorus (or four solo singers) . so that c/,Qrns carne to be used as a term for refrain. Both verse and refrain typically bad internai repetitions, falUng into fonns sucb as AABA. ln some songs the verse and refrain sha red material. a nd in others the chorus was whoUy new. occasionally even in a different meter. The key to success was creating a catchy phrase, someümes called the hook. that could grab the listener's attention and theo be repea ted and varied over the course of the song. The choros of Charles K. Harris's After the Bali (1892), shown in Example 30.5, begins with a motive that is simple yet has enough unusua l features to make it in triguing: it begins and ends away fro m the tonic note. avoids stepwise motion. twice rocks back and forth on a minor third , and has its high poinL early in the ph.rase on an unst ressed beat and syllable. Linked with the waltz rhythm. all these features convey a lack oi' balance. suggesting tl1e imoxication of dancing ata bali. The motive is varied

EXAM PLE 30.5: Cltoms ji-om Charles

•

· w Af-ttl'

K. Harris's AJter lhe Bali

1p npwwr D,f=.i 1,t

the ball

ver,

bÀi=$l

af-ter the break of mon't, _ _

~-qg~f!Ef-;Wpl. .pl-p& I J E1 1 fii=@ Af-ter ,he da-o -r,.ers·

lenv - ing:

aí- ter rhe srnrs are gone ; - -

-tF' r r· P1-f+EFbA-hfHd+-4---1 (1r * @

many times in succession, tben is replacecl by a more stable, stepwise pbrase at the close (producingAA' A"B fo rm). The lilting waJtz s uits the subject of th e text. anel the move from giddiness to steadiness drives home the Jesson thc words convey. Harris's song was enonnous'l y popu lar, selli ng millions of copies andsince he had puhlished it himself- making him rich. lt typiúes the producls of Ti11 Pan Alley, 1he jocular oame fora districton West28th St reeLio NewYork where, begi nning in the l 880s, oumerous publishers specializing in popular songs were located. Harris's slrategy for promoting the song also beca me typical. He paid a singer to introduce lhe song in a show, and when il became a hit w.itb the aud iences, peo ple went out io droves to buy a copy of the sheet music. The link betwee n success on stage a nd in sales of printed music harks back to Barnque opera. includes lhe rninstrel show !unes ofStephen Poster and others in the nineteenth century, and remained important in the twentieth centu1y.

Tin. Pan. Alley

MUSIC OF AFRICAN AMERICANS The one immip;rant p;roup that carne to the United States ap;ainst their wil l was Africa ns. Brought over as siaves in inhuma n conditions, th ey carne from many ethnic groups with different languages and customs. Mixcd together on plantations oras domestic servants, they would have had a difftcult time main tai ning their original languages and ctlltures even if slaveholders had not actively worked to prevent this. But elemenls of their music were easier lo preserve, beca use they had been widely shared among African societies and because white slaveholders dicl not consider singing a threat. lndeecl , work songs were actively encouraged as a way lo keep up the pace and the spirits. Among the many Lraits of African America n music that have been lraced back to Africa are lhese:

Traits ofAfrican Ame,ican music

• alternating short phrases between a leacler and the group, callecl call

wul respo11se; • im provisation , usually based on a simple formula that allows wideranging varialion: • syncopalion; • repetition of short rhythm ic or melodie patterns; • multiple layers of rhythm, with beats in some instruments (or hand clapping or foot stomping) and offbeats in others; • bencling pitches or slicling l'rom one pitch to another: • moans, sbouts, anel other vocalizations; aod • instruments like the banjo, based on a WestAfrican stringed instrument.

Man -y

a h ean

:och -

ing.

if you could rea<l rhem all, _ _

ttrrr ir r r tt'tLWi:J Mnn -y 1bc hopcs 1ha1 havc

van - ishcd

aí -

1cr

1hc baJl. _ _

759

We will see lhese and other traits ln ragtime, blues. jazz. rhythm and blues. ~nn ot-her twen ti eth-r.entmy styles hase<I o n Afrir.~n Amerir.an tra n ilions.

The African American form of music w.itb the greates t impact in Lhe nineteenth centu ry was the spirit,wl, a religiou:s song of southern slaves, passed down lhroughoral lradition. The texts werc usually baseei on images or stories

Spirituals

760

C H A 1> T E R 3 O • Diverging Trad,tions on the L•ter Nineteenth Century

FIGURE 30.9: The

original fisk}ubilee Si ngers. phoiographed in 1873 in London. during tlteir Euro · pean iour. Founded at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. lhe group consisted ofAfrican Ameri.can stt,dent musicians who pe,jonned spiriluals a.nd otl1er songs in fot,r·par1 liannony. (SCIIOMllUIIG C6h'Ttl1, Tll t Nt1"' l'Oll.K f'UBLIC l l81\Afll, ASTOB, LtNOXANDTILDtN

FOUNOATIONS)

fro m the Bihle. but they often carried hidden meanings of the slaves· yearning fo1· freedom. The fust to appear in print was Go Down. Moses. which uses the sto1y of lsrael's de liverance from Egypt as a symbol for tbe liberation of che slaves. The song was puhlished in 1861. duringthe ftrst year of the Civil War, after a missionary heard it sung by refugee slaves. The lirst publications of spiTituals tricd to document the songs as former siaves sang them, though the ed itors admitted that they could not notate the bent pitches and other aspects of performance. But soon dozens of spiri· tuals were ananged as songs with piano accompaniments that anyone could play and in four · part harmony for choirs . The Pisk Jubilee Singers, depicted in Figure 30.9. popularized spirituals in tl1e 1870s through polished performances in concerl tours on both sides of tbe Atlantic. By lhe late 1800s, spirituals were simultaneously folk m usic for lhose who had learned them from oral tradition, popuJar songs for t.hose who bought them in collecrions or as sheet music or heard them in popular venues. and a source of melodie material for dassical composers like Dvofák (see above).

Reception and Recognition By the e nd ofthe nineteenth cent1.11y, what see med in r etrospect like a main· stream of musical development in lhe late eighteenth centu1y had broken into many smaller currents. like a great river forming a delta as it heads toward the sea. The spht between classical and popular music had widened and was becoming irrevocable. but even within lhose two broad traditions lhere were many r.ompeting Mran<ls. Most afilie classicaJ composers we have studiecl fouoel a place in the per· manent repeno ire. NationaJ ilavor helped many gain aniche, from Fauré and Dvoták at Eu rope's center to Tchaikovsky, Grieg, and o1hers on the periphery.

Reception and Recogrntion

Some were admitteel into the canon of classicaJ masters on the strength of relatively few works, as were Franck, Smetana, and Elgar. Tn each case, per· fonners, audiences. and critics tendecl lo favor works that brought a clis· tinetive new personalily into the tradilion, a trend 1ha1 would become even stronger in the twentieth centu1y. Divisions between classical and popular streams existed everywhere in Europe and I he Americas, not only in 1he United Sta1es. Ye 1. the American case is especia lly interesting becai1se the hierarcby of pennanence is the oppo· site of Europe's. ln lhe United States, lhe late-nineteenlh-century compos· ers in the classical tradition won respect anel renown in their lifetimes, but th en faded from view, anel despile recent 1·evivaJs their music is still rela· tively little known. The reasons for this are debated: is it simply a question of unfamiliarity. or lesser quality. or prejudice againsl American compos· ers, or did Paine, Beach, and their contemporaries J'ail to create music wirh an identiliable personality because they were overly dependent on a tradi· tion that was not native and thus inauthentic.-or does that very queslion give too much credence to the expec tation thal aJJ composers outside Cermany should be oationalists? By contras!, some popular traditions produced works that have never ceased being played and enjoyed. These pieces-including Sousa's best· known marches. popular songs such as The Battle Cry o/Free· dorn anel The Band Played On. anel dozens of African American spirituals-have every reason to be ca Ued "classics." Like the works of Hande l, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven that became the fu-s t classics. these works entertained their first audiences but also had an enduring appea1 that brought performers and listeners back repeatedJy, anel their growing familiarity made these pieces even more beloved. Tbe twentieth century in turn saw olher types of popu lar music develop their own repertoires of classics and their own legions of connoisseurs. More than in most other nations, the permanent repenoire of American classics grew from indigenous popular traclitions, rather than as an offshoot of the interna tio na! classical mainstream. ~ Resources fo r study and review avail•ble at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

761

6 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND AFTER D

t-1 'le

e know more about musical culture in the twentieth century than in any earlier period. Recalling the four types of evidence discussed in chapter 1 for reconstructing the

music of the past-physical remains, visual

images, writings about music and musicians, and

31 THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY: VERNACULAR MUSIC

764

32 THE EARLY

music itself-we have far more of ali of these for music since 1900

TWENTIETH CENTURY:

than for all previous eras combined. The new technologies of sound

THE CLASSICAL

recording. photography. film. television, and com puters have pre· served and made available every kind of music-making from a lmost every nation and social g roup. giving usa more complete picture than for earlier times. when music survived only in notation. On the other hand , the sheer amount of music from the past century can seem

TRADITION 778

33 RADICAL MODERNISTS 812

34 BETWEEN THE WORLD

overwhelming, and our historical closeness can make it difficult to d is-

WARS: JAZZ AND

cern what is of greatest or most lasting importance.

POPULAR MUSIC 855

The music from the twentieth century was also more diverse than in previous generations. T hroughout each decade. musicians reexamined their basic assumptions about music and created new works

35 BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS: THE CLASSICAL TRADITION 875

that did astonishing things. New rraditions emerged such as ragtime, jazz, musicais, film music, rock, hip hop, and orher types of popular music. ln the classical realm. some composers continued to write tonal music, while others devised new systems of organizing pitch. such as atonality, polytonality. neotonality, and twelve-tone methods. h was a time of competing styles, from impressionism and expressionism to neoclassicism. minimalism, and neo-Romanticism , and of exploring new sounds and approaches, including experimental music, spatial music, electronic music, indeterminacy, chance, and collage. These trends are still with us, and more come each year, making today's mus.i•

cal life the most varied the world has ever known.

36 POSTWAR CROSSCURRENTS 903

37 POSTWAR HEIRS TO THE CLASSICAL TRADITION 923

38 THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY 958

39 THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 993

Modem Times. 1889-1918

765

Modem Times, 1889-1918

THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY:VERNACULAR MUSIC The early twentieth centu ry was a time of rapid change in technology, society, and the arts, including mu sic. The invention of devices for recording sound began to change the way music was preserved, distributed, anel solei, making music in sound as permanenl and widely available as music in notation. As a result, the vibrant traditions of ·venwc11lar 11111sic loom larger in the history of twentieth-century music than in any earlier era. African American musicians, soon joined by white collaborators and competitors, developed new currents in ragtime and ja.:::::: that won the world's attention and made popular music more culturally and historically significant than it had ever been. Composers in the classical tradition, forced to compete for space on concert programs with the classics of the past, sougnt to win an audience in the present and se cure a place in the per manent rep ertoire of the future by offering a uniqu e style and perspective that balanced tradition and novel elements. This chapter wiU describe the historical background for the last years of the nineteenth century and the nrst two decades oftne twentieth, and then will focus on developments in vernacular music, especially theAfricanAmerican tradition. The next two chapters will examine the ftrst two generations of modem composers in lhe classical lradilion, born be1ween 1860 and 1885.

The turn of a new cent ury is a convenient and memo1·able marker fo r delineating a new historical period, but life rarely follows the calendar so closely. Hislorians somelimes speak of a "'long nineteenth century" from lhe French Revolulion in 1789, which ended lhe older orde r, 10 rhe sta rt of World War 1 in 1914, which ended fourdecades of rela1ive peace in Eu rope. ln other respects. tl1e new age of grealer global interconnection and accelerating innovalion in science and lechnology chara.cteristic of lhe twenlie th century already seemed to be underway by tbe time of the Paris Universal Exposition (\Vorld's Fair) of 1889. when people gathered from all over the world and the Eiffel Tower. lhe lallest struclure humans had ever built and a lriumph of modem engineering, was opened to the public. Figure 31. l shows this impressive stn1cture as it appearecl in March 1889 at tne opening of t.he Fair. The period between the Paris Exposition and the eod of World War I in 1918 was more self-co nsciously "modem" thao any previous era, so much so that a century later we still think of a11, music, and füerature from this time as modern. Tne pace of teclm ological ao d social change was more rapid than in any previous era. prompting botb an optimistic sense of progress and a nostalgia for a simpler past. One symbol of progress was the electrilication of industry. businesses, and homes. Electric lighting increasingly replaced gas lighting. and eleclrical appliances were produced for the home market. Internai combustion engines fueled by petroleum graduaUy replaced coal- fueled engines in steamships and factories. By streamlining production and distrihulion, Henry Ford made his Model T the nrst widely affordable automohile in 1908.

New technologies

FIGURE 31.1: Tl1e Eiffel

Tower aiid th.e Ch.amp de Mars a.s seen. ai the

Paris Exposition of 1889. Ai the time. i t WM 1he iallesr stn~cw re built brhurnan liands. (COUK'l'l:sv or l'Vl!Hf.'M ' (:01.•

ucnox)

766

C H A 1> T E R 3 1 • The Eorly Twentioth Century: Vernoculor Music

Economyand

social conflicts

United States

NPw view.~ nn the humanmind

launching the modem worlcrs !ove affair with the c:ir. Wilbur anel Orville Wright flew the n rst working afrplane in 1903, and by the end of the next decade airplanes were used for both milita1y and commercial purposes. New products, improved trans portalion, anel new marketing lechniques combined to expand the mass ma rket for ma nufactured goods. Of crucial importance for music were new technologies for reproducing music. from player pianos Lo phonographs (see lnnova Lí ons: Reco rded Sound. pp. 768-69). Meanwhi le, movingpicture sbows-tbe movies-offered a new form of theatric.al entertainment witb musical accompaniment. Tbe growth of indust1y fostere<l an expanding economy and rapielly grow íng cities. The fars1 s Leel-l'rameel skyscraper was erected ín Chicago in 1889, packing more indoor space for people and businesses into a smaller area of land than ever before. anel in the comini;' decades lhe tall buildings lrans formed the lookof cities around the world. People continued to migrate from rural areas to cities, although not without regret; Tin Pan Alley songs anel Mahler symphonies alike expressed nostali;'ia for the countryside. Economic inequalities promp ted workers to organize in labor unions to Jight for better conditions, inspired social reformers such as Jane Ad elams to work with the poor, and asoused revolutionary movements in Russia and elsewhere. InternationaJ trade continued to increase. European nations grew rich importing raw maLerials anel food, anel marketing manufactured goods Lo the worlcl. The great powers-Britain, France, anel the Gennan, Austr-0-Hungarian , Russian , and Ottoman Empires- competed for dominance. while the peoples of eastem Europe, from the Balkans to Finland, agitated for their own freedom. lncreasi ng tensions and complex po litical issues cu lminated in World War 1. The modem. eflicient machinery of war killed millicms of soldiers, endini;' Lhe hope that technological improvements would lead inevitalily to the beller ment oi' humankind. The collapse of widespread l'aith in human progress lel'I deep disillus ionme nt in its wake. During these ycars. the United States emerged as a world power. lt easily deíeated Spain in 1he Spanish-American war of 1898, takingover Pueno Rico, Cuba. the Philippines, and other Spanish colonies. Arnerican industries and overseas trade expanded rapidly, growing to rival the industrial powerhouses of Brilain anel Cermany. The United States' entrance into World War I in April 1917 on t be side of Britaín and f'rance tipped the scales against Germany and Austria -Huni;',ll'Y, anel Presiden t Woodrow Wilson played a leading role in negotiating the peace. As in Europe, rapicl economic development broughl social con11ict. The Progressive movemen t created reforms to reduce the d.ominance of large corporations. lmmigrants continued to stream to the United States. now increasingly from southern anel eastern Europe, and lheir presence in cities caused strains with earlier immigrant groups. Looki ng for new opportl.m it ies, Afri can Americans from the South moved to the large northern cities but because of racist atlitudes settled into segregated neighborho()ds. He re a black urban culture began to develop. in which music was a major cultural force. Psychologists ra ised new questions about what it meant to be hmnan. Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis. theorizing that human behavior springs l'rom unconscious desires lha! a re repressed by cultural restraints and that elreams are winelows into a person·s in terna) conflicts. Ivan Pavlov

Modem Times. 1889-1918

showed tbat dogs accustomed to being fed a fier a bell was rungwouJd saJivate at lhe sound of the bell even if no food was present anel that humans could likewise be conditioned to responcl to slimuli in p rcdictable ways. Thcse approaches challenged the Romamic view of individuais as prolagonists of their own d ramas, seeming instead to portray humans as subject to interna i anel social forces of wb.ich they were only dimly aware. Sucb changing views of human nature played a st rong role in literature and the other a rts. Sustaineel by Romantic notfons of art as a window on the divine and of the a1iist as an enlightened visiona1y, a1iists increasingly rega1·ded their work as an end in itself to be appreciated for its own sake. Success was measured not bywide pop1tlar appeal but by lhe esteem of intellectuals anel fellow artists. Many artists searcbed for new a11d umtsuaJ content or techniques. Symbolist poets sucb as Paul Verlaine. Stéphane Mallarmé. Paul Valéiy. anel Stefan George. for exam1>le, used intense image1y anel disrupted syntax to evoke an i.ndel'inile, dreamlike state and to suggesl feelings anel experíences rather chan describing them directly. They focused on the senses and 011 lhe present moment. openin!l' new possiliililies of sensuality that had strong parnllels in arl and music. ln rhe lale nineteentb century, Frencb painters known as impressionisr.snamed after Claude Monet's painting fmpression: Sunrise (1872), shown in Figure 31.2- inaugttrated the Etrst in a series of modem anistie movements tbat utterly

FIGURE 31.2, Claude Monet. lmpression: Suurise (1872). Manel entered rhis work <m<L eigh1 others in <1n exl,ibition lie 1,elpect to organi.ze in 1874. A critic /1eadlined his mocking review "E,·hibir ion of 1he /mpressionis1s, .. pick-ing up on Mon er.'s til/e and coining a rerm liwt would encornpass an entire an:istic movemen1. Instead o/mi.,;;-

ine his ralor.ç nn npalette. MnnP.tju xtnpns:P.d, thP.m nn thP. r.n,nvns tn r.'1ptu.reaflee.ting momento/the early!ig/11 of day. Apart from the rowboats and tlie sun reflectingfrom 1he water in ihe foreground, the w/1 sh.ips. smokestucks. and cranes blen.d in101/ie m.isty blue-graybackg1'01md against a reddish sky. ( M USh MAKM011'AN. PARISIAKT KtSOUKCt. NY)

The arts

From

impressionism tocubrsm

767

he advent of recording technology had the mosr significant impact on musi· cal culture of any innovation since the printing press. lt completely revolution· ized the way we experience and share musicas listeners, performers. or composers. When Thomas Edison made the first playable sound recording in his labora· tory in Menlo Park. New Jersey. in 1877. using his tinfoil cylinder phonograph shown in Figure 31.3. he intended his new device as a dictation machine for offices. He had no idea that his invention would catapult some muskians to fame and fortune, deliver their product to huge audiences. and spawn a multibillion·dollar industry. Edison·s phonograph recorded sound by a mechanical process. The sound waves, collected by a horn, moved a diaphragm that transmitted its motions to a needle. The needle cut a groove in the cylinder as the latter rotated. turned by a hand crank. The undulations in the groove correspondedl to the motions of the dia· phragm. To play back the record. the process was reversed: as the crank rotated the cylinder. the shape of the groove made the needle move. which in turn moved the diaphragm. and its vibrations sent the recorded sounds moving through the air. Edison soon replaced his fragile tinfoil cylinders with wax cylinders. which could be mass·produced by a molding process. Adding a motor to the machine made it possible to maintain a steady speed of rotation, necessary for recording music. Members of John Philip Sousa·s band and other artists made recordings that were sold commercially, but quantities were limited because each cylinder had to be recorded separately. ln 1887. Emile Berliner invented a more practical system that recorded on a Aat disc, which could be used as a mold to make any number of duplicates. Record players like the one in Figure 31.4 became available in the 1890s. and ten·inch discs with a capacity for four minutes of music on each side were sold for a dollar each. the equivalent of about twenty dollars todlay. The early discs featured famous artists. such as the great ltal· ian tenor Enrice Caruso (1873-1921). who made his first record· ing in 1902 and whose many records encouraged the medium's acceptance as suitable for opera. Because he became one of the recording industry's earliest superstars. it has been said that "Caruso made the phonograph and it made him." His recordings also preserved his performances beyond the grave. The new technology allowed performers to achieve for the flrst time the kind of immortality previously available only to composers. Mechanical recording was well suited for voices. but the lirnited range of frequencies it could reproduce rnade orchestral l'IGURE 31.3, Thomas Ediso,. ,oith his origi11al music sound tinny. For years, the only symphony available was phonogroph.. which. recorded SQunds through Beethoven's Fifth. recorded in 1913 by the Berlin Philharmonic impressions on a tinfoilcylinder. (vuo,o sr u uL· TON 11.ncnrvt1Gt:1TY IMAGES) for His Masters Voice. Because it was such a long piece. the

company had to issue it on eight discs gathered in an "album: which became the standard format for longer works. ln the 1920s, new methods of recording and repro· duction using electricity-including the elewic micro· phone-allowed a great increase in frequency range. dynamic variation. and fidelity. making the medium still more attractive to musicians and music lovers. Falling prices and continuing improvement of the recording process stimu lated a growing market for recordings. from popular songs and dance numbers to the classical FIGURE 314: Tlte 7rademarkMode/," oftheplton-0graph repertoire. Record companies competed to record the by His Ma-ster·s Voice. available beginn.ingin 1898. The most famous performers. and by the late 1940s most of fi mt 's nam e and the dog"s pose implied rli 0-t th.e device the better-known orchestral works had been recorded reproduced sou11d so faiilijiLUy rhat a dog would recognize more than ten times each. a recordingofhis owner·s voice. <nt nMAl'l'Nteo1uns> Encouraged by competition. companies contin· ued to develop new improvements. ln 1948. Columbia stand. They could now sit in their homes and order up a Records introduced the long•playing record. or LP, favorite singer or an entire orchestra at their conven·ience. which rotated at 33-1/3 revolutions per minute instead The visual element of music-making suddenly disap· of 78, used smaller grooves. and thus peared: listeners heard performers with· out seeing them. and musicians played in allowed twenty-three minutes of music per side instead of four. Longe, pieces recording studios for invisible audiences. could be played without interruption, Listening to recordings often replaced andas shown in Figure 31.5. LPs took up amateur music-making at home. wi th the much less space. Music lovers bought paradoxical effect that people devoted the LPs by the millions and got rid of less time and effort to engaging actively with music as participants. For many their old 78s. High-fidelity and stereo· phonic records were introduced in the people. listening to music became no 1950s. which also saw the debut of an longer a communal activity but a largely entirely new recording technology: solitary pursuit. People increasingly used magnetic tape. Philips introduced casrecorded music as a background to sette tapes in 1963. and by the 1970s other activities. rather than listening with tape sales were rivaling those of records. focused concentration. especially among consumers who valAlong with performers and listen· ers, composers too have been influ· ued portability more than faithful sound enced by the new technologies. being reproduction. Then in 1983. Philips and able to avail themselves of musical Sony unveiled the Compact Disc. or CD, which stored recorded sound ln styles and ideas outside of their ordi· digital code etched onto a four-inch nary experience. Music from A frica, plastlc disc and read by a laser. Even FIGURE 31.S: A1 the trnveil · lndia. Asia. and elsewhere became as listeners were replacing ali their LPs ing o[ rhe new lon.g·pla,ying available via recording without the hardwith CDs. new technologies were being record. a Columbia. Records ships or expense of travei. as did the entire history of Western music, from the developed that made lt possible to spokesman compares th.e download music from the Internet onto foot ·high füick o[ LPs in h.is singing of plainchant by monks in a faraway monastery to the most recent pop a personal computer or portable device. ha.nd.s with the ten-[eet-iall tune. Composers since the 1940s have The development of recordings irre· pile of78s needect ro .-ecord vocably altered the way people listen to the sarne amount of music. used recorded sounds to make music. music. No longer did they have to 90 to ( EB.IC S CHMVrlMt:. MAGAZINY.ITIJ.U: allowing them to incorporate an unprec· a concert hall or gather around a band· & li FE l'I cnmts/GE1TY IM AGES) edented variety of sounds.-BRH & JPB

768

769

NNOVATIONS

Recorded Sound

770

C H A 1> T E R 3 1 • The Eorly Twentieth Century: Vernoculor Mu'1C

changed styles and attirudes loward arl. Rather Lhan depicling things 1·ealislically. lhe impressionists sought to convey atmosphere and sensuous Lmpressions from natw·e. adopting a stance of delached observation i-ather than direct emolional engagement. The idea was to capture an instant in tLme, as one apprehends a scene, before reason can process it. ln Monet's paintings. objects and people are suggested by a few brush strokes. often of starkly contrasting colors, leaving it to tbe viewe r's eyes and mind to blend tbe colors and 1111 in tbe mlssing det,tils. Tbe effect oflight onan object is often as much the subjectof a painting as is the objectitself. as in Monet's series of paintings of haystacks (1890-91) and of lhe Rouen Cathednl (1892- 93) captured ai clifferent limes of day. The distinction between foreground and background is blurred, Jlattening the perspeclive and focusing our attention on the overall impression. AJthough impressionist painlings are widely popular today. they were ai first poorly received, derided as lacking in artislic skill and opposed 10 traditional aesthetics. Such reactions would also greet other modern styles of pai nting and mu:sic. Each impressionist painter had a highly individual style. and !ater artisls exLended their ideas in unique ways. Paul Cézanne depicted natural scenes and Eii:,,ures as orderly arrangements of geometrical [o nus and planes of calor, as in his paintingof Mont Sa.inte-Victoise (1906) in Figu re3l.6. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque further ahstracted tbis idea in cubism. a style in which

Vernatular Musical Traditions

three-dimensional objects are represented on a flat plane by b reakiog them down into geomeh·icaJ shapes. suchas cubes and cones. andjuxtaposing or overlap ping lhem in an aclive, colorful design. Figure 31.7 shows an example, one of a series Picasso painted in 1912 that used lhe violin as a subject. The revolution begun by impressionism st imulared new ways of making. seeing, and th inldng aboul paintings. giving hirth to movements such as expressionism (discussed in cbap ter 33). surrealism, and abstract art. AJJ of these movements can be seen as forms of modemism in art, paralle li ng the varied forms of modernism in m usic thaLwe will encounte r in the next two chapters. ln most of tbese n.ew movements, artists and tbe ir approving critics no longer placed as high a value on attractiveness. immediate comprehensihility. or pleasing the viewer as had painte1·s from the Renaissauce lo the Romantics. lnstead, they sought a deeper engagement. demanding that the viewer work to understand and interpret the i.rnage. We will see ali füese trends reflectecl in music in this and the next severa! chapters. Music was directly affected by the expanding economy. new technolo gies, tbe devastation ofWorld Wai- 1, the emergence of the United States on the world stage. the role of African American urban culture as a source for new musical styles, new th.inking about human na ture, and t he new modernist artistic movemen ts, with particularly close parallels to symbolism. impres· sio nism, expressionism. and cubism.

771

FIGURE 31.7 Pablo Picasso. Still Lifo. 1912-13. This c11bist painting inchtdes a violin on the riglit. broken iriro i1s various cornponents and planes.ando d(lri net 011 lhe left. s1:rliwd as multiple bars (gray. blue. brown. and black· and-wl1 i1e). mos1 wi1h fingel'lioles. and concenrric circles and et cone to represenl the: instrnrnent ·s bell. { PR(VATl: COLLECTJON. C1 2.00~ t.STATC OP PAhl.0 Pl(:AS:,0/Alt1'1~1':,, II I OIITS SOC IC'l"r, N J:1.l' l'O IIK/fllll lJ(;t:MAN ART LI IHIAHY)

Vernacular Musical Traditions

FIGURE 31.6:

Paul Cézanne. Mont Sainte-Victoirc (1906). Cézanne painred maiiyver-

siona of this sccnc visiblc from hi-8 hou.ac in Aix en Pro.,cn.ce in southcm A·<J.nce. rcndcri·nõ

rhe massi.ve mouniain and rlie details of rl,e ci1yand counrryside as ju:t7aposed blocks of colar in geometrica,l o rrangements. <•'USH1e Ir.: .1, 1u~•·u.,, or ~·1,.,•e Ak1'S, u o~cow. "'ussv.. rHoi•o: rttu~H Lt-SSI NC/ART ll.ESOURCl. NY)

The impact of prosperity and teclmology on music. and the growing impor tance of tbe United States and especially Af'iricanA.mericans, are appare nl La the varied and vibrant musical tradilions outside the classical concert haU and opera house. These traditions are sometimes refened to as ·vemac11fo1· music , since they are intended to reach a broad musica l publfo in a widely unders tood language, ralher thana ppealing to an elite. Vernacular traditio ns assume greater signiftcance in recounting the history of twentieth -century music tban in earlier ce nturies because the advent of recordings has preserved so much more vemacular music. In addit ion. recorrl ings anel ot her mass media disseminatecl forms of popular musir. that otherwise would have remained strictly local. Moreover, mucb vernacular music of the twentieth century has achieved a perma.nence rivaliug lhal of classical music. We have scen a few examples of

fmpactof recordings

Lasting importance

772

C H A 1> T E R 3 1 • The Eorly Twentioth Century: Vernoculor Music

T IMELINE The Early 20th Cent.ury: Vemacular Music MUS ICAL

HISTORICAL

Paris Universal Exposition

• 1889

• 1898 o

1899

Spanish-American War Scott Joplin. Mapfe Lea{

Rag

Sigmund Freud. The lnterpretacion o{Oreams

• 1899

popular music that have endured: dance tunes in John Playford 's The English Dancing Master (1651), waltzes by Johann Strauss anel Joseph Lanner, songs of Ste phen Foster anel Tin Pan Alley, Sousa marches, anel African American spirilllals. But in the twe ntieth century, the triçkle becomes a fl ood. as some popular songs. Broadway shows. úlm scores. band pieces. piano rags. anel jan pe rformances become classics in their own trad itions, wiclely played and in ma ny cases mo,·e familiar a century !ater than are the classical works of lhe same era. These trad itions must be part oi' any history of music since 1900, for they a re ao imegral part of musical cultu re, im portant in their own right andas influe nces o n composers in the classical tradilion. It was in lhe realm of vernacular music. with ragtime, jazz, and popular song and !ater film scores, rock, and hip hop, th at the Uni ted States beca me the leading exporter of music to the world. matching in music its impacl in industry and world affairs.

• 1900 O il fields discoveued in

Texas. Persia. and Russia Wilbur and Orville Wrighc fly first airplane

• 1903

PO PULAR $ONG AND STAGE MUSIC

The most ubiquitous music of the early twemieth century was popular song, performed in cabarets, cafés, music halls, and thea ters and published for lhe home market. Each linguis• 1904 George M. Cohan. tic region had its own repertoire and styles of popular song, Lirtle Johnny Jones although growi ng trade anel travei en abled some so ngs to o 1905 Albert Einstein's fi,st reach an international market. British songs had fo tLDd audi paper on relativity ences in the United States since the eighteenth centu ty. and in the twentieth century American songs became increasingly popular in Britain. Tin Pan Alley was i n its heyday. and some hits of the time beca me classics that are still familiar, such as Take Me Out to the Bali Game (1908) by JackNorworthanclAlhert Von Tilzer anel Over11iere (19 17) byGeorge M. Coha n (1878-1942). Many of the best-known popular songs came from stage shows. Revues Operettas and revues s preael from Paris to London, New York, and elsewhere, increasingly centered a rounel song and dance numbers, often with flashy costumes and seis. Franz Lehár (1870- 1948) continued the Viennese operetta t radition with The Merry Widow (l 905) and other works. wbile in the Uniteel States Victor Herbert (1859- 1924) acrueved successes with hls operettas Sabes i.n. Toyland (1903) a nd Nau,g hty Marietta ( 191O) . Musicais A signif:tcant new genre. the musical comedy or 11111sical, featured songs and dance mnnbers in styles drawn from popular music in lhe context of a spoken play with a comic or romantic plot. English theater manager George Edwardes established the genre by combin ing elements of variety shows. cornic operas, and plays in a series of productions atthe GaietyTheatre in Lon uon in the 1890s. British musicais were soon stageel i11 lhe U11ited States, and the New York theater district on Broadway hecame the main centl\r for musi cais. alongwith Lonelon's West Enel. George M. Coban inaugurated a elistinctive style of American musical with his Little]ohn.n.y fones (1904), wruch brought togetber American subject matte r anel tbe vernacular sounds of vaudeville and

Vernacular Musical Traditions

Tin Pan AJley with the romantic plots and European styles of comic opera and operetta. That show included two of the most famous anel eneluring popL<lar songs of the e1·a. Gi~e My Regards to Broadwa,x anel 1'he Yankee Doodle Boy (whose chorus begins "l'm a Yan kee DoodJe Dandy"). Prom these roots wou ld grow the musicais of Jerome Kern. Irving Berlin. George Gershwin. Rodge rs and Hamme rstein, and Ancl rew Ll oyd Webber, amo ng many others.

• 1905

773

Franz Léhar, The Merry

Widow Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire

• 1906

Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso paint first cubist pictures

• 1907

MUS IC FOR SILENT FILMS

Moving picture shows began to compete with live theater in • 1908 Henry Ford designs the the 1890s and became enormo usly popular in the twentieth Model T automobile centu1y. Films were silent until the late 1920s but were always • 1909 Gustav Holst. Suite accompanied by music, jusc as dance anel other spectacles No. 1 in E~ for band had been. The lirst s uch public dis play was Emile Reynaud's o 1914-18 World War 1 Pan.tomimes lumineuses (Luminous Mime Shows, 1892), presenteei in Paris, with music by Gast.on Paulin. Music covered • 1915 O. W . G ,iffith's film The up the noise of the projector, provided continuity to lhe sucBirth of a Nation with music by cession of scenes and sbots. evoked appropriate moods. anel Joseph Carl Breil marked dramatic events. Often the music was performed by • 1916 Albert Einstein proposes a pianist or organi st. who m ight improvise or play excerpts general theory of relativity from memory. drawing on both classical anel popular pieces. ln larger theaters. small to medium -sizeel o rchestras playecl music ananged or composed for the li lm by the resident music director. By lhe l 920s, tens of thousands of musicians were em ployed in theaters across Europe and NorthAmerica. providing music for a variety of emenainmen ts, including silem hlms. Opera and operetta were important intluences on :l'Llm music. These genres Mu.sic. drama. and had alreaely established conventions for enhancing drama through musical emotion accompaniment, anel music for &lms bonowed many of them, inclueling loud, rapi d passages for moments of excitemen t, tremolos to suggest tension or high drama. anel soft. romantic themes for }ove scenes. Strongly contrasting excerpts or styles, from Wagner to popu lar song, were used side by side to evoke changes of scene or dramatic situation anel to delineate characters. Beca use lhe music affected the audience ·s reactions to the movie and thus Cu.e sheets an.d its prontability. nlmmakers made efforts to standardize tbe music for their filmsco res úlms. Beginniogin 1909, stuclios .issueel cue shcets that showcd thc sequence of sce nes and events in a movie and suggested appropriate music. Music publishers saw a market niche and printed anthologies of pieces and excerpts grou ped by mood or silua tion, oi' which Giusep pe Becce·s Kinothek (Berlin, 19 19) was among the most wide ly used. Saint-Saens's score for L:assassinatdu du.c de Gu.ise (l 908) inaugurated the era of the nlm score, composed to accom pany a particula r &lm. This idea was popularized especially by the orchestral score Joseph Carl Breil (1870- 1926) created for D. \V. Grifl'tth's TTie Birth of a Nati<>n (1915). in wbich he interwove excerpts arranged from Wagner. Tchaikovsh.-y. popular songs. and other sources with lús own music. La ter compos· ers increasingly wrote original scores that evoked the styles and convenlions of Romantic or popular composers.

774

C H A 1> T E R 3 1 • The Eorly Twentioth Century: Vernoculor Music

BAND MUSIC

Concert repertoire

The tradition of mililary and amaleur wind bands remained strong across Eui·ope and Nortb America. ln the Uni1ed Stales and Canada, bands increasingly found a hom e in co ll eges and schoo ls as well, playing at sporting eve nts and in concerts. Sousa·s band continued lo tour and beca me a pioneer in making pbonograph recordings. Among lhe many otber professional bands was He len May Butler·s Ladies Brass Band, one of severa] al l-female ensembles fonned in response to the exclusion of women from most bands. The twenlieth centmy saw a growing effort among bandleaders lo establish a repertoire of serious works for baod wo11hy of com parison lO the orchestraJ repertoire. Because of the band's long association with the military and with ama lettr performance. there were ve1y few original pieces for band by the major Classic and Roman1ic composers, who were rep resented on band con eer ts mostly by transcriptions. ln the first decades of the century, a new seri ousness of purpose emerged in pieces that soon fonned the core of a developing classical repertoire for band, notahly Suites No. l in 0, (l 909) and 2 in F (l 911) by Englisb composer Gustav Holst (l 874-1934); Dionrsiaques (1914-25) by French composer F'lorent Schmitt (1870-1958); lrish 'lime from County Derry (1917) and Lincolnshire Posy (1937) by Australian composer Percy Grainger (1882-1961); andEnglishFolkSongSttite (1923) and Toccatamarziale (1924) by R.a lph Vaughan Williams (1 872-1958). Holsr, Crainger, anel Vaughan Williams clrew on folk songs for themes , distrib utecl lhe melodie content more evenly between winds and brass. used modal harmonies within a tonal context, and developed a symphouic style of instrumentation.

African American Traditions Afi'icanAmerican bands

Brass bands were one of Lhe main training t,'rounds for African American nmsicians. along with black churches and dance orchestras. Dur:ing the late nine1eemh centu ry and early twentieth centuries. black hands occupied an important place in both black and white social life in many big cities, including New Orleans, Baltimore, Memphis, Newark, Richmond, Philadelphia, New York, Detroit, and Chicago. Amongthe bandleaders and composers who att1racted national and international attention were James Reese Eurnpe. Tim Bry mn , William H. Tyers, and Ford Dabney. Their hands performed from notation and clid relatively little improvising, but they played with a swingiug and syncopated scyle that distinguished them from white hands. Europe's band created a sensation in Paris during anel after World War 1, and the French Carde Républicainc lriecl in vaio to imitate il:s sound.

RAG TIME Amongthe <lances playe<I by both hrass an<I concert ban<ls were pieces in ragtime, a style popular from the l 890s through the 191 Os that -featured syncopated (or "ragged") rhythm against a regular, marchlike hass. This syncopation apparently clerived from lhe clappingJuba of American blacks. a survivaJ oi'

Aírican Americ~n Traditions

African drummingand hand cfapping. TheempbasisonoFlbeats in one rhytlunic layer against steady beats in another reflects the complex cross- rhythms common inAfrican music. Raglime is today known moslly as a style of piano music, bul in the late nineteenth anel early twentieth centuries th e tenn also encompassed ensemble music and songs. Ragtime was originally a manner oí imp rovisingo r perfo rming, "ragging·· pieces notated in even rhythms by introducing syncopations. One vehicle was the cakewalk. a couples dance derived from slave dances anel maTkecl by stnitting and acrobatic move ments. Music fo:r cakewalks was printed wüliout syncopations until 1897, when syncopated Óh"llres characteristic of ragtime hegan to appea.r. Begin.ning that year. instmmental works called rcigs were published, especially for piano, ,rnd cakewalks and rags were soon among tbe besl-selling forms of instrumental music. Classically trained African American composer Will Marion Cook (1869- 1944) introduced the new rhythms into lhe Broadway lradition with C!orindr, or The Origin of the Cake walk (1898), anclhisln Daliomq. proclucecl in NewYork in l 902and London in 1903. brought the cakewalk and ragtime style to Europe. Many popular songs were also wát1en with ragtime rhythms. Bolh black and white composers, song,.vriters, and pe,fonners em braceei the style; ind eed, the Sousa band made some of the úrst ragtime recordings. The leading ragtime composer was Scott Joplin (1867- l 917). shown in Figure 31.8. Sou of a former slave, he studied music in his home town ofTexarkana, Texas, and worked in Sedalia and St. Louis, Missouri, before moving to New York in ] 907. His most ambitious work was the opera Treemonisha. published in 1911 though not Slaged unlil 1972. But he was best known for bis piano rags, which he regarded as artístic works on the leve! of the Eu ropean classics for piano. Indeed. Joplin published a ragtime primer in the form of é tudes, the School of Ragtime O908), for lhe express pw·pose of legitimizing his craft as composition. His nrst best-se ll ing rag, and still h is best knowu, is MapleLea,fRag (1899: NAWM 164a). Like most rags. it is in ~ meter anel follows the form of a march. with a series of sixteen- measme strains. each repeated. The second strain, excerpted in Example 31 . l, shows severa! rhythmic fealures EXAMPLE 31.l

Second strain from Jop!in's Maple Leaf Rag

FIGURE 31 .8 :

775

Sce>tt

]oplin in (1, plwtograph

p1in1ed on the coverof h is rag The Cascades

(1904), ()OIIN 8 DWAJ\D IIASSE}

776

C H A 1> T E R 3 1 • The Eorly Twentioth Century: Vernoculor Music

typica l oi' ragtime. The left hand keeps upa steady pulse iv eight11 notes, aJternating between bass notes anel chords, whiJe the right-hand ftgmes syncopate both within and across the beat. Thc notes in octaves. which receive extra stress, occur eve1y th1·ee sixteenth notes, momentarily creating the impression of 6 meter in the right hand against in the left. E:ssentially the sarne rhythmic ide a appears in each two- measLu-e unil. StLch repetition of a short rhythmic pau:ern, like syncopalion and mult iple rhy1hmic layers, is a cha racteris1 ic or N"ri.can Am.erican music that can be ti-aced back lo Nºrica. So while the form, left-hand paliem. barmony. anel chromatic moüon ali ultimately derive from European sources. 1he rbythmic elements haveN'rican roots, and the resulting mixtu re is quinlessentiaJly African American.

EARLY JAZZ

New Orleans

Mannerof pe,formance

The 191 Os a lso saw the early deve lopment aí a not ber type of music from African American roots: jazz . Jazz evolvecl into a cliverse tradition encompassing many styles. genres. and social roles but seems to have begun as a mixture of ragtime aud dance music with elements oi' the blues (clescrilied in chapter 34). New Orleans has long been considerecl the "crad.Je of jazz." altbough recent research has uncovered early jazz in other regions as well. The cultural and social environment oi' New Or lea ns nur11.1red tbe development of e arly jazz. The Freuch and Spanish background of the city gave it a 11avor clifferent from other cities in the United States. Before Emancipation. New Orieans was the only place in the South where slaves were aJlowed to galher in public. As a result. music in New Orleans rntained some African traditions that were lost elsewhere. Moreovcr. the city had closc conncctions to lhe Caribbean, and rhythms from Hailian, Cuban, and Creole music also influenced early jazz. The dance bancls of New Orl eans interwove tbese strands with European styles. gradually producing a new kind of music. Typically, these hands were small ensemhles wi th two or th1·ee melody instruments. such as trumpet. clarinet. and trombone; a bass instrument sucb as a tuba; and snare and bass drums. The new stylehad no nameat lirst, or was simply known as the New Orleans style of ragtim.e. But when bands l'rom New Orleans began playing in Chicago, New York, and elsewhere, they use<l the term "jazz." Bands who popularized the term included a black group that toured in 1913- 18 as the New Orleans Jaz·i Band, anda white band thaL in 1917 performed .in New York and made recorclings as the Original Oixieland Jazz Band. Jazz differed from ragtime particula1·lyin tbe way itwas performed. Instead oi' playing tbe mus ic "straigbt," obse1ving the rhythms and textures of a fulJy notated picce. players extemporizecl arrangements that clislinguisbed one performer or performance from another. Listening to early jazz pianist and composer and New Orleans nativeJe lly Roll Morton (1890- 194 l) play Joplin's MapleLeaf Rag ina recording from 1938 (NA\VM 164b) . we recognize lhat this is umn istakably jazz anel not ragtime hecause of the anticipations of heats: the swinging, uneven rendering of successions of equal note vaJues so that notes on the beat are longer than those on the oftbeats; the many added grace notes; the enriched harmony; and the weaving of ragtime's brief moth'ÍC un its into a more continuous line.

Classics oí Vernacular Music

Despi te (anel at times because oi) the wicle appeaJ of ragtime anel jazz. they were regardeel with suspicion a.nd condescension by many practitioners of classicaJ music. ln the Unitcd States, the reception of ragtime and jazz was entanglecl with lhe racial politics of the periocl, when the freedoms African Americans had won after the Ci,,;J War, like the right to vote, were beingtaken away ali across the South t.h.rougb new state constitutions and Jim Crow laws. and rac ial cl isc rimina1ion in ali parts or 1he country restricted economic opporrunity and forceel African Americans into segregatecl neighborhoods and schools. The long traclition of blackface minstrelsy, anel oí black musi cians petforming for white aud iences. meant that ragtime anel jazz could be welcomed as popular e111ertainmen L, but few whiles would have agreed with Joplin that his rags were on a par with the waJtzes anel mazurkas of Chopin. Yet there were aJso classical composers who adrnired lhe new slyles and incorporated elemems oJ' ragtime or jazz in theirown music, including Debussy, Ravel, Satie, Stravinsky, lves, and Mi lhaud (see chapters 32, 33, and 35). for many in Europe. ragtime and jazz represented the raw energy and newness oJ' tbe United States. A:; we will see in !ater chapters, after Wodd War I jazz became an emblem of modemity on both sicles of the Atla:ntic, and by midcentury it was bewnninp;to he accepted as an ai1 music traclition in its own right.

Classics of Vernacular Music Vernacular music of the early twemieth cemury was created for immecliate consumpti on as entertainment, and most of it is long forgotten, yet many of tbe pieces discussed here became classics in their own traditions. Few o per· ettas anel virtually no musicals of the time were performed for more than a J'ew seasons, and modem productions are rare. Nonetheless, overtures, waltzes. and songs from operettas and musicals have continued to be performed. from Lehár's 77ie Merry Widow Walt.z to Coban's Cive My Regards to Broadway, anel so have some of the era's popular songs. Music for silent films was always an art for the moment, not for the ages, hut from the 1960s on. the tradition of improvised accompaniment on organ or piano was revived along with silent movies themselves, and in recent decades a few of the full scores have been performed again with theirftlms. The band works ofHo lst. Vaughan Williams, and Grainger have remained classics of the concert band repertoire. Ragtime fell out oi' fashion in Lhe 1920s, was revived after \Vorld War II, anel regained wide popularity in tbe l 970s aíter the rags of Scott Joplin anel otbers were brought back to life in print and recordings. Jazz became increasingly popular after World War l and grew imo a diverse current wiclely recognized as one of lhe twenlieth century's most important con.lributions lo musical culture. AlJ of these musical traditions now have a permanent place in musica l life and receive increasing attention from historians, as reflected in this book, whose first foLtr editions ignored them completely. ~ Resources fo r study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

777

Jazz and classica./ music

Modern Mu,ic ,n the Cla»ical Trod,toon

accelerated tbroughout the twentieth century. Tbis chapter will examine the

THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY: THE CLASSICAL TRADITION The rise of a permanent ela ssical repertoire in the nineteenth century created an increasingly difncult challenge for composers at the end of that century and the beginning of the twentieth. Concert programs, opera stages, and other venues for their music were dom inated by older wo rks rega rded as classics worthy of repeated performance and rehearings, leaving less room for new music than ever before. MoclemisL composers in the classiical tradition ali sought to solve the sarne conundrum-how to secure a place in a crowded repertoire- by writing works that ol'fered something new and that musicians, audiences, and critics would deem worthy of pe1formance alongside the classics of the past. To succeed, their music had to meet the cri teria established by those classics: to be works of high quality that participated in the tradition of serious a11 music: that had lasting value, rewarding both performers and listeners through many rehearings and close study; and that proclaimed a distinctive musical personality. This is the central paradox of musical modernfam, that it combines a deep respect for the classics with a search for tbe new, with the ultimate goal of creating fresh works that will themselves become classics. Faced with common problems, modernist composers created highly in dividua l solutions, d iffe ring in what they valued most in the tradition, what they extended, what they discarded, anel what inno vations they introduced. As a result, music in the classical tradition became increasingly diverse in style and approach, a process that

ftrstgeneration ofmod ern ists, born between 1860 and the mid-1870s. Most continued to use tonality, but many wrote post.-to,w/ music. A few composers of this generation were not. mod emist but <w<mt-gllrde, seeJ..;ng to over1hrow artislic lraditions inheriled from the past and start fresh. The next chap Ler will focus on six younger modernists, bom between the mid- 1870s and mid- 1880s. wbo were among the mosl famous anel inlluential composers of the twentieth centu1y.

Modem Music in the Classical Tradition By the h1rn of the twentieth century, an established repertoire of musical classics dominated almost eve1y neld of concert music. from piano. song. or chamber music recitais to operas and orchestral concerts. The change from a century before was enormous. ln the eighteenth centu ry, performers and listeners demanded new music ali the time. and ..ancient music.. included anything written more than twenty years earlier. But musicians and audiences in 1he early l 900s ex1iected that most concert music they performed or heard would be at least a ge neration old. and they judged new music by the standards of the classics already enshrined i n the repertoire. ln essence, concert halls and opera ho uses had become museums for displaying Lhe musical artworks of the past two hun dred years. The repertoire varied according to the performing medium and from region to region. but the core was largely the same throughout most of Europe and the Ame ricas, including operas and operatic excerpts from Mozart through Wagner, Verdi. and Bizet: orchestral and chamber music from Haydn through the late Romantics: and keyboard music by J. S. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and prominent nineteentb century composers. Living composers increasingly found themselves in competition with the music of the past. This became the great theme of modemism in the classical tradition, especially in Lhe .ti.rst half of the century: in competing wilh past composers for the attentio n of performers and liste ners who loved the clas sical masterworks. living composers sought to secure a place for themselves by offering something new anel distinctive while continuing the tradition. There were many possible solutions: extencling aspects of past practice to new extremes. reinterpreting fami liar elements in new ways, combining traits d rawn from differe nt traditions or from d iffferent past eras, or changing tl1e balance among musical parameters, to name some of Lhe most co=on. Each of these strategies gave listeners somethingfamiliar to hangonto whi le offering new or more intense e"lleriences. \Vriters on music have used the word modemisrn with more lhan one mr.an ing. Somr. rr.sr.rvr. it fo r· eomposr.rs who hrr.ak rMlir.ally from thr. musi cal language of lhe past, like tbose Ln the next chapter. ln this book it will be used more broadly, to encompass the entire range of composers from the late nineteenlh to Lhe twentieth ccnturies wbose music is markecl by a sea1·ch

The established

repertoire

Modernism

779

780

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

for a place beside the classics, intertwining innovation with em ulation of the past. Their music was and remains modernist, because it has always been- and perhaps always will bemeasui·ed against the older s tyles enshrined in the classical TIMELINE repertoi re before them , and is sti 11 heard as "modern" in relaThe Early 20th Cent.ury: tion to Lhe classics of the eighteenth and nineteen lh cenluries. The Classical Tradition Composers' cho ices ofwha t to p rese rve and wha t tO cha nge varied , reflecting differences in whac they valued most in the MUS ICAL HISTORICAL lraclition. 0ne result was a proliferation of contrasting lrends, co Uoquially k.nown as·· -isms." Some of these · isms continued • 1897-99 Claude Debussy, from the nineteenth century, such as Romanticism and exoti· Nocturnes cism. But many were new in the twentieth centu ry, including • 1898 Spanish-American War impressionism. expressionism. neocl.assicism. primilivism. • 1899 Sigmund Freud. The and serialism-plus, in the second half of the cemury, minilnterpretation ofOreams malism, postmodernism, polystylism, and neo·Romanticism. All of these can be seen as aspects of modernism. because each • 1901 Serge Rachmaninoff. offe rs a diffe rent combination of traditional elements and Prelude in G Minor novel ones. • 1901-4 Gvstav Mahle,, The search fo r an original, ind ividual sty le made the use Kindertotenlieder of conventional gestures, including standard cadences ,rnd • 1903 Wilbur and Orville other routines of tonal harmony, problematic. Adhering to Wrighc fly first successful trad itional harmony could make one's music sound too much airplane like thal of earlier generations and therefore unoriginal. while departing too far from common p ractice r isked making the • 1905 Premiere of Richard music inco mprehensible and thus losi ng the aud ience. How Strauss's opera Salome lo aclapl lhe shared musical lan1,•uage of tonality to achieve • 1905 Albert Einstein's first a unigue style-or how to invent a new. personal languagepape, on the theory of became a problem facing every composer. Some composers relativity abandoned tonality, wh ile others attenuated it or extended it in new directions. as we will see in th:is chapter and the next. That it was still possihle to compose tonal music in the twentieth century is clear from the careers of Richard Strauss. Maurice Ravel, Serge Rachmaninoff, Jean Sibelius. and Ralph Vaughan Williams. discussed in ·this chapter, as well as younger composers aclive through the l 930s and beyond, who found new fl avors and possibilities within tonality but never renounced it. Even today. every music studenl learns the mies of tonal music, and it remains the common language against which others are judged. Yet other composers, including Claude Debussy, Alexander Scriabin, Manuel de Falia, and Leos Janácek, moved beyond tonal practice in the early l 900s. as each developed a personal musical language that followed its own mies. Even when a pitch center can be identili.ed, il no longer makes sense to describe the musicas tonal, because the mus ic diverges too far from common practice of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The most general term for such music is pos t-Lo n(ll , which embraces all t.he new ways composers found to organize pilch. from a tonality to neotonality (see chapter 33). The new possib ilities oi' post-tonal irlioms were part oi' the marvelous rl ivers ity of twentieth-centu1y music i.n the classical tradition. but so were the individual approaches to tonality.

German Modernism; Mahler and Strauss

781

A.nother issue was nationalism, still a potent force inche arts, in culture, and in politics, where it was responsible for much of the agitation that led to World W,11' I. As pari of the heritage from Romanticism, composers were expected to • 1908 Henry Ford designs th e write mu sic that was true to t heir national identity anel drew Model T automobile on regional tradilions yel spoke to an interna tional audi· • 1910- 11 Jean Sibelius, Fourth ence. Fo r many compose rs, thei r own nat ional trad ilions Symphony had ele men ts they could draw upon that hei ped to make their • 1913 Erik Satie, Embryons music individual, addressing sirnultaneously the desires for origina lity and aulhentic national iclentity that had been desséchés growing since the nineteemh century. Each cornposer syn· • 1913 Luigi Russolo, The Art of thesized a persona l style from the diverse mix of national Noises: A Futurist Manifesto and foreign influences and of old and new music that s ur · • 1914 Alexander Scriabin. Vers rounded them. la/famme The result was music of tremendous diversity. The most • 1914- 17 Maurice Ravel. s uccessful modern composers olfered some thing unique. a Tombeau de Couperin style and a viewpoint that were not previously represented in the re pertoire. The wide ranie of scyles and approaches pro• 1914- 18 Wo,ld W;,r 1 duced many currents and unique li!,>'ttres. prnclucling a single • 1915 Manuel de Falia, E/ amor stylistic mainstream of twentieth· century classical music. The following account of some of the best-known composers • 1916 Firs t Prague perforaclive ea rly in the ce ntury, together with a closer look at six mance of Leos Janácek's younger modemisl composers in chapler 33. can only sugges l opera Jenúfa the rich variety of the era. Because the influence of national and regiona l traditi.ons • 1916 Albert Einstein proposes is so slrong. we can highlight the individua lity of composers general theory of relativity in this generalion by comparing composers from the sarne • 1917 Russian Revolution nation or region and exploring the choices they made lo disbrings Bolsheviks to power tinb>'t1ish their music from that of their contemporaries as well as from the classics of the past. \Ve will begin by comparing the two Jeading composers in lheAustro-Cerman tradition a t the tum of the twentieth centu1y. Gustav Mah le r and Richard Strauss; will continue with Debussy and Ravel from France. and Rachmaninoff and Scriabin from Russia; and then will brielly survey 01her national traditions in Europe.

German Modernism : Mahler and Strauss German -speaking composers faced a particular challenge because their natio nal traditi on was already so central to the repertoire. lndeed, the charac· teristics of modernism are already ap parent a generation earlier in the music of Brahms (see chapter 29), the 1irst major composer to fu lly embrace th e cha ll enge of wri t.ing music for audiences whose tastes were formed by their fam.iliarity with the permanent classical repertoire. The two most successful Gennan r.ompnsers of the next generation . Mah ler anrl Strauss . hoth founrl ways to intensify elements from their heritage and create music at once famil iar a nd radically new.

782

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

German Moderni:;m, Mahler and Strauss

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

GUSTAV MAHLER Gustav Mahler (1860- 1911) was the leading Auslro - German composer of symphoni es after Brahms and Brnckn er and one of the greaL masters oi' the songfor voice anel orchestra. Born to Jewis h parents in Bohem ia , Mah ler wen t to Vienna in his leens to study piano and composition at lhe Conservatmy and Jater attended cli1sses at the University ol'Vienna. The re be formed friend ships with fellow studenL Hugo Wo l r anel wilh Bruckner, who was leaching at the university. He beca me an aviel Wagnerian, although he also respecteel anel was in11uenced by Brahms. Beginning at the age oJ' twenty. his p rimary career was as a professional opera and orchestral cond ucto1· (see ln Performance: Ma hler as Con ductor) . Composing mainly in lhe summers between busy seasons of conducl ing, Mahler completed nine symphonies, leaving a tenth unl'rnished, and J'ive m ultimovement works for voice with orchestra (for which he also p repared vers ions with piano). He reviseel most of his works r epeateelly, inclueling the iirst seven symphonies. reto uching the or chestration but not changing

the substance of the music. As a composer, Mahler inheriled the .Romantic traditions of Berlioz. Schum ann. Liszt. Wagne r. and especially the Viennese branch of Hayeln. Mozart. Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms. and Bruckne r. anel he was a prime iníluence on Schoenberg. Berg, Webern, and o ther modem Viennese composers. Mahler lhe symphonisl cannol be sepa,·ateel from Mahler the song com poser. Themes from his so ng cycle lieder eines fahrenden. Cesetl-en (Songs of a Wayfare r, 1884-85, revised 189 1-96) appear in the nrst and third movements of lhe F'i rst Symphony (1884-88, r eviseel 1893-96, 1906. and 1910). Following the example of Bec thoven's Ninth Symphony. Mahler used voices in four of his symphonies, most extensively in the Second (1888-94, revised 1906) anel Eighth (1906) The Second. ThiwJ ( 1895-96, revised 1906), an d Fourlh (1899-1900, revised 1906 and 1910) incorporate melodies from his set of twelve songs on folk poems from the ea dy - nineteenth-ceniury collection Des Knaben fl7ttnderhom (Th e Boy's Magic Horn, 1892-190 1) and intro· duce texts of some of the songs in the vocal movements. Mahler extended Beethoven's concepl of lhe symphony as a bold personal

So,igs in the s_ymphonies

Symphony as 'LUorld

H is enormous influence on singers and

instrumentalists was conveyed by a look or the sparest of gestures. where before

MAHL ER AS COND U CTO R Although we know Mahler today as a cornposer, he rnade his living as a conductor. After conduct· ing at nurnerous opera lhouses throughout cen· trai Europe, including Prc1gue, Leipzig. Budapest, and Hamburg, he was appointed director of the Vienna O pera in 1897. converting to Catholicisrn in order to be eligible fo r the post. ln 1898-1901, he was also coneluctor of the Vienna Philharrnonic. ln these positions, he gained international renown. Beginning in 1907 he spent most of each year in New York, serving as a conductor of German opera at the Metropolitan O pera from 1907 to 19 10. and from 1909 to 19 11 as director of the New York Philharrnonic, which was reorganized as a full-time professional ensemble especially for him, Mahler conducteel a wide range of repertoire, but especially focused on the operas of Mozart and Wagner anel on nineteenth-century German o rchestral music from Beethoven to Strauss. lt had become standard practice to omit scenes and sections from many operas , but Mahler restored these cuts, believing that it was the performers

he had exerted himself with impas-sioned movements. Towards the end his conducting represented the image of an almost eerie calm

duty to respect the in tegrity of the artwork and its composer. But he was 1not a purist: Mahler sometimes rescoreel music he performed, such as adding instruments to Beethoven's symphonies to achieve more striking climaxes. As a conductor. Mahler was renowned for his dynamism , precision , expressivity, and tyrannical perfectionism-traits that are depicted in Figure 32.l. drawn by Austrian illustrator and caricaturist Han Schliessmann anel publisheel in March 1901 in a satirical Munich paper, the Fliegende 8/acter. The face. eyeglasses, haircut, stature. and motions are ali those of Mahler, whose dynamic gestures and expressive style made him a favorite with the public anel have influenceel many !ater conductors. ln lateryears. Mahler streamlined his approach. as recalled by his disciple, the great coneluctor Bruno Walter, in his biography of Mahler: Gradually his stance and gestures beca me quieter: his conducting technique became so intellectualized that he achieved musk;anly freedom com· bined with unfailing precisíon quite effortlessly by a simple-looking beat. while keeping almost still.

FIGURE 32.1: Ga,icature ofGi,stav Mahleras conductor.

The Genn.an. captions (noishown) read (top) -A hypemiod· ern. condiu:tor··und (bottorn) ··Kapcllmeisrer Ka1ipelm.an.n conducr.s his Diabolical Syrnphon:r... <c,sELLSCHAPT ou >1us1•r11tu ~oe. v 1f.NN'A)

783

With his performers Mahler was dic:tatorial, demanding that they subordinate their vision of the music to his own. At the opera , he insisted on hiring singers who could also act and on stage-direction that highlighted the drama of the work. ln one orchestral rehearsal. unsatisfied with the players' performance of the opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, he had them repeat it so many times that some became angry anel refused to continue. His response: ·Gentlemen, save your Fury for the performance; then at least we shall have the opening played as it should be:· Such exacting standards won his players' respect, delighted his audi ences. and became a moelel for many twentieth-century conductors, ínclueling his successor at the Metropolitan Opera, Arturo Toscanini.

784

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

Instrumentation andsound

Programmatic conteni

Fourth Symphony

German Modernism; Mahler and Strauss

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

statement. He once observed that to write a sympho ny was to "construct a woTld," and his symphon ies often convey a sense of life experience, as i f telJj ng a story or depicting a scene. To create the impression of events occurring in a va riegated world, he used musical styles as topics, j usl as Moiart had done (see chapter23) . F'or examp le, in the s low introduction to Mah ler's First Symphony, the strings softly suslain lhe note Ain seven oclaves, producing an el'fect of vast space, lilled in aLlimes by ideas in 01her ins1ruments-a melocly in 1.he winds. cla1-inets with hun ting horn ca lls, a trumpet fanfa1·e, a c uckoo call, a Romanti c horn lheme in parallel tlúrds-like the sounds of hwnans and nature heard across a great landscape. ln this anel other works, he often drew on the styles and rhythms of Austrian folk songs anel dances, using them ai times Lo suggesl hfa urban audience's nostalbtia for rural scenes and simpler times. Another source of variety is Mahler's instrnmenlalion. His works typically require a large number of performers. The Second Symphony calls for about sixty strings, seventeen woodwinds, twenty-three brasses, six ti mpani an d othier percussion. four harps. organ. soprano and alto soloists, and a large chorus; the Eightb demands an even larger array of players and singers, earnin~ its nickname "Symphony of a Tbousa nd ." But tbe size of tbe orchestra tells only pari oí the s to ry. Mahler showed great imagination in comhining instrumcnts. achieving effects ranging from the most delicate to tbe gigantic. Often only a few instruments are playing while he c reates many different chamber-orchestra groupings from his vast palette of soimds. Mahler was one of the fi rst composers to envision musicas an art nol just of notes but of sound itself, an approach thal became more common over the course of Lhe twentieth century. ln accord wilh Mahler's interest in presenting a world, hls symphonies often imply a program. Fo r the first four symphonies. he wrote detailed programs in the manner o r Berlioz and Lisz1 bm later s uppressed them. No such clues exist for the Fifth. Sixth, and Seventh Sympbonies (composed between 1901 and 1905). yet the presence of pictorial dctails and materiaJ bonowed from his own songs, comhined with the overall plan of each woTk, suggested tha t the composer had extramusical ideas in mind like those ascribed to Beethoven's Thlrd and Fifth Symphonies. Thus Mahler's Fifth moves from a funereal opening march to triumph in the scherzo a nda joyous !inale. The Sixth is his "tragic" symphony, culminating in a colossal !inale in wruch heroic s truggle seems to end in defeat and death. The Ninth , Mahler's last completed symphony (1909). conjures upa mood of resignation mixed with bHtcr sati,·e, a strange and sad fareweli to life. The Fourth Symp hony. one of Mahler·s most popu lar, illustra tes severa! of his compositional techniques. Each movement strongly differs from the others, exaggerating the contrasts in a traditional four- movement symphony, as if to suggest the worlcl's variety. Th e work begins in one key (C major) and ends in another (E major). implying that life's adventures do not always bring us back home. The .úrst movement recalls the latc-eighteenth-century symphony. through references to Haydn and Mozart's styles and by using sonata-fonu conventions. and contrasts it with Romantic styles. The exposition has clearly articu lated themes, shown in Example 32.1: a principal theme in the tonic G major. a lyri.cal sccond lheme on lhe dominant. and a playfol closing theme. ln lhe

EXAMPLE 32.1

Themesf,'Oln Mahlers Symphony No. 4,fi.rs1. m.o~emeni

a. Firsttheme

b. Sccond thcrne Breitgcs,mgcn ~ v, 3$

1=jll J U U.

~=- P

e. Closing tllenw ~ ~ ~l~1rndru1le mode rato

05@ 4 4 JnH D l[f p

'--"

(t . ~ e >

tirst theme. Mahler foliows Mozart in using contrasting rhythmic and melodie figures (compare Exarnple 23.7), hut outdoes him in the numher and varieLy oi' motives. There are s urprises and deceplions that recall Classic-era wit: unexpected sforzandos. dynam ic changes, and harmoni c twists; portions of the theme used to accompany or interrupt other portions; and ngures expanded to the point of pomposity (li.ke the dotted figure in measiu-e 6 as extended in mea su res 8-9). played upside clown (that same figure in measure 12, in con LTal)' motion wi.th itself in the cellos). or varied in other surprising ways. By contrast to these Classic-era elements, the second theme resemhles a Romantic song and is introduced in the ceUos and !ater joined by the horn. two quintessentially Romantic instruments. The development is fantasy-li.ke and tonally daring, a Romantic ou tburst in .a Classic frame, as Mah ler shows how the two idioms can be blended in a single movement. Wheo motives from the themes a1·e reassigned to different insru·umen ts and recombi ned in new ways. they sound ironic and self- pa1·odying, suggesting a feverish dream in which remembered images pop up from lhe subconscious in s trange and distorted guises. The elfer.t is as if the rational order of tJ1e eighteenth-r.en hny Enlightenment were displaced by the irrational dl'eams analyzed by Sigmund Freud. The recapitulation restares lucidity and logic, but there is no going back to 1he innoce nce of the opening; the movement achieves balance by

785

786

C H A 1>TE R 3 2 • The Eady Twent.. th Century: The C lo,s;col Trod;c;on

FIG URE 32.2: Music (/895). byCusrav Klirnr (1862-1918). a leaderof1he Secessionist group ofa11isrs in Vienna. who challenged the narrow reali.srn sr,pponed by the a11 establishment. Thi.s painring.Jor rherrwsic room of a wealtltyindu.strialisl. combines alltisions to rJie classíc(il past- norabty 1/ie ancumt Creek, ki1hara (see Figu-re 1.9)-wit.h a sensuous modernstyle influenced by s-yrnbolisrn (see cliapter 3/). CDtAoosnN1 r,crvat L1B1W1YIan10oeMAi,: ART Lll\l\AfW)

Kindcrtotcnlicder J Condse

I J Fui!

embracing ali the possibilities it includes rather than trying 10 resolve all the potential conflicts, in a musical metaphor for the compromises requfred of us by the complexities and contradictions of modern life. This movement's interweaving of Romanti c fantasy and modern style witb references to a classic.al past is typical of the way modemist music combines elements of the past and present into something entirely new and individual. and it has a dose coonterpart in the paintings of Mahler·s fe ll ow Viennese. Custav Klimt. whose painting entitled Music appears in Figure 32.2. Irony also haunts the Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Chlldren, 190 1-4). an orchestral song cycle on poems of Friedricb Rückert. The nrst song. Nun wiU di-e Sonn· so hell aufgeh'ri ( NAWM 1<,5) . achieves the ira nsparency of chamber music through its spare use of instruments. Mahler's characterislic post-Wagnerian harmony inlensiúes the emotion through stark contrasts of dissonance with consonance and of chromaticism with diatonicism. Thin textures and simple melodies and rhythms produce a11 effect of und erstated restraint. ironic for a song ahout the death of one's child. The irony is height ened at times hy an emotional mismatr.h het:ween text and musir.: the opening line, "Now will lhe sun so brightly rise again." is sung to a woeful, descending, D- minar melody, while the next phrase rises chromatically to a sunny D major on the words "as if no misfortune OCCLLrred during the night."

German Modernism; Mahler and Strauss

Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth, 1908) rivals the Ninth Symphony as the high point of Mahler's late wo~ks. Mahler called it "a symphony for a tenor voice and an alto or baritone voice and orchestra." and its six movements ahernate between the lWO soloists. The texts, poems trans lated from the Chinese, alterna te between frenzied grasping at the dream like whirl of life and saci resignation al having to pai-l from ali its joys and beauties. Justas Mah ler called on the human voice i n his symphonies to complete his musical thought with words, here he calls on the orchestra to sustain and supplement the singers, both in accompanimenl and in exlensive connecting interludes. Tbe exotic atmosphere of tbe words is lightly suggestecl by instru me.otal color and the use of lhe pentatonic scale. ln no other work d icl Mahler so perfectJy defme and balance two extreme.s ofhis personality, ecstatic pleasure and deadly foreboding. Although Mahler·s early works were products of the late nineteenth cenru,y, he had his greatest success in the li rst decade ofthe twentieth, his last decade of life. This was also the time of his mosl radical crea tions. such as the vasl two - movement Eighth Symphony ("Symphony of a Thousand") and the six-movemem symphony with voices, Das Lied von der Erde. These works stretch the very meaning of the word "symphony," taking elements of the symphonic tradition to new extremes and thcrehy inspiring us to rethink the whole traclition. So do bis other symphonies anel orchestral song cycles, each in its own way renovating the tradition in modernist garb. He was an inspiration to and mentor for many in lhe younger generation. including Arnold Schoenherg and his circle (see chapter 33).

Das Li ed vo n de r Erde

Mahler's impact

RICHARD STRAUSS OPERAS \Vhile Mahler focused on lhe symphony and orchestral song cycle, Richard Strauss fol lowed a different course. Having established himself in the 1880s and 1890s as the leading composer of symphonic poems after Liszt (see chap· ter 29), Strauss tmned to opera, seeking to foherit \Vagner's mantle. After an early fai lure with Gu11trc11n in 1893 and moderate success with Feuersnot (The Fire Famine) in 1901. he scoreda triumph in 1905 withSa!-Ome. and from then on lhe powers of depiction and characterization that he had boned in his tone poems went primariJy into opera. 1-lis main models were Wagner and Mozart, composers from the Austro-German traclition whose operas he enjoyed conducting most of ali and who- despite the grea t differences between them- were both adept at using conirasting styles to capture iheir characters' persouali ties, articulate theiremotions. and convey the dramatic situation. Like Wagner, Strauss heightened both musical coherence and dramatic power through tlie use ofleilmotives and the association of certain keys with particular characters. Salome is a setting of a one-act play by Oscar Wilde in Cennan transla tion. Strauss adapted the libretto himself. as illustrated in Figure 32.3. ln this decadent version of the biblical stOI)', tbe teenaged Salame performs her famous Dance of the Seven Veils and entices her stepfather Herod to deli ver the head of John tbe Baptist on a siJver platte r so tbat she can kiss his cold Jips. The subject. actions. and emotions were stranger than auy attempted in opera before, and lhey stimulated Su·auss to create harmonically complex and dis· sonant musi c that great ly influenced later co mposers.

Salame

787

788

C H A 1>TE R 3 2 • The Eady Twent.. th Century: The C la,s;cal Trad;c;on

German Modernism; Mahler and Strauss

ko-t J.1- ..,.. ,_. tl-,lwc 4u ~ ltfdJ1 -, I ~ ) IWne • ~ cU.• : a o ~ nra. '° nUtr Wodl -,r4. .Ah! di wi.11 lb j,tut

(l ~'--

u4 Vtint.brv:nf:, uclJ,,art~ 1''anmti:lwl

... _ _ > oa,,...,~d.-JoeA_I_ .., t f MM !MI«, . l , ~ r Wanam Nr'llliit li• m1cl11ud11 \

t 1r• .Jl,... , i, j

::.1::/:...!:':::.~· ~~~n: •.. ,r ,-.

•

~ ..... - · ~ · :.idsat ..... 4Ed + zt a •tu, IM-,nehtbul \\'411..JüCb. ...._ .,,.. l:iduu-lad•••''-, ,.~ ~ - d! ... t. t..t .Lt.ia, aicliil w,.. koamll""

°""""' .,.,

1la.

.lio , .

Sw..- úrk akh1 • 111' rul1rt}

W, fL:::Aa, k:U.:..tlll,-,f 1. _ ..... ~_.... --......-... D.r,pnc:W ... Won.n,.... bw lcaat 14 ' l a I w ;; eh .... a, p , ntr - .....,...."'-', ,,.... aldl,

&!,•,

clao Túcht.., dtt 1.(l(OIIJ"-'i l"mi.ttaht ..-ia J..IM! ~• • wolJ, idt W. . . . IMr tia Will im. ... tlil,a K pf r,,M11 ntlr, t,.,_ b.11111 mü d,,a tb-. ftlW'hwtD lrllbulb._H...._"~ ""d 4,_ \'/.IA dft' f.,a1N. Wü 4WI TIMM IMSf ...... ~ d. \lpl . , L.dt ~ .ilt

___.__.,_,........,,........

J~J,.,,..., .............~ ....

................... l)w)l . . . . . . 11111rroa1 brill L,e,l,ur.._~.làf.ut.off'Olllln...

Richard.Strauss·s copyof Oscar Wilc/.e's playS~lome (/896) in the Gemian translation &y Hedwig lach.man n. On lhe left-hand page i.s 011 it/1,srration by British artist Au/,,.ey Beardsley. whose rlecadent s1yle capttires the 11wcabre situatio11 <LS Salorne speaks to thesevered ltead ofJoltn the Baptist. On tlte rigltt-ltandpage. Strauss editedtheplar10 arri.ve at liis own libreito. lle a/so made sketches for musical icleas in the texi's margins. FIGURE 32.3:

( 1UCIIAftD-STnA.USS- A&CH IV, CARM ISClf)

! Full :\\

ln the conclusion of the opera (NAWM 166) , Salame speaks to John's beael, musing that his lips taste bitter anel wonclering if they taste of bloocl or of !ove, which she bas heard basa bitter taste. She concludes that it does not matter. because she has nnally k:isseel his lips. The strange anel shocking situation- comhining tbe familiar scene of a yo1mg woman mtll'muring to her lover with the gruesome rea lity of the lifeless heacl anel her heartless act- is perfectly matcheel by Strauss's music. whicb achieves a higb levei of dissonance anel drama tbrough remarkably simple means. The beginning of the passage features a diminished seventh chord. usecl to create tension as far back as Scarlatti in tbe late seventeenth century (see chapter 17), overlaid with elements that are related but augment the dissonance: me lodie anel barmonic minar triacls derived from lhe minar lhi1·ds in the diminishecl se,•enth chord itself; a chromatic trili embellishing one note of the chorei: and Sa]ome's recitative - like declamation that hovers around notes from the cbo1·d . Remarkably. this overwheLningly dissonant passage. ,vhicb seems to verge on atona lity or po lytona lity (see chapter 33). 1·e,,olves through a fami liar tonal progression (i-IV- It-V 7-I) in a blissful q major, tbe key associated with Salame throughout the opera. The move from stomach-churning clissonance lo untroubl ed consonance anel from tonal amhiguity to a clear

tonal ca<lence-and then backagain to <lissonance and amhiguity-captures in music the catharsis of erotic ecstasy Salome experiences, framed by our horror ai what sbe bas clone. Such flercely dissonant music as heanl at lhe beginning of this excerpl inspfred some later composers to abandon tonality altogether. But the resolution to C# anel many other passages in ihis opera sound as sweetly dia tonic, consonant. and clearly key-centered as this excerpt's oper:üng passage is chromat ic, clissonant, and ambiguous. The intense efl'ect Strauss achi eves here is predicated on our expectations that lhe dissonances will resolve. for bis purposes or musical dramatizalion Straltss necded the polarilies inherent in tonal music between dissonance anel consonance, cbromalieism and dia tonicism , instability anel stability, tension anel resolution, ali basic opposilions thal composers since the sixteenth century had used to create drama anel expression. ln this he was the direct heir ofWagner, who relied on the same polarities to convey intense longing in 1'ristan und /solde. With Elektra (1906-8). Strauss began a long and fruitful collaboration witb the Viennese playwright Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874-1929) that would result in seven operas. Adapted from a play b y Sopbocles, Elektra clwells on lhe emotions of i11sane hatred and revenge. Accordingly, Strauss intensifted the chromaticism. dissonance, and tonal instabfüty at times even bcyonc!Sa!ome. offset at otber limes by serene, diawnic, and tonally stable passages. Der Rosenkavalier (The Cavalier of tbe Rose, 1909-1O) ta kes us into a sim nier world of elegant, stylized eroticism and tender feeling in the aristocratic. powdered- wig milieu of eighteenth-century Vienna. Here deceptively simpie diatonic music dominates, wbile chromaticism, novel harmonic twists, unpre<lictably curving melodies, anel magicai orcbestral colors suggest sensuality anel enchantment. Thc wbo le score. witb its mingling of sentiment and comedy, ovedlows with the ligb tbearted rhythms anel melodies ofViennese waltzes-a witty anachronism, since the waltz craze began in the early n in eteenth century. well after the events in the opera. The anachronisms of Der Rosenkavalier are multiplied in Strauss's nexL opera. AriadneaufNaxos (191 1- 12. revised 1916), whicb combines characters from Greek trage<ly wirb cbaracters from the eigbteenth-cenrury improvised comi e commedia dell'arte anel Mozartean music with Strauss's most Romantic effusions, using tbe conceit that the ricbest man in late - eigbteentb- centtuy Vienna has or<lered upa tragic opera anel a light comedyfor his banquet and at tbe last moment. to save time for his guests, orders them botb to be performed simultaneously. This self- aware play witb past traditions, freely mixing ele ments from different eras to create something entirely new, is as typica l of modernism as Salome's sensuousness or Elektra's howls ofbatred. Strauss's !ater operas also exhibit bis cun ning use of musical styles anel bis intensiJication ol' the polarities inJ1erent in tonality to clepict cbaracters and convey the drama . Ultimately, Strauss's art is rhetorical. seeking to engage the au<lience's emotions directly, as a ftlm composer might do, and he needed just as wi<le a range of style and effect. After four <lecades of op eras. Strauss turne<l in bis final works to otber genres better suited for expressing his own feelings rather than those of his characters. His Metamorphosen (Metamor phoses, 1945) for string orchestra is a lament on the disasters brought on Europe and Cennany by Hitler anel Woi-ld

789

Elektra

Der Roscnkavalicr

Ariadne auf Naxos

Style a nd rhetoric

790

C H A 1> TER 3 2 • The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

War li ; only graclually do we realize that its intense outpourings are based on the theme from the FuneraJ Marcb movementofBeethoven's EroicaSymphony, Irnally statecl near the cnd. And his Foi11· Last Songs for voice and orchestra (1948) evoke images of autumnanel sunset, revisitingthe theme fromhis early tone poem Death and 'fra.nsfigu.ration (1888-89) and now accepting death as a culmination. These works remain tonal, in an age when others were creating electronic mus ic and total serialism, but thei r tona l language is unlike anyone else's, and would have sounded utterly radica l even forty years before. Despile-or perbaps beca use of-his continued use of tonaJity. ali oi' Strauss's music is new anel hjgWy individual, yet constantly looking to the past.

TRA0 ITION ANO 0 ISTINCTION Both Mahler anel Strauss claimecl a place in the permanent repertofre next to their great German forebears, but they staked out different turf. MahJer became tbe last great Aus tro - German sympbonist. capping tbe lraelition stemming from Hayeln anel in his symphonies with voices writing the most sig-nilicant successors to Beethoven's Nintb Symphony. Strauss proved to be the great successor to Wagner in German opera, using similar tools from leitmotives to stylistic contrasts and producing a body of operas with ,1 far greater range of subjecL than Wagner. Both Mabler anel S1rauss also founcl a place in the tradition of German Lieder and raised the orchesrral songto a new prom inence. As we will see in chapters 33 anel 35. their music served as moclels for younger composers on how LO write music that is welco mecl into the museum oi' tn usi ca I classi cs.

French Modernism: Debussy and Ravel

Drawingon

the past

While German moelemists stroveto join the ranksofBacb, Mozart, Beethoven, and Wagner, French modernists contenelecl with a more conflictcd past. Toe Ge1·man class ics from Bach to Mende lssohn were well established in the repertoire in France. and Wagner was a dominant figure. But after France's defeat by German forces inche Franco-Prnssian War of 1870- 71, French musicians sotJght greater inelependence from German m1)sic, seeking a distinctive path of their own while beginning to revive French music of the sixteenth through e igbtee ntb centuries as a counterbalance to tbe German composers who were at the core of the classical repertoire. By the tum of the century, younger French composers had to contencl not only with the German past. but with the French pastas well, stretching from the Re naissance through the major úgures of the late nineteenth century such as Saint-Sal!ns, Massenel. Fauré. and cl'lndy, ali ofwhom were srill ali ve (see chapters 28 and 30). Drawing e lements from their national heritage helped French moelern ists to distinguisb their music from that of their Ger·man contemporaries. and especia lly to escape the overwhe lming inllnence ofWagner. The Prench traclition or the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (which the French calJeel "classic" ratber tban "Baroque") was markecl by emotiona1 reserve and unclerstatement rather than effusion; as we have seen i n the drarnatic recita -

French Moderni,m: Debussy ond Rovel

tives from Lully's opera Annide (\JA\VM 85) anel Rameau·s opera Hippo!yte ei Aricie (NA\VM 98) discussecl in both chapters 16 anel 18, the most profounel emotions could be expressed through simp le. clirect means rather than by overpowering che auelience with vocal gymnastics, scathing dissonance, or loud dynamics. Central to the Prench tradition was dance music, from Lu lly's operas and Couperin's suites lo Chopin's waltzes. Taste anel restraint we1·e va lued , as were e lernents of music that added beauty and gave pleasu re, from appropriate decoration of melodies to variety of instrumenta l color. Reaclúng even further back. the music of Gregorian chant-tbe proeluct of collaboration between frencb kings and Roman popes in tbe eigbth anel ninth centuries (see cbapter2)-and ofFrench Renalssance composers offereel rnoclels ofhow to com pose using modes rather than the g:oal-clirected harmonfo progressions of tonal music. All of these traits were useful lo composers seeking a personal style distinct from their immediate predecessors yet informed by French tradition. The two most signiftcant F'rench composers of the early twentielh cenhuy, Debussy anel Ravel. found veiy differenl solutions.

CLAUDE DEBUSSY Wbile Mahler and Strauss extencled Wagnerian harmony to new leveis of rhetorical intensiry, l heir Freoch contempora1y Claude Debussy (J 862-19 18; see biography and F'igure 32.4) took it in a different direction: toward p leasure anel beauty. His achniration for \Vagner's works. especially Tristan anel Parsi fa!. was coupled with revulsion againsl Wagner's bombast anel bis atlempls to expound ph il osophy in music. Debussy d r·ew from the Prench tradition a preference for sensibility, taste, and restraint. adrniring particularly his oleler contemporary Emmanuel Chabrier (1841- 1894). He found new ideas in Russiao composers, especially Rimsky-Korsakov and Musorgsky; in medieval music, notably parallel organum; and in music from Asia, including Javanese gamelan music and Chinese and Japanese m elody. Blending these and other iniluences, he produced works of striking individuaJily that hacl a profound impact on almost all later composers. Debussy's music is often callecl imp ressio11is1,, by analogy to the impressionist painters, but it is closer to symbolism, a connection reinforced by his frienelships with symbolisl poets anel bis use of lhefr texls for songs and elramatic works. One trait shared with both trends is a sense of detached observation: rather than expressing deeply felt emotion or telling a story. as in much Romantic music, Debussy's typicalJy evokes a mooel, feeling, atmosphere, or scene. As in symbolist poetly, tbe normal syntax is often elisrupted, so that the chord progressions of common-practice harmony are avoicled or attenuateel. Our attention is elrawn insteael to indivieluaJ musical ieleas or images tbat cany thc work's strncture anel meaning. Debussy crcates these musica l images through motives, harmony. exotic scales (such as the whole-tone, octatonic, an el pentatonic scales), instrumental timbre, anel other elements, thencomposesby juxtaposing them. Motives neeel no l develop. but may repeal with small changes. like an ohject viewerl from different perspec.tives: rlisso nances need not resolve; sonoriries may move in parallel motion: contrasts of scale type unelerlie the articulalion of phrases anel sections; and instru.mentaJ timbres are intrinsic to the musical content rather than simple coloration.

Impressionism and symbolisrn

791

792

C H A 1>T E R 3 2 • The Eady Twent.. th Century: The C la,s;cal Trad;c;on

French Moderni,m: Debussy and Ravel

to resolve, to return to the tonic, to solve the musica l problem posed at th e beginning of a movement , and to develop the potential of a motive until it is cxhaustecl. ln place of ali this urgcncy. Debussy promoted a moclernism that focusecl on what he regarded as the tradilionally French values of decoralion, beauty, and pleasure (see Source Readi ng, p . 794) These trails a re evidenl in the passage from Debussy's piano piece L'isle joreuse (The Joyous lsle, 1903-4) in Examp le 32.2. Each molive is associated with a particular ft1,ruration, chord or success ion of choreis, scale type, dynamic levei. and range on lhe piano, p roducing a succession of images that remain dislincl l'rom one another even as each l1ows inlo thc ncxt: (a) a rising majo r 1.hird motive in a whole-lone environmenl; (b) an upward sweep in the B Dor ian diatonic sca le; (e) a partially chromati c motive based on undulating thi.rds; (d) a pentatonic hligree; and (e) ch:romatic lines in conlrary motion over a pedal A (combined wilh e). ln the motion from each segment LO the n ext, some notes remain the sarne and some change. producingthe effect of a har moni c progression. The harmonic styles of Wagner and Liszl influenced Debussy 's use of chromat ic anel wbole-tone chords, but Ih.e ur~eocy to resolve is absent. lnsteacl, we ar e conten t to e njoy each m oment as it comes. Debussy usually maintained a tonal focus- a kind of key ce nter. herc A- but he deftecl the convemional wnal relalionships between c hords and allowed each chord a

CLAUDE DEBUSSY (1862-1918)

Debussy exercised an enormous inRuence on his contemporaries and !ater generations, creating music of new sounds and delicate colors, Debussy was born in a suburb oF Paris to a middle-class family. He began studying at the Paris Conserva toire at age ten, first piano and then composition. ln the early 1880s he worked For Tchaikovsky's patron Nadezhda von Meck and twice traveled to Russia, where he encountered the recent works of Rimsky-Korsakov and others that deeply inAuenced his style and orchestration. He won the coveted Prix de Rome in 1884 and spent two years in ltaly. Returning to Paris in 1887, he became friends with severa! symbolist poets and other artists. He made the pilgrimage to Bayreuth to hear Wagner's operas in 1888 and 1889, but carne away recognizing both the power oF the music and his own need to avoid being overly infl uenced by it. ln the 1890s, Debussy lived with hi s lover Gabrielle Dupont in Mon tmartre, the "Bohemian" neíghborhood that had become a center For the new artistic movements. He found his own voice in composing a series of songs. his early piano music. the P1elude to "The Afternoon of a Faun: and especially his opera Pelléas et Mélisande. whose 1902 p remiere made h,m a star overnight. He made a living as a music critic and through an incarne from his publisher. ln 1898, Debussy lef t Dupont For lilly Texier, whom he married the next year. But in 1904 he fell in love with Emma Bardac, with whom he had a child in 1905 and whom he married in 1908 after they had both divorced their spouses. By then he was well established as France's leading modem composer, producing orchestral works like La mer

EXAMPLE 32.2

Debussy. L'isle joyeuse, mm. 23-29

PortraitofCl(ludeDebussJ'bJ' Jacques-Emile Blfrnche. conipleted in 1902. FIGURE 32.4 :

(b-l!DN&CII T M U~I C & AN TS PHOTO L l blVillT)

and lmages and piano pieces that soon entered the standard repertory. Although depressed by World War I anda diagnosis oF cancer in 1914, he soon regained h,s productivity and composed his Études and three chamber sonatas before his death in 1918.

MAJOR WORKS: Pelléas er

Mélisande

(opera);

Jeu,

b.~

- - = = = dim..

(ballet); Prelude to "The Afrernoon o( a Faun,• Nocwrnes. La mer, lmages, and other orchestral works, Preludes. Études. lmages. Children's Comer. and many other piano pieces: about 90 songs. string quartet. sonatas. and other

chamber works e.

lndeed. Debussy's mature works are shaped more by contrasts of timbre and te.x,ure. than by tra,litional form al de.vice.s 01· tona l funct ion. ln all lhese respects. Debussy deliherately undermines the sense of urgency and desire that underlay tonal mus ic from its beginnings and carne to lhe forefron l in Gcrman Roma.nticism l'rom Beethoven to Wagner; Lhe need

~ - ====dirr,,

793

794

C H A 1> TE R 3 2 • The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

French Moderni,m: Debussy ond Rovel

79 5

C<ike-Walk. imitates Scott Jop li n's ragtime scyle aud juxtaposes it with a middle section that satirically recasts the opening ofWagner's Tristan und !solde in the

DEBUSSY ON T RADITION AND FREEDOM Claude Debussy was well trained ln the classical tradition and deeply inAuenced by Wagner. But he sought a new freedon, for niusic that locused on pleasure and beautiful sounds. as he explained to his former teacher ot the Paris Conservatoire, New- Orleansborn composer Ernest Gu1raud (1836-1892), in a conversation around 1890.

noyer /e ton [one must inundate or obscure

the key). One can travei where one wishes and leave by any door. G reater nuances. GUIRAUD: Sut when I play this it has to resolve.

DEBUSSY: GUIRAUD:

1 don't

see that it should. Why? Well. do you find this lovely?

The tonal scale mus t be enriched by other scales.. .. Music is neither major nor

DEBUSSY:

minor. Minor thirds and major thirds should b.,

combined, modulation thus becoming more ílexible. The mode is that which one happens to choose at the moment. lt is inconstant. ln [Wagner's opera] Tristan the themes heard in the orchestra are themes of the action. They do no violence to the actíon. There must be a balance between musical demands and thematic evocation. Themes suggest their orchestral coloring.

(Debussy having played a series o{ intervals on the piano): What's that? DEBUSSY: lncomplete chords. floating. li faut ERNEST GUIRAUD

Piano music

DEBUSSY: GUIRAUD:

Yes, yes, yes! But how would you get out of this?

1 am

not saying that what you do isn't beautiful . but it's theoretically absurd . DEBUSSY: There is no theory. You merely have to listen. Pleasure is the law. From Edward Lockspeiser, Debussy, His Ufe and Mind, vol. 1 (London: Cassei!. 1962). 206-7.

degree of independence. This changed atütude toward harmony, inviling us to take pleasure in each event ratherthan yearn for resolution. gives his music a feeling of detached observation. 0f course pleasure can lead to exuberance or even ecstasy, as it does in the climactic conclusion of this piece, so it should not be imagined that Debussy's mus ic is without feeling. Many or Debussy's other piano pieces also have evoca tive titles, often suggesting a visual image, like Estampes (Engravings or Prints, 1903) and the two sets of lmages (1901 - 5 and 1907). Severa! of his works evoke distinc tive styles of music. Pagodes (Pagodas), the nrst piece in Estampes, conveys its Asian atmosphere by im itating the pentaton ic melodies, low gongs, and multilayered textures of a Javanese gamelan. an orches tra comprising mostly gongs anrl percussion. which Debussy had heard at the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. Chi/.dren's Comer (1906-8). iuspired by Debussy's daughter, depicts a child's world , including a sly poke at Clementi and Czerny's p iano exercises in Dr. Gradus ad Pam.asswn. The last piece io t he set. Gol!iwogg's

style of salon music. marked "avcc une grande émotiou" (with a great show of emot ion); in this lighthearted piece, Debussy demonstrates his modernist tastes by showing his fam ili arity with up-to-date American music and mocking lhe grandiosity and excessive emotionalism of his German predecessor. The t.wenty-fo ur Preludes (two books, ] 909-1O and 191 1- 13) are cba racter pieces whose picturesque titles are placecl at the end rather than the beginning of each piece to allow listeners or performers to forro lheir own associations. 0ther works are relatively abstract, aJthough unmista.kably in Debussy's style: Suite bergamasqu.e (ca. 1890) and Pow le piano (1894-1901) update the French tradition of the keyboard suite, and the late Études (1915) explore pianistic timbre as well as technique in lhe tradition of Chopin. Debussy's orchestral music shows the same characteristics as his piano works, with the adcled element of instrumental timbre. 0hen a pa rticular instrument is associated with a certain mo tive. and different musical layers are separated through tone color. His works require a large orchestra. whlch is seldom used to make a loud sound but iustead offers a p;reat variety of tone colors and texnues. Even more than Mahler, Debussy treated musicas an art of sound anel reveled in the wicle range of s01rncls available in the orchestra. Debussy based his celebrated Prélude à "L'apres-midi d'un }a.une" (Prelude to "The Afternoo n of a Paun ," 1891-94) on a symbolist poem by Stéphane Mallarmé. and he treats the subject the sarne way that French symbolisl poets did: by evoking a mood through suggestion. connotation, and indirection rather thau through intense emotioual expression. Debussy's orchestral technique is well represented by the three Nocturn.es (1897-99), with subdued, imaf,'ÍSI instrumentation inNuages (Clouds). the brillianceof the fttll ensemble in Fêtes (Festivals), aod the blending of orchestra with wordless l'emale chorus in Sirenes (the Sirens of Greek mythology). La mer (The Sea, 1903-5), subtitled ·'three symphonic sketches." captures the movements of the sea th.rough rapidly alternating musica.) images. Nu.ages (NA\X M 16:') from Nocturn.es exemplilies the interaction of timbre with motive. scale type. and other elements to create a musical image. The p iece begins with an oscillating pattern of fifths and t-hirds, adapted from a Musorgsky soug, that conveys an impression of movement but no harmonic clirection. an apt analogy for slowly moving clouds. Each time the pattern appears. il features different tone colors or pitches. or both. sometimes changing into a series of parallel triads or seventh or ninth chords. Near the en d the pattern practically disappears. giving the impression of dispersing clouds. Juxtaposed with this flgure's inconstancy is one that changes little: an English-horn motive that quickly rises and slowly falls through a segment of the octatoni c scale. The English horn somet imes omits or repeats some of its final t10tes. but the motive is never developed. transposed. or given to a11other instrument, and the English boro never plays anything else; there is complete iclcniilicalion betwcen timbre and motive. Thc motive is usually answered by borns playing a tritone or other ngures from the same octatonic scale or a whole- toue scale. lt is not clear what, if .auything, these musical gestures represent; they are themselves, lending coherence to the music and help ing to convey a sense of sti ll ness anel contemplation. The movement unfolds

Orchestral music

Nuages ~

Coocls•

=-' 1 ~

796

C H A 1> T E R 3 2 • The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

Songs and stage music

Debussy's influence

in a series of cycles, each ending wiih che English horn motive, lhal vary the ma.teria] beard before a.nd introduce new ideas. ln one episode n ea r the end, sustained string chords underlie a slow pentatonic melody in the style of Japa nese gamelan music or other Asian lradicions Debussy had heard al lhe 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. The gentle cycling through mu sical. ideas fhat may change. repeat verbatim. or appear only once lends the musica shape somewhat Like the recurring cycles or life Hself. or or an aflernoon spent watching the clouds. Debussy's lifeJongengagement with texts-he was aJso a music critic-macle him parlicularly interestcd in the wrillen word. NolaJ>le among his songs are set tings of severa! major Frenei> poers, including Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine. anel the balia eles of ftfteenth-century poet François Villon. He repeated ly sought out dramatic projecls. from incidental music to Gabriele cl'Annunzio's mystery play Th,e Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian (1910-11) and the ballet Je1ix (1912-13) to severa!. unfmished works. His only comp leted opera, Pelléas et Mélisande (1893-1902). was his response to Wagner's Tristan u.nd !solde. anel it made his i·eputation when it premiered in 1902 at lhe Paris Opéra- Comique. The veiled aJJusions and images of the l.ext, a sym.holist play by Maurice MaeLerlinck, are matched by the strange, often modal harmonies, su.hdued colors , and restraineel expressiveness of the music. The voices. sct in f1uent recitative that matches the llow oi' the French language, a1·e s upportecl bul never dominated by a continuous orchestra l hackground, whi le tl1e instrume nta l interludes connecting lhe scenes can y on lhe mysterious inner drama. The changes that Debussy introduced in harmonic anel orchestral usage made him one of the serninaJ forces in the history of music. The composers who atone time or another came und er h is influence include nearly everydistinguished composer of the early and micldle twentieth century. from Ravel. Messiaen, and Boulez in France to Puccini, Janáéek, Strauss, ScriaJ>in, lves, Falia, Bartók, Stravinsi-.-y, Berg, and others from many national h·aditions, as well as American jazz and popular musicians. His emphasis on sound itself as .an element of music opened doors to new possibilities !ater explored by Varêse. Cage, Crumb, Pendereckj, anel many postwar composers.

MAURICE RAVEL

Distinctive traits

Maurice Ravel ('1875-1937), shown in Figure 32.S, is often grouped with Debussy as an impressionist. and some of his works seem to út the laJ>el. But he might better be caJJed a s uperb assimilater, whose music encompasses a variety of influences while carrying his distinctive stamp marked by consummate craftsmanship, traditional forms. diatonic melodies. and complex harmonies within an essentiaJJy tonal language. The impressionist side of Ravel, anel some differences from Debussy. are illustrated in the piano piece]eu-Xd'eau (Fountains. 1901) . ln it Ravel drew on Liszt's pi anistie techniques and in tum gave Debussy ideas for his own watery music. The passagc in Example 32.3 includes many innovative lexlures, such as parallel clissonant cho rds under rushing sr.ales. and choreis and ar peggiated figures that emphasize opens úfths and fourtbs . This passage juxtaposes whole - tone with diatonic music, as in L'isle joyeu.se (Example 32.2). But un like Debussy, Rave l treats his who le-tone sonorit ies as dissonant harmo-

797

French Modernism: Debussy ond Rovel

J\faurice R~vel ar the piano-

FIGURE 32.5 :

( Lt:011ecuT ,.,us1c &AMTSI T RF. l>.f.ACF. WORKS)

ni es t.hat must resolve, culmi nating in a complex reworking of the traditional ii- V- 1 tonal caelence: a progression from an FJ ninth cl>ord (elrawn írom one whole-tone scale) through an F-A-8-D~ a ugmented sixth chorei (dra\Yll from the other who)e-tone scale) to a reso lution on the tonic E major. AJso characteristic of Ravel are the prominent major sevenths he atlaches to the tonic anel subdominant chords in measure 7. creating a spiky dissonance thal Debussy normaJJy avoidccl. The descriptive piano pieces in the sets Miroirs (Mirrors, 1904-5) and Caspard de la nuil (1908). the orchestral suite Rapsodie espagnole (Spanish Rhapsody, 1907-8), and the ballel Daphnis et Ch!oé(l 909-12) likewise invoke impressionism in t.heir strong musical imagery, brilliant instrumental tecbnique. and colorful hannonies. But Ravel also absorbed ideas from older French music anel from the eighteenth-century Classic tradition. His interest in Classic forros and genres is clear in worlks such as the Sonatine for piano (1903-5), String Quanet in F (1902-3). Piano Trio (1914), and Violin Sonata (1923- 27) .He borrows from the French tradition of stylized dances anel suites in his piano pieces Menue1 antiqu.e (1895), Pavane pour une infante défunte (Pavane for a Dead Princess. 1899), and ~ tombeau de Couperin (Memorial for Couperin, 1914-17). aJJ of which he !ater orchestrated.

EXAMPLE 32.3

Classi.cal motlels

Ravel. Jeux d'eau, mm. 6-7

V-subs111ute

[V7

798

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

Neodassicism

VnriP.rl inflnenr.e.~

Modern,sm and National Traditions

• The Eody Twent,e th Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trad;t;on

Le tombeau de Couperin,, a suite of six movements in eighteen1'h -centu ry ge nres. was an ea rly example of 11.eoclnssici.~m. which would become the prevailing trend in France during and afler \Vorld \Var I. Although the term has gone through many shades of meaning, il has come 10 represem a broad movement from the 1910s to the 1950s in which cornpose,·s ,·evived, imi tated, or evoked the styles, genres. and forms of pre-Romantic music, especially 1hose of the eighteent h cen tury. then called Classic (.. Bar(lque·· as a term for early-eightee ntb -century music became wide ly used onJy al'ter 1940). Neoclassicism originated in France as a rejection of German Romanticism. whose associations wilh intense emo tions, in-alionality. yearning. individualísm , and nationalis m beca me i ncreasingly suspect .i n I he wake o f the wanton destruction of the war. The link to the war is es pecially poignant in Le tombear, de Couperin. beca use each movement is dedicated to the memory of a friend of Ravel's who d ied wh ileservi ng in the F'rench mili ta ry duringthe war. The title invo kes the se,•enteenth-century tradition of the Lornbeau. a píece (usually an allemande) cornposed in memory oi' a deceased colleague. and François Couperin, the greatest of the French keyboard composers of the sevemeenth and eil(hteenth centu ri es. Like French keyboard suites of that era. Le tombearL de Couperin includes a prcluelc and several elanccs- here a forlane. rigaudon. and menuet (minuet). But Ravel also included a fugue anda 1occata, gemes more closely associated with J. S. Bach, honoringthe classical trad ition of both Prancea nd Germany in a way reminiscenl of Couperin's own blend of French and Italian styles (see chapter 18). When Ravel orchestrated the suite in 1919. he om.itted Lhe fugue and toccata, 1,<iving it a more speciftcally French character. The Menuet (NAWM 168) from the orchestral version of the s uite exemplines Ravel's brand of neoclassicism. Thc trick in wr iüng neoclassical music is Lo make it sound both classic and new at the sarne time. The classical lrails areclear: a li ltingminuet rhythm. a melodicstyleand o rnam ents rem infacent of Couperin. minuet and trio form (though with some va1ied repetitions and acoda) , four-measure phrases, a simple harmonic plan with motion to the dominant and parallel minor, domin ant -to -tonic cadences in the minuet. and in the trio drones and repeating figures on an open lifth in imitation of the d rone bass of an eighteenth-century musette. But from the opening measures, where seventh a.nd túnth chords out number the triads, it is clear no eighteenth-ce ntury composer could have written t his music. Unexpected harmonies abound. and the entire trio presents its melody clothed in parallel lriads, vülually an impressionist trademark. Al the reprise oi' the minuel, the themes of the minuet and trio are combin ed in cou nterpoint. which recaiIs the contrapuntaJ feats of Bach but at the sarne time undermines the more tra ditional harmony of the minuet theme wíth the nonfonctional parallel triads of the trio. The combination oi' classic and new traits is q11intessentia lly aeo classical. Especially in the colorful orchestral version. with its varied timbres :md speciaJ effects from s tring harmonics to muted brass, the blend of elemenls is also characteristic of Ravel. Beyond impressionist and neoclassical traits. Ravel borrowed ideas from many kinds of music to enrich his own. His songs d.raw on French a11 and pop· ula.r traditions and range in topic from humoro us and realisric 1akes on animal life in Histoires naturelles (1906) to three symbolist poems by Ma ll armé for

799

voice anel cbam.ber ensemble (19 J3). RaveJ's set tings closely reílect the natural accents of Prench . oftendroppingfmal syllables tbat we re truncatecl in normal speech anel music bali songs bul had traelition ally been set in art songs. He also looked 10 popular trac.lllions outsitle France, using Viennese walti rhythms in the tone poem La valse (1919-20); Roman i (Gypsy) style in Tzigane for violin and piano or orchestra (1924): blues in the Violin Sonata; anel jazz elements in th e Piano Conce rto in G (1929-31) a nel the Piano Concert(l fo r the Left Hand (1929- 30), composed for pianist Paul Wittgenstein, wbo had lost his rightarm in \VorldWar I. Many works featured Spanish idioms. including Ravel's famous Bolero (1 928). an orchestral rumination on a single idea varied by changes of' instrumenlalion anda gradual crescendo. Working in a classical traelílion that esteemed ori1:,rina lity, Rave l avoided repeating l1imself by drawing o n a wide range of sources and giving each piece ils individual stam p.

Modernism and National Traditions The careers and music of Mahler, Strauss. Debussy. and Ravel exemplify the search by those in the ftrst generation of modernist composers for a personal style that absorbed what was useful from the past, was trne to their natíonal identity, yet was distinctive anel individual. As we survey a n umber of major composers from other nations across Europe. we will also see th is interplay between tradition and innovation ancl between national identity and personal style a t work.

RUSSIA: RACHMAN INOFF ANO SCRIABIN The works of Rachmaninoff and Scriabin il lustrate tbe wide variety of personal styles in this period. Classmates al the Moscow Conservatory, each developed an ind ividual idiom that drew both on Russian tradi tions and 011 the pan-European heritage of the virtuoso pianist• composer. Serge Rachmaninoff (1873- 1943), shown in Figure 32.6, made his living pri ma rily as a pianist. especially after lea\<ing Russia in 1917 in tbe wake of the Russian Revolution and making his home in lhe United States. His notable works include three sym phonies, the sym phonic poem The Isle of the Dead (1907). and the chorai symp ho ny The Bells (1913). But his most cha racteristic music is for piano. especially lhe twenty- fo,u· preludes (1892-191 O) and two sets of Etudes-1a.bleaux (191 l and 1916- 17) for piano solo. four piano concertos, and hi s Rhapsod,l on a T'heme of Poganini for piano and orchestra (1 934). a salute from one greatvirtuoso to another. His music combines influences from \Vestem composers, such as Mendelssohn and Chopin, with Russian elemcnts from Orthodox liturgical music lo Tchaikovsky.

FIGURE 32.6: Se,ge Rachma,iinoff. in a ponraiL br Boris Chaliapin. <coum:s, . .... .. •••u•>

800

C H A 1> TE R 3 2

EXAMPLE 32.4,

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

Them,esfi'om Rachmarti.noffs Prelu,de in GMinor, Op. 23, No. 5

a. Opening Alia mareia

J .. 108

b. Middlesection

Rachmaninoff is renowned for his passionate, melodious icliom. Some have dismissed his musicas old • fashioned, but like other composers of his generation, he sough t a way to appeal to listeners enamored of the classics by offering something new and individual yet steeped in tradition. R.ather than introduce innovations in hannony, as did Strat1,ss. Debussy, anel Scriabin-which would have violated both his temperarnent anel the demands of ithe audience for touring virtuosos-he focusecl on other elements of the Romantic tradition. creating melodies anel cextures that sound hotb fresb anel familiar. As in tbe best popular music, or long· st.anding tradilions such as Italian opera. Racbmaninoff made bis mark nol by stark depa11ures from convention but by doing the convencional in a way no one had clone before, Prelude in C Minor The excerpts in Examp le 32.4 from Rachman inoff" 's Prelude in G Minor, Op. 23, No. 5 (1901 , NA\\l}.f 169). illustrate bis ability to create innovative tex 1 Full "' 1 tures anrl melodies within traditional harmonies and ABA' form. The opening measure is justa decorated arpeggiation of a G-minor triad. but a triad hael never been presented exactly like this; the pattern of rhytbm and aJternating registers is distinctive. Tbat pattern develops throughout the A sections, with

Modern,sm and National Traditions

801

constant smaJJ changes to provide variety. The bass has the melody, modal anel slightly awkward, which is revealed in reh·ospect as a dec· orated descenl lo tbe dominanl. We e,rpect a constrasting key. prob· ably in major, for the midcUe section (Example 32.4b), but instead Rachmaninoff dwe lls on the dominant seven1h chord, as if the major third were enough of a conlrast. The melody l1ere sounds Russian anel characterislic or Rachmaninoff bec.ause of iLs close intervals, strain· ing to rise , then falJing back, wilh a diminishecl founh for a mournful touch. Both the diminished fourth. marked hy a bracket. anel lhe rising Iigure in a midc!Je voice at the end of this excerpt. marked by a brace, echo elements from lhe opening theme in Example 32.4a, li nkingtbe two themes. The melodie cha racter of the middle section is strongly inlluenced by the harmonic context and lhe new, llowing accompanimental figure. This melodie idea is developed through a series of slight variations, typica l of Rachmaninoff in that one can· not predict lhe melody's progress but it sounds right in retrospect. Such qualities were not enough for those who demanded innovation in barmony, but RacbmanLnoJ'f's music ultimately won a place in the permanent repertoire most ofbjg contemporaries would bave envied. AlexandcrScriabin (1872- 1915). shown in Figure 32.7. traveled a different path. He began by writing nocturnes, preludes, études, and maiurkas in tbe manner of Chopin, then gradually absorbed the chromaticism of Liszt and Wagner; the octatonic scale (scale of aller· nating half steps and whole steps) anel other exotic elements from Rimsky· Korsakov; and the juxtapositions oftexture, scale, and ngu· ration from Debussy and Russian composers. He gradually evolved FIGURE 32.7: AlexonderScnabín. a complex harmonic vocabulary ali his own. using choreis featur · inaport ra.irbyA . Y. Colovin. ing tritones and drawn from the ocLatonic and whole-tone scales, (1.u•tc111·-,usI c&A11·rsun1W1Y) often mixing th e two. Such a language, with its symmetrical scales that provide colorful dissonance while evading conventional tonal resolution. was perfectly suited to Scriabin's no tion of music as a means to transcend daily existence and offer a glimpse of the divine. an otherwoddly truth. an experience of ecstasy. Besides piano music, he wrote symphonies anel other orchestral works, notably Poem of Ecstasy (1908) and Prometheus (191 O). Dur· ing performances of tbe !alter, the composer wanted the concerl hall to be flooded with changing coloreei light; his own synaesthesia caused him to link particular pitches to colors. and he aspired to a synthesis of all the arts with the aim of inducing states of mysüc rapttll'e. The changes in his musical language can be fo llowed in hjg ten piano sonatas. of wbich the last five. composed 191 1- 13. dispense with key signatures and tonality. He replaceu conventional tonal harmony by choosing for eacb work a complex chord that serves as a kind of tonic anel as lhe sourcc of a work's melodie and harmonic material. The referentiaJ chorei typically contains one or two tritones and is usually part of an octatonic scale, some· limes with one added note. Tbese cho1·ds resemhle Wagner's Tristan chorei (see chapter 28). yet they are treated as static objects and do not project a yearning towru-d resolution: instead of the desire Wagner sought to invoke. they suggest a transcendence of desire, which can be readas erotic or mystic depend ing on the context. Scriabin creates a sense of harmonic progression

802

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

Vers la llam me 1

Conciso S\

1 Full S\

Moderm$m and National Traditions

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The C loss;col Trod;t;on

by mmsposing anel altering the referential chorei, enJiveningthe texture with vigorous figuration. until the chord returns at the end, sometimes with alterations. Through this process of harmonic anel textura) change. together with a gi·adual increase in dynamics and i·ange, the music typically traces a course from an enigmaticbegin ning, through increasingclyna mism , to ecstatic tran scenelence. Such pieces cannot be elescribed as tonal. but the novel harmony serves mosr oi' 1:he l'uncr ions of rona lity, establishing a home tonal region, clepa11ing from it, and returning. E:xample 32.5 illustntes this process in Vers laftamme (Toward the Flame). Op. 72 (]914, NAWM l':0). a one-movement tone poem for piano. The opening in Example 32.Sb es tablishes a referencial sonority of two tritones, E:-Aj-C#-D, decorated melodically by q anel f#. Wi th the exception of Fj , these are all notes from the octatonic scale shown in Example 32.5a. Wben the sonority is transposed upa tnino r thir<l in measure 5, the remaining notes of the scale appear, anel the whole passage repeats in the new position. Such octatoni c sonorities and chord successions occur throughout. interspersed with other types of harmonies. As shown in Examplc 32.Sc-e. the opening chord returns periodically in new guises, acquiri.ng B as well as C# and F# along the way; ali these variants also appear in transposition, usually by major or minor third or tritone. At the climactic encling (Example 32.51'). the D becomes Dj. creating a resonant chord based mostly on fourths that se1ves as :a final co ni c equivalem . lnstead of resolving the initial tritones E-A# and Gj!-D as tritones normally do in tonal music-inward to a third or outward to a sixth-both of these tritones "resolve" over the course of the movement by expanding to forro the perfeclf1.l'ths E- B and Gj!- Dfi , a harmonic embodiment ofthe journey toward h·anscendence implied by the title. The preelominant óguration changes from section to section. producing an effect of static blocks of sound chat are juxtaposecl, as in Musorgsky's and Debussy's music. Coorelinatecl with the gradual transformations of th e referentia l chorei is a vast expansion in range and increase in dynanúc levei and density of attacks. leading to the ecstalic conclusion. Of ali the composers surveyeel in this chapter, Scriabin traveled the furthest from common-practice tonal harmony. Rachmaninoff the least. yet both carne from a similar heritage as virtuoso pianist-composers in the Russian 1radilion. Their diJferences exemplify 1he range oi' choices open to modernist composers and the variety of patbs they pursued .

EXAMPLE 32.S·

facerpts from Scriabin. Vers la Oamme

a. Octatonic scale 011 E-F

- ,a -

•

b. Openíng

6..:__,

....___ . 4_. _ _ _ __

consord.

e. Mea.sures 4-1-4-2

r---r__.r - r -

c _ _ _ _5 _

~---5-

Albénizand

Granados

Rachmaninoff and Scriabin were heirs to a well-established tradfüon of Russian music that hael aJready achieved internationaJ distLnction in lhe nineteenth cenlLuy. Bul their contemporaries in other lands. such as Spain and England. were stil l engaged in the attempt to defme their nati,ons musicaUy. French. Russian, anel other composers had often used Spanish elements to create an exotic atmosphere. In the early lwentieth centmy. Spanish composers sought to n~daim their national trad ition. u~ing authentir. na tive materia l~ in order to appeal to theirown people and to gain a foothold in the international repe1toire. [saac Albéniz (1860-1909) and E:nrique Granados (1867-1916) aJ'e best k:nown for their piaoo music, althougb both wrote operas anel other works.

--'

d. Measures 77"t8

f. Measure 125

e. Measures 107-8

SPAIN: ALBÉNIZ, GRANADOS, ANO FALLA

~ru .

'HQE_r

8:.=.:.:.····

---- ..-

803

804

C H A 1> TE R 3 2

Manuel de Falia

ln his lberia (1905-8), a collection oi' twelve piano pieces in four books, Albéniz blended Spanish melodie traits and dance rhythms with a colorful virt uoso style that clrew on Liszt anel Debussy. Granados baseei piano pieces on dances from ali over Spain, and his Goyescas (1909-12), inspired by sketches by the Spa n ish artist Prancisco Goya (1746-1828), draw on numerous Spanish styles. from the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti (see chapter 22) and eighteen th-century theatrical styles of I he tonadiUa and :mr:weta to flamenco guitar and Andahisian song. Tbe principal Spanisb composer of lhe twentieth cenlury, Manuel de FaJJa (1876- 1946). cleveloped a diverse nationalism that resisted the merely exotic. He collected and arranged naliona.l folk songs, .i ntroducing a wider pu blic to the variety in the Spanish folk tradition. His earlier works-such as the opera La, vida breve (Life Is Short. 1904-13) and the bal.lets El amor bmJo (Love, the Sorcerer, 1915) and El sombrero de tres picos (The ThreeCol·nered Hat, 1916-19)-are imbued with the melodie and rhythm ic qualilies of Spanisb popular rnusic. His únest mature works ar e El retablo de rnaese Pedro (Mas ter Pedro's Puppet Show, 1919-23), baseei on an episode from the great Spanish novel Don. Quia-01e, and the concerto for harpsichord with áve solo instruments (1923-26), which harks back to tbe Spanish Baroque. Both works combine specinc national elements with the neoclassical approach pop ular after \Vorlcl \Var l to produce music that is both nationalist and more broadly modernist. Fal.la's emhrace of both popular and Baroque music of Spain as inspirations for his own, and his combination of national and neoclassical traits, parallel Rave l's assimilation of both F'rench popular and classicaJ traditions. Yet for Falla the assertion of national identity was as much directed against the potentially overwhelming influence of French musicas Ravel's was marked by resistance againsL German music.

BRITAIN : VAUG HAN WILLIAMS AND HO LST

Custav Holst

Ralph Vaughan Williams

Modern,sm and National Traditions

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

The Engli.sh musical renajssance begun in the late nineteenth centu1y (see chapter 30) took tlight in the twentieth. as composers sought a distinctive voice for Eoglish art music after ceoturies of dornination by foreig:n styles. Cecil Sharp (1859-1924), Ra lph Vaughan \ViJliams, anel others coll ected anel pub lishecl hundreds of folk songs, leading to the use of tbese melodies in compositions such as Vaughan Williams's Norfolk Rhapsodies (1905- 6) anel Five Variant.s of "Dives and Lazarus" (] 939) as well as Gustav Holst's Somerset Rha,psody (1906-7). These two composers. s hown together in Pigu re 32.8, had become close friends while students of Parry and Stanford at the Royal Conservato1y of Music, anel they beca me the leaders oi' a new English school. Ho lst, who contribt1ted notable works foi· stage, c horns, orchestra, and hand (see ahove), was influenced not only hy English song hut also hy Hindu sacred texts, whlch he set in Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda (1908-12). He is best known for a non - na!ionalist work. the orchestral suite The Planeis (1914-16). which hecame the source for many conventions of scoring for movies and television shows set in space. Vaughan Williams was more national in style than Holst. His works include nine symphon ies and other orchestral pieces, 1i lm scores, works

for band, songs. operas, and many chora l pieces. He drew inspiration not only from folk song but also from English hymnody anel earlier English composers such as Thomas Tallis anu Henry Purcell. He also shtdied with Ravel and absorbed strong intluences from Deb ussy. Bach. anel Handel. Vaughan Williams exemp li f1ed a 1rair common to severa! modem Englisb composers: he wrote both art music aud practical or utilitarian music. using elements from eacb tradition in the other. He gained a profound knowledge or hymnody as musical editor or the new English Hymnal in 1904-6, writing !ater that "Two years of close association with some of tbe best (as well as some of the worst) tunes in the world was a better musical education than any amou11t of sonatas anel fugues." He also composed a half-dozen hymn !'unes, arranged over forty folk songs as hy mns, and resurrected fo rl{otten six1 een th-cen tury tunes for 1he hymnal. Throughout his long career, he conducted loca] amateur singers and playe rs, for whom he wrote a num.ber oi' pieces. Such links with amateur musi.cmaking kept Vaughan Will iams anel other E.nglish composers from cultivating an esoteric style acldressed only to eclucaled listeners. The national qua lity of Vaughan Williams's music comes J'rom his incorporation or im itation of Bl'itish fo lk tunes and his assimilation of the modal harmony of sixteentb-cenlury English composers. One of his most popular wo rks, Fantasia on a, Theme o/Thomas Tallis (191 O) for double s Lring orchestra and string quartel, is base d on a Tallis hymn in the Phrygian mode that Vaughan Williams had revived for the Englísh Hymnal. The piece introduces fragments of the tune. states it simply once, anel develops motives from it in a free fantasy, using anliphonal sonoriLies and triads in para llel motion in a modal framework. Like his teacher Ravel, Vaughan Williams found ways to write varied but always national and recognizably individual rnusic.

FI GURE 32.8, Gu:stav

Holst (sea ied) and llalph Vaughan Williarns in 1921. during a walh·ingtourofrlie scen ic Malvem IliJls in the English M,dlands. (CH tLTt:NHAM All1" 0/\LI.JiltY

& MUSEUM)

EASTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE: JANÁCEK AND SIBELI US Spain an d Britain were independent nations fo r whom nationalism was primarily a culhiral issue. But for the peoples of eastern Europe and the Baltic region under 1he Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires, it was also an urgent political concern. Music that reílected a people's language anel tra ditions was valuable at home as an assertion of an independent national iden tity and abroad as an appeal for internat ionaJ recognition as a nation. The leading twentieth-cenlury Czech composer. Leos Janãcek (18541928). worked in the genres of\Vestem a11 music. especially opera. but sought a specincal.ly national style. Beginning in the l 880s. he collected and edited folk music J'rom his native region oi' Mora via, studiecl the rhythms anel inflections of peasant speech and song, and devised a highly persona l idiom based

805

Leos Janácek

806

Moderm$m and National Traditions

C H A 1> T E R 3 2 • The Eady Twent.. th Century: The C lo,s;col Trod;c;on

FIGURE 32 .9, Jean Sibelius around 1904. in adrawingbyAlbert Edelfeli. <Lt •11•c111· .. us,c 6 AftTStrllE lhlACE WORKS)

Jean Sibelius

on them. ParticuJarly distinctive is his use of melodies and rhythms based on the inflections and rhythms of spoken words. This is an idea that we have sccn 1·epeateclly in vocaJ music, from Peri's recilative in the early seventeemh century to Musol'gsky's settings of Russian in Boris Godunov. but Janácek applied it to instrumental music as well. Toe pa rticular patte rns or 1he Czech language-especially its long and short vowels, independem of the stress accent that usually falis at the beginning of a wo rd-give his musica higWy ind ividual character. Janácek asserted his indepen dence fromAustria notonly in melod ie style but also in h:is characteristic procedures. His mus.ic l'elies on contrasting sonorities. harmonies, motives. and tone colors. and it proceeds primarily by repeating and juxtaposing ideas in a manner ak:in to Musorgsky or Debussyl'ather thao develop ing them as in the Germanic tradition. After winning local renown for bis folk song and dance collectious and for chorai music in Czech, Janácek gained wider prominence in bissixties when his operaJemifa. based on a Moravian subject and premiered in Brno in 1904. was performed in Prague in 1916 andagain in Vienna in 1918, theyeanhat Czechoslovakia gai ned independence after the dissolution of Austria- Hungary. With new conndence from both personal and politicaJ triumphs. in his Jast decade Janâcek produced a string of operas that dominated tbe Czech stage between the world wars and later became part of the international repe1io1y, including Kát'a Kabanová (192 l), The Cunning Little Vixen (1924). The Makropulos Affair (1925). and From the House ofthe Dead (1928). Jn his operas, strongly comrastmg ideas are used to delineate diverse characters and situalions. His instrumental works , such as the llashy orchesh·aJ Sinfonietta (1926) and two late string quartets (1923 and 1928). dcpend on similar contrasts. Finland was part of the Russian Empire from 1809 until it gained mdependeoce io 191 ?, but it was cultura lly domiuated by Sweden, whic h had ruled it for centuries. Jean Sibelius (1865- 1957). shown in Figure 32.9. was raised speak.itlg Swedish. then as a young man became a committed Finnish patriot, learningthe Janguage and changinghis name from the Swedish Johan to the French Jean. Fascinated with the Finnish nationa l epic. the Kalevala. he mined it for texts to set in llis vocal works and for subjects to tteat in his symphonic poems. He modeled many themes on recitation formulas for the epic, repetitive me lodies 0 11 th e ftrst nve notes of the minor scale. Sihelius established his reputation as Finland's leading composer in the 1890s witb a series of symphonic poems, including K1ille1vo (in Jive move ments with soloists and chorus), En saga, The Swan ofTuonelo.. Lenuninkii.inen·s Retum. and his most famous (and political). Finlo.ndia,. From 1897 to the end of lús life, he was supported by tbe Finnish government as a national artist. He then turned to the international audience around 1900 with publicalion and performaoces of his sympbonic poems and with his tirst two symphonies (1899 and 1901- 2) and Violin Concerto (1903- 4). followed by nve more symphonies through 1924. Sibelius devised a personal style marked by modal melodies. uncomplicated rhythms, insistent repetition of brief mot ives. osti-

oatos. pedal points, anel strong coDLrasls of orchestral timbres and text1il'es, aJl designed to create a distinctive sound and mus icaJ discourse fal' removed from the nineteenth-cenltuy academic tradition in which he had been trained. EspeciaHy original is Sibelius's treatment of forro. In addilion to reworking sonata form in novel ways, he usecl <levices that have been ca lled "rotational form." repeatedly cycling tluough a series of thema tic elemenls thal are varied each Iime, ;ind "teleological genesis," a goal -directed process of generat ing a theme from motivic fragmeots, sometimes over an emire movement or sym phony. Tbe former was anticipaled in the Prelude to W3btner's Tristan und /solde (NAWM 149a) and used independentlyby Debussy in Nuages (see 1':AWM 167). and che latter builds on Liszt's themalic transformation and Brahms's developing variation. Both rotational form and teleological genesis are exemplined in the slow third movement of Sibelius's Fourth Syrnphony (1910- 11), which rotates severa! times through three main ideas. Example 32.6 shows one of these ideas at three d ifferent stages: (a) its nrst appearance; (b) a statement midway. when the first half of the theme is clear but the second halfhas notyet found its footing; and (e) the !'mal, defrnitive form. Sibelius saw his style as modern, a radical clepanure from tradilional pro cedures. But by the i'9 l Os, he was regarded in some circles as conservative because he continued to use cliatonic melodies and tonal harmonies. evco if in a novel, personal idiom. These traits helped to make his music popular in his own cou ntry, Britain , and the United States, but htn1 his reputation on the Conlinent. and he stoppecl composing by the late l 920s. Moreover. wbile audiences and critics on the Continent welcomed his early works as

EXAMPLE 32.6:

Sibelius. Symphony No. 4 inA Minor. thematic transform.ations

a. First <tppearonce

b. A 111i.ddle stage

e. Final sta1e111ent in dejinitive form

807

808

C H A 1> TE R 3 2

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trod;t;on

representatives oJ' a new nation in the classical repenoire, they resisted his subsequent tum to a mo re universal style in h is symphonies, sbowing that for composers 011 Europe's peri phery a st&·ong national identity could be as much of a trap as it was a blessing. Sibelius's search lo reconcile his status as an outsider with the classical heritage, to blend nationa lism with inlernational appeal. and to balance innovative wilh lraditional elements revea.ls many of the fau lt lines in twentieth -cen lury mus ic.

The Avant-Garde While modernist composers were devising ways to say something new wilhin the classical tradition, the years befo re World War 1 also brought tbe nrst stirrings of a movemeut tbat clirectly cballengeel that tradition and would grow in importance over the course of the centmy: the cw aut-garde . The French militai')' used the term to describe an advance group that pre pared Lhe way for Lhe mainarmy. The Lerm was thenadopted in Lhe mid-nineteenth century for an d by French artists who saw themse lves as a vangua rd exploring new territory. Although sometimes applied to anyone who departs from coovention, or l0 modernists such as Schoenberg (see chapler 33), lhe term is most helpful when used more nar:rowly for art that is iconoclastic, irrev erent. antagonistic, and nihilistic.-íor art that seeks lo overthrow accepted aesthetics and start fresh. Rather than attempt to wl'ite music suited for the classical repertoire, avant- garde composcrs have cballenged lhe very con cept of deathless classics. asking their listeners to focus instead on what is happening in the present. Their movement is marked not by shared elements of style but by shared altitudes, par ticulady ao unrelenting opposition to the status quo .

ERIK SATIE

Piano works

On.e side of the avant-garde is exemplüied by the music of Er ik Satie (l 8661925). which wittily upends conventional ideas. Satie was a French national isr in a similar vein to Debussy and Ravel, but made a more radical break with the entire classical tradition. His set of three Gymnopédies (l 888) for piano, for example. challenged the Romantic notions of ex'Pressivity and individu ality. Insteael of offering variery, as expected in a set of p ieces, Lhey are ali ostentatiously plain and unemotional, using the sarne slow tempo. tbe sarne acco mpanimental pattern, virtually the sarne melodie rhythm. and similar moda l ha rmonies and puzzling dynamics. Satie's use of modal and unresolved chords opencd new possibilities for Debussy and Ravel, who Lurned thcm to differem uses but rlid not follow his avant-garde tendencies. Betwee n 1900 and 1915, Satie wrote severa l sets of pia no pieces with surrealistic titles like Three Pieces in the Porm of a Pear (1903. which act ually has seven pieces) and Autmnn.tic De.~r.ription~ (1913) . Most had runn ing commenta.i-y and tongue - in-cheek dü-ections to the player. such as "withdraw your hand and put it in your pocket," " that's wonderful!," or "heavy as a sow." These satirized the titles anel ex1nessive directions of Debussy. Scriabin. and

The Avont·Gordo

other composers of descriptive anel programmatic music. Moreover, by print ing the commentary on the music rather than in a program. so that only the player was aware of il, Salic criliqued the idea of concert music anel reclaimed the fading tradition of music for the player's own e11joyment. Bur the comic and critica.l. spi.rit resides also in lhe music itse!J'- spare. dry, cap ricious. brief, repetitive, pa rodistic, and wi11y in the highest degree. The classical masterworks are a particulartargel: the seconcl of the three Emb17onsdesséchés (Dried Embryos. 1913) includes a mocking ··quotation írom the celebrated mazurka of Schubert"' (actually Chopin's funeral march), ma rked "they ali begin to c1-y," and the third (NAWM 17 1[Full S\ ) satirizes Wagnerian Jeitmotives and ends with a long "obligaLory cadema (by the compose1}' that pounels on the tonic repeated ly, a jibe at the s imilar passages that close severa l Beethoven symphonies. Clearly Satie was no l oul to create masterpieces thal would take their place in the greal tradition: rather, he was cballenp;il1p; tbe very bases ofthat trad ition. ln his larger pieces, Satie sought to create music that would fix our attention on the present. His "realistic ballet" Parade (1916-17), with a scenario by the writer Jean Cocteau, choreography by Léonide Massine, and scenery and costumes by Picasso. introduced cubism to the stage. as illustrated in Figu re 32.10. ln the cubisl spirit of including fragmenLS of everyday life, Satie's score incorporatecl jazz elements, a whistle, a siren, and a t)11ewriter. It caused a scandal. as did his !ater ballet with ftlm. Rel-ãche (No Show Tonight, 1924). His "sympho nic drama" Socrate (1920). for soloists and chamber orchestra on texts from Plato, attains in ils last scene, on Lhe deatb of Socrates, a poibrnancy tJ,at is intensi h ed by the stylistic monotony and the stttdied avoidance of a direct emotional appeal. Satie composed bis Musique d'ameubtemeni (FurniLure Music, 1920) LO be played during the intermissions of a p lay, inteneling it as background music that shou ld not be Jistened to. Each work by Satie questioned the listener's expectations. no two pieces were alike, and wheoever he gained followers. he abandoned them by doiog somethi.ng radically diFferent. His biting, antisentimental spirit, economical textures , ano severe harmony and melody in lluenced the music ofhis younger compatriots Milhaud and Poulenc. among others, and he was a signincant inspi.rationfor theAmerican avant -garde, notably John Cage.

FUTURISM AJtbougb Satie questionecl traditional assumptions about expressivity. inclividua lity, seriousness, masterworks, and the ve1-y pu rpose of music. he used traditioaal instruments and musical pitches. The Ttaliaa futurists rejected even those. ln TheArt of Noises: Futlirist Manifesto (1913: see Source Reading. p. RIO). the f'uturist paintP.r Luigi Russolo arg,,P.d in dP.a<I eamP.st that musica l sounds bad become stale and Lhat the modem world of machines required a aew kind of music based on noise. He divide d no ises into six families, then he and his colleagues built new inslrwnents called inl.onarnmori (noise - makcrs).

809

FIGURE 32.10: Costume for the Paris

Ma,Mgerin tl,ejir.;I prod11ction ofSatie 's bailes Pai·ade(J91 7). 'l'he seis and cosiu.mes for rliis baller. designed by Pablo Picasso. broughi his c11bist style to r-he stage. (Lr.••r.c111· M USIC & All'fS O A I\T HiTS

8.lGUTSSOClt:TY(l\.85). NLW YOl\K/VDK, VI f:SKA)

810

C H A 1> T E R 3 2

• The Eody Twent,eth Century: The c 1.,.;,ol Trad;t;on

THE ART OF NO ISES Futurism began in 1909 as a literary and artistic movement in ltaly celebra'ting the dynamism. speed. machines. and violence of the twentieth century. Luigi Russolo (1885-1947) was a futurist painter who turned his attention to music in 1913. ln The Art of Noises: A Futur,st Manifesto, Russolo laid out h,s argument for music based on noise rather than mus;cal pitches.

The art of music at first sought and achieved purity and sweetness of sound: later. it blended diverse sounds. but always with in tent to caress the ear with suave harmonics. Today, growing ever more complicated. it seeks those combinations of sounds that fali most dissonantly, strangely. and harshly upon the ear. We thus approach nearer and nearer to the music of noise. This musical evolution parallels the growing multiplicity of machines, which everywhere are assisting mankind. Not only amid the clamor of great cities but even in the countryside. which until yesterday was ordinarily quiet. the machine today has created so many varieties and combinations of noise that pure musical sound-with its poverty and monotony-no longer awakens any emotion in the hearer.... We must break out of this narrow circle of pure musical sounds. and conquer the infinite variety of noise-sounds. Everyone will recognize that every musical sound carries with it an incrustation of familiar and stale sense associations. which predispose the

hearer to boredom, despite a li the efforts of innovating musicians. We futurists have alldeeply loved the music of the great composers. Beethoven and Wagner for many years wrung our hearts. But now we are satiated with them and derive much greater pleasure from idealiy combining the noises of street-cars, internal-combustion engines, auto· mobiles. and busy crowds than from re-hearing. for example. the "Eroica• or the "Pastorale: ... Every manifestation of life is accompanied by noise. Noise is therefore familiar to our ears and has the power to remind u:s immediately of life itself. Musical sound. a thing extraneous to life and independent of it, an occasional and unnecessary adjunct. has become for our ears what a too familiar face is to our eyes. Noise. on the other hand. which comes to us confused and irregular as life itself, never reveals itself wholiy but reserves for us innumerable surprises. We are convinced. therefore, that by selecring, co-ordinating, and controlllng noises we shall enrich mankind with a new and unsuspected source of pleasure. Despite the fact that it is characteristic of sound to remind us brutally of life. the Art of Noises must not limit itself to reproductive imitation. lt will reach its greatest emotional power through the purely acoustic enjoyment which the inspiration of the artist will contrive to evoke from comb inations of noises. Translated by Stephen Somervell in Nicolas Slonimsky. 4th ed. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971).1299-1301. ln SR 177 (7:8). pp. 1330-32. Music Since 1900,

each ca pable of producing a particular kind of noise over a range of al least an octave anda ha lf. They co mposed pieces for these inst rum ents, alone or with traditio nal instrumen ts, and presented them in concert between l 913 and 1921 in Italy. London. and Paris.

Late Romantic or Modem?

various forms in ltaly, France, and Russia cluring the 1920s and l 930s, and it a nticipated or stimulated many )ater developme nts, includ ing electronic music, micro tonal composition. and the pursuit of new instrumental timbres. As different as fuwrisl m usic was from Satie's, they shared a focus on the eiqJerience of listening in the prese nt moment an d an iconoclastic rejection of the music and aesthetics of the past. both altributes that remained central to avan t·ga rde music throughout lhe twen1ieth ce nt.u ry.

Late Romantic or Modem? The music of ea rly- twe ntieth- ce ntury composers in lhe classical tradilioo was rema rkably diverse, and its reception has been eq ually varied. These composers' position between tbe lions of late Romanticism, dis· cussed in chapters 28-30, and the more radical composers discussed in the next chapter can make their music hard to classif)•. The fust edition of this book in 1960 treated DebuSS)' as a late·Romantic figure, but by lhe 1973 second ed ition he was regarded as a sem inal force for modern· music. Ali the composers of this generation have aspects of both eras. combining nine teenth-centu ry training and traits with twe111ieth-cemury sensibilities. Per haps that is why so much of th is music-especially that of MahJe1·, Strauss, Debussy. Ravel. Rachmaninoff, Vaughan Williams. and Sil1elius -has proven extremely popular with listeners. Critica! disputes about what is mos t valuable in music have been especiaJJy acute in the twe ntieth cenhny, andas a result, critica] esteem for these composers has changed ovcr time. often d l'amatically. For example. Mahler during his lifetitne was known outside Vienna mostly as a conduclor. ln lhe decades after hi s death, the advocacy of condu ctors such as Bruno Walter and Willem Mengelherg began to estahlish his reputation as a composer. and Austria promoted him as a native soo, until the han 011 performance of music by Jewish composers du ring the Naii regime in Germany and Austria cut the boomJet short. After World War li. the lo ng-playing record made his lo ng symphonies more accessible. performances and recordings by Leonard Bernstein and others around the time of Mah.ler's centena.ry in 1960 broughl his music to a ,\'ider aud ience. and soon h is :symphonies and orchestral so ngs were nrmJy established in the international repertoire. Similar efforts after Wo rld War II ralsed Janái:ek from local to intemalional fame. Meanwhile, when c1·iti.cs and scho lars increasi nglycame toviewtonality as old -fashioned. tbe reputations of Strauss and Sibelius declined. only to be rescued !ater in tbe twentieth ceotury when their innovations hecame better understood and when increasing numbers of living composers turned back to the sounds and methods of tonal music. White some music by composers of this generation may sound late Romaotic io spir it o~ technlque, what makes aU of it modernist is this ovenvhelming sense of measuring oneself againsl the past.

ln oppMition l.o thr. M nsl.ant rr.r.yding of r.lassi~s in thr. r.onr.er t halls.

futuJ·ist music was impermanent. perhaps delilierately so: only one fragment of Russolo's music survives in a record ing by Russolo's b rother, and the instru · ments wcre deslroyed during World War li. But lhe movement continued in

(@)

Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

811

Arnold Schoenberg

poles but that faced common concerns. Scboenberg's snidents Alban Berg and Anton Webern took their teacher·s ideas in individual directions. Béla Bartók and Charles Jves both developed unique coml>inations of nationalism and modernism within th e classica l tradition . Bom between 1874 and 1885, ali six began by wri1ing tonal music in late Romanlic styles, then devised new and dis1inct ive post-tonal iclioms 1ha1 won 1.hem a ce n1ral place in 1he world of modem music.

RADICAL MODERNISTS

The nrst wave of modernist composers discussed in the previous chapter secured an enduring place in the classical repertoire by combining elements from the classical tradition with something new to create an individual, distinctive, and original bocly of music. ln the years just before and after World War I, a younger gro up of modernist composers ca rried out a more radical break from the musica l language of the past than their preclecessors hacl, while maintaining strong links to lhe sarne traditions. These composers reassessed inherited conventions as profoundly as the modernis ts in art who pioneered expressionism, cubism, and abstract art. Rather tha n please viewers or listeners on n rst sight or nrst hearing, an ai tribute that had always been considered essential in both art and music, modernists of their generation sought to challenge our perceptions and capacities, providing an experience that would be impossible through traditional means. They offered an implicit critique of mass culture and easily digested art, and their writings often show it. These co mposers saw no contra cliction in claiming the masters of the pastas models. ln fact, they saw thei r own work as continuing what the pathbr eaking classical composers hacl started, notas overthrowing that tradition, and their music is often most radi cal in the ways they interpret and remake the past. Rather than taking up the topics in this ch apter one by one, we will introduce them in th e context of discussing six moclernist co mposers who are among the besl known and most inlluential of the entire century. Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky were leaders of two branches of modemism that often seem to be at opposite

Arnold Schoenberg Arnold Schoenberg (1874- 1951; see biography and Figure 33.1) was committed to continuing 1he German classical tradjtion , and fo r that very reason he felt compelled to move beyond tona lity to ítlomtlity-a term for music that avoids establishing a lOnal cente1~ and then to the ttvclvc-tonc mcthod. a form of atonality based on systematic orderings oi' 1he twelve notes ol' the chromatic scale. His innovations made him famous in some quarters andbecause the resulting nmsic was both dissonant and diffi.cult to follownotorious in others.

TONAL WORKS Like 01her modernists of his generalion, Schoenberg began by wriLing tonal music in late Romantic style. The clu·omatic idiom ofhis first important work, a tone poem for string sextet titled Verkliirte Nacht (Transngured Night. 1899). grew from 1hat of\Vagner's Tristan undlsolde, while the symphonic poemPel!ea.s tmd Meliscmde (1902-3) draws on Mah ler and Strauss. Th e huge canta ta CurreLieder (Songs of Gurre. 1900-l. orchesu·ation completed 1911) outdoes Wagner in emotional fervor, and Mabler and Strauss in the complex:ity of its scoring. Schoenherg soon turned away from late Romantic gigantism and toward chamber music. He found in Brahms the prfociple of developingvariation (see chapter 29) and applied it in bis own works . such as the String Quariet No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 7. ln 1he <1uartet all the themcs and most subsidiary voices evolve from a few germina l motives throi1gh va riation and combinati on. The form of the one-movementwork. combining an enlarged sonata form with the four s tandard movemen1s of a quartet, owes much to Liszt's Piano Sonata in B Minor, demonstrating Schoenberg's willingness to blend influ ences in order to create something new. The quanet exemplines Schoenberg's intenwined goals for bis music: to continue the traclition anel lo say something lhat bad never been said beforc (see Source Reading, p. 815). He believed that the gi·eat composers of the past had all co ntribut.ed something new and t.herefore of permanent signincance, while preserving and extencling what was ofh ighest value in the music of their predecessors. He sought to do likewise. hoping to achieve similar itnmor tality. ln essence. his entire ca.reer was a process of developing variation on the ideas and procedures he found in the Austro-German tradition of classical music from Bach to MahJer and Strauss. He askecl of each work lhat it

Developing 11ariation

Non repetiLion

813

814

C H A 1>T E R 3 3 • Rod,col Modernists

ARNOLD SCHOENBERG (1874-1951)

Schoenberg was one of the most influential composers of the twentieth century, best known for his atonal and twelve· tone music. Schoenberg was born in Vienna. the son of a Jewish shopkeeper. He began violin lessons at age eight, then taught himself to compose by imitatíng the music he played. When his father died in 1891. Schoenberg had to leave school an d work as a bank clerk. His instruction in theory and composition was minimal, although the composer Alexander von Zemlínsky served for a time as sound ing board and teacher.

and directed the Society for Private Musical Performances in Vienna, which between 1919 and 1921 gave about 350 per· formances of musíc by hímself and his students and colleagues. After a creatíve impasse, he for· mulated the twelve ·tone method used in the Piano Suite (1921-23) and most of his later works. Mathilde d ied in 1923, anda year later Schoenberg married Gertrud Kolisch, with whom he had three more ch ildren and FIGURE 33.1 : A self-portrait by moved back to Berlín. But in Arnold Schoenbergfrom around 1933 the Nazis carne to power 1910. showing his interest in and announced their intention expressioni.sni in pain1i11g. which to remove all Jewish instrue· parallels his in tereslin expres· tors from f.1culty appoin tments. Schoenberg married Zem- sionis111in.u1usic. (&1A.R1'0LD Although he had become a SCH()f.~fl CIIO tNS n1'1J'TP.tl f,PUtf.CIIT) linsky's sister Mathi lde in 1901. Lutheran when he was twen ty· and they moved to Berlin, where he worked at a four to avoid an ti-Semitism. he converted cabaret until Richard Strauss got him a job teachback to Judaism after moving wi th his family to France. He then traveled on to the United ing composition at the Stern Conservatory. Two years later he returned to Vienna and taught pri· States. finally arriving in Los Angeles in 1934. vately, attracting his two most famous students, He was appointed to a professorship at UCLA Alban Berg and Anton Webern. He had the sup· and retired tn 1944 at age seventy. He died in Los Angeles in 1951 o n July 13, having always Feared port of Mahler and other progressive musicians. but his works met stormy receptions, especially the number 13. after he adopted atonality in 1908. He took up MAJOR WORKS: 4 operos: Erwartung. Die glückliche painting in an expressionist style-see Figures 33.1 Hand, Von heute auf mo,gen, and Moses und A,on; Pierro1 and 33.3-and developed friendships with severa! lunaire, Gurrelieder, and numerous songs and chorai works: expressionist painters (one of whom had an affair 2 chamber symphonies. Five Orchestrol Pieces. Voria · wíth Mathilde, who bríefly left hím before return· tions for Orchestra. and other orchestral works: S string ing for the sake of their two children). quartets. Verkliirre Nacht, Wind Quintei, and other cham· ber works: Piano Suite and severa! sets of piano pieces A fter World War 1, Schoenberg founded

not s imply r ep eal but build on lhe past. Remarkably. he r equired lhe same

within each piece: except for marked r epeats in hinary forms. nothing shou ld repeat exactly. As he wrote, "\Vith me. variation ahnost com plete ly takes tl1e place of re petition." This principie of nonrepetition between and within pieces helps explain how Schoenherg's m usic would evolve.

Arnold Schoenberg

N EW MUSIC AN D T RA D IT IO N Arnold Schoenberg saw no contradiction between trad,tion and innovation. For him, the tradition of elas· sical music was a legacy of innovation, and it was his job as a composer to weave threads from the pas t and the present into something truly new. He returned to th1s theme constantly m h1s wntmgs.

ln higher art, only that is worth being prese nted which has never before been presented. There is no great work of art whích does not convey a new message to humanity; there is no great artist who fails in this respect. This is the cede of honor of all the great in art, and consequently in ali great works of the great we will find that newness which never perishes, whether it be of Josquin des Prés, of Bach or Haydn. or of any other great master.

Because: Are means New Art.

My teachers were primarily Bach and Mozart, and secondarily Beethoven. Brahms. and Wagner....

1 also learned much from Schubert and Mahler, Strauss and Reger too. 1shut myself off from no one. and so I could say of myself: My oríginality comes from thís: 1immediately imitated everything I saw that was good, even when I had not first seen it ín someone else's work. And I may say: often enough I saw it first in myself. For if I saw something I did not leave it at that: 1acquired it. in arder to possess it: 1 worked on it and extended it. and it led me to something new. 1 am convinced that eventually people will recognize how immediately this "something new· is linked to the loftiest models that have been granted us. 1venture to credit myself with having written truly new music which. being based on tradition, is destined to become tradition. From · New Music, Outmoded Musíc, Style and ldea· and ·Nat,onal Music (2)." in Sry/e and ldea: Se/ected Wricings o{ Arnold Schoenberg, ed. Leonard Ste,n. trans. Leo 81ack (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 114 - 15 and 173- 74.

ATONAL MUS IC ln 1908, Schoenherg began to compose pie<:es chat avoided es1ablish.ing any note as a tonal center. Others called such m usic a to nal. although Schoenberg disliked the term. He felt compelled to abandon tonality in pal't because the heightened chromaticism, distant modulations, and prolcmged dissonances of late·nineteenth - century music had weakened the pull of the tonic. mak· i ng its declaration at the end of a piece seem increasingly arbitrary. Schoen· be rge mulated Strauss and othe rs in devising novel progressions and avoiding conventional cadences. as the principie of nonrepetition demanded. hui il beca me hard er anel hard er to 1ind newways to arrive at the ton ic co nvinci ngly. Moreover. in music with complex chromatie chords, we cannot easily deter mine which notes are the dissonanl ones lhal have lo resolve. The ambiguities lr.n Sr.hnr.n herg to what he r.allen "t he r.1nanr.ipation oi' thr. dissonanr.e"íreeing dissonance from its need to resolve to co nsona nce . so that any comb ination oftones could serve as a stable chord that did not require resolution . Once this iclca was accepted. he believed thal alonality was inevitablc.

815

816

C H A 1> TE R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

Coherence in a ton a,l inusic

Pitch -class sets

Without a tonal backbone, how was music to be organized? Schoenherg relied on three methods: developi ng variation, the integration of hannooy and melody. and chromatic saturation. All had been used in tonal music. but now he drew on them more fully to provide strnct11re. ln addilion, he often use d gestures from tona l music, forging links to tradition and making his music easier to follow. One or Schoenberg's li rst entireJy atonal pieces. da,ting írom Ma rch 1908. will illustrate: Soget mir, auf welchem Pfade (Te l1 me on which path), the lifth song from a cycle of úfteen oo poems from 7'he Bookof tlte HangingGardens by symbolist poet Stefan George (Op. 15. 1908-9). Toe sense of floating in tonal space e reateei by music thaL does not gravitate to a Lonic is perfectly su ited to the vague eroticism of the poetry. which expresses, through outward symbo ls, the inner l'eelings of a !ove affair. Example 33.1 shows the J'u·st two phrases. Much about the m11sic is familiar from eal'lier German Lieder, including the texture ofvoice witb piano, the rise and fali of the vocal melody, the division into phrases. the use of dynamics to shape each phrase. .and the descending gestures to mark the ends of phrases. As in nineteemh-centuty Lieder, most notes in the voice are also present ln the accompaniment, either in the piano's topmost melody (as at the begioning of measures I and 2) or in the hannony (like the B and C; in measure 1. supponed by the B and O'. in the chord below them). Developing variation is apparent ln both voice anel accompaniment. The openingvocal motiveof a descendingsemitone changes in measure 2 to a falling whole tone. is inverted in measure 3 as a rising major seventh. and reappears in measure 4 as a descending semi tone , though in a new rhyth.m. Similardevelopment of a sem itone motive can be traced in the piano. Meanwhile, the chords in measure 1 are varied in measure 2. and elements from them- such as the cornhination of a tritone with a perfect fotu·th or major third-are echoed in measures 3 and 4. Eve1J1hing that fo ll ows is derived in some way l'rom these opening measures. A variant of measures 3-4 closes the piece. providing a tra ditional sense of return and closure despite the Jack of a key. Schoenberg integrated melody and harmony through a process he called "composing with the tones of a motive," which springs directly from developing variation. ln this process. hc manipulated the notes and intervals of .a motive to crea te chords and new melodies. One way this worked was to treat the notes of a motive contain ing three or more pitches just as we might a triad or other tonal chord: as a collection of pitches that could be transposed, inverted, and arranged in any order and register to generate melodies and harmonies. Theorists !ater termed such a collection a sei or. more formally, 11itc/1-cla ss set . using pitch-cltiss to mean one of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale and its e nharmon ic equjva lents in any octave. A convcnienl way to label seis is to arrangc the notes in tbe mos! compact array from lowest to highest and number each pitch--class by the number of semi tones above the lirst one. ln th is song, th e lirst three notes in the vocal line form lhe sei 016 (counling F as O. F; as I sernitone higher. and B as 6 semit.ones higher). ln lhe example. this and ali l~ter or.r.1.11Tenr.es of this set are enclosed in red boxes. The fll'st chord in the piano aJso contains thls set. transposed (to Fff, G, and C) and arranged as a perfect fourth and tritone within a major seventh. The sel reappears. often transposed or inverted. in

817

Arnold Schoenberg

several !ater chords anel melodica lly in the bass. For example, an inverted form (F, E, B) app ea rs as the top three notes of the chord on the downheat of measure 2. followed hy bass motion drawn from a transposed form (B. C. F) and an inverted fonn (A!,, G, D), each presenting the inte1·vals in a differem order. Other sets are used in simila r fashion . Using a limi ted numher of sets gives lhe musica consistenl sound. while changing Lhe o rde r of intervals witbio each set provides variety. Scboenberg tend ecl to use sets tbat formed strong dissonances, because tbose sets are most distinct ive and therefore easier lo follow as the music unfolds. This integration of me lody and harmony harks back 10 music or earlier eras. Atonal mus ic can also be shaped through chrom.M ic w wratio11 , lhe appearance of ali twelve pitch-classes withi n a segment nf music. We saw this method at work in Example 29.6. a song of Hugo \Volf tha l is highly chromatic but still tonal , where all twelve chromatic notes are stated in the úrst phrase and again in the next two measures. The appeara nce oí a note that has not recently been sounded can give a sense of moving forward harmonically. As a corollary. once the twelfth chromatic note has appeared. there can be a sense of full ness and completion, which Wolf in a Lonal context and Schoenberg in an atonal context used to reinfo rce the feeling of completing a phrase. In Examplc 33.1. all twelve notes occur in the first two-measure phrase, the last two (D andA;) stated in the piano chord on the second bea.t of measure 2. SimuJtaneously. the other notes in that sonorlty (Cand Fff in the pianoand E in the voice) initiateanother round of ali twelve. completed at the end of the next phrase w:ith the arrival of A and A!, in the piano. The coordination of chromatic saturation with phrasing is not always this exact; sometimes one or more notes are saved for the next phrase, helping to create longer spans. Th.rough these means, Schoenberg sought Lo write atonal music that was as logical as tonal music. ln 1909, he completed Tlte Book of the Hanging Gardens: Three Piano Pieces. Op. 11: Five Orchestral Pieces. Op. 16: and Erwartung (Expectation), Op. 17, a mo nod.J'3ma (one -cbaJ'3cter opera)

EXAMPLE 33.1:

Chromatic saturation

Atonal works

Schoenbe,g. Saget mir. auf welchem Pfade. No. 5from The Book of the Hanging

Gardens, Op. J.'í Red boxcs indica1esct 016 u mclody orharmony,

Etwas lant,'\!am (J - ca. 66) ,_f;

I. Sa.__ -

)

'»

gel inir, :..arj wel-cl,em

f ~r

-= -

==-ha · ~de

q"1

f1~

f lf-.JF

Tel1 me. on wli ich pat/i. she stepped along toda,r

-------

heu

1e sie -.· or - O- ber

~-~

pocorit.

.===sch rei te,

......

í"'11- -

"q1' 1

1·qp-1

'5"

'=i q ....

§ -

818

C H A 1> T E R 3 3

• Rod,col Modernists

Arnold Schoenberg

ln the early twen tieth cen tury, several groups of German and Austrian painters embraced an international movement called expressionism. which also extended to literature, music, dance, theater. and architecture. Expressionism developed from the subjectivity of Romanticism but differed from it in the introspective experience it aimed to portray and how it chose to portray it. Expressionist painte rs such as Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Oskar Kokoschka, and Egon Schiele rejected traditional Western aesthetic values by

anxiety. and fear. and tormented by elemental. irrational drives including an eroticism that often had morbid overtones. That is also how the Viennese doctor Sigmund Freud. founder of psychoanalysis, described the deepest levei of mernory and emotional activity in his lnterpretation o{ Dreams (1900). ln short. expressionism sought to capture the human condftion as it was perceived in the early twentie[h century. Arnold Schoenberg and his pupil Alban Berg were two leading exponents of expressionism in music, which paralleled expressionist art by adopting a similarly desperate and revolutionary style. lts characteristics are evident in Schoenberg's Erwartung (1909). an opera in which a lone protagonist-emblematic of the artist's alienation from

representing real objects or people in grossly dis-

society ond its conventions-gives voice to what

torted ways. characterized by an intensely expressive use of pure colors and dynamic brushstrokes as in Kokoschka's poster for his own expressionist play Mõrder. Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer. Hope of Wornen, 1909) in Figure 33.2. These artists and others drew on contemporary themes involving the dark side of city life, in which people lived under extreme psychological pressure, as well as bright scenes from the circus and musichalls that rnasked a more gloorny reality. They aspired to represent inner experience, to explore the hidden world of the psyche and to render visible the stressful emotional life of the modem person-isolated. helpless in the grip of poorly understood forces, prey to inner conAict, tension,

the cornposer described as a dream of Angst. an overwhelming feeling of dread or anxiety. lts distorted melodies, fragrnented rhythrns, violently graphic musical images. and dissonant harmonies create the quasi-hysterical atmosphere typical of the style. ln none of Schoenberg's expressionist pieces. nor in Berg's opera Wozzeck. did these composers try to create music that is prett y or naturalistic (as the impressionists did); rarher, they deployed the rnost direct-even drastic-rneans. no matter now unappealing. to convey extreme and irrational states of mind. Schoenberg was also an arnateur painter and took lessons from Richard Gerstl. a young exponent of expressionisrn in Vienna, who in 1908

EXPRESSION ISM

Oskar Kokoschka, posterfor Mtirder. lloffnungder l'rauen (Murderer. Hope oflflomen).Jron• 1909. the S(lm.eyeara.s Schoen-

FIGURE 33.2:

be,g·s Erwa rtu ng. (CAAS. t-.'Y. wt1N uusruu RARLSPun., \'IÊNNA, AUSTII JA, tll fC Ll~SI NGIAfl'T Rt:$0UllCR, ~ Y)

fo r soprano. ln tbe works with orcbestr a, be fo llowed Mahler in treating instrumeots soloistically ao d in swi ftly alter.nating timbres to produce a great variety or colors. Erwartung. [he height of expressio11ism in music. uses exaggerated gestures, angular melodies, anel unrelen ting disso nance to convey tbe torlured emotions of the protagonist (see Music in Contexl: Expressio nism ) . ln th is opera, Schoenb erg pushed nonrepetition to an extr em e: th e work is not only atonal, it has no the mes or motives th at return and lacks any refe rence to traditional forros. Tbe Jlu id. constantly changing m11~ir. ~uit~ thr. nightmarr. -l ikr. I.F.xl. Composers. however, can go only so far in avoiding repetition: Schoenberg couJd not write another piece like Erwartung without repeating bimself. lnstead , he t urned back to tradition . using motives. themes. anel long· range

FIGURE 33.3: AmoldSc/1oenberg. The Red Stare (19 I O). (c»oo, ••TISTS •roll'rs ,oc111TY 1"',s 1, N•W vo•iv VBK. VJEN'NA)

had an affair with Schoenberg's wife Mathilde and committed suicide after she returned to Schoenberg. Schoenberg's rnost irnpressive pictures. a series of ·gazes· in the form of faces . including Figure 33.3, not only emphasize the act of looking but also suggest the sarne feelings of claustrophobia and Angst as those portrayed in Erwartung. -BRH

re petition and evoki ng traditional forros and the functions of tonality in newways. EaTly stages of eh.is return can be seen in Pierrot lunaire (Moonstruck Pierrot, 1912), a cycle oftwenty - one so ngs drawn from a larger poeticcycle bythe Belgian symbolist poelAlberl Giraud . Schoenhergscored the lexl. lranslated in to German, for a woman ·s voice w it h a chamber ensem ble of 1ive per formers who play n ine differ ent iJ1struments. ln keeping witb the p1·inciple of non repelilion. lhe combination of inslruments in each movemenl is unique. Tbe voice declaims the text in 8prr.r./1.<tim1111? ("~peakingvnir.r."). apprnximMing the wri tten p itches in the gliding tones of speech, wbile following the nolated rhythm exactly-an i.nnovat ive idea tbat blends the trad itional notio ns of song and melodrama. Tbe incxact pitches cvoke an eerie a lmosphe re for Lhe

819

820

C H A 1> T E R 3 3

• R•dicol Modernists

syrn.bolisl text, in which the clown Pierrot suffers gruesome visions provoked by .a moonbeam that takes many shapes. Expressionist featurcs of lhe work aside, Schoenberg highlights many tradilio nal elements. Each thirteen-line poem has two refrain Unes in lhe pattern ABcd efAB ghijA, anel Schoen berg typically sets the repeated lines with a varianl of their original music at lhe same pitch level. crealing a sense or departure and return as in tonal music. We lind varied repetit ion ai. ali leveis, from motives and chords to themes, sections , and one enti re song: No. 7 is recas( as an instrumental epilogue at lhe end of No. 13, Enthauptung 1 Conôse ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1 (Beheading, in NAWM 172b). The cycle includes severa! traditional forms and genres, including a wahz, a serenade, a barcarolle, aod an aria over a waJking bass, reminiscent of Bach. Schoenberg called No. 8. Nacht (Night, 1 Concise ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1 NAWM 172a). a passacaglia. but it is an unusual one because the unifying motive-a rising minor third followed by a descending major 1hirdreappears in various note va lu es in ali parts, often treated in ca non. The cons tanl repetilion of this mo tive. whose contolll· in original and inverted forros resembles wings . .httingly illustrates Pierrot's ohsession with the giant moths tha1 enclose him in a frip;hteninp; trap anel s.hul out the sun. Even Enthaupttmg. wbich appears to abandon thematic development for anarcbic improvisation, unfolds by constantly varying the initial ideas to capture the images and feelings in lhe iext.

TWELVE-TONE METHOD Schoenbergstill faced a problem : with hisatonal methods, he could nol match tl1e formal coherence of tonal music and had to rely on a text to sustain pieces of any length. He found the solution in the twclvc-ton e method. He formulated what he c.alled his "method oi' composing with twelve tones that are related on ly to one another·· (rather th an to a tonic) in the early 1920s, after several years during which he puhlished no music. The basis of a twelve tome composition is a row or serfos consisting of the twelve pitch- classes of the chromatic scale arranged in an order choscn by the composer and producing a pa11icular sequence of intervals. ln composing a piece wit.h a twelvetone row. the tones of the series may be used both successively. as melody. and simu.ltaneously, as harmony or counterpoim, in any octave and wilh any desired rhythm. The row may be useel not only in its original. or prime, fonn hut also in inversion. in retrograde order (backwarel). and in retrograde ittversiou , and may appear inany ofthe twelve possible transpositions of any of the four forms. Tbe twelve -note series is often broken into segments of three, four. 01· six notes. whicb are then used as sets to create melodie motives and choreis. As a m ie, the composer states al i twelve pitches of the se ri es before going on to use lhe series in any oi' its forms again (unlcss two or more statements occur simultaneously). Stated this way, the methoel may sound a,·bitrary. But for Schoenberg, it was a systematic way 10 accomplish what he was already doing in his atonal musir.: integ1·a ting harmony anel meloely hy composi ng with a limited number of sets (here. tbose defmed hy segments of tlie row). marking off phrases and subphrases witli chromatic saturation (regulated by the appearance of ali

821

Arnold Schoenberg

twelve notes in each statement of the row) , and relyiog on deve loping varia tion. Moreover, Schoenberg recreated by analogy the structural functions of tonality. using lhe transposition of his rows as an analO!,''U C to modubtion in tonal music. After focusing on vocal works in his atonal period, he tumed to traditional instrumental forms, as if to demonstrate the power of his method to reconstitute tonal forms in a new musical language. Among Lhese works. composeel beiween 1921 and 1949, are 1:he Piano Suite, Op. 25, modelecl on the keyboard suites of Bach; Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31; Third and Fourth StringQuartets, Opp. 30 and 37; Violin Conce11o. Op. 36; and Piano Concerto, Op. 42. ln these pieces, motives and themes are presenteei and developed, using the tonal forms and geri res of Classic and Romantic music, blll twelve tone rows stand in for the keys. The Piano Suite (excerpled in KAWM 173) illustrates some of Schoen berg's methods. Throughou t the work. the row appears in only eighc forms, shown in Example 33.2a: the untransposed prime fonn (P-0); the prime transposeel up six semitones (P- 6): the ioversion in the sarne two transpositions (1- 0 and 1- 6); and their l'etrograeles (R- 0, R- 6. RI- O, and Rl- 6). Schoenberg clesigneel the row so d1at each of these bep;ins on either E or B', and ends on the other, anel all the primes and inversions have G and D!, as the second pair of notes (see orange box in Example 33 .2a). Tbe recurrence of E. m, C, and m in the sarne places creates a consistency that Schoenberg saw as an analogue to staying in a single key throughout, the normal practice in a Baroque keyboard suite. although it is much more difücult for a listener to hear. The Ílrst four notes of R- 0 give a nod to Schoenberg's model, J. S. Bach, by spelling his name: B!,-A-C-Bl; (B-A-C-H, in German nomenclature). Example 33.2b shows the rows deployed at the beginning of the Prelude (NA\X-'11 173a) . P-0 is in the right hand as meludy, divided into motives of four notes each (in red. orange, anel green circles respectively) . Twelvetone theorists cali such groups of four con,secutive notes from the row tetraclwnls , using 1he ancient Creek termina new sense (see chapter 1). lo the left hand as accompaniment we fmd P- 6, using the sarne division into tetrachoreis and presenting the last two simultaneously. Each tetrachorei is a different type of set. containing different intervals. so in featuring them Schoenberg continueel his earlier practice of composing wilh sets. There is an intervall ic canon between the two hands, reca lling Bach·s contrapun tal practice. At the enel of measure 3, 1- 6 hegins. presenting ali three tet1·a chorels simultaneously, each in its own rhythm. The las! two notes of its úrs t tetrachord overlap the statement of R-6 in measure 5, which also presents the tetrachoreis simultaneously. Here lhe left- hand textl.u·e is less contrapuntal and more like accompanjmental chords. ln the Minuet (NAW\11 173L), shown in Example 33.2c. P- 0 in lhe ftrst two measures is answered by 1-6 in the seconel two. Again both are divideel into tetrachords, with the nrst tetrachord accompanying the others. But Schoenberg starts the melody before ihe accompaniment. so that lhe lirst note of the row eloes not appP.ar nrst. anel he sometimes reorelP.rs the notes within lhetetrachords. Thus he was still composingwith motives and sets, as in bis atonal music. Again, the end of each two - measure phrase is

Piano Suite I

Conciso ~

~ t_Full~

I Contise ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1

I Conciso =-\ 1 1 Full =-\ 1

822

C H A 1> T E R 3 3

EXAMPLE 33.2,

• Rod,col Modernists

Arnold Schoenberg

Schoenberg. Piano Siiite, Op. 25

EXAMPLE 33.3,

Row forms used in Schoenberg's Fot,rth String Qu.cirtet, Op. 37

a. l!owfom1s P-0l

-R-0

•

•- R-6

11-

1,--=f>.•

&•- RI-O

b. l'rel11de

e. Minuer

'11:'º .:::f

coordinated with the end of a row, so that chromalic saturation is still helping to demarcate ph rasi ng. Developing variation is clearly at work, since the second phrase varies the first and develops its dolted rhythmic motive. AJso, there are many references 10 tonal m usic. including the meter of the dance, the foursquare phrasing, anel lhe leaeling- tone melodie gestures at the end of each two-measure ph rase. Ali the factors we saw in the atonal music are justas important here. Toe Piano Suite stays in the same "key·· th.roughout, but for a sonata form or other Classic-era form Sc.hoenberg ha·d to fmd an analogue to moelu lation. He created it in his Fourth String Quartel and many other works by devising a way to establish twelve-tone regions containing only one transposition of each row form . Example 33.3 shows th.e row fo r th.e qua r1et. Schoenberg designed it so that the lasl six notes-the second hexnchord-constitute an inverted form of the ôrst six notes, in a dif.ferent order. As a result, there is one inversion of thc row, 1- 5, whose fu-st hexachord has the same notes as the second hexachord of P-0, anel vice versa . lf lhe two rows are combined contrapuntally. by the time the nrst half of each has been stated. all twelve chromatic notes will have been heard exactly once; every other inversion would dup licate at least one note and omit at least one. This special re lation ship prompted Schoenberg to treat each tra nsposition of the prime form. its related inversion, and their retrogrades as .a tonal region analogous to a key. ln the ftrst movement of the quartel, a sonata form, the P- 0/1- 5 region serves as "tonic··-the region in which the piece begins and ends. whlch occupies the largest number of measures. and which is used for the ôrst theme in the exposition and at its final reprise in the coda. The region a ftfth higher is used for the second theme in the exposition, serving as a sort of ·'dominant" region, and the other ten transpositions are used as contrasting "keys." Thus tluough his lwelve- tone method, Schoenberg sought to re -create the forros of tonal music in an entirely new language. LATE TONAL WORKS Twelve-tone music was not Schoenberg's only scrategy for looking back at the trad ition. Some of his works from the l 930s and l 940s are to nal, and in two works he "recomposed" eighteenth-century music. by Matthias Georg Monn anel hy Handel. The~e ··arrangemen ts" high lightthe wicle ~tyli~ticgulf between Schoenberg's modernism and the tonal tradition by juxtaposing them directly. ln their own way, these works are as radical as the twelve tone music.

Twelve-tone

regions and modulatíon

823

824

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • Rod,col Modernists

SCHOENBERG AS MODERNIST We have discussed Schoenberg at much grealer length than his place in the reper1oi1'e seems to warrant. Yet he merits the space, not only because his music is complex, takes time to understand, and influenced 01hers enormously. but because the problems be chose to address as a modemist composer and the way be faced tbem did much 10 shape tbe course of musical pracrice in the twentieth century. His desire to match the achievements of his forebeaJ"S pressed rum both hacbvard-to reclaim the genres, forms, p roced tll'CS, and gestm·es of the past- and onward toward a new musical languagc. lronically, althougb bis music won bima ceotral place in the modernist tradition , it also eamed a n enduring unpopu lari ty with most listeners and a great many pe rformers, who valued lhe familiar musical language and conventions that he felt compelled to abandon. The disconnection between audiences and con noisseurs in thei r evaluation of music, evident already in the reception of Beethoven's late q:uartets, reached a new intensily with Schoenberg and many other modernists and became a principal theme of twentieth-century music. Schoenherg attracted many devo ted students. The two most notahle, Alban Berg and Anton Webern. were both na tives of Vienna and a1·e often grouped wilh Schoenberg as members of the Second Viennese School, d rawing an implicit connection to the fu-st Viennese threesome. Haydn . Mozart. and Beethoven.

Alban Berg

Albarillergaroi,nd 1910. in a ponraif, by Arnold Schoen!,erg. <••sFIGURE 33.4 :

Ton1scu1:s MUSEUM U&lt STA.DT'«-'l [NlllRIDCl!.MAN

ART LIBflA.llY)

Alban Berg (1885- 1935), shown in Figure 33.4. began studies with Schoenberg in 1904 at age nineteen. Altho ugh he adopted his teacher's atonal and twelve -tone methods, listeners found his music more approachable. He achieved much greater populu success than bis teacher. especially with his opera Wozzeck, premiered in 1925. His secret lay i.n iníusing bis post-tonal idiom not only with the forms and procedures of tonal music. as Schoenberg had done. but also with its expressive gestures, characteristic siyles, and other elements that q:u ickly conveyed meanings and feelings to his hearers. ln this respect be was a direct heir of Maltler and Strauss. Wozzeck is the outstanding example of expression ist opera. Tbe libretlo. arranged by Berg l'rom a fragmentary play by Georg Büc hn er (1813-1837) . presents the sold ier \Vozzeck as a hapless victim of his e1wironm ent, despised l,y his fello w men. forced l,y poverty to submit to a doctor's experiments. hetraye<i in ]ove. anrl driven fma lly to murder and maduess. The music is atonal, not twelve - tone. and includes Sprechstimme in some scenes. Each oF the th.ree

Albon 8erg

EXAMPLE 33.4,

Motives from Berg's Wozzeck

a. Wou:eck·s leitmottve an d cha,ra.cterisli e sei. from.Ac1 1. scen e , •

\Vozzeck

~'.1

" Jtic,4r Wír

\Vozzcck ·s sct

_-.--...

ar • me Leut!

l!=FiF ·1f=i1

b. Tcwem pian.o inAcr Ili, scene 3. with. rhytliniic partem and Wozzeck ·s sei Fast polh

\Vozzcck's ser (inverted form)

J • 160 >

:)3'9"~ o

acts has continuous music. with the changing scenes (&ve in each act) linked by orchestral interludes. Berg highlights the drama and organizes the music througb the use of leitmotives, pitch-class sets identilied with the main characters. and traditional forms that wryly comment on tbe characters and situation. Wozzeck's outburst in the lirst scene, ''Wir arme Leut!" 0-Ve poor people!), shown in Example 33.4a. is one of his leitmotives and co ntains his characteristic set. The :â.rst act includes a Baroque suite. suggesting the formality ofWozzeck's captain; a rhapsody, s uiling Wozzeck's fantaslic visions; a march and lullaLy for a scene with his common-law wife Ma1·ie anel the ir child; a passacaglia for the doctor·s constant prattling a.bout his theory: anda rondo for Marie's seduction hy a rival suitor, the Drum Majo,r, who tries repeatedly untü sbe gives in. Tbe second act, the heart of tbe drama. is a symphony in nve movcments. including a sonata form, a fantasia and fugue. a ternary slow movement. a scherzo, anda rondo. The third act comprises six mventions. each on a single idea. The mos! tradilional is the invenlion on a tbeme (seven variations and a fugue) in scene l , when Marie reads from the Bible and is consumed by guilt. ln tbe rest of the act, the inventions are more unusual. on more specinc or absu·act ideas: a note, a rhythm , a chord, a key, and a du ration. Th ese inventions reflect Wozzeck..s growing obsessions-or, in the last two. the response to the tragedy by those left behind-and they illustrate Berg's approach that combines atonal organization with allusions to tonality. ln Act lll. scene 2 (KAWM 1?4a). Marie and Wozzcck walk ai dusk on a forest path by a pond . He asks her how long they have been together and how long it will last, and s he grows anxious at his odd behavior. The vocal lines and accompaniment are atonal. angular. and dissonanl. but a1·e underpinned hy the inventio n on a single note. B. lt hegins sounding low in the contrabasses as the cm1ain rises and is passed from instrument to instrument and from one octave to another throughout the scene, hy turns sustained,

... BERG , Wot«ck

825

826

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

trilled, repeated, embellished by its chromatic neighbors, tremoloed, and flutter-tongued . When the moon rises red. the Bis sustained in ali octaves. then hammered in the tim· pani over thüty limes as Wozieck shouts .. lf not me, Marie, T IM ELIN E then no other eit her! " and slits her th roat with a kn ife. Her Radical Modern i sts c1y for help. on her highest B and lowes LB. leods lhaL note new s igni licance. Ye1 despite the nea r· co ns1a nt presence oi' MUSICAL HIST0RICAL B, the music is not "in B" or tonal io any sense; rather, the Bsounds throughoul like a lixed idea, a perfecl musical paral• 1903 Wilbur and Orville lel to Wozzeck's ftxation on revenge for Marie's inli.<lelity. Wright fly first airplane ln scene 3 (1\AWM 1:'•1b (coM;,.;;,llr~ ). Wozzeckis in a tav• 1904 Béla Bartók begins ern drin king and singing, then dances briefly with Marie's collecting peasant songs friend Margret; she sits on his lap and sings a song. bul when • 1908 Arnold Schoenberg she spies blood on bis band, Wozzeck becomes agitated and writes first atona l pieces rushes out. The scene begins with an onstage, out-of- tune tavern piano playing a wild polka. shown in Example 33.4b. • 1908 Charles lves, T/1e The music is atonal- lhe notes in the li rst two measures com Unanswered Ouestion prise the set associated wilh Wozzeck-but it instantly conveys • 1910 lgor Strovinsky. The the impression of a popula r dance tune, tb rough triadie Firebird accompaniment under a melody that moves by step and by • 1912 Schoenberg. Pierrot skip. Jus l as the singers on stage are acting their parts, so wo lunaite the atonal music is acti ng the pa11 of tona l music, and its meaning is immediately clear. The melody lays ou t the rhyth • 1913 Premiere of Stravinsky's mic theme for the scene. whicb is then obsessively reiterated T/1e Rite of Spring at various leveis of augmentation and diminuüon, so that it is • 1914 lves, General William almosl always present. By constantly repeating tbe rbythm, 800th Enters into Heaven Berg unifies the scene through dcveloping variation ;md also • 1914-18 World War 1 reveals Wozzeck's preoccupation with his guilt, which he cannot escape. When Wozzeck sings a fo lk song and Margret a • 1917 Russian Revolution brings Bolsheviks to power popular song with piano accompaniment. Berg imitates recognizable tonal styles in an atonal idiom. The almost con • • 1917- 21 Alban Berg, Wozzeck stant references to tona lity anel to familiar styles anel gemes • 1919-20 Stravinsky begins help to keep listeners engaged. while the atonality heightens neoclassical period the dramatic impact. The rest of the act is justas sharply etched with musical effects appropriate to the plot. ln scene 4, Wozzeck retu rns to the pond to dispose of the knife, throws it in. then goes after it to throw it still fanher, and drowns. The whole scene is an invention on a six-note chord, incessa ntly repeated and arpeggiated like Wozzeck's obsession with the knife. then rising and falling in parallel motion as Wozzeck drowns. The invention on a key is the last and longest imerlude between scenes, when, as Berg pul it, the composer steps in I'ro nt oi' the curtain and comme nts on lhe tragedy we have witnessed. lt sounds at times like a Mahler slow moveme nt in D minor, especiaJly at the beginnfog and end. But it is entirely organized hy atonal principies. in a masterly demonslration of Berg's ability to touch the hearts of his listeners with fam iliar gestu res anel sounds while speaking in an atonal language. The fmal scene. the invention on a dmation. is heart -rending in its simplicity. A constantly flowing eighth-note pulse signals that life wi ll go on despite th e eleaths of Marie and Wozzeck. As chi ldren

Alb•n 8erg

827

sing ring-around-the-rosy and Marie's child rides his hobby horse, older children rusb in and shout tbat his mother is dead. Ali run to see the body: the boy. no t understanding. keeps playing and singing, notices heis alone, then rnns after • 1921-23 Schoenberg writes the others, leavi ng au empty stage. Íirst twelve-tone work, Piano Soon after Wozzeck was premiered. Bergadopted twelve-lone Suite, Op. 25 methocls. luming them to his own en<ls. He often chose rows • 1927-28 Anton Webern, that alloweel for tona l-sounding cho rcls anel chord progresSymphony, Op 21 sions. connecting the new style with the past and investing bis music with immecliate emotional impact, His chiei' twelve-tone • 1929 New York stock market crash begins Great Depression works are his Lyric Stúte for string quartel (1925-26), his Violin Concerto (1935). anda second opera, Lulu (1928-35). whose • 1930 Stravinsky. Sympl1011y of orchestralion was not quite complete when he died. Psalms Berg designed the row of the Violin Concerto with four • 1933 Hitler comes to power in interlocking minor anel majo1· triaels, mairked with square Germany brackets in Example 33.Sa. which permits frequent references • 1933 Schoenberg flees to tona! chords while using twelve-tone procedures. The piece Germany, emigrates to the in.cludes evocations oi' a violio tuning ils opeu stúngs (using United States no tes l. 3, 5. and 7 of the row). tonal cbord progressions, Viennese waltzes. a foli{ song, anda Bach choralc. The last • 1936 Bartók. Music for Strings. of these, Es ist genug (il is enough), which ends Bach's CanPercussion and Ce/esta tata No. 60, alludes to the death of Manon Gropius, to whose • 1938 Germany absorbs memory the concerto is dedicated: she was the daughter of Austria Berg's close friend Alma Mahler (widow of Gustav Mahler) • 1939- 45 World War li and die<l at eighteen of polio. As shown in Example 33.5b, the chorale melody begins with three rising whole steps. like • 1939 Stravinsky emigrates to thc last four notes of Berg's row. and Baclú harmonization the United States higblights chords that cao be derived from the row. Thus tbe • 1940 Bartók emigrates to the quotation of the chorale is not something foreign. but stems United States directly from the row itse!I. • 1950s Stravinsky takes up Berg's concerto can he understood on Ürst hearing by serialism anyone familiar with tonal music, yet its structure is wholly derennined by twelve- tone proce<lures. Berg un<lerstood that because twelve - tone music was unfamiliar. it could be incomprehensible to the listener, yet it also bad lhe capacily to imitate any style or emotional gesture, justas ao actor may play any role. Thus his EXAMPLE 33.5, :i.

Berg's row

Row from Berg's Violin, Concerto and Bach 's Es ist genug b. Bach's chor:'lleseuiog

lt is enough!

828

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • Rod,col Modernists

music accommodates innovation with the past, reworking the music's inner stmcture justas radically as in Schoenherg's music but keeping more of the familiar on lhe surfacc of lhe music.

Anton Webern Anton Webern (1883-1945), sbown in Figu re 33.5. began lessons with Schoenberg in 1904. at the sarne time as Berg. Hc was already sludying musi • coloror uncler Guido Acller at tbe University of Vienna, where he received a Ph.D. in 1906 and absorbed ideas about mt1sic historythat influenced hfa own (and perhaps also Schoenberg's) development. Webern believeel that music involves the presentation of ieleas that can be Viewofmusic history expressed in no other way; that it operates according to rules of ord er based on natural law rather lhan tas te: thal greal art does what is necessary, nol arbitrary: that evo lution in art is also necessary: and tbat hlsto1y, and thus musical id ioms anel practices, can move only forward, not backwarcl. Aft.er Schoenberg had formuJated. anel Webern and Berg bad adopted, the twelvetone method, Webern arbrued in a series of lecrures published posthumously as The Path 10 the New Mtisic that twelve-wne music was the inevitable resuJt of music's evolution because it combined the most advanced approaches to pilch (using ali twelve chromatic notes). musical space Gntegrating the melodie and harmonic dimensions), anel the presentalion of musical ideas (combining Classic forros wilh polyphonic procedw·es anel unity with variety, derivingevery element from the thematic material). With bis view of history. Webern regarded each step along lhe way from lona.Lity to atonal ity to twelve-tone musicas an act of discovery, not invention. Tbis gave bim- and Scboenberg- total confidence in theü own work, despile lhe incomprehension and opposition they e ncounte1·ecl from performers and listeners. \Vehern's concept of the composer as an artist expressing new ideas, yet also as a researcher maki11g new cliscoveries, sprang from his training in musicology. anel it became enormously influential in the mid - to -late- twentieth century. The contras! lo lhe se rvant- arlisan composer of the Etfteenth to eighteenth centuries, or the nineteenthcentmy composer working to satisfy the public taste. is huge-and very complirnentary to composers. Webern, like Schoenberg and Berg. passed through the stages of late Romantic chromaticism. atonality. and twelve - tone organization, the last beginning in 1925 with lhe three songs of Op. 17. His works. about equalJy divided between instrumental and vocal. are FIGURE 33.5, Anton Webem jr, 1908. in (l mostly for small chamber ensembles. portroit by Ma:rOppenlieimer. (,•o• -nu- uunT\Vebern was at hearl a Romantic who sought to M USt! UM, \llUPl'[ !IT.,U,. c; r,u.tANY. l•HO'l'O: t ll l (;H U .SSINCf Afl T R.ESOUflC t:. NY) write deep ly expressive music. Yet beca use he believed

Anton Webern

great art should do only what is necessary, bis music is ex tremely concentrated. When writing his Six Bagatelles for String Quartel, Op. 9 (1911-13), he remarked thal once he had incorporated ali twelve notes. he often felt lhat lhe piece was f1nished. Another a to nal work, No. 4 of his Five Pieces for Orchestra, Op. l O, runs to only si.X me.asures, and the last of his Three Little Pieces for Cello anel Piano. Op. 11. to just lwenty notes. Even larger works. like the Symphony. Op. 2 1 ( 1927- 28), anel the String Quartet. Op. 28 (1936- 38) , are only eight or nin e minutes long, and bis entire matu re output takes less than four hours to play. Textures are stripped to lhe bare essentials; bis music has some times been described as pointillistic. since it often features only one to three o r four notes at once or io the same instrn ment in succession. The dynamics, specifted down to the ftnest gradations, seldom rise above forte. Perhaps iniluenced by bis musicological studiesfor his elissertation he editeel volume 2 of Henricus lsaac's ChoraUs Constantintts-he often used techniques of Renaissa nce po lyp hony, inc luding canons in inversion or retrograde. Unlike Berg, he avoided using seis or rows with tonal implications. Toe first movement of the Symphony, Op. 21 (NAWM 175), illustrates Webern's use of twelve-tone procedures, caoons, instrumentation, and fonn. The entire movement is a double canon in inversion, Example 33.6 shows the beginning. with canon I in the top two staves anel canon 2 in the bottom two staves. lnstead of highl ighting the canonic lines by setting each as a conlinuous melody in a distinctive timbre anel range. Webern deliberately integrates them. Each line is filled with rests. changes timbre frequently. and weaves back and forth thro ugh the sarne thre e-octave ra oge. The succession of timbres is as much part of the melody as are the pitches and rhythms, and the changes of instrument in thc leadingvoice of each canoa are echoed in the followingvoice. Here\Vebern applies Scboenberg's concepi o!'Kla11gfarlum m.e/,odie (tone-co.l ormelody), in wh ich cha11gesof toneco lorareperceived as parallel to changing pitches in a melody. The douhle canon is nestled within a r einlerpre ta tion of sonata form , showing Webern's integration of Classic formal principies with procedures from Renaissance polyphony. The expos ition contai.ns noc two contrasting themes. but a contrast of character between canon I and canon 2. After the exposition repeats exactly, the development is a palindrome, anel lhe reca· pih1lation presents the sarne succession of rows as the exposition. but in new rhythms and registers. The development and recapitulation then repeat. as in an early Classic symphony. Thus lhrough an.alog)', Webern recreales the tonal structure of a Classic symphonic fi.rst movement in twelve- tone terms. Like Schoenberg·s twelve-tone analogies to tonal stmcture, Webero's is beyond the capacity of most listeners. \Vhat can be heard more rearlily is the exact rep· ctitioo oi' each halJ of the movcmcnt; given lhe origins oi' twelve - lone music in the principie of nonrepetition and developing variation, such deli berace repetition makes a strong reference to the forms of the past. Although Webern received little acclaim during his lil'etime and has never gainerl wine popularity. recognition of his work among scholars anel com posers grew steadily after World War II. His systematic approach to composition, bis l'ocus on structure and unily, the distinctive sound of Jus music, anel his unwiJlingness 10 compromise for the sa.ke of popular appea l macle

829

8_y,nphony, Op. 21 r::-:::-, ~

lnfluence

830

EXAMPLE 33.6,

A 1> T

ER 33 •

R•dicol M odernists

lgor Stravin:s~y

Dottble canon at the opening of Jl'/ebem·s Symphony, Op. 21

íil

lle

r-0 ll n. 111 1

: 'P

___,..:'

Cl. 5

H,.,,.!,

11:. l~

---

- -

p 1.g

)

.-cr =K:l~(;I .

J lla,·p,~6

~i ---

;

71p

Vn. f S

L-

)farp, 6

-~-

. ,.

911e p

mp=-

)iu!"'

12 (2)

-===

q,:,. 10

H ar~º;~~1~rs wilh.~·ti)

~.,;

Hn. 11 9

Vi•.,\ ~ '

Cl. (5)

-==~l,/2=-

llo, I arco

v,•. 9_

~ 8 7

,~•. 11~1

(~)

_ ,:,.

17'!.

• lle

li.---...J_I (1)

<> , -c_c

'P .,

)

li,.

:an:o - - - = :

P-< llarp!I¾

piu,,

,,,.,,

1·0 Hu. lL!

... ,

ll n. 11(3) OJ)cnH~

õluppetl m,p

IGOR STRAVINSKY (1882-1971)

~;,-

ft- = Vn. 1(5)

(6J).!'

q~ ·--mp ~mo

1p11.zp

(o\'erlups \\Ílh 1•7 )

(3)

11•,p\,! lll 1 12 (2) Hn. l ~ n :-

.....

"'1'. stopp,d

his music seem pure, individual. and fresh ata time when many orher styles we1·e tainted by political associations. His music had an abiding influence on some composers in Germany, france, Italy, and the United States, especially in t he ftrst two decades after the war.

lgor Stravinsky White Schoenherg. Berg. and Webern worked inside lheAustro -German lra dition, lgor Stravinsky (1882-1971; see biography and Figure 33.6) started as 3 Russian nationalist and became a cosmopolitan- and argua bly the most important composer of his time. He created an individual voice by devel oping severa! style lra i ts. mosl <le rived from R11ssi11n t radilions. i n l.o his

dislinctive trademarks: u11dermining meter thrnugh unpredictable accems and rests or through rapid changes of meter; frequen t osti.natos; layering a.nd juxtaposition of slalic blocks of sound: discontin uity and interruption;

Stravinsky participa ted in most riety, and beca use he per forme d tirelessly, first as a pianist and significant trends in modern then as a conductor, Stravinsky music during his lifetime, wrote was well known in 1920s Europe some of the most success fui and endunng music of the twentieth and America. He continued to century, and had an enormous work with the Ballets Russes but also wrote abstract instrumental inffuence on four generations of works. One of his favorite col· composers. laborators was the choreographer Stravinsky was born in Orianenbaum, near St. Petersburg George Balanchine, who later founded the New York City in Russia. to a well-to·do musical family. He began piano lessons Ballet. at age nine and studied music Catherine died in Ma rch theory in his later teens but never FIGURE 33.6 : Photograph of 1939. ln September. just weeks attended the Conservarory. His lgor Srravinsky in Paris in May after the outbreak of World War mos t important teacher was 1913, tliernonthoftl1eprerni-ere 11,Stravinskymoved to the United States. ln March 1940, he married Rimsky-Korsakov, with whom he o/The Rite of Spring. (n111.To<· Vera Sudeikin. with whom he had studied composition and orches- o,UTscu coLLECTtoN1co1U11s) tration privately. ln 1906, Stravinbeen having an affair since the sky married his cousin Catherine Nosenko. with early 1920s. He settled in Hollywood, not far from whom he had four children. Schoenberg and Rachmaninoff. and wrote severa! pieces that referred to American styles, such as Stravinsky demonstrated his command of his the Ebony Concerto for the jazz clarinetist Woody teacher's rich, colorful style in Scherzo fantastique and Fireworks. After hearing these two pieces in Herman and his band. His last major neoclas· sical work was the opera The Rake's Progress. 1909, the impresario Sergei Diaghilev commis· premiered in Venice in 1951. sioned Stravinsky to compose for his company the Ballets Russes (Russ,an Ballet). a hotbed of ln 1948 Stravinsky met Robert Craft. who artistic innovation in Paris from 1909 to 1929. For became his assistant Craft was enthusiastic Diaghilev. Stravinsky wrote the ballets that made abou t the twelve-tone music of Schoenberg him famous and that are still his most popular and Webern. By the mid-1950s, Stravinsky had absorbed twelve -tone methods in to his works: The Firebird. Petrushka, and The Rite o{ Spring. He collaborated on them with choreogra· own idiom. Most of his late works are serial and phers Mikhail Fokine, founder of the modem balmany are religious, from Canticum sacrum in let style. and Vaclav Nijinsky, one of the greatest 1955 through the Requiem Canticles in 1965-66. dancers of the early twentieth century. Stravinsky and his wife moved to New York in Stravinsky moved to Paris in 1911, then to 1969. He died there two years later and was Switzerland ,n 1914. Six years later. after becom· buried in Venice. lng stranded in the West by World War I and the MAJOR WORKS : The Firebird. Pecrushka. The Rite of 1917 Russian Revolution, he returned to France. Sprin9. L'hiscoire du soldat. Symphonies of Wind lnscruhaving already begun to compose in the neoclasments. Les noces, Octet for W ind lnstruments, Oed1pus sical idiom that would characterize his music for the rt:X, Symphony o/ P,alnu, Syrnphony in e. Syrnphony in next three decades. The commotion at the Rite o{ Three Movements. The Rakes Progress. A9on. Requiem Spring premiere bestowed on him a delicious notoCant1c/es

831

832

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

disso11ance based on diato11ic , octatouic, a11d od1er collections; and dry, antilyrical. hut colorfuJ use of instrumen ts . He forged these tra its during hjs "Russian" period (to about 19 18) and uscel them again in his !ater periods. Through Stravinsky, elemenls of Russian music became pa rt of a common international modern ist p ractice.

RUSSIAN PERIOD

The Firebird

Petrushka

Stravinsky wrole Jus most popular works ea1·ly in his career: 1.he baileis The Firebird (1910). Petrushka (1910- 11), anel The Rite ofSpring (Lesacreduprintem.ps. 191 1- 13). ali commissioneel by Sergei Diaghile·v for lhe Baileis Russes in IPa ris. The Firebird, based on Russian folk tales. stems J'rom the Russian nalional ist tradition anel especially from lhe exolicism of Rimsky-Korsakov. Throughou t, humans a1·echaracterized byeliaton ic music, wh ile si,pernatural creatures and places are cast in oclatonic or chr omatic realms. fo llowing Rimsky's standard practice. ín Petrushka, Stravinsky int.rocluced severa] of the stylistic traits tba1 beca.me closely identi ned with him. The opening scene of the ballet dep icts a fair in St. Petersburg d uring the fmal week of carruval scason. Herc we J'md Snavinsky's characteristic blocks of static harmony with repetitive melodie and rhythmic patterns as well as abrupt shHts from one block to another. Each group of dancers receives its clistinctive music: a band of tipsy revelers. an organ grinder wilh a dancer, a music-box player with another dat:icer, the puppet thearer where Petrus hka sta rs. Seemingly unconnected mLtsicaJ evenls interrnpt each otbe r without trans ition and then just as suddenly return. creating a sharp juxtaposition of diverse textures 1ha1 has been compareci to cubism (see chapter 31 and Figure 31.7). The interru ption and juxtaposition of bl.ocks, which Stravinsky absorbed from the Russian practice of Musorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov. is here linked to the visual juxta posilions of ballet. Stravinsky enha n cecl the Russian a nel popular carnival atmosphere throughout the baJJet by borrowing and elaborating severa] Russian folk tunes. a popular French song. and Viennese waltzes. Rather than smoothing out these bor rowings, Stravinsky preserved their coutexts, heightening thc clifferences betwee n their styles to make each block of sound as d istinctive as possible. The passage in E.xample 33.7. which accompanies the drunken menymakers. is baseei on a folk song from Rinisky-Korsakov's 1877 collection of craclitional

EXAMPLE 33.7:

Pa.ssage Jrom Stravinsky 's Petrushka based on RussianJolk song

lgor Stravin:s~y

EXAMPLE 33.8,

833

"Petrushka" chord. with octaton.ic scaleJrorn which it derives

wr!- - flL ~~~--l1ci..,c1,. , &·o r - -3 ~

:::::=::--:---.

songs. BuLStravinsky avoicls the dominani- tonic harmony of Rimsky's version: instead, he places the melody in the bass anel simulates folk harmo ny, in which voices sing in parallel úfths and octaves. often againsl drunes. ln con· trasLio the cüa1onic folk songs, Stravins1.-y uses oclatonic music for the supernatu ral , but the harmony is now more biting than in The Firebird. The puppet Petrushka. who has been brought to life by a magician, is characterizecl in the famous "Petrushka cho rd" that combines F; - and C- major triads. both part of tbe sarne octatooic scale, as shown lo Examp le 33.8. Stravinsk..y's distinctive style crystall ized in The Rite of Spring. The subject The Rite of was still Russi.an. but now it was an imagine d fertility ritual set in prehistoric Spring Russia , during which an aclolescent girl is chosen for sacrüice and must dance herself to de~th. Although Stravinsky aga in borrowed folk melod ies. the scenaJ"io. choreography, and music were m.arked by primitivism. a deliberate representation of the elemental, crude, and uncultureel, anel cast asiele the sophistication anel stylish ness of modem life and trained artistry. Fi(,'1.lre 33.7 shows one of the costumes from the original production. The audience at the premiere was shocked, b1·caking out in a notorious riot (see Source Read ing. p. 834). La.ter, the piece beca.me one of the most frequently performed compositions of its time. The characteristics of Stravinsky's ma lllre i<liom can be hea rd in the n rst scene, Danse des adolescentes (Dance of the Aclolescent Girls. NA\VM 176a lc-.., ;,,1[fVfü:). whose opening measures ue shown in Example 33. 9 (see p. 835). Despite the regular barring. each pulse in the lirst two mea suses is played with the same strength, negating the hforarchy of beats anel offbeats that is essentiaJ to meter. Then accented choreis, doubled by eighthorns, create an Llllprecüctalile pattern of stresses that elestroy any feeling of metrica l regularity. Yet wbile the listener is utterly disorientecl metrically and rhythlnically, the music is cleverly conceived for ballet; the passage makes an eight- measure periocl. anel the dancers can count four-measure phrases. This reduction of meter to mere puJsation was tbe element that most strongly conveyed a se nse oi' prirnitivism in the music. ln the fina] dance of the ballet, the Danse sacra/e (Sac1incia l Dance, NAWM l 76h ~ ). Stravinsl..-y FIGURE 33 _7 Cosiurne skercl, br Ni.kolC1i aclopteel two aclditional strategies that reduce meter to pulse: Roelic/1 ofa peC1sant gid ji-o,n the origirapidly changing meters. anel unpredictalile alternalion of notes na! productio,i ofStr(lvínskfs The Rite with r eM~. or Spring. (Ct ~TRAL 1' 11l!AT RICAL M US<UM . The entire passage in Example 33.9 is built from ostinatos. >1oscow. ""''IA· Puoro, ..,cu c•••••c,,.,., including pounded or arpeggiated chords and tbe melodie RL<ounc, , NYl

834

C H A 1>T E R 3 3

• R•dicol Modernists

EXAMPLE 33.9,

835

lgor Stravinsky

Opening of Danse des adolescentes ,froniSiraYinsky's The Rite of' Spring

r\ ,. <lowr'tbow

Tempo gi uslo J • 50

THE PREMIERE O F THE RITE OF SPRING The fi rst performance of lgor Stravinsky"s The Rice o/ Spring on May 29. 1913. was greeted by a riot. As he told the story almost half a century later, he was as shocked by the audience's reaction as some listen· ers were by the spectacle. lt was the choreography, lar more than the musíc, that provoked the audience. and ever since the piece has usually been performed in concert rather than as a ballet.

-~That the first performance of Le Sacre du pri11· temps was attended by a scandal must be known to everybody. Strange as it may seem, however, 1 was unprepared for the explosion myself. The reactions of the musícians who carne to the orchestra rehearsals were wíthout intirnation of ít and the stage spectacle did not appear likely to precipitate a riot. .. . Mild protests against the rnusíc cou ld be heard from the very beginning of the perfor· rnance. Then. when the curtain opened on the group of knock-kneed and long-braided Lolitas jumping up and down [Oanses des adolescentes],

La.yering

Discontinuity and connection.

Dissonance

the storm broke. C ries of "Ta gueule" ("Shut up!") carne frorn behind me. 1 heard Florent Schmitt shout "Taisez-vous garces du seizierne· ["Be quiet, you bitches of the sixteenth "); the "garces" of the sixteenth arrondissernent (the most fashíonable residential district of Paris] were, of course, the most elegant ladíes ín Paris. The uproar continued. however. and a few minutes later I left the hall ín a rage; 1was sittíng on the right near the orchestra. and I remember slamming the doar. 1have never again been that

Vc. & Cb.

ongry. Thc mu,íe wo, ,o fomilior to me; 1lovcd it.

and I could not understand why people who had not yet heard it wanted to 1protest in advance. 1 arrived in a fury backstage. where I saw Diaghilev Ricking the house lights in a last effort to quiet the hall. For the rest of 1he performance I stood in the wings behind Nijinsky holding the taíls of his f,ac. while he stood on a chaír shouting numbers 10 the dancers, like a coxswain. From lgor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Exposirions and Deve/opments (New York: Doubleday, 1962), 159-64.

ostinato in the English horn. Stravinsk-y uses these repeating figures to create static blocks of sound. which he juxtaposes. Here one block is replaced by another, then re turns. Withi n each block, and indeed throughout the piece, there is 11 0 develop ment of motives or themes as traditionally under· stood, but rather repetition and unpredictable variation. Often Stravinsky huilds up textures by layering rwo or more independe u! strauds of music on top oi' each other. The material at measure 9 is composed of tbree layers distinguisbed by timbre and nguration. with the top line also set offhy register and pitch collection. Iu typical Stravinsky fashion, thc paltcrns witb.iJ1 successivc blocks are quite different, creati ng discontinuity. Yetthe collection of pitches beingused differs by only one new note (e), lending a strong sense of continuiry. Stravinsky plays off lhe obvious surface disconlinuities of lús music wilh more suh tle connections. snmewhat li ke Mozart di d when he jninecl a varied series of topics by usingharmony and form (see chapter 23). Most dissonance in Stravinsky's music is based on the scales used in

Vc.& Cb. • 3rço Russian classical music, such as rhe diatonic and octatonic colleclions. Here the dissonant chords in measu res 1-8 combine an F1,-major triad in the lower strings with a nrst -inversion dominant seventb chord on E~ in the upper stri ngs to produce a sonoriry that has all seven notes of the AI, hannonic minor scale. Stravinsky often identined a musical idea with a particular timbre. Here the pou nding chords are always in the strings with horn reinforcements, and Lhe English horn ostinalo recurs only in that inslrumenl lhrougbout the ü rst ha lf ofthe dance. ln the second half, it migrates through several other instruments. (n music without motivic development, such changes of' timbre are one means lo provide variety. a technique Stravinsky learned from Gli nka and fü msk-y· Ko rsa knv. Stravinsky's preference for dry ra1her than lush or resonanl timbres is reflected in his use of instmments. Here th is sound is evident in the staccato

Timbre lin ked wilh motive an.d variation

Stark timbres

836

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • Rod,col Modernists

FIGURE 33.8 , Til/e puge designed óy Pic(J.SSO forStravinsky's piano amrngemerit o[Ragtime. origin ally for eleven in-simmenis.V1MO«<nN<NC11 COJ.LECTJONnJ:l&ART ARCUJVEAT ART RESOURCE', SY)

string chords, which are aJJ played with a down-bow to create even emphasis and natural separations; in the pizzicato cellos; and in the staccato English horn and bassoons. Having deve loped rhese techniques, Stravinsky continued to use lhem throughout his caree r. Dtu-ing World War 1, thew;u1imeeconomy fo rced hiro to turnaway from the large orchestra ofhis early bal lets toward small combinations of instruments to accompany stage works. For L'hisloire d1Holdat (Toe Soldier's Tale. 1918). he called fo r six solo instruments in pairs ( violin and double bass, clarinetand bassoon, cornetand trombone) and one per cussionist to play interludes in a spoken narration and dialogue. ln themarches. tango, waltz, and ragtimemovements of L'histoi.re, anel in Rogtim.e (1917-18), showu iu Fib,ure 33.8. Stravinsky discovered ways to imitale famil iar styles whiJe using the devices that had become his trademarks. Stranded io wesLeru Europe by the war and then by the Bolshevik R.evolution in his home country, he began to move away from Russian topics while rctaining lhe dislinclive traits that stemmed largely from his Russ\an tra ining.

NEOCLASSICAL PERIOD

Usesof neoclassicism

ln 1919, Diaghilev asked Stravinsk-y to orchestrate pieces by the eighteenthcentury composer Pergolesi (including music erroneously attributed to him) to accompany a new ballet, Ptdcinella. Stravinsky applied bis distinctive s tylistic traits to the music, reworking a number of pieces so that they retained the original music faithlully yet sounded more like Stravinsky than Pergolesi. He !ater spoke of this experience as his "discovery of the past, the epiphany tbrough which the whole of my late work became possible." h1 the sarne year of 1920, be completed the Symphonies of Wind Instruments. which applied the methods distilled in The Rite ofSpring to an entirely abstract composition. Thus was lauucbed a new stage io Straviosky's career, bis oeoclassical period. Although he was nol the ftrst to compose neoclassical music (see chapter 32) . Stravinsky was the most prominent composer of the neoclassical movemenl. His neoclassical period, from 1919 to 1951, marks a tum away from Russian fo lk music and toward ear!ier Western a1i musicas a sou rce for imitation. quotation. or allusion. This step was useful to Stravinsky because the fashion in westem Europe for Russian nationalism was begiuning to fade. in pa1i because the poli ti.cal and culrural ties between France and Russia had dissolved after tbe Bolshevik Revolution. ln technical te rms , imitating anel a]Judin g to music in the classical lradition was hardly differenl from what he had been doing ali along in making use of folk and popular materia is. so neoclaMicism in effect gave him new subject matter without requiring him to retool completely. Neoclassicism also addressed the dilemma of establishing a place in the crowded classical reperto ire. Stravinsky had already solved the problem of creating

lgor Stravinsky

an individual style. He now used his distinctive idiom. forged in 1he Russian traditions. to establish fresh links to the \Vestem classical tradition , justas Schoenberg used his modernist twelvc - tone procedures to resurrecl the forms and genres of the classical past. Yet even as Stravinsky became thoroughly cos mopoliran, he always remained something of an outsider, and instead of Schoenberg·s expressionism. we fmd in Stravinsky's music an emotional derachme nt. Thus his neoclassical musicadoptsananti- Roma ntic tone, reflecting a p1·eference for balance, cooluess, objectivity, anel absolute (as opposed to program) music. ln his neoclassical works. Stravinsk-y borrowed from or alluded Lo a wide range of composers, styles, forms, and gemes. Many pieces recall the Classic era, includ ing the Piano Sonata (1921) , Sympho ny in C (1939-40) , Symphony in Three Movements ( 1942- 45), and The Rake·s Progress (1947- 51). modeled on Mozart's comic operas and with a libretto based on a series of engravings by t he eighteenth -centwy English artist Wil.liam Hogarth. But some works use other sources: Bach's concertos in the Concerto for Piano and Winds (1923- 24) and Dumbarton Oaks Concerto (1937- 38), Rossini and Glinka in the opera Mavra ( 1921-22), Tchaikovsky in thebalJet The Pairy's Kiss (1928). and even Monteverdi and ancient Greek modes in Orpheus (1947). Often Stravinsk-y alludes to more than one style, and always he remakes the material in bis own personal idiom. The Octet for Wind lnsrruments (l 92223), for example, combines Classic-era fonns with Baroque ftguration and Bach-like counterpoint. The major triads. scales. walking basses. canons. and other eighteenth-century features are mixed wilb modem dissonances. octatonic melod ies, meter cha nges, anel inrerru ptions, so that the music rarely sounds like Classic or Baroque music. lnstead. Stravinsky uses the styles he evokes as touchstones that transfor m his own signature style in fresh ways, so that every piecehas a uni que personality. And be avoids the routines of common-practice tonality: for example. in the Octet's sonata-form ftrst movcment. the tonal motion in the exposition is not from tonic to dominanl but down a semitone (El, to D), balanced by a complemenlary motion in the recapitulation (E lo El,, with the second theme recapitulateci before tbe ftrst). Stravinsk-y's neoclassicism and its continuitywith his earlier style are both evident in his Symphony of Psalms (1930) for mixed chorus and orchestra on psalms from the Latin Vulgate Bible. Stravinsky said he used Latinbecause the ritualistic language left him free to concentnte on its phonetic qualities. but its use also refers back to the long tradition of Latin texts in Western churcb music. Bai-oque features include almos t perpetuai mo tion, sequences, frequent ostinatos (also a Stravinsky trademark), and the fully deve.loped fugue of the second movement. Stravinsky avoids a Romantic orchestral sound and emphasizes wbat he called ao "objective" rather than emotional sound palette by omitling violins. violas. and clarinets. ln the 1irst movemem (NAWM 17:'), ex-cerpted in Examp le 33. l O, traditional elementsare rei nterpreted in newways, and Stravi nsky's personal idiom is much in evidence. At the opening in Example 33. lOa. the sense of meter is kept unstea dy by changing meters and unexpected rests. One sound hlock. an E-minor triad in full orcbestra . alternates wüh another. sixteenth-note arpeggiat ions in oboe and bassoon. Both blocks suggest traditional stylesthe ftrst recalls the staccato triads lhat open Beethoven's Eroi,ca, Symphony

837

Range of reference

Symphonyof Psalms

838

C H A 1> TE R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

EXAMPLE 33.10,

lgor Stravinsky

Excerpts from Strcwinskfs Symphony of Psalms

sus tained in the bass. Such assertion of a tonal cen.ter through reiteration is very different from Schoenberg's atonality. Yet this music cannot be described as tonal. since it does not follow the m ies of lraditional hannony. Music like this is 11eo1011al-the composel" is ftnding new ways LO establish a single pitch as a tona l center. ln th is as in other ways, Stravinsl-.-y is not reviving older styles but alluding to them in order lo create someLhing new. a unique combination or Lhe modern anel 1.he fam iliar. Partly because his music was baseei on tonal centers as well as on rec ognizable genres and styles, performers and audiences found Stravinsky's neoclassical works easier to play and to follow than Schoenberg's twelve tone composilions . .Both composers attracted supporters, who argued abouL music's need to adhere to tradition versus the need to frnd new methods, in an echo of lhe Brahms-Wagner disputes of the nineteenth century. ln recent decades, musicians and scholars have come to see how much in common the two composers had, especia lly in their nrnsic of the l 920s-1940s, when both sought to revivify trnd itional forms i n an entirely new and personal musical language.

a. Openi.ng

b. Ocwton ic scale

t e. Vocal ent,ro11ce Ahos

SERIAL PERIOD r.1

•

o - tlem

me - :11n.

8•••·: µ ~ · Hear "')' pr(•)'er (NJ\\V\il 126). and the second the rap id arpeggiating figures found in some

Neotonalit_y

Baroque music. such as the opening of .Bach's Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (NAWM 100)- bul their jLLxtaposilion is typical of Stravinsky. Discontinuity between the two blocks is heightened by differences nn pitch, yet both draw notes from the sarne octatonic scale as shown in Example 33.1 Ob. thereby creating continuity. At thel'irs l vocal entrance in Example 33.lOc, the melody is restricted to two pitches. E and F, suggesting a simple Cregorian chant. lt is accompanied by three layers of ostinatos sounding tbe full octatonic scale. The scoring for double - reed instruments alone e reates an unusual sound, evoking a Renaissance consort. La ter, the opening E- minor triad returns in a ri iatonic rather than octatonic context. Such altemation between these two col lections has been characteristic of Stravinsky since his early works. Althougb E is emphasized as a tonal center in ali three of these passages. it is establisherl simply thmugh asse11ion. using th1·ee rl ifforent methorls. At the beginning (Example 33. JOa). the E- minor triadis the only barmony; at the vocal entrance (Example 33.1 Oc), E is the focus of the melody, and an E- minor triad occurs on every downbeat: at the fater diatonic passage. E is

Afier Schoenberg·s death in 1951 , the twelve-tone methods he ha<l pioneered were as much a part of past history as sonata form. They were also becoming popular with younger composers. who extended the principies to series in parameters other than pilch, such as rhythm (see chapter 37). Such music based on series was no longer simply 1welve-tone, anel it became known as serial music. a term that has also been appHed retrospectivelyto Schoenberg and his students. ln part to encompass yer another hranch of the classical tradil ion, and in part to keep up with the times. Stravinsky-already in his seventies-adapted serial techniques in his music from about 1953 on. His best-known serial works include the song cycle ln memoriam Dylan Thomas (1954), which uses a series of only five notes; Threni (1957- 58). for voices and orchestra on tcxts from the Lamentations of Jeremiah; and Movenients (1958-59), for piano and orchestra. Ali of them show his characteristic idiom of juxtaposed blocks. disrupted meter, anel his other signa tw·e lraits, although the pilch content is increasingly chromatic. Stravinsky's particular genius lay in ftnding styHstic markers, derived from Russian sources yet distinctly his own, that proved so recognizable and adaptable that he could assimila teor aJJude to any style while putting his personal stamp on the music. By drawing on everything from early music to the serial music ofhis time, he claimed the enthe tradition as his own .

INFLUENCE Stravinsky's impact on other composers was in a league with that of Wagner anrl Dehussy. making him among the most influential r.omposers of all time. Througb Stravinsky, elements that had been nm1ured in Russian music (ostinatos, juxtaposition of blocks, interruption, Jack of development) and traits he had intro<lLtced (such as frequenl changes of meter. unpreclictable accents and

Sch oenberg and Stravinsky

839

840

C H A 1> T E R 3 3

• Rod,col Modernists

rests, and dry orchestration) became commonplaces of modero mus ic, used by cornposers employing many different styles. Stravinsky popularized neoclassicism. setting an example that many others imitated. His serial music was less well known, but his supporL for serialism helped it gain a strong following arnong composers and academics. His willingness to change styles encouraged others to do lhe sarne. though few if any matched his ability to project a single pem·sonaHty in any s tyle he adop1ed . His writings were also important, i ncluding his Poetics of Music and a series of conversation books wi·itten with Robe1i Craf'l belween 1959 and l 972. Por some, his pronouncements on music had tbe elfect of words anel ideas handed down from an oracle.

BÉLA BARTÓK (1881-1945)

Bart6k wa s a virtuoso pianist, born in 1910 . ln 1923, he divorced Márta anel married Oitta Pásztory. piano teacher. anel ethnomusicologist, anel is renowned as one of who gave birth to a second son the next year. the leading composers of the early twentiethcentury. ln 1934, Bart6k left the AcadBart6k was bom in the Austroemy of Music and moved to a fullHungarian Empire, ín a small Hun time position as ethnomusicologist garian city now in Romania. His atthe Academy of Sciences, where he joined Zol tán Kodály and othparents were teachers and amateur ers in preparing a criticai edition musicíans, anel he took piano lesof Hungarian folk music. His comsons from age Íive and composed from age nine. He studied piano positions over the next five years. and composition at the Hungarincluding the last two string quarian Royal Academy of Music in FIGUR E 33 _9, Bél0, 8ar1ók in tets anel /vlusic for Strings, PercusBudapest, rerurning there in 1907 1936_<••-rruAs•,co• ..s> sion and Celesca, marked the high to teach piano. As a virtuoso point of his career. Yet the rise of pianist, he performed all over Europe and edited the Nazis in Germany anel their 1938 takeover of keyboard music of Bach, Scarlatti, Haydn, Mozart, Austria brought the threat oí fascism in Hungary. Bartók arranged to send his manuscrípts to the Beethoven, and others. ln 1904. Bartók overheard the singing oí United States, then followed with hís famíly in a woman from Transylvania (a region then in 1940, settling in New York. His last years were difHungary and now in Romania), which sparked a Íícult financíally and physically. Friends procured lifelong interest in folk music of Hungary, Romajobs and commissions for hím, sometimes without nia , and nearby lands. He collected thousands his knowledge, but he was already suffering from of songs anel dances, edited them in collections, leukemia, whích took his liíe in 1945. and wrote books anel ar ti eles about folk music. He MAJOR WORKS: 8/uebeard's Case/e, The Miraculou, arranged many folk tunes. wrote pieces based on Mandarin. Dance Suite, Concerto for Orchestra. Music them, and borrowed elements from various folk for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, 3 piano concertos, 2

trrirlitinn" fnr 11"P in hi,; cnncPrt m 1tc.ic1n

1909, Bartók married his student Márta

Ziegler, who assisted him in his work. Their son was

841

Bélo Bortók

viulin c..u11<..t:tlo::,, 6 ::,l1il1y 4

ua1tt:l:,,,

2 viuli11 !iUlldl~. 1 JJid11u

sonata. Mikrokosmos. numerous other works for piano. songs. chorai works. and lolk song arrangements

Bé la Bartók Modernists other thanStravinsl..-y found elements in their own national music that a ll owed them to create a distinctive voice wh il e contini1i ng the dassical tradition. Two of the mosl signiftcanl. the Hunga.rian Béla Bartók and the American Charles lves, d id so in pa ri by payinga1te ntion to mus ical tradi tio ns anel qualities that had been ignored or d isclained. Béla Bartók (l 881-1945; see biograpby and Figw-e 33.9) created an incüvidual modernis Lidiom by synthesizing elements of Hungarian, Romania.n, Slovak, and Bulgarian peasant music w ith elem ents of t he Germa n anel French classical tradition. He arrived at this synthesis only after thorough grounding in both traditions and expostt1·e to severa} modern trends. Born in the Aus tro -Hungarian Empire and trained as a pianist, Bartók started composi ng ata young age , prog,·essing from s hort character pieces to longer wo rks modeled on lhe music of Bach. Mozart. Beethoven. Brahms, and Liszt. Encolmters with the tone poems of Richard Strauss in 1902. with Debussy's music over the íollowing decade, and with Schoenberg's and Stravinsk.-y's works in the 19 1Os and l 920s inspired Bartók to write music that cmulated anel ultimately absorbed their idioms. Bartók's search for an innately Hungarian music led him to collect and study peasant music. often in coll aboration with fellow composer Zoltán Kodály (1882- 1967) . Bartók published nearly two thousand Hungarian. Romanian, Slovak, Croatian, Serbian, and Bulgarian song and dance tunesonly a small part of the music he had collected in expeditions ranging over central Eu.rope, Turkey, and North Africa. As shown in Figure 33.1 O. he uscd the new technology of audio recording. which p reserved the uniquc and unfamiliar cbaracteristics ol' eacb folk singer and style íar better than the nlder method of transcribing music by ea r into conventional notatio n. He then analyzed the collected specimens using techniques developed in

Classical and m.odern influerices

Peasant music

FIGURE 33.10 :

Banôk

in. 1907. reconli.n.g

Slovakianfolk s011gs on an aco11$lic CJ-lilid er m.ochine in rhe vilfoge oJZobordartizs. (11:KKt]CHT M USJ(: ~ All\1'S

PHOTO UBJVú\Y)

842

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

Bél• Bortók

PEASAN T MUSIC AND M ODERN MUSIC ln his essay The lnf/uence o{ Peasant Music on Modem Music, Bartók argued that peasant music offered com · posers a way to create a truly modern music. whether by borrowing or imitating peasant melodies or. more abstractly, absorbing elements of peasant music into one 's own p ersonal style.

~ -

At the beginning of the twentieth century there was a turning point in the his tory of modem music. The excesses of the Romanticists began to be unbearable for many. There were composers who felt: "this road does not lead us anywhere; there is no other solution but a complete break with the nineteenth century." lnvaluable help was given to this change (or let us rather call it rejuvenation) by a kind of peas· ant music unknown till then . The right type of peasant music is most var· ied and perfect in its forms. lts expressive power is amazing. and at the sarne time it is devoid of all sentimentali ty and superfluous ornamen ts. lt is simple. sometimes primitive. but never silly. lt is the ideal starting poín t for a musical renaissance, and a composer in search of new ways cannot be led by a better mas ter. What is the best way for a composer to reap the full benefits of his studies in peasant music? lt is to assimilate the idiom of peasant music so completely that he is able to forget ali about it and use it as his musical mother tongue .... The question is, what are the ways in which

peasant music is taken over and becomes transmuted into modem music? We may, for ins tance, take over a peasan t melody unchanged or only slightly varied , write an accompaniment to it and possibly some opening and concluding phrases . . . . lt is of che greatest importance that the musica l qualities of the setting should be derived from the musical qualities of the melody. from such characteristics as are contained in it openly or covertly, so that melody and ali additions create the impression of com· plctc unity.... T he frequent use of fourth-in tervals ln our old melodies suggested to us the use of fourth chords. Here again what we heard in succession we tried to build up in a simultaneous chord. Another method by which peasant music becomes transmuted into modem music is the following: the composer does not make use of a real peasant melody but invents his own imitation of such melodies .... T here is yet a third way in which the influence of peasant music can be traced in a composer's work. Neither peasant melodies nor imitations of melodies can be found in his music. but it is pervaded by the atmosphere of peasant music. ln this case we may say. he has completely absorbed the idiom of peasant music which has become his musical mother tongue. From Béla Bartók Essays. ed. Benjamin Suchoff {London: Fabe, & Faber, 1976). 340-44. ln SR 198 (7:29). pp. 1437- 41.

the new discipline of e lhnomusicology. and he edited co!leclions and wrole books and articles that estab lish ed him as t he lead ing scholar of this music . Ba1·tók argued that Hunga ,.ia n peasant music r eprese nted the nation better than the urban popular music that had long been identified as "Hungasian." This pnsit inn was pnl itir.ally r ad ir.a l ata time when H11 nga ,y was still ruir.ri hy an urban. German- speaking elite, but bis views eventuallyprevailed. Bartók felt that peasant music offered modem composers a fresh start, free from Romantic sentime ntality and bombas! (see Source Readi_ng). He

arranged many peasant nmes and created original wor ks baseei on them, and he im itated peasant melodies in som e of his themes. But most important, he drew a new vocabulary of rhythmic. melodie. and formal characteristics from peasant m usic and blendetl them with those of classical and modero m usic. Ba1i.ók nrst achieved a distinctive persona l style arou nd 1908, with com positions such as the Firsl Slring Quaslet and lhe one- acl opera Bluebeard's C<islle. coroposed in 191 1 and premiered in 1918. which combines Hungar ian folk elements wilh i nfluences from Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande. His Allegro barbara (19 11) and other piano works introduced a new approach to the piano. trcating it more as a pcrcussive ins trument than as a spinner of cantabile melodies and resonant accompaniments. His composilions from the decade after World War I show him pushing toward the limits of dissonance and tonal arnbii,'Uity. r eaching the fus thesl poinl wilh bis lwo Violin Sonatas of 1921 and 1922. Other works of this decade include the expr es sionist pantomime 'n1e Miraculou-s Mandarin. a nd the Third and F'ourth String Quartets. His ]a ter works . which seem in comparison more accessihle to a broad audience, have become the rnost widely known. including the Fifth and Si>ah Quarlets, Music for Strings, Percussion cuid Celesta (1936) , and the Concerto for Orchestra (1943). His Mikrokosmos (1926-39)-153 piano pieces in sb: books of gradeei difficulty- is a work of great pedagogical value that also summarizes Bartók's own style and presenis, in microcosm , the development of Eu ropea n music in the lirst t hird of the twentieth century.

843

Stylistic evolut.ion

BARTÓK'S SYNTHES IS ln synthesizing peasant with classica] music, Ba 1iók emphasized wha t the traditions have in common and. at the sarne time, what is most distinctive about each . ln bothtraditions, pieces 1ypically havea single pitchcenter, use diatonic and other scales. and feature melodies built from motives that are repeated and varied. Then, from the classical tr adition. Ba1iók retained its elaborate cont rapuntal and for mal procedures, such as fugue and sonata forro. From the peasant tradition. he clrew rbytbmic comp lexity anel irregular meters . common especially in Bulgarian m usic; modal scales and mixed modes: and specinc types of melodie structur e and ornamentation. By intensifyiog these distinclive qualities, Bartók wrote music that can bc simultaneously more complex in its counterpoint than Bach's and! more ornamented and rhythmically complex than his folie models. ln addition. Bartók's use of dissonance . his har mony, anel his !ove of symmell)' r esulL part.ly from mixing conce pts and materials taken from t he two traditions; for instance. his frequen t use of seconds and founhs in cbords derives both from their p r ominence in folie melodies and from the practice of his fellow modernists. His synthesis pre serves tb e integri1-y of botb traditious. He never usecl fo lk elements merely for color. nor did be compromise their individuality for smoothness, yet his musicalways r ema insgrounded in the classical traditi on . Many of lhe pieces in Mikrokosnws exemplify this synthesis. For cxample. Staccato and Lega to (NAWM 178) is like a Bach two-pa1i invention. ,-it.h canon between the hands. use of inversion and invertible counterpoint. anda tonal structure r eminiscen t of Bach. Yel the shape of the melody adapts the strncture of many Hungaria n songs. built from a s ho11 phrase that r ises an d falis

I Concise :\\ 1 1 Full :\\ 1

844

C H A 1>T E R 3 3

EXAMPLE 33.11'

• R•dicol Modernists

Bar1ôk, Mu.sic for Strings, Percussion anel Celesta

a. First mo<'emen t 1henie ~

Andante trancrnillo con,;ordino

J\ = ca . 112- 116

tritone

1 -:

b. Fim,/ cadenceoffirs1 ""º"ement tritone

•

• ' • 1O

truone poco rcul.

tJ±f,fM

n,-;,-:::::_ - - - - -- ~ tritone

lPÇb¾-q =--

tritone

e. Second moven1.ent theme ~

) = 1 38 - 1 44

iritone

P"·

trito ne

orto

d. Final cadence ofsecond mo-vement

e. Final cadence oftltird mo<'ement

J = 66 "

Xyl . t

t Pl'

T,mp.t_i,

Fou.rth move,nent t/1eme

g. Final cadence

J • 1oo

tritone

84 5

Bél• Bortók

tritone

witbin the span of a fou11h, repeats lra.nsposed upa liM1, is varie<l, an<l linaJly falls back to the tonic. Many eleme nts, from its mixtu re of el iaton ic anel chromatic motion to its ornamentalion. <lraw from both tra<litions. Mttsi-e for Strings, Percussion and Cetesta offers a fuller illusu·ation of Bartók"s synthesis and severa l characteristics of his personal style. The combination of peasanl a.nd classical elements lo create a modernisLidiom is seen in his use of neotona li1y. Each of the fou r movements esrab l ishes a 1ona l center by me1hods analogous to the moda l melodi es of folk son g an d to the chorclal mot ion an d tonic-elominant polarities of classical music. while avoielingcommon- practice barmony. The 1onal center oí the first and last movements is A. with an imponanL secondary center at Lhe tritone El,/ 0: , a post·tonal analogue to lhe convent ional dominant E. The secon d move,rnent is in C, with a similar tritone pole on fã. lhose two tones being each a minar th.i.r<l on either side of A: lhe slow third movement (NAWM 179) has the opposite arrangement, centering on FM witb C as the co mpetiug po le. Some of the p rincipa l t.bemes of the fotn· movements and all of the fmal cadences clearly b ring out this tritone relationship, as shown in Example 33.11. ln addition. the cadences evoke standa rd procedm·es in tonal music, from counterpoinl in contra,y motion (Exa.mple 33.1 1b) to a mock domfoan t-tonic ca<len ce (Examp le 33.1 1d). There are also strong similarities to peasant music. Peasant melodies often rise from and return LO the wnal center, as in the fust movement theme (Example 33.1la); cen ter arou nd a to ne, as in t he second movement th eme (Example 33.11e); or descend lo the lona! center from its uppe.- octave. as in lhe fmale CExample 33.1 1O. Here the synthesis of the two traditions to create a modernist i<liom is rich in allusions to music in both tra<litions. The themes are create<l by varying small motives, a typical proceelure both in classical music. from Bach anel Hayeln to Schoenberg and St ravinsJ...--y. and in lhe peasanl music of ceotral and soulheastern Europe. Many Hungarian tunes use s hort ph rases a nd repeat mot ives with s light variations. like the AA'BB' pattern of the nrst - movement theme (Example 33. 1l a) . while Bulgarian dance tunes typica!Jy spin oul a r hythmic-melodic motive, as in the finale·s theme (Example 33.11f). The latter is diatonic. like many classica l themes. but clearly in the Lydian mode. which is use<l in some peasant songs. Hungarian songs can mix modes. an effect Banók borrows at the end of the second- moveme nt theme (Example 33. l lc), where lhe melodie rise and falJ suggests Lyel ian, then Phrygian . mo<les. The complex for ms and contrapuntal proceelures used by Ba11ók come s trictly from lhe classicaJ tradition. The .ú.rst movement is an elaborate l'ugue, with entrances that successive ly rise an d fali around the circle of iifths in botb di.rections. meeting in a climax at the opposite pole of E!,, The second movem em is a son ata for m; the thir<l movement a moelineel arc h form (A.BCB'A') in which the ph.rases of lhe fu-sl - movemenl fugue theme are embedeled; and the nna le a ron do that inc ludes a mod i ned 1·eprise of the fugue theme. Such thematic refere nces to the lii·st movement reca i! the cyc lic symphonies of Berlioz. Schumann. Franck . and Tchaikovsky. among olhers. Each movemenl inr.l11 nes r.anon anel imit:11.io n . often in inve.rsion. The palin rlt'Omir. form of the thüd movement is foreshadowe<l in the opening xylophone solo. shown in Example 33.12, which from the midpoint at the beginning of measure 3 is idcntical going in both dircctions. Bartók was very fond of such symmctries.

Use of neotonal ity

Concise ;:,.

[jvnfil

Melodie structu.re

Form and

counterpoin.t

846

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

EXAMPLE 33.12,

Xylophone solo from opening of third movement

Peasant elements

EXAMPLE 33.13,

Ch•rles lves

secoods, a11d other characteristics o( Bartók's personal style do not detive directly from peasant music but can convey a rough, vibrant effect that suggests a source olher than art music. Rarel_y in Music for Strings. Percussion <utd Celesta does anything actually sound Hun garian or folklike . Rather, Bartók has extrapola ted e lemen ts of Hungai-ian anel other peasanl traclitions anel combineel them with elements elrawn l'rom the classical t radition to cre,1te somelh ing tmly new.

as we can see in the mirror counterpo int at the end of the .fu-st movement (Example 33.llb). Elements from traditi.onal peasant styles are aJso evident. Bulgarian dance meters fealure long and shorl beats ralher than s trong and weak beals. with the longs half again as loog as the short. ln Western notation. this translates into irregular groupi ngs of twos anel t llJ'ees, as in, f'or example, the 2 + 3 pat • tern of a paidushka. 3 + 2 + 2 of a chetvomo. or 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 of a svornato. Ba1·tók adopts this effect in the 2 + 3 + 3 pattem in the fourth movement lheme (Example 33.11 f) and, more abstractly, in lhe g-roups of twos and lhrees in the first-movement fugue theme ( Exa~ple 33. Ha). The heavily orname11teel, partly chromatic type of Serbo- Croatía11 song in Example 33.13a. whlch Bartók elescribed as parlando-rubato (speechlike, i11 free tempo). is echoeel near the begin ning of the third movemenl, shown in Example 33.13b. Melodies over drones. as in this example. are also a feature of peasant music. String glissanelos. snapped pizzicatos. percussive chords laced wilh dissonanl

Evocat-ion ()Jpeasant ornamentation in the third movement

a. Serbo ·Croatiansong

J Sto

me ml:.t - du

oe _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

b. Passage nearbegin.ningof third movement Adagio molto J • ca. ,io 1'irnp.

'PP ,, 1Vb. :l!D'.

:P._, r 181 Vlc, & Hil Cb.

,---F--· ·· 1

847

lít? _ _

BARTÓK AS MODERN IST Like his fellow moelernists, Bartók aspireel to create masterpieces like those of the classical masters he took as models, emulated their music, anel sought new methoels and materiais in order to dislinguish his music from lhat of other composers. The new elements he found were those of another tradition, the peasanl music of his anel other na1ions. Through his synthesis of both traditions, he created new works with a s trong personal identity and a rich connection to the music of the past.

Charles lves Charles lves (1874-1954: see biography and Figure 33.l l) , like Ba1iók. createel a personal moelernist idiom by synthesizing international and regional musical traelitions. lves was a iluent composer in four elistinct spheres: Ameri· can vernacular music, Protestant church music. European classical music, anel experimental music (see below). of which he was the nrst major e"-ponent. ln bis maLLu·e music, he combined elements from aJl four, using the multiplicity of styles as a 1'11etorica l clevice to convey rich musica l meanings. Ives grew up surrouneleel hy American vernacular music. from parlor songs and minstrel show tunes to the marches and cornet solos h.is father performecl as leader of the town band. ln bis leens anel his college years ai Yale. Ives wrote numerous marches anel pa rlor s011gs in the styles of the elay, including a presidential campaign song for William McKinley and a march played a l McKinley's inauguration in 1897. At Yale he also composeel pari· songs for the glee club anel stage music for fraternity shows. lves sang and heard hymns in church and at revival meetings. and he played them as a proJ'essional church organist for most of h.is teens and twenties (1888-1902). During those years, he improvised organ preludes and postlueles, anel composeel solo songs anel sacred chora] works representi11g all the styles then prominent Ln American Protestantism, from simple hymnody to tbe cultivated manner of his composition teacher at Yale, Horatio Parker. As a teenager, lves p layeel major organ works by Bach, Mendelssohn, anel con te mporary French anel American composers, along with transcriptions from sonatas and symphonies of Beethoven. Schubert. Brahms, anel other r.omposers in the classir.al traclition. With Parker. he intensitiecl his study of an music. writing exercises in counterpoint. fugue. and orcbestration anel composing in genres from an song to symphony. Ris First Symphony, which he began in his last year in college. was direcLlymocleled on Dvorák's New World

Vemacular miisic

Church music

Cla,ssical music

848

C H A 1>T E R 3 3

• Rod,col Modernisls

CHARLES IVES (1874-1954)

Like the archetypal artist in countless movies. lves worked in obscurity for most of his career but lived to be recognized as one of the most significant classical-music composers of his genera tion, lves was bom in Danbury. a small city in Connecticut where his father. George, was a bandmaster, church musician, .and music teacher. lves studied piano and o rgan, showing prod igious talent -at age fourteen he became the youngest professiona I church o rganist in the state. His father taught him theory and composition and encouraged an experi· mental approach to soun d. ln college at Yale. he took lib-

His cour tship with Harmony Twichell. whom he married in 1908, inspired a new con fidence, and the next decade brought an ou tpouring of music. induding most of the pieces that later made lves's re putation. Composing evenings and weekends. he prepared Finished copies of his less radical pleces, such as the first three symphonies and the violin sonatas. bu t published nothing and left many works in sketch or partia! score. After trying va inly for over FIGURE 33.11: C/i(lrles fves a decade to interest performers ,n Ne-w York. around 1913. and publishers in his music, lves (Ms. " · rn,c11.,11..s """' •••tns I NT11~ 11lv1,i,io s. 0 1u.-1ontMus1c was spurred in 1918 by a health WBIWIY or LUE UNIVEIISITY. crisis to ed it and self- publish rnoTo: ""·LJou> 114 Songs and his Second Piano eral arts courses and studied music theory and Sonata (Concord, Mass., 1840-60), which was accompanied by a book. Essays Before a Sonata. composition with composer, teacher. and organist Horatio Parker. While in college. lves wrote He devoted the 1920s to completing severa! large pieces. T he remaining three decades of marches and songs for h is fraternity brothers and church music for his position as organist at Centre his life saw the prem ieres and publicatio n of Church in New Haven. most of his major works. Although accuseddespite his thoro ugh musical training-of amaAfter graduating in 1898. he settled in New York. where he worked as a church o rganist. got teurism because he was a businessman. lves won a number of advoca tes among younger a job in the insurance business. and lived with fellow Yale g rad uates in an apartmen t they called composers. performers. and conductors. who "Poverty Flat." When his cantata The Celestial promoted his music. By the time of his death at age seventy-nine, he was widely regarded as the Country failed to gamer s trongly positive reviews. first to crea te a distinctly American body of art lves quit his organist position and focused on lnsurance. His firm, lves & Myrick, became one of music, and his re putation has continued to g row. the most successful agencies in the nation, as lves MAJO R WORKS: 4 symphonies. Ho/idays Symphony, pioneered the training of agents (his classes are Three Plates in New England. The UnaMwered Ouestion. one source for the modem business school) and 2 string quartets. piano trio. 4 violin sonatas. 2 piano the idea of estate planning. sonatas. obout 200 songs

As a youth, he pi·acticed drumming on the piano, devising di ssonant chords tbat woul d suggest the sound of dn1ms. ln h is teens, he wrote se,•eraJ pieces that wcre polytoual. with the melody in one key and the accompaniment in another, or wilh four imila tive voices, each in ils own key, asking ··u you can play a tun e in one key, why can't a feller, if he feels like [itl, play one in two keys? .. PolytonaJity was !ater developed independently by other composers. but lves was the ru s t to use it syste maLicalJy. After his stud i.es with Parker s harpened his craft, lves wro te numer ous short pieces whose main purpose was to try ou t new techniques. Two are excerpled in Examp le 33. l 4. Processional for chorus anel organ, sketched around 1902, is an essay in possible cbord s tructures. lves presents over a C pedal point a series of cho1·ds, each a stack of one or two intervals, gradually expanding from seconcls to thirds. l'ourths. Jifths. sixths. and sevenths and fmaJly resolving to octaves at the end of the phrase. Scherzo: AlL the Way Around EXAMPLE 33.14,

Symph ony. the scherzo fro m Beet.hove n·s Ni nth . anel the t hird mnvem en t of

Experimental

works

New iechniques in lves's experimenta! compositions

a. Organ cltords in Processional made ofstackedsimilar inteivals 6

U-

:::'

!<,

-,e,

.e,

-,&

Petíec1

Tr11one4

Pcrf'ec1

Mino,·

Major&

M.'ljor

Mí11or

Majol'&

Majo,·

4ths

& 4ths

51hs

6ths

minor61hs

6ths

71hs

mínor7ths

7ths

b ) __________ _____ ~ _____ __ l,;i

..__

,e-

-&-

Oc13\'C$

b. Clima.:,: ofAll the Way Around and Back. 1uith six rhytlimic layers

~------7------~ iJ ,i_

,,..- ------7- - - -- - ~

t É ~~

1i=

Clar. V

jJf

Ltt. Vln,

.., li

llugle

•

"" li

jJf

--.

• li

Bells

Pit1.no

,..,

Sy111phony. with elements from the fu-st movement of Schubert's Unfinished Tchaikovsky's Pathét.ique (NAWM 160). [n his exp erimentnl music , lves's typicaJ ap proach was to presen•e most of the lrad itional rules but change othe1·s to see what would happen.

849

Chorles lves

• fff ~- _J

J • j uJ HJ ~J

) t"n ~~-1 m HÍ

i--

1 :~

uJ 1

~J.---._ ~

-~--

~J HJ uJ u j J

. li

• 1 1

HÍ

_J ~ ,._

850

C H A 1> TE R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

Ch•rles lves

851

and Back (ca. 1908) for chamber ensemble is an almost perfect palLndrome, buildingup layers of dissonant ostinatos until at the climax units of two , three, J'1ve. seven. and eleven eq uai <li visions of the measure a1·e sounding simultaneously, then pl'oceeuing in retrograde. The choice of these unils was not arbitra1y; they represem the li ,·st live prime nurnbers- numbers not divisible by any other-so the attacks coincide only on the downl1eat of each measm·e. Over ali tbls, a bugle plays a l'anfare in C major. LLke many ofhis experiments, th ese pieces introduced unprecedented leveis oJ' dissonance and rhytbmic co mplex· ity. although they usually preserved the idea of a tonal center. Nonc of lves's experimental pieces was published or performed in public until long after they were written; they were essentially ways of t rying out ideas. and t hey made lves aware of new possi bilities that he could use in other , less systematic pieces for purposes of expression or representation. But one experimental work became one of Ives's best known pieces because his novel means fit the inspi red program so perfectly : '/1ie Un.answered Q1iestion ( 1908). Slowly moving strings in G major represent "the silences of the Oruids-who know, see and hear nothing,'' while over them a trnmpet poses "the peren· nial question or existence" and fou,· f!utes attempt ever more energetic and dh;.sonant answers until they give up in frustration . l eaving the question to sonnd once more. unanswerecl. The trumpet and f1ute parts are atonal. mak· ing lves one of the fust composers 10 use atonality (roughly contempora,y wir.h Schoenberg but inclependent of him) and the lirst to combine tona l and atonal layers in the sarne piece.

SYNTHESES

Cwntilative form

From 1902 on. Ives wrote only in classical geares. but he brought into his music the s tyles and sounds of lhe other lraditions he knew. Typically, he employed them to suggest extramusical rneanings. whether in a character piece or programmatic work . ln his Second Symphony. Ives used themes paraphrased from American popular songs and hymns, borrowed Lransitional passages from Bach, Brabms, and Wagner, and combined ali ofthese in a symphonic form and idiom modeled on Brahms, Dvoták. and Tchaikovsl-.")'. Tlu-ough this synthesis. h•es proclaimed the unity of his own experience as an American familiar with the vemacular, church, and classical traditions and claimed a place for distinctively Arnerican music in the symphonic rep· ertoire. Ooing so was a radical act . for although classical audiences welcomed fo[k melodies as sources for concerL works, lhey tended to regard the hymn tunes and popular songs lves used as beneath notice anel entirely out oi' p lace Íll the concert hall. [ves's Third Symphony, four violin sonatas. and First Piano Sonata all rea ture movements based on American hymn tunes. Here lves uses proceclures of thematic fragmentation and clevelopment from European sonata forms and symphonies, but reverses tl1e norma] course of events sothat the developme nt happens Jirst anel Lhe themes appear in their entirety only at lhe end. This prncedure. akin to Smetana"s structure in 1'ábor (see chapter 30) and Sihelius's teleological geuesis (see chapter 32). is called c 1wmlc11ive f o rm. ln the Second Symphony, Ives had paraphrased the American melod.ies so they would work welJ as themes instandard European forros. Hcre he resbapes lhe form

AMER ICANISM IN MUS IC Dvorák had advlsed American composers to use African American or American lndian musicas sources for a distinctively national music, and many did so. Charles lves felt that for himself, as a white New Englander, a more appropriate source was the music regularly heard and sung by people in his own reg,on, lrom hymns to popular song. No matter what sources are used. he argued. the composer must understand the music from the inside and know what lt meant to the people who heard and performed it.

his spiritual consciousness), his music will be true to itself and incidentally American, and it will be so even after it is proved that ali our lndians carne from Asia. The man "bom down to Babbitt's Corners" may find a deep appeal in the simple but acute Gospel hymns of the New Eng land "camp meetin'" of a generation or so ago . .. . lf the Yankee can reffect the fervency with which "his gospels" were sung-the fervency of ·Aunt Sarah: who scrubbed her life away for her brother's ten

lf a man finds that the cadences of an Apache war-dance come nearest to his soul-provided he has taken pains to know enough other cadences. for eclecticism is part of his du ty; sorting potatoes means a better crop next year-let him assimila te whatever he finds highest of the lndian ideal so that he can use it with the cadences, fervently, transcendentally, inevitably. fu riously, in his sym· phonies, in his operas, in his whistlings on the way to work, so that he can paint his house with them. make them a part of his prayer-book-this is ali possible and necessary, if he is confident that they have a part in his spiritual consciousness. With this assurance, his music will have everything it should of sincerity. nobility. strength, and beauty. no matter how it sounds: and if. with this. he is true to none but the highest of American ideais (that is, the ideais only that coincide with

after a fourteen-hourwork day on the farm. would hitch up and drive five miles through the mud and rain to ·prayer meetin'." her one articulate outlet for the fullness of her unselfish soul-if he can reAect the fervency of such a spirit. he may find there a local color that will do ali the world good. lf his music can but catch that spirit by being a part with itself. it will come somewhere near his idealand it will be American too-perhaps nearer so than that of the devotee of lndian or negro mel ody. ln other words, if local calor, national color, any colar. is a true pigment of the universal calor. it is a divine quality. it is a part of substance in artnot of manner.

-*-

orphans, the fervency with which this woman,

From Charles lves, Essays Be{ore a Sonata, The Majority, and Othe, Wrltlngs. ed Howard Boatwright (New York: Norton, 1970). 79-81.

so the simpleAmerican tune appears as the culmination of th e previous development, making a place for American m elody within the European tradition. \Vh.ile nol overtly programmatic. these pieces suggesl the coming together of individua l voices and the fervent spirit of hymn-singing at the camp-rneeting revivais of lves's youth. ln these works, lves is a musical nationa list, but heis also asserting the universal value ofhis count1y's music (see Source Reading) . Many of lvP.s's later pier.es al'I~ prngrammatir.. r.elehrating asper.ts of America.n life. 11iree Places in New England pl'esents orchestral pictures of the Ôrst African American regiment in lhe Civil War, a band playing ata Fourth of July picnic, anel a wa.lk by a river with h!i.s wife during their honeymoon.

Am.P.rir.11,n.prngrn.m. music

852

C H A 1> T E R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

A SymphMy: New England Holidays caprnres the sounds, events, and feelings of\Vash ington's Birthday, Decoration Day (]ater renamed Memorial Day). the Fo urth of July. and Thanksgiving. His Second Piano Sonata, titled Concord. Af(I.SS. J840-60, characte rizes in music the literary cont ributions of wrilers associated with that city and time: Emerson, Thoreau, Hawthorn e, and the Alcolls. Other works are more philosophical. such as the Fourth Symphony. an extraordina1y, complex work thal poses a.nd seeks to answer "the sea rcb ing questions of What? and \Vhy?" ln ali of lhese, lves uses references to America.n tunes or musical styles, from Stephen Foster to ragtime, to suggesl Lhe meanings he wanted to convey. ln some pieces he uses multiple tunes. layered 011 1op of each other in a musical collage or woven toge1her like a patchwork C:[Uilt, to invoke the way experiences are recalled in me mory. He also uses lechniq ues developed in his experimental music. often to rep resenl certain kinds of sounds or motions, such as exploding fireworks or misls over a ri ver. Stylistic \Vith such a wide range of styles at his command. lves frequently mixed heterogeneit)' styles- whether traditional or newly invented- within a single piece. Like Mozart's use of comrasting topics (see chapier 23) , Mahler's references to various styles, and the juxtapositions of different blocks of material in lhe music of Debussy. Scriabin. and Stravinsky. this heterogeneity of styles provided a way for lves 10 evoke a wide range of extramuskal references and also to articulate the musica l form , distinguishingeac h phr:ase, section, or passage from the next through stylistic contrast. He also used style. alongside timbre. rhythm, nguration. register. and other more traditional means. to dilferen tia te layers hearcl simultaneously, as we saw in The U11answered Question. Gf' neral Booth lves synthesized ali four traditions his music encompassed in his song Cenera.l William Booth Enters into Heapen (1914. NAWM 180). on a poem by 1 Conciso ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1 Vachel Lindsay that pictures the founder of the Salvation Army leading the poor and downtroclden into heaven. lt is an art song. but the musical con tent is drawn primarily from American vernacular mwsic. church music. and experimental music. Al the opening, shown in Example 33. 15, lves evokes Booth's bass drum through the experimental technique of piano-clrumming. using a standard rhythmic patrern of American drumrners. The vocal line is de1·ived from the hymn There Is a Fou11tain Filled with. Blood. just as Lindsay took his meter and rhythm fromAre You Waslted in. 1/te Blood?, a hymn fui] of :similar imagery. Each group of Booth's followers described in the poem receives a different musical characterization. using polytonality. novel chord structures, dissonant ostinatos, and other techniques Ives hrst explored in his ex1>erimental works. At the line "Big-voiced lassies made their banjos bang," Ives paraphrases in the piano a minstrel-show tune. Oh. Dem Golden Slippers (hy African American composer James A. Bland), a song about going to heaven whose second verse begins "Oh my ole banjo." Al the clímax of the poem. Jesus biesses the marchers, and ali are immediately transformed . Having hinted at it repeatedly, lves now presents lhe entire verse of There Is a Foti11tain Filled wilh Blood over lhe d rum pat teras i11 the piano for this moment of transformation. completing the cumu(ative form. Thus (ves comhin es the a11 -song framework with the American vernacular tradition (drum pattern and minstrel song), church music (hymn tune), and experimental techniques (piano-dn1mm ing) to convey the experience of the poem.

853

Ch•rles lves

EXAMPLE 33.15,

/ves. General \Villiam Booth Enters into Heaven

Allcgro modcrato (march time)

m.a_rcato

- ly with

p > big

bass

> drum

(Are you

washed

1 "

t.>

the

washcc.l

it~

1hc blood _

rhc

~ ;;, h,

" . ~ - - · ,'9-- ------ . y

1he L<imb?)

f,.-=

-A

IVES'S PLACE Ives was isolated as a composer. Among his contemporaries, he was influenced by the music of Strauss, Debussy, and Scriahin, but he encoun tered that of Stravinsky only late in bis career. after arriving independently at similar methods, ancl that of Schoenberg and otl1er modernists only after he had ceased to compose. Nor did they know his music; except for some early ver11acula1· and church works. most of his pieces were performed and published on ly long after he had written them . Thus his rlirect influence was fe lt mostly after World War (l, when his departures from the conventi.onal were taken as an example by postwar composers. encouraging them to experimenl and provi rling models for !\Ome novel procedures. He could justinahly he ca ll erl the founder of the experimentaJ-music tradilion in the United States that includes, among others. Hemy Cowell, Edga.rd Varêse, and John Cage. ln mosl of his works, lves was a modernist who. like Bartók. Stravinsky. and Berg.

the Lamb?

bis

854

C H A 1> TE R 3 3 • R•dicol Modernists

drew on bis own nation·s music to develop a distinctive idiom within the classic.al tradition. [n ali of these ways, his work has been of incalculable importance to younger generations of American musicians.

Composer and Audience 'l'he music of these six composers and of other modemists intensifted the split between popular and classical music that had emerged in the nineteenth cen lury. One secret of Haydn, Mozan, and Beethoven was their ahility to appeal bot.h to inexperienced listeners, who enjoyed the music's surface features on fu-sl hearing. and to well- trained connoisseurs, who could fully understand its intricacies. Modernism tipped the balance toward the latter, with music targetecl especially to those willingto study it, hear it r-epeatedly, and exp lore its rich structure and references to other music. Such works have become favorites of composers themselves, adventurous performers, academics, lheorists, and historians. The composers discussed in iliis cbapter have a central place in the canon of music, but on the whole they are more admired by critics. composers. and scholars than they are loved by audience membe1·s, who tentl to prefer their less radical contempoi-aries such as Strauss, Sihelius, and Rachmaninoff. Some of the canonic works of musical modernism still arouse disdain or incomprehension among certain performers and coacertgoers. who fmd them "too modem" even now, a centmy aftertheywere composed. On the other hancl, the dissonance, atonality, multiple layers, suclden juxtapositions. unpredictability. and startling stylistic contrasts that offended audiences generations ago are now familiar from repeated performances and recordings, and from their use in more recent music, especially music for ftlms. Bartók's Music for Strings. Percussion and Celesta turns up in The Shining, \Vebern's Five Pieces for Orchestra in The Exorcisl, and Ives's 17ie Unanswered Qt,estion in 11ie 77tiri Red Line. but a much longer list of .ólm scores use sounds and techniques pioneered by these six composers for their strong emotional effect. The music of all six composers cliscussed i11 this ch.aptcr has found a small but growing and apparently permanent niche in the repertoire. Al i are performed and recorded more and more. and interest in their music has tended lO increase with every passing decade.

(®

Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS: JAZZ AND POPULAR MUSIC The periocl between Worlcl Wars I anel li saw a remarkable series oJ' changes in musical liJ'e and continued diversihcation in musical styles. The spread of phonographs, improved recording tech niques, and the new technologies of radio and sound hlms fostered a mass market for music in sound as well as in notation . Classica l concert music and opera remained the most prestigious musical traditions, but the va ri eties of popular music were better known and usually more lucrative. Especially prominent were trends from the United States, notabJy jazz. Muslic, always an accompaniment to "silent" movies, beca me an integral part of sound films, and com posers of opera, classical concert music, musicais, and popular songs all founcl a place in the movie inclustry. Styles of classical music grew ever more variecl, as composers responclecl in individual ways to musical trends from modernism to the avant-garde, anel to política! and eco no mie conclitions in their respective nations. After examining the historical backgrouncl to the period, we will focus in this chapter on developments in popular music. jazz. and film music between the wars. especially in the United States. ln the next chapter. we will address the classical tradition.

31J

856

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

• Between the Wo rld W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul• r Music

Between the Wa rs When World War l began in 1914, most Europeans and Non h Americans had enjoyed a generation of peace an d prosperity Jazz and Popular Music and had a strong failh in progress and the beneftts of moder between the lfors nity. By the time the wa r ended in 19 18, 1hey had been profound ly d isillusioned. New lechno logies oi' warfare, f'rom MUS ICAL HISTORICAL a1iillery to poison gas. produced staggering lasses of human lifo and material resources. Over nine million soldiers were • 1913- 27 Marcel Proust, killeel, and economies ac ross Euro p e were wreckeel. The Remembrance of Things Past losses were compounded by a worldwide influenza epidemie • 1914-18 World War 1 in 1918 lhal killed twenty million people. Modero life no • 1917 Russian Revolution longer seemed benign, and music and orher for ms of enler tainment p rovided an escape. !n this conte;1.'t, popu lar music • 1919 Women win right to vote and jazz llourished as never before. So did interest in music in United States of earlier limes. manifest in neoclassicism and in a growing • ca. 1920 King O liver forms movement to revive music l'rom before 1750. the C, eole Ja zz Oand The wa r b.rought an end to theAustro-Hungarian , German. • 1922 T. S. Eliot. The Waste Russian. and Ottoman empires. and indepenclence to Finland, La11d Estonia. Lalvia, Lithuania, Poland. Ciechoslovakia, Hunga1y , and Yugoslavia. ln Russia the Bolsheviks-radical Marxist • 1922 James Joyce. Ulysses revolulionaries- seizeel power in late 1917 and set up a dic • 1922 First sponsored radio talorship, forming lh e Soviet Union . ln several other nations. broadcast in the United States clemocratic governments gave way to totalitarian rule. Benito • 1922 Fascists take over Mussolini and the fascisls took over lhe ltalian govemment in government in ltaly 1922. and thc Spanish Civil War (1936- 39) brought Francisco Franco to power. ln Germany, the democracy formed afler lhe • 1925 Electric recording World War 1. known as the Weimar Rep11b lic for the city where introduced the constitution was d rafted. proved too weak to eleal with • 1927 Jerome Kern. Show Boat mounling economic problems. Aiter the National Socialists • 1927 Charles Lindbergh Flies (Nazis) won an e lectora l p lurality. their leader Ado lf Hitler solo across the Atlantic was appointed chancellor in 1933 and soon established a clictatorship. ln a .lierce anti -Semitic campaign. the Nazis passeei • 1927 Bessie Smith. Back Water laws to dep rive people of Jewish backg1·ound of their citizen 8/ues ship and all other rights, drivi ng into exile countless writers. • 1927 The Jazz Singer, first artists. composers. and scholars, many ofwhom- like Arnold talking picture Schoenberg- settled in lhe United States. After World War 1. the nations of Eu rope were faced with wa1· debt, crippling inflation. and a shattered infrastructure. The United Sta tes and Canada, which suffered Far fewer casuallies, enjoyed a fmancial boom. lncreased prosperity and leisure time helped make th is a golden age for music in America. both popular and classical. American culture anel music. especially jazz, had a profound inlluence on Europeans dw·ing the 1920s. But in October 1929. lhe New York stock market crashed. sparking a worlclwicle financial depression . Unemp loyment approached fifty percent in some areas. prnducing unprecedented turmoil . ln response. governments in Europe and the Americas undertook relief and public wor ks programs, such as the New De.a i in the United States. The econ om ies in most natio11s were still recovering wh en Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. beginning World War II.

T IM ELINE

8 e tween the Wors

During the 1920s, women in creasingly took their place in the public sph ere. The need during \Vorld \Var I to replace men in s1al'f:tng ofüces and l'actories had brought women new freedom of movement and economic independence. Aiter lhe wa r, women won the right to vote in Britain, the United States, and Germany. Birth contrai and rising leveis of educationgave wornen g:reater access to caree rs. The l 930s, however, saw a backlash in so me countr ies aga inst women's freedoms on economic and ide()logical grounds, especially under the Nazis and other totalitai·ian regimes.

857

• 1927- 31 Duke Ellington at the

CottonClub • 1928 Louis Armstrong and

His Hot Five record West End 8/ues • 1929 New York stock market

crash begins Great Depression THE A RT S

• 1930 George Gershwin. Gír/

Cra:ty

The 1920s were a time of freewheeling ex1>erimentalion in lhe • 1933 Hitler comes to power in arts. We have already encoun tered the avant-garde efforts of Germany Satie. lhe lwelve - tone music of SchoenLerg, and lhe neoclas o 1933 Thomas Hart Benton, sicism of Stravinsky; other new lrends in music are described 1ndiana Murals in the next chapter. ln literature, the decade saw T. S. Eliot's modern.ist poem of disillus ion men t. The Waste Land. with its • 1933 Max Steiner. score for many references to litcrature of thc past; James Joyce's streamKing Kong of-consciousness novel Ulysses; Marce l Proiust's multivo lume • 1933- 45 Franklin Delano novel of time and memory, Remembrance of Things Past; the Roosevelt, president of the politically engaged plays of Berlolt Brechl; and the feminist United States novels anel essays of Virgínia Woolf. The Dadaist movement in • 1935 Irving Berlin. score for art promoted the absurd; Marcel Duchamp's Pountain (a uriTop Hat nai on its back) conlradicted some of art's most basic assumptions. Surrealist painters like Salvador Dalí and René Magritte • 1935 Gershwin, Porgy and explored the clreamlike world of 1he unconscious o pened Bess up by F'reud. Architects from Wal ter Groph1s in Germa11y to • 1936-39 Spanish Civil War Frank Lloyd Wright in the United States wer,e pioneering new. • 1938 Germany absorbs less decorated for ms with an insistence that the function of a Austria bu ilding be reflected in its design. Impelled by the worldwide clepression of the l 930s. many • 1939 John Steinbeck, The arrists reexamined their role an d sough1 to make their wor k Grapes o{ Wrath relevant lo the economicand social problemsoftbe time. John • 1939-45 World War li Steinbeck. in his novel The Grapes ofWrath. wrote about farm • 1940 Ellington. Cotton Tail ers impoverished by the Dust Bowl in the American plains andby exploilation in California. Artists such as George Crosz and Kathe Kollwitz in Gen nany. Diego Rivera in Mexico. anel Thomas Hart Benton in the Uniteel States pictured social conditions in si mple, clirect, yet modem styles that could be understood by all, as in Figure 34. 1. Many classica l composers likewise sought to write music tha t was acces sib le to ali, hopingto catch the imagination of orelinary working people.

NEW TECHNO LOGIES The rapid growth of diverse musical styles between the world wars was due in part to new technologies. Recordings, radio brnadcasting, and the inlro· duction of sound to fi lm enab led the preservation an d rapid distribu tion of music in performance. not just in score. Now a musical performance.

858

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

• Between the Wodd W•rs: Jazz and Popular Music

l'ormerly as imperm~nent as a moment in time, could be preserved, admi red, and replayed many times. This changc created a new mass ma1·ke1 and new commercial possi bilities. allowed performers ro share in lhe benei'its of mass distrihulion. and vaulted some performers-whether oi' classical music, pop\ilar musi c, or jazz-to international slardom. The popular music inclustry had revolved around sheet music from 1he l 890s through the 191 Os, but after the war publishers reafüed tba l recordings offered a markel oi' potennially unlimit ed size. Songwriters anel banclleaders also turned to recordings. oflen tailoring their pieces to fit the three-10 - four-minute limit of a record sicle. New technolo~ affected performance styles. For example, before 1925, recording teeh.nology was acous FIGURE 34.1: Elcctric Power. Motor-Ca rs. Stccl,pane! lic, anel only opera singers and "belters" from rhe rn 1m1!s by Arnencan po inl er Thomas lfar1, Bent on could make an effective vocal recording. (1889-1975) forthe Indiana.Hallat the 1933 World's Fairin The inlroduction of electric recording in Chi~ago. 11iis panei celebraies worA·ers and designers in lhe 1925 allowed for more sensitive recording steel mi/Is of north wesr, Indiana, electric powergeneration, and of ·'crooners," encouraging songwriters to lhe automobile industry. (COUflTESY INDJ.A!lo'A UN(Vt.flSl'TY ARCJIIVES) com pose songs suitahle for a more inlimale singing style and leading to lhe rise of singers like Bing Crosby anel Frank Sinatra. The new electric microphones were aJso more sensitive to the nuances of orchestral music. Musicians pronted from exposure over the radio. since music was a good Radio way of úlling la1·ge periods of airtime. Radio caugh t on quickly; by 1924 there we1·e over 1,400 radio stations arou nd North America, and during the l 920s national broadcasting systems were develop ed in all the major European nations. Recordings were still too poor in quality to be played successfully over the radio, so stations relied primal'ily on live performers in their owo studios and on regional or national ti-ansmissions of live shows. Stations in Eiu·ope and the Americas sponsored orchestras. such as the BBC Symphony Orches1ra (founded 1930) in Lonclon and the NBC Symphony Orchestra (193 7) in New York. Dance bands also made use of the new medium to gain wider exposure. Benny Goodman and bis band. for example, hosted two radio shows, Let's Dance (1934-35) and Th-e Carne! Caravan (1936-39). Dijfusion of music Recorclings and radio spawned an unparallel.ed growth in lhe size of the audience for all kinds of music. Music was now available to almost eve1yone. no matter what their leve} of musical training. These technologies brought about widespreacl dissemination of the classical rep ertoire from Bach to Ba1tók anel began to make availahle less well -known music from the remote past to the present. They also furthered the growth of a huge body of popular m usic, blues, and jazz. Mos1 of the lauer originated in Lhe United States, and il is t here our story will focus for most of this chapter.

American Mvsicail Theater and Popular Song

American Musical Theater and Popular Song The period between the two world wars. and especially lhe 1920s, was a ricb 1ime fo r American popular music. Music fo r stage shows of ali kinds enjoyed greal popularity: vaudeville troupes tou red tb e continent, and operettas, revues. and musicals atlracted large audiences. Popular son1,ts from Tin Pan Alley also proliferated (see chapler 30). The pcriod roughly l'rom 1920 Lo 1955- before the advent of rock and roll and tbe demise of 1he shee1 music industry-is known as the ·'Golden Age" ofTin Pan Alley. ln the 1920s. as in the previous two decades. popular song and music for theater were inextricably linked. ln large part, it was lhe auracciveness of the songs that clrove the populaxity of a musical anel its composer. Many of th e besl - known songs, made familiar inbit shows. were then sol d as sheet music, often with a picture of the performer who introduced the song on the cover. Yet the1·e were cbanges in the popular song industry. Sheet music of Tin Pan Alley songs st iJI ci rculated in American parlors. but pub lishers and songwriters increasingly counted oa recording-s to popularize thei r tunes, And with the arrival oi' sound 1echnology for 1üms in 1he late:: l 920s, the Hollywood musical was bom , creating anothe r imp orta nt ve nue for popular songwriters. The most successfu l songwrilers of this period-such as Irving Berlin (1888- 1989), Jerome Kern ( 1885-1945), Geo rge Gershwin (18981937). and Harold Arlen (1905- 1986)- were equa lly at home writing music for Tin Pan Alley, musical theater. and Hollywood musicais.

MUSICAL THEATER Vaudeville shows. loose collections of variety acts. were still ve1y popular. but tbe craze in larger cities such as New York was for revues, conceived as complete shows macle up primarily of musical munbers that often included rnany performers. The premier series of revues was the Ziegfeld Follies. assemhled each year by producer Florenz Ziegfeld. which included variety ente rtain ment, star performers, and 1roupes of beauliful fema le dancers. lmportant popular song composers such as Irving Berlin wrnte mus ic for these shows. Berlin's contributions to the 1919 Ziegfeld Follies includedA Pretty Cirl Is Like a Melody, which was sung by a bevy of scantily-clad women, each cos u1med as a particular piece of classi cal music. Severa! new operettas were successful in the l 920s. such as Sigmund Romherg's The Stu.dent Prince, but the geme was rapidly being replaced by the musical. Like ali forms ot' musical theater, musicais were complex collaborations, with different artists responsible for the musi c. lyrics (the texts set to music), book (the spoken words ofthe play), choreogrnphy. staging, sets, and costumes. Some musicais were primar:ily vehicles for star entertainers. featuring new popu lar songs that we re framed by a loose plot. a strncture reminiscent of the singer -centered and aria -focused Italiau opera of lhe midseventeenth lo early eighteenth centuries, Yet there was ao u1creasing interest in creati ng more in tegrated musica is, s hows in which the musical numbers

Revues

Musicais

859

860

C H A 1> T E R 3 4 • Between the Wodd W•rs: Jazz and Popular Music

FIGURE 34.2: Scene from rhe 1946 reviva/ of Show Boat. showing thc cnd ofthe first act. {";)HOWRO;\T ,'" l~}-1 4. PHOT(h

CMPltlC

nouse. }.IUSl!UM

OPTUI'. CITY OF Nr.l'YORK.

1'H CA't 1u: (:o u l~CTI O~ lGS.80.9622:J)

Show Boa!

are closely related to the story, wh ich is plot-driven ratlier than focused on the performers. Like reform opera of the late eighteen1h century (see chapter 21) . such musicals were valued for their drnmatic impact. in addition to their appeal as entertaining speciacle. Jerome Kern's masterpiece. Show Boat (1927), with book and lyrics by óscar Hammerstein II. best exempliÔes this new integrated approach. Show Boa! hrings together a nurnher of traditions (such as opera, operetta, musical comedy. revues, and vaudev ille) anel musical styles (in cluding ragtime. spirituals. sentimental ballads. and marches). but the multiple styles all serve dramatic ends. The score is operatic in scope, with interwoven reFerential themes and motives, much like thc operas of Richard Wagner (which Kern greatly admired). Based on a novel by Edna Ferber. Show Boat dealt with serious social issues. such as racism and miscegenation. and captured recent historie events, such as the 1893 Chicago \Vorld's Fair. lt was a Lremendous success. tou red the country after its Broadway ,,rn. and enjoyed numerous revivals, amongthem the 1946 New York production shown in Figure 34.2.

T IN PAN ALLEY: THE GOLDEN AGE

Irving Berlin

By the 191 Os, several types of Tin Pan AUey so ngs had solidined, includ ing waltz. ragtime. and novelty songs. Most Tin Pan Alley songs followed a standard form of one or more verses followed by a th irty-two-measure chorus in anMBA, ABAB, or ABAC pattem. The focus was increasingly on the chorus, where songwriters placed their catchiest rhythrns and melodie ideas. Many songwriters w01·kerl with lyricists as songwriting teams. although some composers, such as Irving Berlin. wrote both words and music for their songs. Irving Berlin's lengtl1y career and prodigious output position him as one of America's mos1 prolif,c and best-loved popular songwriters. \Viclely known for his sentimenta l and patriotic tunes that seem Lo caprn re the American

American Musical Theater and Popular Song

861

spirit, like God BlessAmerica anel White Christmas, Berlin mastered ali current popular song genres and was involved in every aspect of the music business. lt was said that America coulel not nght a war or celebratc a holiday without a song from this Russian-born son of a Jewish cantor. Many of his songs were written for revues , such as Face the Music and As 1'housands Cheer; movies. like Top Hat and Holiday fnn ; or musicais, such as Cal! Me Madani. Cole Porter (1891-1964), like Irving Berlin, wrote both lyrics and music Co!ePorter for his songs. Educated in music at Ya le, Harvard, anel the Schola Cantorum in Paris, Porter is remembered for bis suave, urbane. sophisticated lyrics tbat revel in innuenelo and double- entend re and for his irresistiJ>ly catchy anel memorahle tunes. Examples in which 1he music greatly complernents the inventive text include let's Do ft. I Get a, Kick Out of You. /t's De-Lovely. and You"re the Top. Porter wrote exclusively for thealer and Hollywood musicals. producing gems such as Night and Da.y from the theater produccion Gay Divorce, which later became a Hollywood musica l, Tlte Gay Divorcee. Nightand Do.y was popularized by dancer and singer Fred Astaire, who starred in many theater and lüm productions of Porter's musicais. Georp;e Gershwin, shown in rip;ure 34.3, was both a composer of George Gershwí.n jazz-influenced classical music (see chapter 35) anda writer of popular songs and musicais. Most of his best-known songs feature lyrics by his brother. Ira Gershwin. Like Lving Berlin, Gershwin got his s tart writing for revues. And like Kern and Poner, Gershwin moved increasingly toward integrated musicais thro ughout the l 920s. even ventt1ring into social salire with a few of his shows. Strike Up the Bond (1927) satfrized war and hig business. and OJThee 1Sing(1931), a spoof of lhe American presielemial elecüon process, was the first musical to win lhe Pulitzer Pri:te for drama. Gershwin's musica1s catapulted severa! new performers to fame: Lady. Be Cood! (1924) featured the singing and dancing brother-and-sister team of Fred and Adele Astaire, while Girl Crazy (1930) made s tars of Ethel Merman and Ginger R.ogers. ln Girl CraZ)', Ethel Merman sang the song J Got Rhyt.l11n (NA\VM 18 l ~".. aj ~ ) . which became an instant hit. Like most Tin Pan Alley and Broadway songs of the 1920s and 1930s, it has only one verse, shü'ting the main interest to the chorus. The chorus is in the typical AABA' fonn. Comparing Gershwin's chorus to that of Chad es K. Harris's After the Ball (see Example 30.5. p. 758) illustrates both continuity and change in popular song styles since lhe l 890s. Both choruses start with a catchy phrase, marked by a striking rhythm and beguiling melodie contour. and vary it throughout. balanced with enough contrast to keep the tu_ne engaging. FIGURE 34.3, George Gershwin seated at 1/1e piano in 1937. durLike Harris, Gershwin tends to grab ing rehearsals for ihejilm Shall \Ve Dance? His brorlw. lpici.st fra our attention with thc mos l tmusual Gershwi,i, is to his left. Seated. to his ,i.ghl. are FredAstaireand features at lhe beginning, then GingerRogers. <•rm,uss,co•111s>

862

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

• Between the Wo rld W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul• r Music

EXAMPLE 34.1,

Chorus from. Gershwin·s I Got Rhytlnn, compared 10 Joplin·s

Maple Leaf Rag

gradually re turns to more convenlional rhY1hms and s tepwise conto urs at the ends of phrases, creating a satisfying emotional are. But / Got Rhythin is much more syncopated. drawing on rhythms of raglime. Example 34.1 shows lhe rhythm of the f1rst two pbases of tbe chorus, whose syncopations c reate the sarne pattern of accents as in the opening section of Joplin's Maple Leaf Rag (l\AWM l 64) . producing interesting cross- accents agains t lhe underlying duple meter. Gershwin's harmony changes more rapidly. is more chromatic and wide· ranging, and reatures nwnerous sevenlh and nimh chords, raising tbe overall level of d issonance. While both songs are in pa1i about the power of music to carry us away. Gershwin's reflects the energy of jazz and the optimism of Broadway musicais. whileAfter the Bali uses walti meter and style to co nvey a sentimental message typica l ofits ti me . Both the style and the carefree altitude of / Got Rhyth,n are drawn in part from jazz. S0011 jazz rnusicians returned the complimenl. usiog the soog as a vehicle for jazz improvisation. The chorus's harmonic progressioo (injazi terminology, its "changes") was adopted for so many oew jazz tunes that this probrression itself carne to be known simply as "rhY1hm chaoges'' (see below and NA\'{'M 18 ,1 and 197).

The Jazz Age Revues. musicais, and Tin PanAlley songs continued traditions that had been imported from Europe or arose among Americans of .European descem. But African American music and musicians played an increasingly intluential role ia American musical life. and in the 1920s two related traditions of Afri can Americao origin gaioed wide cmrency: blues and jazz. Indeed, the 1920s became known as "Tbe Jazz Age." and jazz became the emJilematic music for that period when a new generation was cultivating a spirit of social liberat.ion.

BLUES One of the most influen tia l gemes of music to come out of early- rwentieth century America was the blues. The origin of the blues is obscure. likely stemmi ngfrom a c.omhinarion of rura l work songs and ot her African Americ.an oral traditions. The lyrics typically speak of disappointments. mistreatment. or other troubles lhat produce the state of mind known since lhe early nineteen th century as "thc blues." Yet the worcls also convey deóancc anel a will to

The J•tt A ge

863

survive abandonment by a faithless lover, a lost job, oppression. or disaster. Ofien touches of humor suggest the knife-edge separation between sorrow and laughter. tragedy and comedy. Thc music expresses the feelings implied by the words through melodie contours, freely syncopated rhythms, and distinctive voca l or instru mental effects (such as a slide. rasp. or growl) tha l evoke lhe sound of a pe rson exp ressi ng pain, so rrow, or fn·ustration. Blues often feature flatted or bent (slightly lowered or sliding) notes, sometimes called blue notes . on the third. nith , and seventh scale degrees. which add to the emotional intcnsity. Besides expressing feelings, the blues allows perfoxmers io display their anistry, in a musical para ll e l to the defiance implied in the lyrics. Ultimately lhe blues are nol abou t having lhe blues. but aboul coriqt,ering tbem through a kind of catharsis embodied in the music. Two distinct b lues traditions can be beard in recordings beginning in lhe 1920s. now known as classic blues and della blues. Classic blues, an urban style influenced by the popular rnusic industry. was d1e h rst to be recorded, althoup;h dei la b lues , one of the rural traditio ns colJ ectively known as country blues, was rega rd ed as an older style that remained closer to the oral. traditions from which the blues developed. Classic blues was performed primari ly by African American women singers such as Ma Rainey (1886- 1939): Bessie Smith FIGURE 34.4, Bessie Smith. (1894-1937), shown in Figure 34.4; and Albe11a Hunter (1895- -empressoftlieBlu.es... in1/ie 1984) . Typically accompaniecl by a piano or small combo, these rnid-1920s, wltenshewasthenios1 women popularized lhe blues on black variety circuils. on min- successful anel prominent,Africon strel circuits. in clubs. and on rnany recordiogs. The recordiog by Ameri-can musician of the decade. Mamie Smüh (1883-1946) oi' Crazy Blues (1920) , the Jirst recording ( LF.ftftl?C IIT M USIC & AflT'S PUOTO 1. ml\J\t1Y) by an African American singer of a blues song, so ld 75.000 copies ia a few mooths. earning her a small fortune. Her success prompted record companies to begin marketing their products to black audiences, in the same way they were a lrea dy targeting other et hnic groups. selling Jrish records to lrish audiences and Yiddish records to Jewish audiences. Records targeted to blacks became known as " race records." The classic blucs siogers joined aspects of oral tradition with elemcn ts Twelve-bar blues of popular song, thanks in part to W. C. Handy (1873-1958). known as the "father of the blues." Handy did oot iovent the blues. but as a publisher. he introduced blues songs in sheet music form as eady as 1912, thus tak.ing advantage of both the genre's new popularity and the booming sheet music iodustq. With his puhlications. Haody solidined what we now think of as standa1·d twclve-ba,· blues form. ln this form. illustrated by Bessie Smith's Back Water Blt,es O927, NAWM 182) in Example 34.2, each poctic slanza has I ConclSe ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1 three li nes; the second line typically restates the nrst, and the third compl etes th e thought or offers a twist. Each line of text is sungto four measures of music over a set harmonic patlem, in which the hnt four- measure phrase remains on the tonic. c.hord: the ser.ond phrase begin~ on the suhdominant anel ends on the tonic: and the third phrase starts on the dominant and moves back to the tonic, as illustrated in Figure 34.5 After a brieí piano introduction. each of lhe seven stanzas of Back Wa,Ler Blu~s

864

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

EXAMPLE 34.2,

•

Between the Wo rld W•rs:

J•,. •nd Popul• r Music

The J•zz Age

Firsi sianw of Bessie Smilh·s Back \Vater Blues

Cmaj7

jJ J t. \Vhen

it rriins-

íive d:iys and the skies -

Ba:..ic progrc!)sion: 1

rurn dttrk _

;as,

nlg ~

e ) 1urn d;irk _ IV

trou · ble's 1.ak · ir,· place V

Deltablues

}

pggg a a

uigi'ii::::::

'e,. 3.. 4.. 5.. 6.

Ji Jld

i n 1he lo"' · laods_ IV

'Í

~. I woke up _

follows the sarne fonn and generaJ melodie outli ne. The form may be si mple. but in Smith's recordeel petformance. the musical possibilities seem infini.te. She enlivens each s1anza with unique timbres, phrasing, and melodie sensibility. The me lody shows typica l traits of the blues, with prominent blue notes on the thlrd and seventh degrees of the scale (E/ EJ, and B/81,) and a tendency to place stressed syllables just before rather than on the strong beats of the measure. The typical blues phrase ccmers around a relatively high note, usually 1he lifth elegree of the scale, repeats or decorates it, and then descends to the tonic. Ali three phrases in Example 34.2 follow this pattern but in different ways: the f1rs1 phrase CLuves aboveand below G before sinking to C; 1he second 1wice rises to C anel descenels; and the last hammers C and the B above it, descending on ly on the last three syllables. The vocal melody cade11ces in the third measure of each phrase, allowing a ca.l.l-and- response interchange between the voice and the piano accompaniment. played by Airican American composer anel pianist James P. Johnson (189 1- 1955). ln its use ofimprovisation on a simple formula. syncopation. repetition of short patterns. bent pitches. and call and response, this song emhodies many of 1he characterislics of Airican American music that apparentJy originated in Africa (see chapter 30). Delta blues carne primuily from the delta region of Mississippi and is usually associated wilh maleAirican American singers and guilarists. ln com pa rison to classic blues. whi ch tended to confonn to the conventions ofpopular songgenres, delta blues is more dfrectlyrooted in ornl [raelitions. resulting

Meas1tre:

Harmony:

l(IV)

1\/

\/( IV)

J'oetic structu.re:

FIGURE 34.5: Twelve-barbluesjonn.

865

in greater flexiliility of textual and musical form and harmonic choices. Blues s ingers gained nationa.l exposure through collectors s uch as Al an Lomax, who travcled to ru1·al parts of the south and recorded blues artists as they sang and accompanied themselves on guita1·. Delta blues recordings from the 1920s and l 930s reveal a wea lth of expressive <levices. The singing style is rough, rich in timbre and nuance. and ,·hylhmically flexible. and each section of a blues so ng l'ea1 ures a lte rnai io n between 1he voice and accompanyi ng guitar in the style of ca ll and response . Dw·ing lhe lissl half of lhe twentieth century, when ao tLDprecedented munber of Afri can Americans moveel from lhe rural south to no11beru urban cemers, many blues singers followed the same palh. Many of 1he della blues singers la nded in Chi cago, already a bu rgeon ing center of new record ing technology. which would g:reatly extend their in11uence on future performers. Legendary bluesman Roberl Johnson (l 91 1-1938), for example, recorded on ly twenty-uine songs in his bri.ef career, yet h is musica l legacy eKtended well into the l 960s. when British rock rnusicians rediscovered bis recordings. JAZZ IN THE 1920s

Jazz was already establisheel and growing in. popularity eluring the late 19 l Os (see chap[er 31) . The essence of 1920s jazz was syncopaled rhythm, combined with novel vocal and instrumenta l sounds and an u nbrid led spirit that seemed lo mock earlier social and musical proprielies. lmprovisation was an important element of jazz. but often melodies in the style of an improvisation were worked out in rehearsals, played from memory, or written elown and played from nota· tion. Jazz was very much a player·s a1i , so the rise of the recordfog indust:ry a.nd of radio played a key role in fostering its growth and dissemination. The leading style of jazz in lhe period jus[ after World War I is oow known as New Orlecms jazz. This style, named after the city where it originated, centers on group variation of a given tune. e ither improvised or in the sarne spontaneous style. The result is a coun terpoint of melodie Unes, alternaling with solos during which the rcst of the enscmble provides a rhythmic and ba n nonic background. Jt incorporates the African idiom of call and response. as well as the ecstatic outpourings of the Airican American Gospel 1radilion. The elevelopmen1 of the style in New Orleans was enhanced by the healthy riva hy between musically literate Creo les and musically untutored Airican America ns. who possessed great improvisational skill. Leading musicians, including cornetlist Joe "King" Oliver (1885- 1938), trumpe1er Lou is Armstrong (190 1- 1971 ). and pianjst Jel ly Roll Morto o (1890- 194 l). developed the style playingin cluhs in Storyville. the city's red -light district. ln the late 191 Os, many New Orleans jazz performers left the city when profcssional opportunilies elsewhere in lhe eounliy beckoneel, spreading the style to other regio ns. King Oliver moved north to Ch icago in 19 18 and fo nn ed his own band in 1920. ln 1922. Oliver invited Louis Asms lrnng, whom he had mentored in New OrleaM. to come nort h an <I joi n his hand. hy then name<I King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. The nextyea1· the band began recording for OKeh Records Ln Chicago and for Gennetl in Richmond, Indiana, both amongthe most impor lanl record lahels in jazz history. and posed for lhe publicity photograph in

New Orlean.s jazz

King Oliver and Louis Annstrong

866

C H A 1> T E R 3 4 • Between the Wodd W•rs: Jazz and Popular Music

867

The J•zz Age

by A.rms11·oog anel five choruses of' 1he twelve-bar blues pattern. ln the Ílrst, Armstrong varies the publisbeel verse as sbown in Example 34.3b, progressing from a fairly straight performance of lhe lune to increasingly fanciful acrobatics. He embellishes rhe tune rhythmlcally-with delays, syncopations, trip lets, and sixteenth notes-anel melodically, with neighboring and passing tones. For example. in measure 7. he approaches every note of lhe EI, triad from its upper neighhor, then in the next measure plays ali lhe notes in tbe EI, scale but one, ho lding back ~heA!, to emphasize its appearance in measure 9 as the seventh of the clominant seventh chord .. At the end of his solo, he climbs ln thc sccond upwarcl in a fanfare - like arpeggiation anel ends on a high chorus, the trombonisl plays off the fu-st half of lhe published refrain and then improvises freely. The th ird chorus features the clarinet alternating in call and response with A.rmstrong who. to tenderly expressive effect, sings syUahles rather than playing notes on his instrument, a Lechnique known as scclt si11gi11g. After the piano takes the fourtb chorus, eve1yone joins in on tbe

EXAMPLE 34.3:

KingOlivers Creolefcm Band. in a 1923 publicity pl101ograph. Left 10 sight: Honoré Dutrer rrombone: Baby Dodds. drums: King Oliver, comet: I.ouisAnnstrong (kneeling), slide trurnpet: Ullian Hcu-din (/arer Am,stron{s wife), piano: Bill]ohn~on. banjo: a,nd Johnny Dodds. cforinet. The d111ms. piano. <1nd banjo served as a rhythm section. (cou,nSl' FIGURE 34.6:

OI' T li E IIOCA~' JAZZ AACIIIVE.$, TUlA!-l'E UNlVUSli'Y}

~(ll J>O

Verse of KingOli11er·s \Vest End Blues with LotúsArmstrong's vario.tion

, . Oli,er,

Blues

Blucs----

b. Arms rrong:

~nr-uF

1 Conciso ~

I Full ~

Figure 34.6. Annstrong '!ater assemb led his own band for malcing recordings. calling it the Hot Five or Hot Seven. depending on the current number oi' musicians. WiLh these groups he cut severa! dozen recorclings for OKeh between 1925 and 1928. The recordings of these two bands embody the classic New Orleans style. 1 A.rmstrong's recording of Oliver's tune West End Blues (NAWM 183), recorded with bis Hot Five in Chicago in 1928, exempliÍlcs the conventions of the style and showcases A.rmstrong's emphasis on solo improvisation. The ensemble is small and is divided into two b'I·oups: the "front Une" of melodie instrumems- tnunpet, clar inet, and Lrombone-and the rhytl,m sectio11 Lhat keeps the beat and ftlls in the background-d nnns, piano, and banjo. New Orleans jazz typically takes twelve -bar blues. a sixteen- measure strnin from ragtime. or a thirty-two -ba.r popular song form (usually AABA) as a s tarting point. A tune is presenteei at the beginning over a particular barmorüc progression, then that sarne progression repeats several times while various soloists orcombinations of instruments play over it. Each such repetition is called a e horns (not to be confused wilh the chorus in a song with verse anel chorns). Typically cach chorus features differenc instruments and some new musica l ideas, producing a lcind of theme- and -variation form. As the title suggests. West EndBlues is built on twelve -bar blues form. The pu hli shed sheet musir. ( NA\VM 1H3a) adapts the blues to Tin Pan Alleyverserefrain form. presenting the blues progression once in the verse, shown in Example 34.3a, and twice in the refrain. But the recording (NAWM 183b) fo.Lilows lhe conventions or jazz. presentiog a blazing trumpel i ntroduction

·11,f

írom ,ny hcod

nt-

Blucs pmgrcssion: E,: 1

~~!j,

d,;;::=:::l

~ &J

r J)

11.JEJl

mean

~ shocs.

-.,.h

w - j Xj_---J J.

Jl r ql ~ ~1 - vil

J! p· rve got

íeel

~ 1~

Ir F rm

blut

full

F Pd

L- J - - '

J! 10 -

J Jqd F

And

..,.

way

to thc \Vc,;t End.

1*~ pm J n Jfjj r=c.u P[J Jrtj+J---3 p , 3

f°m

b~"·- - - - - - - - - - -

. -3 - ,

rJifPtl

,-3-,

iêttthh)Hfptrkt&

And thcrc's whcrc troub • lcs will bc - gin, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1J¾ffiJMJ Jm EC rftf Fr 1 l

868

C H A 1> TE R 3 4 • Between the World W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul•r Music

fmal chorus, backing A.nnstrong as he returns to thc high BI, that ended his first solo, sustains it for four measures. and then un leashes an extraordinary torrent of notes, obsessively repeating anel then varying a descending figure as if to balance the rising arpeggiation that closed bis l'irsr chorus. Through inspired solos such as those in this recording, Armstrong he lped to create a new focus in jazz on the art of solo improvisation. replacing the ensemble improvisation that was characteristic of earlier New Orleans jazz.

BlG BANO$ ANO SWlNG

Arrangers and

composers

Singers

The swing era

Although Armstrong's feats as a soloist inspired virluosity and expressivity in other jazz musicians, the main function of jazz was to accompany dancing. A fashion for larger banels began in the l 920s. propelled pa1tly by the avail ahility of larger performance spaces for jazz, including supper clubs, ballrooms, auditoriums, and theaters. African American banel leaders, such as Armstrong, Fletcher Henelerson (1898-1952). Duke Ellington ( 1899-197 4). and Count Basie (1904-1984), as well as white musicians like Paul \Vhiteman (1890 - 1%7) ~n<I RP.nny r.oodm~n (1909- 1986). org~niz&.<I hig hmuk Ry 1930, the typica l dance band was divided into three sections: brass, reeds, and rhythrn. Bmsses rn ight inc lude three trurnpets and two trombones; the reed section was made up of clarinets and saxophones; anel the rhythm section consistecl ofpiano, drurns. gt1itar (replacingthe banjo), and double bass. These sections interacted as units anel altemated with soloists, p,·oviding a great variety of sounds. Although solos might still be improvised. lhe piece was wrilten down by an arranger. who was some times the Jeader (as in tl-1e case of Ellington) bu1 more often a member of the bancl ora skilled orchestrator. Successful arrangers captured in notation lhe spontaneous spi.rit of improvised playing. Preparing arrangements in advance ma de possib le a wider variety of effects, including rhythmic unisons of the e ntire band or of a section, coordinated dialo&ri.•e between sections and soloisls. anel more complex chromatic harmonies. all of wbich add ed to lhe emotionaJ impact anel po lished sound of tb e music. With the creation of fuUy or Jargely notatecl jazz pieces, jazz composers who made their own arrangements carne i.ncreasingly lo resemble their counterparts in the classical music world. They also borrowed sounds from modem classical music, espec.ially 1he four-no1e sonorities (sucb as seventb choreis anel aclcled sixth choreis) and chromatic harmonies of Debussy and Ravel. In addition to playing instrumental pieces. lhe tyµical big band also fea tured a vocalist, who m ight si ng 1h rough lhe e nti re piece, s i ngonly at 1he beginning and end, or come in on one of the later chon1ses- Much of the big- band repertory consisted of popular SODf,'S in which the hand both accompanied a singer anel elaborated on the song througb clever, harmonically adventurous arrangements tbat higltlightecl one or another of the band ·s sections. The combination of stylish. welJ-executed arrangemenls with harddriving jazz rhythms produced a music lhat became known as swi11g. Swing wao an immediate hit with the American public. igniting u dance cruze acrooo the country. Swing dances such as the Lindy Hop were more bouncy arid vigor· ous than earlier ballroom dances. matching the style of the music. Swingwas

Duke Ell,ngton

869

the most popuhrmusic from tbe 1930s through tbelate 1940s, and wirh swing jazz attained a popularity that it never hacl. before, nor would have in !ater years. The numlier of swing bands ex1ilodcel during thc l 930s, boostcel by new whi1e bands emering the jazz wodcl, especially lhose led by Tommy Dorsey CI 905-1956) anel Glenn Mi ll er (1904-1944) ln an era still marked by racial prejudice anel segregation. the white bands had an easier time estahlishi.ng 1.hemselves; they did not have 10 wo rry about playing to segregated audiences and had greater access to performance venues and radio time. Black orwh ite, band leaders like Ellington, Basie, Goodman, Dorsey. a.nd Miller-a.nd many of their star players-were celebrities, known across the continent and abroad, anel their music was hea rd on millions of radios anel phooographs.

JAZZ IN EUROPE Jazz spread quickly in the 1920s throughout No1th America, Latin America, anel Europe. European musicians anel music lovers encounterecl American jazz through importecl recordings, sheet music. and travelingjazz ensembles. African American rnusician·solcLiers se,ving in Europe duriog World War 1, such as the band led by James Reese Europe (see chapter 31), had helped to introeluce the new style. By the l 920s. jazzgroups were formingin Europe, anel a European jazz tradition was well establisheel by lhe 1930s. Jazz also became a frequent topic in European literatureand a1is, as ill ustrated by Pigure 34.7. ln 1934. Roma (Gypsy) guitarist Django Reinhardt (1910-1953) formed one of the most successful and musically innovative European jazz banels. the Quintette du Hot Club de France. The gro up toureei throughout Europe until tl1e outbreak of World War II. The nrst European to become an outstanding jazz performer anel composer, Reinharclt demonstrated the international potential of the American-born lradition, blendiog it wilb Ws own Roma heri tage to create a highly individual anel appealing style.

Duke Ellington One of the leacling composers of the Jazz Age anel after, and one of the most iníluential American composers ever. was Duke. Ellington (se.e. hingraphy an<I Figure 34.8). Ellington developed bis individual style anel began to garner nalional

FIGURE 34.7: The Th ree Musicians (1920). b-y Henri Hciyrlen (1883-1970). Bom in Poland. Hayden came to Paris in 1907 and painted in a cubi-stsryle for manyyeo.rs. 1he rhree insmrn1enrs ba njo, saxophone, anct gu.il or-m.arl.· rhe nrnsic af this grotip as jau. ali tlie rage in Paris after World War l. cuust• ou ar.,1Ux-ARTs. 1,."f0S', J'"-A,NC J:. PIH)TO! H. Ç, 0Jt! l)A, tt tUNION l)l!S MU;;il'...'l NA1' I0NAUX/AkT

Ht;SOUIICC. J\Y, O :,:oo:;AllTISTS MIGHTS SOCH:I'\° [ARS I. 1\'YIA.DAGP, PARIS)

870

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

• Between the World W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul• r Music

attention cluring the years 1927-3] , wben bis group was house bane! at 1be Cotton Clu b in Ha,-lem, the vibran t anel famous African American a rea in New York. The Cotton Club was Harlem·s prceminent nightclu b, oJ'l'cring alcohol (illegal because of Prohibilion, yet readily available) anu ente rtainment. h featured black performers, including El lington's band anda bevy of beautiful, light - skinned female dancers. b ut its clientele was while. The Cotlon Club pe l'iod was cru cial to the developmen t of Ellington·s sou nd. Because his was the house band, the personnel was rela tive ly stable, they had time to re nearse, and Ellington couJd use the bandas a wo rkshop to try o ut new pieces and new effects, tes ting the unusual timbres anel voicings that became his l rademark. He s tarted e>q>erimenting wüh longer jazz works, such as Creole Rhapsody anel

Reminiscingin Tempo . Rathe r than relying primarily on improvisalion. the group moved more and more to arrangements worked oul in advance that contrasted ensemble passages with so los, whether scored or im provisecl. When hiring p layers, Ellington Jooked for excellent musicians wilh very individual sounds. then capitalized on the uniq-ue talents of bis band members by writi ng specihcally for them orcollaboratinp; witb them, as in Black and 'fon Fa.ntasr (1927) with tmmpeter Buhber Miley and Moodlndigo (1930) with clarinet and saxophone playcr Barncy Bigarcl. His band grew from tcn to twclvc players. madc al>out Touring two hundrecl record ings. and a ppearecl regularly on radio broadcasts. Prom 1931 on, Ell ington and h is ba nd spent mostoftheirtimeon the road . The band contin ued to grow. reaching fourteen players in the late l 930s and eighteen in 1946. The group·s repertoire consisted largely of Ellington's own tunes, but they also playecl popular songs and dance l'a,,orites. Many of Ellingtont's !unes were given lyrics and soldas popular songs, incluclingSophisticated Lady and Don't CetAroiind MuchAnyinore. Ellington often wrote and recorded smaller ensemhle p ieces to highlight the skills of individual players, keeping The 1940s hls starn happy by giving each a piece of the limeligh t. The early 1940s is widely considered the peak of Elli ngton's crcalive abili Lies and of lhe performing rapport among the band members. ln 1939-40, he added three important new members: Jimmie Blanton on bass. Ben \Vebster on tenor saxophone. and Billy Strayhorn as second pianist. composer, and 1 Conciso ~ 1 1 full ~ 1 arranger. Ellington cook advancage of their talents and wrote a number of new pieces to elisp lay their gifts. Co1ton. Tai! (1940, NAWM 184) was wri tten l'or Webster. anel his solo became a classic. Strayhorn shared composing duties with Ellington, producing standards such as Take the A Train (1941). which became one of the band'ssignature tunes . Cotton Tait iJJustrates Ell ington·s music from t.his era. lt follows the typica l form for jazz performances. with a tune at the beginning followed by a series of choruses over the sarne progression. Cotton Tail is a c ontrufuct , a n ew tune composecl over a harmonic progression borrowed from a particular song- in this case, the c horus of Cershwin's / Got Rhythni (NAWM 1!J 1) . Ellington's me lody- fast , angular, high ly syn copatecl, an d full of unexpected twists- has lillle resemblance to Gershwin's. even though lhe harmonic progression is the sarne. The first two choruses foatme Ben Wehs ter soloing on ten01· saxophone accompanied by the rhythm section with occasional punctuation from the rest of the band. Example 34.4 (see p. 872) compares the opening measures of EU ington's nme with those orWebste r's choruses. The solo plays off

Duke Ell,ngton

DUKE ELLINGTON (1899-1974)

Edward Kennedy ("Duke") Ellington, the most important composer ofjazz to date, was an inAuential innovator who expaneled the boundaries in jazz and sought to break down barriers between it and art music. He admired the great jazz musicians. but his favorite composers were Debussy, Stravinsky, and Gershwin. Bom in Washington. D.C .. Ellington was the son of a White House butler. He studied piano, including ragtime, from the age of seven and received a good education in music and other subjects. Known for his regai bearing and sartorial splendor, he earned the nickname "Duke' by the time he entered high school. By the age of seven· teen. Ellington was playing throughout the Washington area with his own group. ln 1923. he moved to New York with his band the Washingtonians, playing at clubs on Broadway and at the Cotton Club in Harlem and making recordings. Ouring the 1930s and early 1940s, Ellin gton was the leading figure in jazz. and in !ater years he continued to play a prominent role. especially in efforts to have jazz recognized as a kind of art music. not merely as entertainment. He and his band made severa! international tours in che 1950s and 1960s, sponsored by the State Department and intended to create goocl will toward the United States. By the 1960s he was regarded as a national treasure. He won thirteen Grammy awards, was awa rded seven teen honorary degrees, was granted the Presiclential Medal of Honor in 1969, and in the early 1970s was na med

FIGURE 34.8: Duke Ellingion at tlie piano in rhe

mid-1930s. (81lTJ'MANNICOft.1$) a member of the National lnstitute of Arts and Letters and of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music, the first jazz musician to be so honored. He played and toured with his band until his death at age seventy-five. when his son, Mercer Ellington. took over the band and continued to tour. East Sr. Louis Tood/e-oo; 8/ack ar,d Tan Fantasy: /Vlood lnd,go: Creole Rhapsody: Concerto for Cootíe: Ko-Ko: Cotton Tail: 8/ack. Brown and Beige: and MAJOR WORKS:

more than 1.300 other compositions. índuding song s. chorai works. tone poems. suites. musicais. and ballet an d film scores

tb e sarne chord progression as the hme but d oes not vary or cleve lop the tune. Rather. lhe music at each chorus presents oew ideas and may or may no! use me lod ie or rhythmi c ideas from ea rlier in the piece. The remaining three ch oruses featu1·e various combi nation s of instruments playingtogether or in call-anel - response J'ashion. an d lhe lirst eigh t ba,-s of Ellington's tune return to hring tJ1e piece to a dose. Throughout his career, Ellington fought tl1e labe l "jazz composer." pre Ferring to con sicler his music (anel all good music) "beyo nd category." He bel ieved that jazz could serve not onJy as dance or en tertainment music bul

Bermri categnry

871

872

C H A 1> T E R 3 4

EXAMPLE 34.4,

• Between the Wo rld W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul• r Music

F1lm Music

Duke Ellingto,i's Cot1on Tail a.nd Ben llí'ebster's solo

Cm?

Gm7

LEI Firsc chorus:

> mp 3

Second chorus,

=-9+€-i-~-¼ 1

Gr~==PI

1 [

ü7

vi7

ii7

also as art music. listened to for its own sake. He frequently pushed against the boundaries of technolocy and convention, Un1jJ the introduction of lonp;p la.yi ng records in t he late 1940s, a p iece could only be about three to four minutes longin order to ftt on oneside of a 78 - rpm record; longer pieces had to be split up on severa! record sides. making them more diflicult to market. EI I ington composed longer pieces anyway and convi nced l he record compa n.ies to recorei the pieces on multiple sicles. Later in his career. he composed su ites. such as Bla,ck. Brown a,nd Beige (1943). Har!em ( 1950). and Suite Thursday (1960), and collaborated with Billy Strayhorn in rescoring for jazz band classical favorites such as Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite anel Grieg's Peer Gynt Sui:te. In asserting the value of jazz as an art music. he was declaring it worthy of attentive listening and of a per manent place in American culture. ln both respects, his view has won out.

Film Music Sound in fi.lm ln the same way 1ha1 recordings and radio fos1ered! the explosive growth of jazz. n ew technologies transformed film music. ln th e late 1920s. methods were invented to synchronize recordeei sound w:ith ftlm . opening up new possil.iilities for the use of musicas part of a úlm, nol merely as live accompaniment to it. The first "talking picture" (so ca ll ecl because it fea.tured recorded dialogue) was The Jazz Singer ( l 927) starring Al Jolson . which includcd sce nes of Jolso n s ingi ng and ot her sce nes in which m usic was used lo accom pany the action. as in carlier silcnl lilms. These two types of scene exemplify t he two categori es of m usic i n ftlm that have con tinued to the present:

1. mu,;ic t ha t i,; hearci or performed hy the character,; th em,;elve!.. known as diegetic music or source music. and 2. backgrnund music that conveys to the viewer a mood or other aspects of a scene or characler, known as 11011dicgctic 111.usic or

t111dcrscori11g.

873

Toe advent of sound fd.m put thousands of theater musicians ou t of work, On -screen an economic downturn made disastrous by tbe Great Dep ress ion that began pe1formances in 1929. Yet it did open a new window of opportunity. By the mid - l 930s. the major Hollywood studios each employed composers, orchestrat0rs, arrangers, anel editors to create music for lilms anel orchestras to perfor m it, and filmmakers ahroad assembled similar units. Both dramas anel comedies often inclueled musica l numbers as ioterludes or for dramatic reasons. One of the enli est movies lo use musicdramati.callywas theAustrian falmDerblau.e Engel (simultaneously releasecl in English as The Blue Angel. 1930). ln il Marlene Diel rich as a caharet singer performs songs by F'riedrich Hollaender (a.k.a. Freelerick Hollander), arnong them her signature song, Falling in LoveAgain. whic h in the German version has entirely differe nt anel racier wor ds. Beginning in 1929. Ho llywood studios p1·oducecl numerous musicais com - Movie musicais 1>osed for ftlm. During the 1930s, lhe "Golden Age" of tbe Hollywood musical, ma ny of Broadway's best-known composers wrote music for movie musica is, including Ro mberg (Viennese Nights) , Gershwin. (Delicious anel ShaU We Dance?), BerJin (Top Hat). Kern (Swing Time). a.nd Porter (Bom to Dance). The spectacular choreop;raphy of Busby Berkeley enl ivened Gold Diggersof 1933 and many other nlms. an d the s inging and dancing of Bing Crosby. Fred Astafre, and Ginger Rogers in many movie m usicals made tbem internatio nal stars. Movie musica is were enor mously popular. They olfereel escape from the Great Depression. theirlevel of talent was bigh. and ticket prices were inexpen sive compared to Broadway shows. A parallel development in Germany was the ftl.m operetta. includ ing scores by Franz Lehár (Where Is This Lady ?) and other prominent composers. but the rise of the Nazis in l 933 forced many of the leading figures to emigrate. The Hollywood studios also fostereel the rise of nlm scores that were fully in.tegrateel into the dramalic aclion, like th e music for an opera-"opera without singing," in the memorable phrase of composer Erich Wolfgang Korngold. Many of the composers working in Hollywood were Euro pean immigrants , and lhey app lied the language of Wagner, Strauss. and Debussy to music for iilm . Max Steiner (1888- 1971). an immigram from Vienna who had worked on Broadway for ftfteen years as an arranger, orchestrator, and comp oser, es tablis bed the model for t be Hollywood hlm score with bis music for King Kong (1933). The movie. whose poster is shown in Figure 34.9, centered on a giant gorilla cliscovered in Africa anel brough1 to New York, where it tbreatens the city. Steiner's score is organized around leit motives for characters and ideas, as in a Wagner opera, and coordinates lhe music with actions on screen, often marking particular movements with musir..al effects. Tbe music FIGURE 34.9. Poatcrjor King Kong conveys mood. character, anel place tluough styles witb (1933). wliosescore by MaxS1einerse1 the strong associations, from primitivism for the African set- po rodig,n for Holl:,,uood fil,n music. e,.,, .. ting to orchestra l Romanticism for clramatic moments, anel LNK 2. LLC/COHBIS)

874

C H A 1> TER 3 4

• Between the Wo rld W•rs: J•2t •nd Popul• r Music

it uses moderuist techniques when appropriate, such as intense dissonance forfright and other extreme emotions. AI] of these traits beca me characteristic of nlm scoring. Sleiner continue<l writing fllm scores lhrough the l 960s, his cre<lils including Cone with the Wind (1939) and Casablanca (1943) Other leading Hollywood fi.l.m composers include Erich \Volfgang Korngold (1897- 1957). who brought h is experience as a Viennese composer or ope ra and classical con cert works to scores for the ErroJ Plynn swashbuclders CaptCLin Blood (1935) and The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). a nd Alfred Newman (l 900-1970). the l'trst major native - born Aroericau hlm composer, known for scores to IVi,thering Heights. 11ie Song of"Bernadeue. How ihe West Was Won, Airport. and more ihan two hundred otherfilms. Music also played a prominent role in animated films, J'rom shorts like Walt Disney's pioneering cartoon Steamboai Willie (1928) and the Bugs Bunny cartoons scored by Carl Stalling to full- length featlll·es, beginningwith Disney'sSnow lf'hiteand1'1eSeven Dwarfs (193 7) with a score by Prank Churchill. Music became integral to ali lhese types of lilm. guiding lhe viewer's emotional responses and giving depth to lhe events on screen.

Mass Media and Popular Music Through the new technologies of recordings. radio. and sound on lilm, American popular music. jazz. and nlm music reached audiences th.roughout the Western wodd. Music could now be preserved and enjoycd ycar after year, for decades to come. As a result. much of this music mai ntained its popularity. and within a generation or two many of these pieces achieved the status of classics: widely known, hear d and reheanl, and highly valued. By the l 970s, ca n ons of classics had developed for popular song. blues. jazz. and lilm music. in parallel with the canon of classical music that had emerged in the nineteenth centw)'. The central core of those canons- parallel to Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven in the classical wodd- is in most cases forroed by composers and performers whose music was popu lar between the world wars, including Berlin. Kern, Gershwin. Porter. Bessie Smith. King Oliver. Armstrong. Ellington, Basie, Goodman, Steiner, Korngold , and Newman. Today. in addition to recordings and movies. live ensembles perform Tin Pan Alley songs. Broadway musicais. blues. New Orleans jazz. swing, bigba.nd jazz, anel even movie scores from lhe 191 Os, 1920s, anel 1930s. This music is admired both for its original value as entertaimnent and because it is considered artful. worth listening to with atteution. and capable of offering musical experi ences available nowhere else- the sarne reasons that music of carlicr generations was prescrvecl and revivcd in the nineteenth eentury. There are now many traditions of musical classics. and a ll have a share in our ricl1 lyva ri ed musical life.

['@

Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS : THE CLASSICAL TRADITION Music in the classical tradition continued to diversüy in style and concept between the world wars, as compose rs sought individual solutions to the common problem of fmding a place in lhe crowded classical repertoire. In ali nations and regions. music composition beca.me increasingly-or perhaps only more overtly- tied to political concerns a.nd ideolDbties. Govern:menl regulation of music was especially sn·ong in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Some composers in the classical trac:ütion-reacting to social and political pressures, to the economic crisis of the Depression, to thei1· older modernist colleagues, o r to Lhe perce ived loss of a listen ing public for modern music-sought to reconnect with a l,a rge audien ce. while others pursued new ideas with linle concern for popularity. Throughout the Americas a growing number of composers won international repulations with music that represented their nations on lhe world stage. Ar, experimental or "ultramodernis(' tradition emerged in the United States alongside a growing nationalist trend, both represenling assertions of independencc from Europe.

Music, Politics, and the People Music has long been linked to polilics. Aristoúe discussed music in his Pofüics. and he and Pia to described the appropriate uses of music

876

C H A 1> TE R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

TIMELINE Between the Wars: 1'he Classical 1'radition MUS ICAL

• 1914- 18 • 1917

HISTORICAL

World War 1

Russian Revolurion

Women win right to vote in United States

• 1919

Les Six compose music for Les mariés de la tour Eiffel

• 1922

Fascists take over government in ltaly

• 1922

Oarius Milhaud, La création du monde

• 1923

Edgard Varese. Hyperprism

• 1923

George Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue

• 1924

Henry Cowell. The Banshee

• 1925

• 1925-26

Ernst Krenek. Jonny

spielt au{ Claude Champagne, Suite canadienne

o 1927

Kurt Weill, The Threepenny Opera

• 1928

New York stock market crash beg ins worldwide Oepression

• 1929

William Grant Still, Afro-American Symphony

• 1930

Ruth Crawford Seeger. String Ouartet

• 1931

Union of Soviet Composers founded

• 1933

for the ideal society. Charlemagne·s desire to unify his large empire led to the codification of Gregorian chant. Louis XIV asserted control through dance and opera. And Verdi's operas rallied supporl for Italian unification and freedom from foreign ru le. But in lhe nineteenth century. some writers claimed thal classica l music was an autonornous a rr 1hat transcended poli · tics and should be composed, performed , experienced, and admired for its own sake. separate from political or social con· cerns. The new ··science" ot' musicology that emerged during the níneteenth century reinforced ihis,1iew, focusing more on tJ1e styles and procedures of past rnus ic t.han on its socia l fone· tions. To some ex lent. lreating musíc on ils own terms was an admirable ideal. allowing many listeners to enjoy music for ils own sa ke andas a respite from the concerns of the day. But in other respecls, frorn its cultivatíon by tbe eco no mie and social elite to íts assocíation with nationalism, classical musíc never escaped polit ics. The period between the world wars brought new links between musíc and polít ics. ln democracies such as Britain, rrance , Germany under the Weimar Republic, and lhe United States, economic troubles and po'li tical conflicts led many composers lo believe that arl which set itself aparl from social needs was ín danger of becomí og irrelevanl to sociely at large. As the gap wi.dened between the unfamiliar sounds of modernist music and the ability of üsteners to understand it, composers tried to bring contempon-ary musíc closer to the general public by crafting widely accessible concen works or by writing music for fdms, theater, and dance. Convinced that music performed by amateurs and school b'I·oups was as importam as art music, some composers wrote works that were within the capabilities of amateu rs and rewa rding to perform. yet were modem in style. Many composers used musíc, especially musical theater, to engage current social, political, anel econorn ic issues. Natio11a lism continued as a strong force in most counlríes. exemplifred ín the musical styles of individual composers and in eff'orts to edit. publish. and perform music oi' the nation, iod ud_iog botb folk music and the written music of earlier times. Most governments sponsored musical activities directly. Public schools inereasingly included musíc ín the curriculum. Hungarian composer Zoltãn Kodá ly devised a method of teaching music to children through the use of folk songs. musical games, and graded exercises-a method rhat was eventually adopted by many schools across Europe and North America. Tbrougbout most of Europe. radio was cootrolled by the government and was a major employer of composers and perfonuers. During the New Deal in lhe United States, the federal government estab lished programs to employ

fritnce

out-of-work musicians and composers. Totalitarian governments insisted that music under their rebrimes support the state and its idcologies. ln the l 930s. the Soviet Union anel Naú Germany attempted lo suppress lhe composition and performan ce of rnodernist rnusic, whic h was condemned in one counlry as bourgeois decadence. in lhe o ther as cultural Bolshevisrn. Th is last exarnple illust rates a point worth bear· iog in minei. Although musica l styles were often ide nti n ed with particular ideologies, these links we re contíngent on the unique political situation in each nation; the sarne style. even the sarne piece, coutei be seen as progressive or socíalist in one place a.n d conservative or fascistic in another.

France ln France, and especially in Paris, musical l!ife bad long bee,1 intertwined with po litics. Since the Pranco-Prussian War in 1870- 71. strong anti -German sentiment had led to an íncreased focus on French musíc as an embodiment of French natio nal character and culture, but peop le of different poli ti· cal stripes dísagreecl abo ut what qualitíes French culture. anel thus French music. should have. Croups across the political spectrum sponsored concerts thal supported their points of view. ln theearly l 900s, the conserva tive nationalist LiE,ruecle la Patrie Française (League of the French Homeland) joined wilh Vincent d 'lndy aod his Schola Cantornm 10 present concerts anel lectures that showcased the Prench trad ition-pa11icu · larly composers from the Middle Ages to the 1789 Revolution and the classically oriented composers since Franck-as the embodiment of autbentic rrench culture based on religious principies and respect for authority. ln response. the government. then dominated by left - wing parties. promoted French composers since the Revolution, especially those like Berlioz anel Saint-Saens who. their advocates arguecl, freed Prench music from the bonds of tradition. ln this way, not only new musíc but the music of the pasl was politically contested. World War I and its aftermat h brought a new wave of anti-German sentiment anda renewed opposition to German influences in F'rench culllU·e. Du ring ::ind after the war, nationalists asserted that Prench music was intrinsically classic, as opposed to the Romanticism of the Germans. Thus neoclassicisrn- the use of classical genres and forms, tonal centers. and common- praclice or neotonal harmonies. alliecl with emotiona l restra int and a rejection of Romantic excess- became the prevailing trend in France alter the war. associated with patdotism. But exactly how "classíc" was lo be deiined was a point of con tention. Conservatives like d'lndy

877

Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany

• 1933

Franklin D. Roosevelt institutes New Deal in United States

• 1933

Paul Hindemith, Symphony Mathis der Maler

• 1933- 34

Doe trine of socialist realism adopted in Soviet Union

• 1934

Omitri Shostakovich 's opera Lady Macbech atracked in Soviet press

• 1936

Carl Orff. Carmina burana

• 1936

Silvestre Revueltas, Homenaje a Federico Garcfa Lorca

• 1936

• 1936- 39

Spanish Civil War

Shostakovich. Fifth Symphony

• 1937

Sergey Prokofiev, Alexander Nevsky

• 1938

Germany absorbs Austria

• 1938

Germany invades Poland. beginning World War li

• 1939

U.S. enters into World Warll

• 1941

Aaron Copland, Appalachian Spring

• 1943-44

World War li ends with defeat of Germany and Japan

• 1945

Soviet Union cracks down on Prokofiev, Shostakovich, and • formalist" composers

• 1948

878

C H A 1> T E R 3 5

• Between the World Wars: The Class,cal Tradition

iclentiôecl it with balance, orcler, discipline, anel u·adition. contras ting witb the irrationality anel individu alism of Romanticism. Composers on the left, like Ravel (see chapter 32). saw the classic as encompassing the universal anel no t me rely lhe nalional. His m usic included elemems from Viennese walczes (Lo. v(l!se}, Spain (Bolero), Roma style (Tzig(lne), bh1es (Violin Sonata), anel jazz (Concerto for lhe Left Hanel). all rejecteel by the conservative nalionalists.

fritnce

EXAMPLE 3S.1,

Milh(lu.d. "Copacab(lna,"from Saudades do Brasil

LES SIX Ayounger grou p of composers absorbeel tbe st rong iníluence of neoclassi· cism but sought to esca pe the old political dichotomies. Arthu r Honegger (1892-1955) , Darius Milhaud (1892-1974), Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), Germai.ne Tailleferre (1892- 1983). Georges Auric (1899-1983), and Louis Durey (1888-1979) we re dubbed ''Les Six" (Tbe Six), in a parall el to the Mighty Five in Russia (see chapters 28 and 30). by a French journalist who saw them as seeking to free french music l'rom foreign dominatio11. They drew ins]) ira tion from Eri k Satie (see chapter 32) and were hailed by writer Jean Cocteau, who called for new music that would be fully French and anli· Romantic in ils clarity, accessibility, anel e mot.iona l restrai nt. The group. pictured in Figure 35.1. collaborated in joinl concerts, an alhum of piano music, and Cocteau 's absurd ist play· with·ballet Les rnariés de La tou.r Eiffel (Newlyweds on the Eiffel Tower, 192 1). But the group did 1101 remain together long- Durey left before the ballet project stanecl-aod none of lhem J'ully conformed to Cocteau·s program. lns tead, they each wrote highly individual works that drew on a wide range of influences. i.nclueli.ng hui noc limitecl to neoclassicism. Tai.lleferre was tbe most in tune with neoclassica l ideals. drawing on Couperin anel Rameau (see chapter 18) in her Piano Concerlo (1923-24) anel other works. Auric was the most taken wi t h Satie's avant· ga rd e approach. But the most individual were Honegger, Milhaud. anel Poulenc, who achieved s uccess indepen • elenl of Lhe group anel found ways lo make their music distinctive within the broa d outlin es of neoclassicism. FIGURE 35.t The Croup of the Six (Homm:,ge Honegger excelled i.n music of dynamic action and à Sat ie) by Jacques-Ernile Blan clte (} ?22-23). graphic gesture, expressed in short-breathed melo This group portrait s'1owsfive of tlte composers d ies, strong ostinato rhytbms, bolei colors, anel dis· ~·n<1wn as les Six and 1hree <1J1heir c<1!1ab<1rators. sonant harmonies. His symphonic movement Pacific Clock.wisef ram bouo,n lefr are Cermaine T/lille231 (1923), a translation into music of the visual and ferre. Darius MW1aud. Arllwr Honegger. cond1,ctor physical impression of a speeding locomolive, was Jea,i Wiéner, pianist Marcelle Meyer. Francis Pouhailed as a sensational piece of modernist descriptive lenc. 1vriter Jean C-0cteaii. anel Ceorges Auric. Nor music. Honegger won an international reputation in slwwn is Lo11is Dure,·. wlwleft tlte gmupin. 1921. 1923 wilh his oracorio King D(lvi.d, which combined Lhe ( ..1usfi-F DES IU~AUX•AIITS. ltOUl!SI. O l (lOS, Atl'rl~-rs IUGH'l'S tradition of music for amateu r chorus with allusions to socu:n l ARSJ. Nl--W YO K~ADACP. VAJIJS)

styles from Gregorian chan t tu Ba ro que polyphony to jazz. The evocalions of pre-Romanlic styles, use of tradilional forms anel procedures, and prevailing dia tonic language all revea l the impact of neoclassicisrn. Milhauel produceel an immense quantity of music. i.ncluding piano pieces. chamher m usic, suites. sonatas, symphonies, nlm music. ballets, songs, cantatas , operas, anel music for child ren. His works are di verse in style and approach, ranging from the comic frivolity of the ballet Le boeufsur le toit (The Ox on the Roof, 1919) to the earnestness of the opera· oratorio Chri-stophe Colomb (J 928) anel lhe religious devotion of lhe Sacred Service (1947), whlcb reflects Milhaud's Jewish heritage. He was especially open to sounds and styles from lheA.mericas. where he travelecl often. During World War II. after France fell to the Cennans in 1940, he J1ed to the United States to escape Nazi persecution of Jews. He accepted a teaching position at Mills College in Oak· land, California. a nd continued to teach there until 1971. dividing his time between there and France after 1he war. Milhauel grew familiar with the popular music of Brazil d ul'ing a two -year stay there in 1917-18, and upon his return to Paris he incorporated Brazilian melodies anel rhythms in le boeufsur la toit a nd in the suite of dances Saudades do Brasil (Souvenirs ofBrazil, l 920-21 ), illus1rateel in Example 35.1. ln add.ition to the syncopated rhythms and cliatonic melodies of Brazi.lian dance, the latter uses polytonality. in which two lines of melody and planes of harmony. each in a distinct a nd d.ifferen l key, sound sim u.ltaneously- here, B majo r in the upper register over G major in the accompaniment. This proceclure wouJd beco me associated with Milhaucl, alt.hougb rnany used it before and since. Inspired by jazz he heard in Harlem dming a concert tour in the United States, Milhauel imitated the sounels anel styles of jazz in his ballel fo cré· ation du monde (The Creation of the \Vorld, 1923) . Saxophone, piano, and soloistic treatment of the instruments evoke the sound of jazz bands. In the ü rs t scene (NAWM 185), elemen ts of jazz such as blue notes, blues melodies, syncopations, riffs , and ensemble textures are stylized and synthesized with neoclassic and othe r modernist traits, including a fugue . polytonality. and polyrhythms. ln ali his music, Milhaud blended ingenui ty, freshness, and variety wilh the clarity anel logical form he had absorbed from neoclassicism. Yet his openness to foreign influe nces. from jazz to Schoenberg. was a far cry from the program of nati onalist classical purity favoreci by d'ln dy. Poulenc drew especially on Parisian popular song traditions from cabarets anel revues. This too vio latecl th e strir.tm·es of cl'ln<ly. who rejected influence from "lower" forras of music. Pouleuc·s compositions revel in an ingratiating harmonic idiom, draw grace and wit from popular styles, and wecl satirical rn imicry to fluenl rnelody, as i11 his surrealist opera Les m(lmelles de Tiresia,s

Darius Milhaud

Full ~

Francis Poulenc

879

880

C H A 1> T E R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

(The Breasts ol'Tiresias. 1940). The Conceri clw.mpêire ( Pastoral Conce110) for hairpsichord or piano and small orchestra (1 928), comm issioned by harpsichordist Wanda Landowska. evokes the spirit of Rameau and Domenico Scarlac ti, and hís sonacas and chamber works for various groups of instruments bring an expressive, song-i nfluenced me lodie idiom and fresh, mild ly dissooan t harmonies into classical genres and forros. Among his other composiLions a re a Mass in Gfor a cappell a cho ru s (1937); Stabat mater (1950-51) and Gloria ( 1959-60) for soprano, chorus, and orchestra; severa! motets and other chorai works: and numerous songs. His three -act opera Dialogues of the Carmeiites (l 956) is an affecting meditation on the execution of Carmelite nuns during the French Revolution, raising issues oi' religion, poli1ics, allegiance, and personal choice tllat had deep resonances in Pre nch political life.

Germany Gei-many under the \Veimar Republic (l 919-1933) was a botbed oi' politica] con tentlon. which echoed in th e musi cal world . After tl, e Nazis carne to power in 1933. they attacked most modem musicas decadent. banned the political left and Jews from panicipating in puhlic life, and pei-.secuted Jews and other minorities. As a result, many 1.e ading musicia ns took refuge abroad.

NEW OBJECTIVITY

Ernst Krenek

ln opposition to tlle emotional intensity of the late Romantics and the expressionism ofSchoenbergand Berg. a new trend emerged in the l 920s under the slogan Neue Sachlichkeit, meaning New Objectivity, New Realism, or "New Matter-of-Pactness." The ph rase was li rst used in art criticism and quickly adopted by musicians. As articulated by the compose1· Ernst Krenek (19001991) and others, lhe New Objeclivity opposed complexity and promoted the use of familiar elements. borrowing from popular music and jazz or from Cla ssical and Baroque procedures. ln their view, music sbould be objective in its expression. as in the Baroque concept of the affect ions (see chapter 13). rather than subjective or ex treme. The notion of musicas aULonomous was rejected . lnstead. it s hou ld be wide ly accessible. communi cate clearly, and draw connections to the events and concerns of the time. Krenek's fonny spieli auf (Johnny SLrikes Up lhe Band), premiered in Leipzigin 1927. was the embod im ent of th ese ideais. a11 opera set in the present time that used the interaction of a European composer and an African American jazz musician to examine dichotomies between contemplation and pl.easure and belween a seemingly exbausted and inward - looking Europcan tra dition anda new and e nergetic American one. The music drew on jazz and on a simp lified harmonic language. The opera was an immediate success, was produced on over seventy stages during the nex l thrce years. and established Krenek's reputation. But ahnost from the sta11 it was vor.iferously attacked by tbe Nazis as "degenerate" for its use of African American elements. Krenek !ater ado pted the twelve- tone method and ernigrated lo the United States after Nazi Germany absorbed his naliveAustria in 1938.

Germany

881

KURT WEILL Kurl Weill (1900- 1950). an opera composer in Bcrlin. was also an exponent of the New Objectivüy. Sympathetic to the political left, he sought to offer social comm ent,ny and ro entertain eve1ydaypeop le rather than the inte llectual elites. Weill collaborated wiLh the playwright Be rtolt Brechl 011 the allegori- Mahagonny caJ opera Aufstieg und Fali der Stadl Mahagonny (füse and fali of lhe City of Mahagonny, premiered 1930) . ln the opera, fogitives from justice bu ilcl a town declicated to pleasure, free of legal or moral taboos. but soon finei that they have created a heU rather Lhan a paradisc on earth. Weill's score incorporates elemems of popular music and jazz and makes witty references to a vari ety of styles. The pit orchestra includ es instruments typical of jazz ban dstwo saxophones, piano, banjo. and bass guitru:~ as well as winds and limpani. while three saxophones, zither. a bandoneon (a kind of accordion), strings. anel bnss play in the stage orchestra. Through sath·e in b oth libretto anel music. Brecht and Weill sought to expose what they regarded as lhe failures of capitalism, which the city of Mahagonny exemplihed. Toe most famous collaboration between Weill anel Brecht was Die Drei- The Tbreepen ny groschenoper (The Threepenny Opera. premiered 1928). Brecht based tbe Ope ra libretto on The Beggar's Opera by John Gay (see chapter 21 and NAWM 109) . although Weill bonowed only one air írom Lhe score. The cas t included Lotte Lenya, shown in Figure 35.2, whom Weill had married in 1926; s he became his favo rile inter pre ter and after his eleatth a champion oJ' his work. The music parodied rather lhan imitated American hit songs. then the rage in Europe. Weill juxtaposed in a suneal manner the eighteenth-centmy ballad texts. Ew·op ean dance music, anel American jazz. The opening song. Die Moritat von Mackie Messer (The Ballad of Mack the Knil'e, NAWM l86 lc~... ~ JIFu11 ;;, l), lis ts the murderous deeds of Macheat:h, the centra l c ha racter, a gang leader in London. Tbe lilting melody undercuts the brutal imagery, conveying Macheath's easygoing charm. anel creating a d isturbing sense that we are meant to sympathize with the crim inal uuderclass rather than with the power structure. As the verses go by and the body cou n L rises , the accompanimem changes from a harmonium, imitating the barrei orga n of ao eighteenth-century street singer, to a jazz band with piano, banjo, percussion, trombone, trumpe l. and saxopbo nes: the effect is to gradually bring lhe sto1y into the present day and to suggest its relevance as a pai·able for modero society. The original Berlin production ran for over two years. and within five years The Threepenn)' Opera enjoyed more than ten thousand p erforman ces in nineteen languages. Toe Naús banned i! as decadenl in 1933. when Weill anrl Lenya left for Pari~ anel then for FIG U RE 3 5 .2. Lotrc Lcnya.a<i]cn1>y in r/ic 1931 the United States. film version of Kun Weil/'s The Threepenny ln New York. Weill began his second career as a 01,e ra. (KUR1·,,r,11 t. rou~OA'l'ION/1..l'ISKECHT >.IUSI(; ~ composer for Broadway musicais. The most successfuJ ARTS PHOTO LI 88.AJlY)

882

C H A 1> T E R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

Germany

were Knickerbocker Holiday (1938), Lady in the Dark (1 940) , anel the musica l tragedy Lost ín the Stars (1948), ab out apartheiel in Sou lh Africa. The spirit of the New Objectivity livcd on in these works. crafted by a classically trained modernis t yet addressed to a broad musical public and rneam to be immediately grasped by minei and hean.

PAUL HINDEMITH

!Vorks ofthe

Weima,rperiod

Gchrauchsmusik

Mathis der Maler

Paul Hinelemilh (1895-1963) was among the most prolíftc composers of lhe century. At the Berlin School of Music (1 927- 37), Yale University (1940-53), and lhe Universicy ofZurich (]951 - 57), he laught two generacions of musicians. He thought of h imself primarily as a practicing musician, performing pcofessionally as violinisl. violist. anel conductor and able to play many olher insrru ments. The expedence of performance became central to his m usic, wh ether intendeel for amateurs or professionals. In lhe fragmenteel world of new music between the wars. Hindemith changed his approach severa! times. He began composing in a late Romantic style, lhen developed ao individual expressionist language in works like the one-act opera Morder. Hoffnungder Frauen (Murderer, Hope ofWomen, 1919), based on Oskar Kokoschka's play (see Figure 33.2). Soon hc adopted the aes thelic scance !ater dubbed tbe New Objeclivity, which in his music was exemplifted by an avo ida nce of Romantic expressivity anda focus on purely musical procedures, especially motivic development and a polyphony of inelependent lines. The seven works he tilled simply Kammermusik (Chamber Music, 192227) inc luded a piece for smaU orchest ra and six conce,-tos for so lo instrume nt and chamber orchestra, which encompasseel a variety of movement types from neo -Baroque ritornello forms to military marches and dances. All his music was neo tonal, establishing pitch cemers chrougb 1ecbniques from simple reiteration of a note to complex contrapuntal voice-leading. By the late 1920s. Hindemith was disturbed by the widening gulf between modern composers and an increasingly passive pu.blic. ln response, he began cornposi ng what was known as Gebra.u.c/1.smusih~ ..music for use," as distin guished from mus icfor irs own sake. Hisgoal was to create for youngoramaieur perlonners music that was high in quality, modern in style, and challengingyet rewarding to pe1form. An example is his m usical play for children, Wir bau.en ein~Stadt ~e Build a Town, 1930), in which children build a town of their own and govem it without adults. offering a lesson in civic virtues tluough singing anel playing music that is enten aining anel appropriate for young amateurs. After the Nazis came to power, they attacked Hindernith in the press and banneel much ofhis musicas ·'cultural Bolshevism." He began to examine the role of the artist in relation to politi cs and power. and from nis questioning emerged lhe opera M<tthis der Maler (Malhis the Painter, 1934- 35; prcmiered 1938 in Zurich) and Symphony Ma,this der Moter ( 1933-34), his best-known work, comprising th e overru re a nd other materi al for the opern composed wh.ile he was writing the li.bretto. The opera is baseei on the life of Mauhias Grünewa ld (Math i~ Neith arclt. r.a . 1470-1528). painter of the famou~ l~en h eim Alterpiece shown in Figure 35.3 . Grtinewald was liltle known until the late uineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when he was reeliscovered anel e nthusiast ically embraced for lhe dramatic. almosl e>qnession ist qualities oi'

FIGURE 35.3: 77vee paneis from rl, e lsenhe im AJtarpiece. pointed by Mauhias Gn,newul,t be1ween 1512 and JSJ6for rhe chapeLof a l1ospital and monasterxin Colma r. Al-sace. On the rop ri.ght i.s the Nativily wilh Ma,y lwláin.g the newbornfesus; 011 the left is 1/te Conce11 of Angels. che in.spiration for the first movemen.1 of Hindemith ·s Symphony Maihis der Ma ler. and below is the Ent()ml.,m cnt. evoked in 1heseco11 cL movement. Both moveme111.s were reu-sed in rhe opem Mathis der Maler. about Griinewald's life. (sCAl.AIABr JtP.SOUltCI?. l'íY)

bis AJtarpiece, for bis distinctively German style, anel for bis pofüical sympathies with the peasantry. ln the opera , Mathis leaves his calling as a painter to join the peasanrs in their rebellion against the nobles during the German Peasants' Wa r of 1525. ln despa ir after thei r defeat, he comes to realize that by abandoning bis a1·t he betrayed h is giJt and his trne obligation to society, which is to paint. Yet Hind emith does not portray artas enti re ly autonomous, since Mathis's experiences infonn his mora I vision. Tb e opera can be readas an allegory for Hindemith's own career. For Mn,thi.~ anel hi~ other work~ from tht! l 930~ on. Hindem ith cl evelopecl a more accessible neo - Romantic style , wiLh less dissonan t linear counterpoiut ancl more systematic tonal orgauizatfon. He devised a n ew h armonic mcthod that he called "harmonic fluctualion .. : fairly consonant choreis

883

884

C H A 1> TE R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

EXAMPLE 35.2,

The Soviet Union

Hindemith. Symphony Mathis der Ma ler, openingofsecond

movement Sehr la.u1,.-;;ain J • 54

r, f)

!".

1.____.p

) .. .. .. P';.

t-•· .

~- .,..--...--=. :

-r-.,..--..._~- ~F ~ ~

" iii3

-" 1--::-i------1 ill 1..,..,,1

Laterworks

progress toward comhinations containing greater tension and dissonance. whlch are then resolved either suddenly or by s lowly moderaling the tension untiJ consonauce is again reached. We can see this techniq11e in Examp le 35.2, lhe heginnlng of the second movement of the symphony (J\A~ 187). representing Mathis's paiming of the entomhment of Christ shown in Figure 35.3. From ano pen nfth, the harmony adds fourths and major seconds, with some para ll el-fourth motion leading to a cadence on a n fth-octave sonority. An answering pluase in the winds adds minor thirds. reaching a height of dis sonance on a mlnor ninth before retw·ning to the inilial sonority with octave doubli ngs. S11ch progressions were at once novel. d istinctive. and easy for listeners to understand. ln 1936, the Nazi government forbade perfor mances of Hindemith's mu sic. Mathis der Maler ha<l to bc premlere<l in Swilzerland, an<l Hindemith moved there in 1938. He emigrated to the United States in 1940 after the outbreak of World \Var II and stayed for over a decade. remrning to Switzerland in 1953. Having found his mature style in Mo.this, he applied it to a series of sonatas for a lmost every orchestral instrument (l 935-55). Ludus to,i.a!i-s (Tonal Play. 1942) for piano evokes the model of Bach's Well-Tempered Cio.vier wilh twelve fugues, each centered on a diJl'eren L note in the chroma tic scaJe. linked by modulating interludes and framed by a pre lude and postlude. Other notahle !ater works include Symphonic Metamorphosis a/ter Themes of Carl Maria von Weber (l 943) and the Symphony in 81, for band (1951).

MUSIC UNDER THE NAZIS Schoenherg. Ksenek. \Veill. an<l Hindemith ali Jled lo the United States. hui other compose.rs stayed in Ge.rmany du ring the Nazi era. The Nazis estahlisbed a Rei eh Chamber of Culture uuder Joseph Goebbels, whicb included a Reich Music Chamher to which all musicians had to belong. Richard Strauss,

the granel olcl man of German music. was appointecl its âl'st presiclent , but was soon forced to resign when he continued to collaborate on operas with a Jewish librcllist. Stefan Zwcig. The Naús· requil·ements for music were mostly expressed il1 negatives: music must not be dissonant, atonal, lwelve-tone, "chaotic," intellecrual , Jewish. jazz- iniluenced. or left - wing. which exclude<l most modernist music. Composers had to cooperai e wilh the regime in a rder to have 1heir music pe rformed, and mosr did. But many Gel'man composers continuecl to write in personal idioms inlluenced by Schoenberg. Stravinsky. Hindemith, or Weill, whose music tbe Nazis had attacked as decaclent or bannecl outrigbt. As a result, no coherent Nazi style of new music emerged. Rather, lhe governmenL focuse<l more on pe1formance than on composition, exp loitingthe great German composers of lhe nineteenth century from Beethoven to Bruckner as symbols of the allege<l superiodty of the German people. They especially J'ostered a cult of Wagner, whose anti-Semitic views supported thei r own and whose Ring cycle emhodied a German mythology they could embrace. Toe one German composer who won an international reputation during the Nazi era was Carl Orff (1895-1982), wb.o was far l'rom sympathetic witb the regime but, perhaps naively, believed that music was autonomous from politics anel staycd in Germany when others had left. His best- known work. Ca,min<i burana (1936) for chorns and orchestra, was an immediate success at its 1937 p remiere in Frankfurt, despite a hostile review in the Nazi Pal'ty paper. ln this piece. Orff sei medieval poems akin to goliar<l songs (see chapter 4) in an atrractive, deceptively simple neo-modal idiom. Drawing on Stravinsky, folk songs, chant, anel med ieva l secu lar song, he Cl'eated a monumental pseudo-antique style based on drones, ostinatos, harmonic stasis. and strophic repet ition. His Carmina bu.rana is distinctive yet immediately comprehensible and has been much imltaLed, especially by composers for film and television. Like Kodály, Orff also developed methods and materials for teaching music in schools. calling for movement. singing. and playing 011 percussion an<l other instrumenrs, Jeacling child ren in a natural way to experience a gl'eat val'i ety of scales and r hythms anel to arrive at a broadly based understanding of music.

Carl O,![

The Soviet Union ln the Soviet Uniou, the government controlled the arts along with every othel' realm of life . The a11s were seen as ways to indoctrinate the populace in Marxist- Le ninist ideology, enhance their patriotism, and venerate the coun try's leaders. Soon after the Revolution. theaters, conservalories, concerl halls, performingensembles, publishers. and orher musica l institutions were ali nationalized, and concert programming and the opera and ballet repertories were strictly regulated. Civil wal' in 19 18-20 and an econ omic c1·isis through the early 1920s p reoccupie<l the governmem and forced some relaxation o [ state control over the arts. During this period of relative freedom, divergent tendencies emerged

Cnnipnser.ç' organizations

885

886

C H A 1> TE R 3 5

Socialist realism

versus farmalism

• Between the World Wars: The Class,cal Tradition

among composers and crystalJizeel in two organiiations founded in 1923. The Association for Contempora ry Musi c sought to continue the modernist trends establishecl by Scriabin anel others bcfore the war and promo Led contacts wilh the West, sponsoring performances of music by Stravinsky. Schoenberg, Berg, Hindemith , and others. The Russian Associatio.n of Proletarian Musicians. on lhe other hand. considered s uch music elit ist anel insteael e nco uragecl simple tona l mus ic with wide appea l, especia lly "mass songs" (songs for groi1p unison singing) to socialist texts. After Joseph Stalin consolidatecl total power in 1929. dissent was quashed. The competing composers' groups were replaced in l 933 by a single new organi zation, the Union of Soviet Composers. A 1934 writers' congress promulgated socialist renlism as the ideal for Soviel arts. ln literature, drama. hlm, and painting. this doclrine called for using a realistic style (as opposed to abstraction, expressionism, or symbolism) in works that portrayeel socia I ism in a positive light, showing signs of progress for the people underthe Soviel state anel celebrating revolulionary ideology and ils heroes. What this meant for music was the use of a relatively simple, accessible language, centered on melody, often drawing on folk or f~lklike styles. and used for patriotic or inspirational subject matter. lnterest in music for its own sake or in modernist styles was condemned as "[ormalism." Bul the deftnitions of socialist realism and Iormalism were so vague anel arbitrary that com posers often ,·an afoul of the authorities, including the lwo leading Soviel composers of the time. Sergey Prokofiev a11d Dmitri Shostakovich.

SERGEY PROKOFIEV

FIGURE 35.4: Sergey Prokofievin 1934, in.apai11ri11g by Pp!tr Koncholovskr. (1' KIA'rKOVCALU' " ' º Lt'HKICH'r MUSIC &ABTSf rHE U.lACE WO RKS)

Prokofiev (1891-1953), shown in Figure 35.4, mad e his ini.tial reputation before 1918 as a radical modernist. combining striking dissonance with motoric rhythms. He left Russia after the Revolution and spent almost two elecacles resieling anel touring in North America anel western Europe, composing solo piano works anel concertos for himself to play, anel fulftlling commissions for larger compositions, among them an opera for Chicago, The Love for TTiree Oranges (1921) . anel ballets for Serge Oiaghilev's Ballets Russes in Paris. His career ata low ebb, Prokofiev succumbeel to promises from the Soviet regime of commissions and performances. He returned to Russia permanently in l 936, having alreaely fulf1Lled Soviet commissions for the ftlm lieuteMnt Kijé (1933) and for the ballet Romeo andfuliet (l 935- 36). His symphonic foi ry tale for narrator anel orchestra. Peter and the Wolf (1936). was one of many pieces he wrote in response to the Soviet demand for high-quality music for childreu. and his music for Sergei Eisenslein's úlm Alexan.der Nevsky ( 1938) beca me one of the most celebrated

The Soviet Union

ó.lm scores oi' the era. Prokooev·s pieces for state occasions, like his cantatas for the twentieth and thirtieth anniversaries of the Russian Revolution, were less successful anel were ignored outsidc of lhe Soviet Uniou. ln keeping with a practice common in Europe, Prokofiev reworked most of his theatrical pieces and film scor es into co ncert works. Although Hollywood composers sometimes made such arrangements from lheir Jilm music. fo r Prokofiev anel other European composers lhe concert pieces we re often as important as the ftlm score itse lf. The orchestral suites Prokofiev drew fromRomeo andfuliet anel Lieutenant Kijé became amonghis mosl pop ular works and e nterecl the standard repertory. So clicl his cantataAlexander NevskJ', which he aclapted in l 939 from the music for the fllm. The fourth movement (NAWM 188), drawnfromascene inwhichthepeopleofRussia are summoned to arise a.nd take up arms against Genna.n invaelers, works well as illm music: stirring chorai melodies in folklike style, sung in unison or simple two - part homophony, suggest th e unity and eleterminatio n of th e people. giving emolional depth to whal is depicted on screen: mostly diatonic melodies and barmonies make the music immediately accessible. while occasionalclissonance anel un expected turns make it engagi nganel dislinctive as well; anel the modal melodies anel orchestration convey a Russian sounel , cvoking both the strumming of seven-string Russian guitars anel the clanging beUs anel prominent brass and percussion of the Coronation scene from Musorgsky's Boris Godtmov (NAWM 153). But these sarne qua lities make it well suited as concert music that conforms to the doctrine of socialist realism. Moreover, ahhough Prokofiev some times cl1afeel al the res triclions imposed by the Sovier state, the widely appealing style he useel in pieces like this hrougbt bim greater success with audiences than his more modernist pieces of the 1920s. World War 11 again brougbt a relaxalion of governmenl control, anel Prokofiev turned to absolute music in classical genres, notab ly the Piano Sonatas Nos. 6- 8 (1939- 44) a.nd the Fifth Symphony (1944). These works are largely tonal. with the unexpected harmonic ju.xtapositions anel the alternation of acerbic elryness, lyricism, anel motoric rhythms that had been features of his personal style since the 191 Os. But after the war. the authorities again cracked down in a 1948 resolution that condemned 1he works of Prokol'iev and other leaeling composers as "formalist." He trieel to write more simply, but never recoverecl the balance of wit with feeling and of convention with surprise thal marks his best music. He died in 1953- ironically. on the sarne day as Stalin. whose brutal regime had so ci..rcumscribed his frcedom.

I Conti"' ~ 1 1 Full ~

DMITRI SHOSTAKOVICH Shostakovich (1906-1975). shown in F'igu re35.5, receivecl his eelucati.on and spent bis entire career withi o the Soviet system. He studied at the Conservatory in Pe trngrael (]ater Leningrad, now St. Petersburg), cultivating a combina tion of traditional discipline with experimentation. ln the 1920s. he was more aligned witb the modernisr than with the proletarian v.,ing in Russia. The premiere of his First Symphony in 1926. wheu he was nineteen. anel subsequent performances in the West rocketed him to ioternational prorninence. Shostakovich·s opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District was premiereel

887

Lady Macbeth

888

C H A 1> TE R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Class,cal Tradition

in 1934 in botb Leningrad and Moscow and scored a great success. with subsequeut performances throughout the Soviet Union and abroad. But Stalin saw iL in January 1936 and was angered by its discordant mod e rnist music and surrealislic, often grotesque. portrayal of violence and sex. Sho rtly the rearter, the newspaper Pravda printed an unsigned article attacking the opera as "C haos lnstead of Music" (see Source Reading). ln its wake the procluction was closecl down anel the opera withdrawn. Shostakovich tempo,arily lost his favored status and may have fearecl for his li fe: the previous year Stalin had bet,'Un a campaign of repression known as the Purges, during which many political figures, i11te llect1,1als, and artists were exec1,1tecl or banished to prison camps. lt is ha1·d not to see the IFifth Symphony, writ ten and premiered to greal accla im in 1937, as h_is response to the criticism of hls opera; indeed, be FIGURE 35.5, Porrrait of Dmitri Shostalrovich by endorsed a description o:f the work as "a Soviet artTair Sa Lakhov. <NovoswLEoRr.c 11-r., us,c ,...TS p11 oro ist's rep l_y to j ust critici sm ... The sym phony em bod ies ·'"'"'"'· o-r•rn ,._.. ""º"'""º· Mosco"'NAoA, """''º""· ,vJ a new approach Shostakovich had been developiug, inspired by close study of Mahler's symphonies. that encompassed a wide range of styles and moods. from lyricism to dynamism and from deep feeling and high h·agedy to bombast and rhe grotesque. It is framed as a heroic symphony in the grand manner of Beethoven and Tchaikovsky and in the tradilional four movements. A dynamic opening movement in sonata forro, suggestive of struggle, is l'ollowed by a scherzo-like Full :\\ 1 Allegretto (NA\'t'M 189), au intensely sad slow movement, anda boisterous fmale. The symphony outwardly conformecl to the tenets of socialist realism. infusing the most prestigious nineteenth-century instrumental geru-e with an optimistic, populist outlook and adopting a clear. easily unclerstood tona l language. For these reasons. it providecl the vehlcle for Shostakovich's re habilitalion with the state. Yet it was also possible 10 hear in it messages of bitterness anel mournfog in che face of totalitarian rep-ression. The Ailegretto adopts the jaJTing conlrasts of a Mahler scherzo, jux taposing passages that evoke a variety of popular styles from waltz to fanfare. The sorrowful slow movemcnt evokes traditional Russian funeral music; ii promptecl open tears al the premiere and has been seen by some as expressing sor row at the Pt1rges. The triumphalism of the fmal movement could also be interpreted as false enthusiasm. Such double meanings elo not mean that Shostakovich was a dissident-there was no room fo r dissidence under Stalin-but by composing multivalent music. he could at once please the Party bosses and provide an outlet for emotious thal had to remain unspoken. Seventh Symphony AD of Shostakovich's works were created in a politicized contexl. and the search for double meanings bas been widespread in the \Vest and in Russia after the fali of the Soviet Union . The Seventh Symphony (Leningra.d. 194 l) <leais programmalically with Lhe heroic defense ol' Leoingrad against Hitler's armies, althoiigh some hearin its clepiction of the total itari.an invaders a com-

The Soviet Union

889

CE NSUR IN G SHOSTAKOVICH Alter Shostakovich's opera Lady Macbeth of rhe Mtsensk Oistrict had been performed widely to great acclaim, Stalin's government singled it out for censure with a negative review in Pravda (Truth). the Communist Party newspaper. Through this attack on the nat,on's leading composer, they signaled a crackdown on composers' artistic freedoms.

From rhe first minute, rhe listener is shocked by deliberate dissonance. by a confused stream of sounds. Snatches of melody, the beginning& of a musical phrase, are drowned, emerge again. and disappear in a grinding and squeal ing roar. To follow this "music- is most difficult: to remember it, impossible. Thus it goes practically throughout the entire opera. The singing on the stage is replaced by shrieks. lf the composer chances to come on the path of a clear and simple melody. then immediately. as though frightened at this misfortune.

he throws himself back into a wilderness of musical chaos-in places becoming cacophony. The expression which the listener demands is supplanted by wild rhythm, Passion is here supposed to be expressed by musical noise. Ali this is not due to lack of talent. or to lack of ability to depict simple and strong emotions in music. Here is music turned deliberately inside out in order that nothing will be reminiscent of classical opera. or have anything ,n common with symphonic music or with simple and popular musical language accessible to ali.... The power of good music to infect the masses has been sacrificed to a pettybourgeois, "formalis( attempt to create originality through cheap clowning. lt is a game of dever ingenuity that may end very badly. From "Chaos lnstead oi Music." as translated in Victor Seroff. Dmirri Shosrakovich: The Life and Background of a Soviet Composer (New York, Alfred A. Knopf. 1943), 204-S. ln SR 188 (7:19). pp. 1397-98.

plaint against Stalin's repressionas well. lt was performed in London and New York in 1942 and immediately became a symbo l of the war against Nazi Ger many. in which th e Unitecl Scates, BritaLn. and the Soviet Unio n were allies. ln the 1948 crackclown. Shostakovich was clenounced along with Prokofiev and others, and he had to write patrio tic iilm scores and choral paeans to the regime to gain rehabil itation. He wrote some of his music "for the drawer··with no expectation of performance tmtil the political atmosphere changed. ln an assertion of individuality, he musically signed the thu·d movement of th e Tenth Symphony (1953, the year of Sta lin·s death) with a motive drawn from the German spelling of his name. D-S-C-B-in Gennan nomen clature, D- Es- C- H, or 0 - S- C- H, from Dmitri SCHostakovich. He used the sarne motive in the Fiflh and Eighth String Quarteis (1952 and 1960) and the concertos forviolin and forcello. The ambivalence in Shostakovicb's music reflects the accommodations he had to make to survive in a state where one could n ever say precisely what one. íe. lt.. anrl 1h11~ whe.re. th~ art~-e.~pe.r.ially mu~ir.- ofíe.re.rl an outle.t forwha t was otherwise inexpressible. The rela tive accessibility of his music combined with its impress ion of giving voice to inner feelings has won Shostakovitch many devotcd listeners not only in Russia but throughout the world.

Laterworks

890

C H A 1> T E R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

The Americas ln ·the New Wodd, the interwar period saw the emergence of composers who gai ned prominence in their own countries and recognition in Eu rope, plac ing their homelands on the international stage for lhe firs t lime. As with composers in the "periphe ral" na1 io ns of Europe. these compose rs of the Americas found that creating a elistin.c tive national style was often the only way to gain attention from an inlernational audience. Their nationalism was sometimes infuseel with national politics but always linkeel to the cultural politics of securing for themselves and their coumr ies aniche in the per· forming repertoire.

CANADA

Ernest MacMitlan

Claude Champagne

Ca nada hael a thriving musical life that eleveloped along pat terns similar to those in the United States. ln both na1ions, performance of the European classical repertoire was l'ar more central than plating music oi' homegrown composers in the classicaJ traelition. Perfonning.spa:ces, concert societies, bands. professional chamber ensemhles, chorai societies, a nd conservatories ali emerged in Canada during the nineteenth cemu ry, and the 1wemieth cen tury brought the founeli ng of orchestras in most large cities, beginn ing with Quebec (1903) and Toronto (1906). A key f1gure in Canaclian music was Ernest MacMillan ( 1893-1973), who for many years was head of the Toronto conservatory and university music faculty as well as conducto r oi' the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. He collected and arranged music of na tive peoples. edited an anthology of Canaelian songs used in schools, conel ucted numerous premieres oi' wo1·ks by Canadian composers, and edited th e ft rst boo k on music in Ca nad a. He composeel many works that drew on national materiais, especially French Canadian folk songs. including Two Sketches for Strings ( 192 7). The nrst Canadian composer to achieve an international reputation was Claude Champagne (1891- 1965). He learned French- Canadian fidclle music and dance !unes in bis youth, then as a young man was deeply inlluenceel by Russian composers, from Musorgsky to Scriahin. During studies in Paris in 1921-28, he encounte reel Renaissance polyphony, Fauré, and Debussy, and saw in their modal practice links to the folk tunes of Canada. He devel oped a dislinctive nationalist s tyle in bis Stiite canadienne (Canadian Suite, 1927) for cborus and orchestra, ble nding elements from f'rench-Canaclian folk music and polyphonic French chansons with the symphonic tradition. His best- known piece, Dance villageoise (Village Dance, 1929), evokes both Prench-Canadfan anel lrish fo lk styles, acknowledging anolher ethnic strain in Canada and in his own heritage.

BRAZIL Art music was well established in Brazil by the late nineteenth century. with successfLú operas by Gomes (see chap ter 28) and o thers and with severa! co rnposers of con.ce11 music who developed their own nationalist styles.

TheAmeric;as

The most imponant Brazilian composer was Heito1· Villa-Lobos (18871959). who drew together traditional Brazilian elements wilh modernist techniques. He spent the years 1923- 30 mostly in Paris. where performances of his music won wielespread praise anel estahlished him as the most p1·ominent Latin American composer. He returned to Brazil in 1930 anel , with gov· ernment support. insliluted a nationaJ effort to promote music in the schools and th rough cho rai singing. He was criticized l'o r his collabo ra lio n with Brazi l's nationalist dictatorship, aki n to the tota li ta1·ian regimes oi' Europe at the lime. bul it is not cleaJ· whether be shared its ideology. The series oi' fourteen pieces titled Chõros (l 920-28), after a type of popular ensemble mus ic Villa-Lohos playeel in the streets of Rio ele Janeiro in h.is youth, are among his most characteristic works. f'or various mecüa, from solo guitar or piano to orchestra with chorus. each Chóros blends one or more vernacular styles of Brazil, typified by synco pated rhythms and unusual timhres, with moclernist techniques sucb as ostinatos, polytona lity, polyrhythms, and vivicl orchestration to crea te a remarkably distinclive sounel. Another series. the nineBachi.ana.s brasileiras (1930-45), pays tribule 10 Bach anel thus to tbe neoclassical trenel of the times. Each is a suite of two to fom· movements combining elements of Baroque harmony. counterpoint, genres, anel styles with Brazilian folk elements and long, lyrical melodie lines. Th is unique blend is exempli ned in ViJla- Lobos's most famous work. Bachiana.s brasileiras No. S (1 938- 45) for solo soprano and orches tra of cellos. The fll'St movement (NAWM 190 ©!,e;.. ,..) ·~ ) invokes 1he spit'il of a Bach aria. spinning out a long-breatheel canta bile melody from a few initial motives, and alludes to lhe typical da ca po forro of Baroque arias through a modined ABA structu re anda suggestion of an instnnnenta l ritornello. At the sarne time. it draws on styles of imp rovisation in Brazilian popular song and on vocal embellishment in .l talian opera. a tradition that was as strong in BraziJ as in Europe. The result, simultaneouslyneoclassicaJ, national, and moelernist, exemplines how the Western musical tra • dition has become a transatlantic cultw·c.

891

Heitor Vil/a -Lobos

Chõros and Bach ia nas brasi le iras

M EXICO Beginning in 192 1. the Mexican governm ent began to support bringing the arts to a wide puhlic and promoted a new nationalism that drew on native lnelian cultures, especially from before the Spanisb Conquest. As part of this effort. Diego Rivera and other artists we re commissioned to paint murais in pub lic buildings th.at illustrated FIGURE 35.6: The Day ofthe Dead Mao Mexican life. such as the fresco shown in Figure 35.6. (1923- 24). a.fresco b1 Diego River<i (/ 886- 1957) The nrst composer associated with the new nation- for· t-lic Miniatry·of Pub/.ic lnatructio11 i-1> Mc.,ico alism was Carlos Chávez (1899-1978) . who also served Ciiy. 7711s picwre pomays a Me.ncan fesrival in as conductor oJ' Mexico's l'irst professional orchestra a style thar draws on pre· Columbi.on. ort. (o••>. anel director oi' the national conservatory. He wrote two NBWYORIUSCHAJ.KWIJIUARf RJ:..SOUKCE, Nl:l.l' YOllK)

892

C H A 1> T E R 3 5

Silvestre Revueltas

• Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

ballets on.Aztec scenarios. and hisSinfonia india (Jndia n Symphony, 1935-36) uses lndian melodies in a modernist, primitivist idiom also apparent in his Piano Concerto (1938-40). Other works are not overtly na tionalist, including his.Sinfonía romantica (Symphony No. 4, 1953). Silvestre Revue ltas ( 1899-1940) stud ied in Mexico and then in America before returning to assume the post of assistant conductor under Chá vez. His compositio ns do not use l'o lk songs but com bine melodies, rhythms, gestures, and timbres modeled on Mex ican fo lk and popular music with a modemist idiom. Characteristic is bis flomenaje a Federico Garcia Lorca (Homage to feclerico Garcia Lorca, 1936), written in memory oi' one of Spain's most importaot poets and playwrights, killed by a National ist rnililia in lhe early days of the Spanis h Civil War (1936-39) . ln the first movemen t, Baile (Da nce, NAWM 191). Revuehas begins and ends with a slow, recilat ive· like melody in muted trumpet that evokes the style of cante jond-o. a Spanish flamenco song tradition Lorca celebrated in his poetry. Th e ma in body of the movement is a lively dance that recalls Mexican mariachi band music in its overall sound. ins trumental timbres, melodie strnctu re, stropbic form , cha racter· istic rbythms and rhythmic variations, me lodies iu parallel thircls, anel imitatii.on of group improvisation. At the sarne time, the modern ist elemen ts, including strong d issonance, paraUel dissonant sonorities. glissandos. and grotesque combinations of instru ments, make c lear that this is concert mi1sic about popular culture rather than popu lar e ntertainm en t itself. The evocation of popular and J'olk styles within a modernist ieliom is both char acterislic of Revueltas anel an appropriate homage to Lorca, who did the sarne in his own work.

The United States

Ultramodemist andAmericanist

trends

Composers and performers in the United States developed new links with Em·ope bctwecn lhe wars. duc in part to the immigration of many of Europe's leading composers for political or professional reasons. By the early 1940s. these included Rachmaninoff. Schoenberg. Stravinsky, Bartók. Milhaud. K.renek , Weill, and Hindemith. Americans had studietl in Germany since the mi<l-nineteenth century. but World Wa r I he lped to foster a reorientation of American music awayfrom Germany anel toward France. After the war. America.n concluctor Walter Damrosch joined with French orga11ist and composer Charles- Marie Widor and others to found the American Conservato1y at Fon • taLnebleau. whose purpose was to p rovi de the best of French musical training to American students . Starting in the ea rly l 920s, a steacly stTea m of A.meri cans went to France to study with Nadia Boulangcr (1887- 1979). renowned pedagogue and promoter of Faurê and Stravinsky, who taught classes in Paris and at Fo nta in ebleau until her death. Among those s tudying with her were Aa.-on Copland. Virgil Thomson, Roy Barris. Walter Piston. Ross Lee Finney. and Elliott Carter. The interwa1· period also saw new cu1·rents among American composers. Two of the most salient were an experimentalist or ultrwnodemisl trend, focused oo devclopingnew musical reso urces, anel anAmericanist trend that

The Unoted States

893

incorporated national styles a nd sounds into European genres. The f'ormer group includ ed Edgarcl Varêse. Henry Cowell, and Ruth Crawford Seeger. and the lattcr encompasseel George Gershwin. Aaron Co pland, William Grant Still, Vírgil Thomson, Roy Hal'l'iS, Cowell's !ater works, and many others. Both currems asserted independence from Europe while sti ll drawing 0 11 th e European tradition. and ia the l 930s the lat ter group blended nationalism with a new populism inspired by the Depression a nel by Preside nt Roosevelt's New Deal pol icies. ln order to secu re performances for their music in a con· cert cultu re that focused on European masterworks, American composers formecl their own organizations. including the lnternational Composers· Guild cof'ouneled by Varése, the League or Composers headecl by Claire Reis, and Cowell 's New Mu.sic.

EDGARD VARÊSE The French-born Edgard Varese (1883- 1965). shown in Figure 35.7, studied at tbe Schola Ca ntorum and Conserva to ire. had a brief career in Paris and Berlin as a composer anel as a conductor of early and contemporary music, and then moved to New York i.n 1915. Va rêse ce lebrated bis adopted coun try in bis first major work, Amériques (19 18- 21). Its fragmentary melodies and loose structure betray links to Debussy. He was also influencecl by Schoenberg, notably in t.he use of strong dissonan ce and chromatic satu ration, and by Stravinsky. including the associalion of a musical idea with a specinc instrumental color, the avoidance of linear developmenl, and the juxtaposition of disparate elements through layering a nd in1ern1ption. Next carne a series of works that laid down a new agencia: OJJ'randes (1921), Spatial ntusic and Hyperprism (1922- 23), Oct.and.re (1923). Intégrales (1924-25). lontsation (per- sound rnasses cussio11 only, 1929-31), anel Ecuaiorial (1932-34). ln these works , he aimed to liberate comp ositíon fro m conventi onal me lody, harmony. meter. regular pulse. recurrent beat. and tra dit ional orches traüon. For Varese, sounds as s uch were the essential structural components of music. wh ich he defmed as "organized sound." and he considered all sounds accepmble as raw material. He imagined music as spati.<tl, akin to ao aural ballet in which what he called sourul 11wsses movecl through musica l space, changing and interacting. A sound mass is a body of sounds characterized by a particular timbre , register, rhythm, and melodie gesture, wbich may be stable or may gradu ally be transformed. ln Varese's compositions, these sou nd masses collide, intersect, speed up, :slow down, combine. split up . cliffuse. and expand and contract in range, volume, and tim bre. A great variet:)•of percussion instruments, some rli-awn from non -WesteTn cultures and others (such as the siren) from city life. play key ro le.s. ar.ting indr:pr:nde.ntly as erpials to thr: winrls anel strings. For Va1·ese. form was not something you start with, but wbat resul ts as you work with the material. FIGURE 35.7, Edgard Varese. <•••••oouc>:1> '"º" Typícally. bis pieccs are organ.ized in a series o f sect ions, Tu• coLu;cT1oxs or TH • uBIWlr o• co,cRJ:ss>

894

C H A 1> T E R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

Varêse, passa.gefrom Hyperpr ism

EXAMPLE 35.3,

. nwn..

tthlw Mlmcnt!,tet!I ,do 1

" ~;:

l."1)11 ..tlnl.

~ w-

-~r r ~.,. r

•J

T r•ur

-,;:wrd. ,,

,~.._

r1•,

~19·

.ffJ'

"'"-

nif'

. ~VF97 I'·" ·Ir-' f > - •• .•

A 4

... A

,!+-{

·i+-{ f+-aA 4

k I_ Lv

. - -,---,

J--,

. s pn. ,.., .n' .. ~

}

~,~

PPPj 2

,}{r f _ ; ,-

,,if'--1

r ,.

"if

r----;;;_;-;------,

I_LV

1-,

•

,;-~ •

1»if

~ n r, n

sounds is unusual. so Lhat it is heard as a sound mass rather than as melody, harmony, or accompaniment. ln Varese·s entirely new spatial conception of music. lhe listener m ust pul aside expectalions lhat music will be rhetorical or will develop organically, as in earlier siyles, and must simp ly observe 1he interaction of .. in telligem bodies of sound moving in space." His ieleas and his music bad an enonnous iníluence on younger composers, including Cage and Feld man in the Uni ted States anel Boulez and Stockhausen in Eu rope (see chapter 37). Since his music clependeel on sounel itseU, especially unusual ones. Varese sought new instruments from tbe l 920s on. Only after \Vorld Wa.r li did the new resources of electronic sound generation and the tape recorder make possible the realization of t he sounds he hea rd in his mind , in his Déserts (1950-5 4) for winels, percussion, anel tape anel in lhe tape piece Poéme électro· niqu.e (1957-58; NAWM 206, discussed in chapter 37).

Electronic music

HEN RY COWELL

~·

l:- - - ,

i+-a!

••

/---i-,

UJ~ ID..) LV f

. "' .

rut-, - ~pl..... 11-c t'llln~

.. 4

,-.1,,1••

,,r

ppp§

f+-aA ..

"1· np

nnnn > > > }

1;;;i~

.ffJ'

"if

d01--·~ # :a,

IJlifflJ,1,1, .......

;

m;i~==

r;;--J7

11)onlMt1•

.. A ••

,11..

,rif====_,..;

i/'> if=-,lff

f!\":. ~

l--~-;~ =

PPP =

,--,--,

ifY'

895

The Unoted States

A naüve Californian, Henry Cowell (1897- 1965) begao composing as a teen ager with little training in European music, a.n el from tbe start he sougbt out new resources for music. Many of his early pieces are e1>1)erimental. designed to try out a new technique. The Tid.es ofManaunaun (ca. 1917) uses to11e clu$te,·s, cbords of diatonic or chromatic seconds procluced by pressing tb.e keys with the nst orforea rm, to represent the tieles movecl by Mana unaun. the legendary h·ish sea-god. Figtu-e 35.8 shows Cowell playing both kinds of clusters. He used the technique so often, includingin bis Piano Concerto (1928), thatil beca me id entili ed as bis invention , anel Bartók once wrote CowelJ askingper · mission to use clusters. Ln TheAeolian.Harp O 923), tbe playerstntms the piano strings while holding down three- anel four- no te chorels on the keyboard, as if playing a grand autoharp. ln Tite Banshee (1925; NA\VM 193), an assista nt

Experimental mu.sic

full:s\ 1

each cencered a round a few sound masses. some of wh.ich may ca rry over to later sections. The passage from Hyperprism (NA\VM 192) in Example 35.3 ill ustrates Hyperprism how pitch, instrumental color, geshHe. and rhythm interact to suggest sound 1 Full :\'\ 1 masses colliding and changing. The trombone has introduced and embellished Lhe pilch q, anel now the borns (notateel bere at souneling pilch) take it up witb flutter· tonguing (fast tangue motions) andsforzandos, both effects that produce brassy sounds excluded from trad itionaJ music. The h·ombone retu rn s, decorating the q w:ith gBssandos (another nontraditional effect), and exchanges short phrases with lhe horns. Tbe horns ultimately take over the note a nd the glissando, as if the sound mass has gradua lly cha nged ti mbre. Mean while a low D in bass trombone, a strong dissonance against the q. swells anel fades in alterna tion with a siren, fonning another sound mass that r. hanges r.o lor. ln the perr.ussion. a geshn e 1woduced by hass drum . tam-tam (a ílat gong). cymhals. snare drum, and tambow'ine al ternates with anotber using Incüan el rum, triangle, a nel rattles and adding sleigh bells on its repetition, like lwo contcsting sound masses. Every comhinalion of

FIGURE 35.8,

Henry

Cowc/1 at thc pi<m-o.

playingclusiers with h i.s jist and Jorea.nn. ( Bt;;l"l'MANN/CO J\81$)

896

C H A 1>T E R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Class,cal Tradition

Tmpact

holcls the damper pedal clown so that 1he strings cai:, resonate freely whjJe the pianist strums the strings, plucks some, and rubs a long the length of the lower. wirc· wound strings with the lingertips or fmgernails to creatc an cerie, voicelike howl similar to that of a banshee, a s pirit in frish legend. Besides new playing techniques, Cowe ll also explored new textu res and procedures, s uch as giving each voice or instrumenl a dil'ferent suhdivision of the meteL He s umm arized his new ideas in his book New Musical Resources (1930). Throughout his career, Cowe ll was interested in non-Western musics. He taught courses o n music from around the world al the New School for Social Research in NewYorkand at other institu1ions, eloing a great deal to encourage the srndy of world music and ethoomusicology. He took an eclectic approach to composition, trying out everything that interested h im rather than developing a single identif1able style. During anel afler lhe 1930s. Cowell turned from experimentalism to a more accessible language, often incorporating America n, lrisb, or Asian elemen ts . He wrote a series ofworks ca ll ed Hymn and Fuguing Tune for band or for orcheslra. modeled on the style ofWilliam Bil lings and his contemporaries, alongside symphonies and other traditional genres. ln lhe years after World \Va; li, severa) pieces show his in terest in Asian music and incorporate instruments sucb as the Indian tabla and the Japanese koto. Cowell promoted music by his contemporaries as well as hls own tluough co ncerts and througb the periodical New Mu.sic, in whi eh he published scores by lves. Schoenberg. and other modernist and ultnunodernist composers. His adventurous search for new resources a n el his interest in nonWestero music had an e normous impactou younger composers, especially in the United States.

RUTH CRAWFORD SEEGER

FIGURE 35.9 :

liuch CrC110ford in the 1920s. in apliot.ogropli by Feman.d de Cueldre. ( PHOT O COUH:1'f SY' JU DIT H

n cK)

Among the composers whose works Cowell published was Ruth Crawford (1901-1953), shown in Figure 35.9, the firsl woman to wi n a Guggenheim Fellowship in music. She was most active as a composer in Chicago between 1924 and 1929 anel in New York between 1929 anel 1933. ln New York, she studied compositioo with I he composer anel musicologist Charles Seeger, who m s he married in 1932. Seeger had developed theories about dissonant count erpoint, rhythmic freedom between contra pu n · tal voices. anel other modernist techniques that Crawford helped to refme and then applied in her own music. ln her New York period she experimemed with se rial techniq ues, inclueling their application to parameters other than pitch. Jnfluenced by the New Deal. she became convinced that preserving folk songs would be a greater contribution to the nation's musical life tha11 wriling moelemist works that J'ew would hear or a ppreciate. She collaborated with the 1vriter Carl Sandhltl'g anel folklorists John and AJan Lomax. editing American folk songs from :ô.eld recordings. She also published many transcriptions and arrangements in which she s ough t to be J'aithful Lo the songs· native co ntexts. Crawford s tands out for hei· advocacy in p1·eserving

Tho Umtod State,

EXAMPLE 35.4: I\

897

Opening of the fina.Le ofCra,wford 's String Quariet

Auegro 11ossiln1e i,_t '

ffz I\

~ ~

jJ'z:/J':s

r-T""T'""1

'-- 1-,!'.:Y

#~ f f ---

.....__

PP sempre con. sordúw

•__.., .. -

P P sempre con sordino

....__..,- -~·---

.--"-'

..... ~ - -5'

·--- --~

'---

~ -~

..._;- .,...J!.:/

*..i!"

PP sempre wn sordmo

American tradilional m usic anel for being one oi' the very few women in Lhe ultramodernist group . Crawford's best- know11 work is her String Quartet 193 1. composed while ln Europe 011 a Gugge nhe im Fellowship. Each movement is differ ent, em bodying Crawford 's constant search for new procedures. ln the first movemenl. four thematic ideas unfold in d issona nt counterpo int; rarely do two instruments at tack a note at the sarne time. creating a sense of b'reat indepcndence berween the parts. The second movemem develops a short motive through counterpo inl a nel convergence, creating rapiel changes of accent and implied meter. The third movement featu res "heterophony of dynamics": while all J'our instruments s ustain long tones, one ins trument al a time comes to the fore through a crescendo. anel the dynamically prominent notes are heard as a composite melody that builds to an intense clímax. The fmale (:-IAWM 194), shown in Exa.mple 35.4, is la id out in two · pan counterpoint. pitting the nrst violin against the three other instruments playing in parallel ocraves with mutes on. The lirst vio)jn plays a single note. then two, three, four. and so on. adding one note with each phrase until it reaches 1wen1y· one, gradually getting softer. In be tween its phrases, the other instrum ents, using a ten· note series . play rapid eighth - notes groups that decline from twenty notes to one. gradually getting louder. so that the two voices head in opposite directions in cfonsity and dynamics. At the end of this process. each part sustains its last tone, anel then the entire musical fabric is repeated in retrograde. traosposed upa semitone. to create a nearly perfect palindrome. Through four h ighJy con trast ing movemen ts, Crawford simuJtan.eously embraccs the tradition of the st ring quartel and salisnes lhe ultramodernist desire for somethi ng truly new.

GEORGE GERSHWIN George Gershwin (1 897- 1938) lirst made bis reputation as a compose r of popular songs and Broadway shows (see c.lnapter 34), but in the late 1920s anel l 930s he also establisb ed himsel f as t hc most faroous anel freque ntly

I Con,,,. :\\ 1 1 Full :\\ 1

898

C H A 1> T E R 3 5

Rhapsody in Blue

Othenvorks

• Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

pe1-formecl Am.e ri can composer iu classical genres. For Gershwin, this was no contradiction, because he saw no fi rm line between popuJar anel classical music. He always had a fool in both camps: he sludied classical piano as a teenager, including works of Chopin, Liszt, and Debussy; took priva te lessons in lrnrmony, counterpoint, form, an d orchestration from 1915 to 1921 ; anel later s tud ied composition with several teachers. including Cowell. Gershwin recognized the potential or jazz and blues to add new dimensions to a rt music, anel he used his fami liarity with those traditions to create a distinc tively American modemist style. Gershwiu's most fomous piece, Rhapsody in Blue (l 924). biJlecl as a "jazz conce rto," had its premiere as the centerpiece of an excravagam concerl organized by band leader Paul Wn iteman as '·An 8xperiment in Modem Music." Scored for solo piano ,tnd jazz ensemhle. anel incorporating stylizecl popular song for ros, blue notes, anel other elements oi' jazz anel blues, the Rhapsody met with immediate approva l. Along with Mi lhaud's La. création du. monde from the year before. Gershwin's Rhapsody pointed the way for other composers lo incorpora te jazz, blues, anel popu lar music into their art music, s ugp;estinp; that such a blend could produce music that was al once truly modem, tru.ly American, and broadly appealing. Gershwin himself contin ued to fuse the seemimgly disp arate tradi tions, p roducing compositions like the Piano Concer to in r (1925), the seco nd movement of which is co n structed over a twelve-ha r blues h armonic pattern stretchecl to fita sixteen- meas ure theme. and the three Preludes fo r Piano (1926), which bring elements of blues, jazz, and Lalin d an ce rhythms into preludes i nflu en ced by Chopin anel De bussy. Ge rs b wi n's Porgy and Bess () 935). which be cal.leda fol k ope ra , has been pro duced both as an opera and as a musical. and it draws from both genres. The music is conlinuou s and reatures recurring moüves like those in Ver di or Wagn er operas. Yet in part beca use the cha racters are all African American. the musical style is heavily iníluenced by African American idi oms such as spirit uals, blues, and jazz. This blending of traditions is p ar t of Gers hwinºs appeal. anel it ma kes hi s music especially r ic h in reference and in meaning. Because of his early death from a brain tumor. his ou tpu t oi' classical works was relatively small, but he remains the most familiar American com poser of the centu ry.

AARON COPLAND Aaron Cop land (1900-1990), shown in Figure 35. l O, moved from stringen t dissonance in the 1920s to a streamlined style in the 1930s and 1940s that comhined modernism with national American id ioms. Copland's Jewish fai th, his homosexuality, anel his leftist politics made him somet hing of an outsider. yet he became the most important and central American composer of bis genera tio n through his own compositi ons and his work for the cause of American music. He organized concert series and composer !,'roups and pro moted works ofhis predecessors and contemporaries. including lves. Chávez. and Virgil Thomson. Through encouragement. counsel. and by example, he inl1uenced many yo unger American composers, among them Leonard Bern stein. EUi ott Carter, anel David Dei Tred ici

The Unoted States

899

Growingup in a Jewish immigrant family in Brooklyn, Copland was exposed to ragtime anel popu lar music from a young age. while studying piano, theory. and composition in the European tradition. He was the ftrst of many American composers to study in Pran ce with Nadia Boulanger, from whom he learned to write mus ic that was clea r, logica l. anel e legant. Jaiz elemen1s and strong dissonances ligure prominently in his ea rly works, s uch as Music for the Theatre (1925) anel the Piano Concerto (1927). Recog:nizing the growing numher of rad io and recorei Listeners, Copla n d sought. to appeal to a larger audience.At about thesame lime. the Depressiondeepenecl his belief in socialism, and he iurned to writing music in a language Lhe broad masses of peop'le cou ld unders tand. on subjects thal were relevant to their lives and concerns. He developed a new style by reduc ing his modernist tecbuique to its essence of counterpo int, dissonance. anel j uxtaposition, then combining it with simple textures and diatonic melodies and harmonies. ln some works, be borrowed traditional songs lo sug- FIGURE 35.10: AniericancomposerAaron Copgest place and at mosphere. He in corporated Mexi- /and shown con4ucting. December9. 1962. can folk songs in the orches tral suile El Salón México <co uucTo•- ot1mcu coutc1·,0•1coRBis> (1932-36) and cowboy songs i11 the ballets Billy the Kid (1938) anel Rodeo ( 1942), which reflected the American frontier experience. His opera The Second Hurricane (1936)-written for schools-and his scores for a number of nlms including Our Town (1 940) represent music composed specifically "for use." Coplandºs Americanist idiom is exempli:fted inAppalachian Spring (1943- Appalach ia n 44), first written as a ballet with an ensemble of thirteen instruments but bet- Sp ring ter known in the anangement as an orchestral suite (excerpt in NAWM J95). ~ The work incorporates variations on the Sha ker hymn Ti.s tlie Gift to BeSirnple. .1 Concise :\\ .1 rull :\\ Example 35.5 shows two variations ou thehymn's third phrase. one set simply against synco pated sustained tones, the oth er in widely separated three-part counterpoint with a va riaut of the song's lirst phrase iu the middle voice. Thc song is subtly trnn sfibtured and its essence is absor bed in music that sincerely and simply expresses the spirit of rural life in American terms. Copland 's use of Lransparcm, widely spacecl sonorities, empl)' octaves anel fiJths, and diatonic d isso nances creates a distin ctive sou n d tbat has been frequently imitated a11d has become the quintessential musical emhlem of America. used especially in music for ülm and televlsion. Cop land ·s later works embraced a va,·iety of styles. His America nist Laterworks idiom continued in the Third Symphony (1946), but in the Piano Quartet (1950), the Piano Fantasy (1957), anel Lhe orchestral lnscape (1967), he adopted some features of lwelve - tonc technique. Perhaps he sought to cullivate a more abstract language during the 1950s. when the Jeft-wing política! sympathies that lay behind hisAmericanist music carne under attack. Despite the range oi' s tyles he employed, Copland retained an unmistakable anistie identity. Hi s music preserves a sense of a tona l cen ter, though se ldom by

900

C H A 1> T E R 3 5

• Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

EXAMPLE 35.S, Passages from Copland's Appalach ian Spring, showing two Yariations of the Shaker hymn's third phrase

What Pol,tics?

901

instrumen1s as iu a jazz arrangement, and instrumental timbres common in jazz, such as trumpets and h·ombones playecl with Harmon mu tes.

DIVERSITY OF STYLES

traditional means. His rhythms are live ly anel flexible , anel he was adept at obtaining new sounds from simple chords by exploiting instrumental color and spacing.

ln addition 10 lhe co mp ose rs menlioned here, 1he in terwar period saw the publ ications and performances of the mature music of Cha rles Ives (see chapter 33), who wasseen both asan ultramoclernist andas an Americanist and 1hus was promotecl by botb Cowell anel Copla nd. Other composers wrote in styl es ranging from Rumanticism to neoclassicism lo serialism. The variety of American idioms be tween the wars illust.rates the general point we have alreacly seen in chap te rs 32 and 33. Most composers of art music sought a place in the crowded classical re pertoire by writing music that was individual and distinctive yet drew oo past traditio ns and genres. Meanwbile, the most rad ical composers- likc Varese. Cowell, and Crawforcleacb forged a new concepl oi' music. for them, the best solution to the problem of competingwith fhe pastwas to ignore it and Jocus on creating something funda mentally new.

FIGURE 35.11: America11 composer Wi!Uam Cront Sr,ill /10/d~ pages from one ofhis own com-

positi,0n.s. 1950$. ( PHOTO a:r PB.ANK DRICCiS COLLECT ION/ GE'l'TY IMACES)

WILLIAM GRANT STILL

Afro-American Symphony

1 Condse ;\\ 1 1 Full ;\\ 1

William Grant Still (1895-1978), shown in Figure 35.l l. also incorporateel speci li ca lly America n id ioms in to art music. He drew on a diverse musica l backgrounel. inclueling composition studies with George Whi teneld Chaelwick anel Eelgard Varese anel work as an arranger for W. C. Hanely's dance band. Still's succcss as a composer. when blacks were still largely exclueled from the neld of classical music, earned him tlle sobriquet "Oean of Afro-American Composers." He broke numerous racial baniers anel earneel many "nrsts" for his race- the ftrst AfricanAmerican to conduct a major symphony orchestra in the United States (the Los Angeles Philharmonic. ] 936): the lirst to have an opera produced by a major company in the United States (Troubled [stand at New York's City Center, 1949); and the ftrst to have an opera televised over a nationa l network. He composed over 150 compositions, inc lucling operas. ballets, symphonies, cha.mber works. eh oral pieces, a11d solo vocal works. Still esta blished his reputation with theAfro-American Symphony (1930), the llrst symphonic work by an Afri.can A.merican composer to be performed by a major Amel'ican orchestra . The symphony encompasses African Am eric:111 mu sical ele ments within the traditio nal framework of a Eu ropean four-movemenl symphony. The opening movement (NAW11 l 96) is in sonata foi-m. with a 1irst theme in twe lve-har nines structure and a seco11<1 theme tha t suggests a spiritual. Jt also features numerous other traits from African American traditions: call anel response, syncopation, varied repetition of short melodie or rhythmic ideas. jazz harmonies. dialogue between groups of

What Politics? Art music between the wars includes some oí the most widely performed classical works of the twentieth cen tury. By now, listeners and musicians have largely forgotten the political circumstances in which most oi' this music was created. Audiences li.ke Poulenc's sonatas, Orff's Carmina, oura.na. Shostakovich's Fihh Symphony. or Copland's Americanist ballets without regard to the polilics that shaped lheir creation. lndced, the insistence on immedi ate wide appeal by authorities in totalitarian states seems to have helped the popularity of some works such as Prokoóev's Romeo and Juliet and Petera11d the Wolf, which Jack the elissonance and sa tire ofhis eai·lier pieces. Toelay Milhaud, Poulenc, and Weill are admired for their wit anel clarity. Hindemith for his summation of the German tradition írom Bach through Brahms in a novel musical language. Shostakovich a nd Prokoftev for their highly emo tio nal and passionate symphorüc styles. anel composers in lhe Americas l'o r giving their nations a place in the classical tradition-all with little thought to the ideo logies t.hat swirled arou nd tbese composers and the constraints tmder wlücb lhey labored. Ye t politics still shapes the receplion of some of this music. as shown hy the co11ti11ui11g controversy ahout whether Shostakovich meant his music to convey a dissideut message. The postwar elepoliticizing oJ' ar l music composeel between the wars resulted iu part from tbe Romantic iclea that classical music is a thing apart.

902

C H A 1> TE R 3 5 • Between the World Wars: The Cla,,.cal Tradit,on

an idealiied, autonomous a11 (see chapter 25). a notion that continues toclay but has come under increasing scrutiny from historians anel musicians. With historical clistancc comes a greater focus on the music itself and fading mero· ol'ies of the circumstances in which il was born. Mor·eover, lhe period after World War 11 saw a reaction in western Europe anel the Americas against not only Naiism but also communism anel polilical ieleofogies in general. mak· ingovert li nks to po li tics a potentially embarrassingdist raction fo r listeners. Copland's turn f'rom popu list Americanism to abstract twe lve· ton.e music in the l 950s illustrales this reaction. Ineleeel. the least overtly political trenel eliscusseel in tbis chapter. the eiqJerimen.tal traelition exemplineel by Varêse, Cowell, anel Crawford. g:rew in strength after the war, leading elirectly to post· war trenels in North America anel Europe. ln the long ruo. what seems most importanl alJout classical music be tween the wars, inclueling chat of the composers previously eliscussed in chapters 32 and 33, is its greac variety. Mosl composers stilJ sought a place i11 the perma· nent repertoire anel trieel to secure it by combining elements from lhe elas· sic.al tradition with individual and innovative traits that distinguished their music f'rom that of their peers. The varied styles that emerged resultecl in part from elifferent viewsof what was valuable in the past classics anel in part from composers' eliffering circumstances. They transformeel their ways of thinking, from the polilical to the personal, into music of uoprecedemed djversity. Arnong their works, there are riches for every taste.

Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

POSTWAR CROSSCURRENTS The central theme of Western music history since the miel·nineteenth century is a growing pluralism. With each genera tion, new popu · lar trael itions emerged. in response to changes in society, and the heirs to the classical traclition created more el iverse styles of art music at an ever increasing rate. This process accelerated in the twenty·five yea r s after the end of Worlel War II, propelled by an economic boom in the United States and most of western Europe, by ever more rapid communications, anel by a desire amongyounger generations to explore new possibilities. Musicians eleveloped new styles, trends, a nd traditions, inclueling styles of jazz that demaneled more concentrated listening. from bcbop to f rc,1jnzz; types of popular music aimed principally at young people, such as rock a11d roll and its offshoots. or at particular communities, from country 11msic to salsa; musicais that aimed for greater elra · matic depth, integrateel dance and music more closely with the plot, anel incorporated styles from jazz. rock, a nd other traditions; ftlm music that drew on a wider diversity of sounds anel styles; anel music for banel anel wi11d e11semble intendeel to match the elepth, serious· ness, anel pennanence of the orchestraJ repertoire. ln varying ways, some musicians in each of these tradit ions sought to gain for their own music the respect long accorded to art music. All of these styles will be explo reel in th is chapte r, focusing on 1.h e United States. where most of these trends began. ln the next chapter. we will consider new trends in classical music on both sieles of the Atlantic during this era, and how they reflected the new sense of postwar pluralism.

904

C H A 1>T E R 3 <, • Po,twor Cro»current,

The Cold Wor ond the Po,twor Boom

Amielst the plu ralism, there are also common th.emes. As we proceeel, we will encounter some tenelencies shared by music across these traelitions. including a growth of ambition that placeel increasing elemands on performers anel listeners; a greater focus on music for attentive listening; experimentation with new techni(fUCS from novel sounds anel textures to uses of l he recording s1 ud io as a musical element; a nel borrowing o r evoking styles fro m other lraditions. both Westem and non -Western. All of these aros e from the new ci rcumstances of the poslwa r era, lhe mosl 1echnologically advanced and globally interwoven lime lhe world hael yel known. when almost any kinel of music could be heard almost anywhere.

905

,w,i!l'!Plll.,-.J c:J Fouudi.ng membersoft.he No1·1hALlan1jc TreatyOrganirnioll (NATO). 1949 Latçr mtmbçrs oí NATO A 1' IA t, 1' I C

O CE A t,

D D D D D

Foundingmembersoítbe

Warsaw Pae1. 1955 Latel' inembers oí tbe W3rs.1w P3cc Otht.'.rcommun1st s1st1•s

Non-aligoed s1a1es

l ~ION OFSOVIF.T SOCIALIST REPVBLICS

The Cold War and the Postwar Boom

TheCold War

The pos Lwar expansion was achieved by generaüons who had suffered th r ough the Depression and the most global and destruct ive war the world had ever seen. Germany. Italy. and Japan were defeated by theAllies. but at great cost. Millions were dead: soldiers killed in action. civilians in bombing rai<ls, anel Jews anel other victims iu the Nazi cleath camps. Muchof Europe lay in rnins. and many of the buildings. a,tworks . and mttsical scores Europeans had created over the centuries were destroyed. By dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States forced Japan to capitulate but inaugurated the atomic age. anel in response the Soviet Union. Britain, France. and other nations developed their own nuclear arsenais. The horrors of war, the Holocausl, and n uclear weapons provoked a wide range of cult1.1rnl reactions. from the Pre nch existentialist literature of Jean- Pau l Sartre and Albert Camus to a growing fashion for horror and science nction nlms. At war's end, the Soviet Union occupied mos! of eastern Europe. By l 948, it reabsorbed Lithuania. Latvia, anel Estonia. which were inclepenelent between the wars. anel instaJlecl communist regimes under its control in Poland. Czechoslovakia, Hungaiy. Romania. and Bulgaria. Communist governments also took power in Yugoslavia, Albania, and China. Western democracies responded with attempts to contain the expansio n of communism. lnternational relations for the next two generations were framed by the political conflict. known as the Colei War, between the United States and the Soviet Union and tbeir respective allies. Figure 36. l shows the map of postwar Europe. divided between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-an alliance of the Un ited States, Canada, and Europcan democracics- and the Soviet Union's parallcl organization. the Warsaw Pact. Symholic oJ'the con11ict was lhe clivision of Germany betwee n a democ ratic government i·n West Gen nany and a co mmunist govermnent in East Germany. New interna tional institutions such as the Unile<l Nations. fo unded in l 94S . fu rthered cooperation but coul<I not defuse all tensions. At ti mes the Col d War heated up. as in the Korean War (l 950-53) . Cuban missile crisis (1962). and Vietnam War (1954-75). It also played out in other types of compeLition. such as 1he race into space. in which 1he Soviet Union took an early

FIGURE 36.1, Ellrope

lead with the l 957 launch of Sputnik 1. the &rst man -made satellite put into orbi t arouncl tbe Earth; tbis spurred an energetic response from the United Stales. who won lhe racc to the moon with the firsl moon laneling in 1969. Music performance and composition, along with Olympic sports. chess, and other culniral óelds, were used by both sides as arenas for competition. The Uni1ed Stales, least damaged by 1he war among the aclive participa nts. enjoyecl rapid economic growth an el beca me the leacling economic power in lhe world. Technological innovations and e1q>anded manufacturing capaci ty boosted produclivity, resulting in historically high incomes for factory anel offi.ce workers tbat lifted most Americans iuto the middle class. Returning soldiers created both a baby boom and a housing boom. raising consumer demand . The G. I. Bill paid for veterans togo to college, producing a tremendous expansion of colleges and LLDiversities and of the numl)ers of citizens with university degrees. which fo rther fue led economic growth. The number of fam ilies owning their own homes soa red, and they bought cars. furniture. household a ppliances, and other goods ai growing rales. Western Europe and Japan un rl erwen t simi lar F.conomic growth. ai<lerl by investmems from the United States. Cooperation th:rougb the Common Market and NATO wove western Europe together, making old nationalist tensions increasingly obso lete.

duri11g the Cold War (1945- 91)

Economic expansion

906

C H A 1>T E R 3 <, • Po,twor Cro»current,

Th e expansion of' higher education in North America and E:urope was li nked with growing access to the arts, and attendancc at muscums, concerts, anel other cultu ral venucs rose along wilh government and pd vate support. Televis ion and T IM ELINE home stereo systems in creasingly brought en tert.ainm en t Postwar Crosscurrents anel music into lhe home. The 78- rp m records (disks rotat ing 78 times pe r minu te) tha t were 1.h e ma instay of recordMUS ICAL HIST0RICAL ings bef'ore the wa r were rep laced by long- playing recoreis (LPs), which could accommodate mo1·e than lwenty minutes • 1939 Germany invades Poland, oi' music per sicle, and 45- rpm "singles" became the main beginning World War li med i.um for popu lar so.ogs. The invention of ihe transistor • 1943 Rodgers and led to miniature, portable rad ios that coul d go a nywh ere. Hammerstein. Oklahoma! bringing broadcas l music into c.u·s anel the outcloors. "Disc • 1945 Charlie Parker and Dizzy jockeys" played recordings ol' popular songs on lhe radio, Gillespie. Anthropology replacing most of th e live - music s hows of previous decades. Tape recorders. invented during the l 930s and widely avail • 1945 First atomic bomb able from lhe l 950s on. improved the sound of recorded • 1945 World War li ends music, made electronic music possib le, anel pul into the • 1949 North Atlantic Tre.aty hands of individuals the tools for preserving and manipu Organization formed lating sounds. Amplifi.ed musical instruments. especially the electric E,f\tilar and electric bass, trnnsformed the sound • 1949-50 Miles Davis, Birth o{ of popu lar music and gave cou n tless teenagers the means theCool lo fonn their own performing groups. • 1950-53 Korean War S1arting wil h British In dia in 194 7. European colonies throughout Asia anel Afri ca won independ ence and emerged • 1953 USA and USSR both as new nations. The growing political and economic signifitest hydrogen bombs cance of Asia and Africa encouraged cultural exchanges. lead• 1956 Chuck Berry, Rol/ Over ing to a rising interest in music of rhe non-\Vestern world Beethoven in the West and in Ameri ca n popular music throughout the o 1957 New York prem iere of world. The nonviolent strategies Mohandas Candhi develBernstein's West Side Story oped to win independence for lndia were adopted by Mar tin Luther King Jr. an d ot hers in the effort to win equal civil • 1957 Sputnick l launched rights for African Americans. a movement in which mus ic • 1958 European Common played a signincan l role as unif1er a nd inspiraüon. The Civil Market formed Rights movement in tum inspirecl ot hers in the 1960s and 1970s. from student organizations an el protests against the Vietnam War to the women's and gay liberation movements. The victo.ry over l'ascism, lhe economic boom, new tcchnologics, anel thc Musical pluralism winds of freedom helped to inspfre a period of unprecedented experimentation and dive rsi.ftcation in music. New trends in jazz led to a rapid p rolifera tion of styles. Po pular music s plintered into tradilions for different regions, ethn icities, affi.nity groups, and ages. each owi ng sorneth ingto ea rlierpopular song. blues. jazz. or swing while forging a distinctive identity. From musi cais to band music, traditions that had focused on entertainment sough t a new seriousness anel encompassed a widening variety of sounds and styles. Composers of art music went in numerous directions. sharing less common ground as they explored new possibilities. Urban cen ters. mass media. and colleges anel universilies allowed musicians to Jind a small but devoted audi e nce that woitld support specia lized types of music. creati ngniche ma rkets in

From Bebop lo Free Jazz

which eve1ything fromearly musicgroups to avant- garcle rock bands could t.hrive. Musicians. critics. and listeners engaged in strident debates about music: whether jazz sho uld holcl to its tradilions or search out new methods, whether rock music was a bad inlluen ce on the young or a source of freedom . whe ther classical composers shoulcl seek lo appeal lo a broad public o r pursue a he rmetic id ea l in isolatio:n. Among the dizzyi ng numb er and variety of trends in this period, this chapter and the nexl will describe some of lhe most important anel clistinctive. We will focus ftrst on traditions outside the classical traclilion, anel prirnarily on the United States, whi ch was the domina nt force especially in jazz. popular music. musicals. Jilrn mus ic. an el band music. ln the nexl chapter, we will take up the new streams in classical music, in whi ch tbe Un ited States for the first time competecl with Europe as an equal parlner.

Bernard Herrmann. film score to Psycho

• 1960

1960

Ornette Coleman, Free

Jazz o

1962

Bob Dylan, Blowin'in the

Wind • 1962

Cuban missile crisis

President John F. Kennedy assassinated

• 1963

The Beatles' first American tour

• 1964

• 1966 Moog and Buchla synthesizers introduced

From Bebop to Free Jazz

• 1967

The three decades from 1940 to 1.970 witnessed the emergence of severa! new styles of jaiz. the con linua tion of older styles. anda growing consciousness of jazz histo1y and desire io p reserve it. Jazz Jost its role as a form of popular music, replaced by rhythm and blues and other new t raditions (see below). lnstead. jazz was increasingly regarded as music that demanded concentrated listening. Although most ol' lhe major jazz artists were Africa n American , many of the performers anel the great majority of the audience for jazz were white. ln the yeus immedia tely following the end of\Vorld War 11, financial support for big bancls declined sharply. More musicians now joined smaller groups. called conibos.

• 1967

BEBOP

907

Aretha Franklin records Respect The Beatles, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearcs Club Band

Students riot in Paris. antiwar protests in United States

• 1968

Half a million people attend Woodstock outdoor rock festival in Bethel. New York

• 1969

Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin are first humans on the moon

• 1969

A new style of jazz built around virtuosic soloists fronting small combos, k:nown as bebop or bop , emerged in the early l 940s during the wan ing years of the swing craze. ln New York City. soloists playing wi th swing bands began to meet in after-hours clubs after their regular engagements ftnfahed for the eve ning. Clubs such as Minton's Playhouse a nd Mon roe's Uplown House offcrcd these musicians lhe opportunity to pil their skills against each other in "cutting contests," playing standards at blistering speed or in difficult keys to weed out the less -tale11ted musician s. Out of th ese cutling conlests grew a new musical language lhal became known as bebo p. Behop was rooterl instandards from the swing era. in blues progre.~sions. and in other popular sou rces for contrafacts, but it was newly infüsed wilh ex treme virtuosity, ha rmonic ingenuity, U11usual dissonances, chromaticism, complicalcd rhythms, anel a focus on solo voices anel improvisalion. A lypical

r,/111,m.rtr.1ii.tici.

908

C H A 1> T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar Cro,scurrent,

From Bebop lo Free Jazz

909

chromatic alterations. This solo has been learned by countless younger saxophon ists wh o sought to emulate Parker·s sound anel style. In addition to Gillespie and Parker. prominent hebo p m usicians included classically trained jazz rrumpeter Miles Davis (1926-1991) and in their early ca reers saxop honist Jo hn Colt ra ne ('I 926-11967); pianists Theloni ous Mon k (19 17-1982) and Bu el Powell (1924-1966): an d drummers Kenny Clarke (1914-1985) and Max Roach (1924-2007).

AFTER BEBOP

FIGURE 36.2: Altosa,roplionist Chartie Parkerand trumpeter DiViy Cillespie pe1fom1ing with bossisi Tomniy Potleran<l tenor saxopho11is rJohn Colfrane. in a plwtograph taken on siage ai rhe Legendar,- Birdlandjaz.z cli.b in New Ymi Cí1;r. ca. 1950. ( HULTON Ancmvc, oE:TIY I MMi&S)

bebop combo featured a rhythm section of piano, drums . and bass. plus one or more melody instruments, such as Lrumpel or saxophone. ln con trast to big-ban d music, bebop was mean t not for dan cing but for attentive listen ing. Toe focus was on the star performers and their prnwess as improvisers. Perlormances in whlch one of the players was essentially the composer are preserved on recordings that have become classics. listeneel to over and over again, transcri.bed. analyzed, anel reviewed in criticai essays. Anthropology A characteristic example of bebop is Anthropology (NAW\.1 197). by alto saxophonisL Charlie Parkcr (1920- 1955, rücknamed "Bird") anel trumpeter 1 Full :\\ 1 Dizzy Gillespie (19 17-1993). shown in Figure 36.2. Like many other bebop standar ds. Amhropologr is a contrafact on the "rhythm changes": that is. it l'eatures a new melo dy over the chord progression for Gersbwin's I Got Rhythm (see chapter 34 and NA\VM 18 1 and 184). A be bop p erformance normaJly begins witl1 an int-roduction and then the hea.d. the pri.mary tune . played in unison or octaves by the rnelody iostrurne nts . Players perfo r rn from an ahbre via ted score called a lead sheet (shown in NA\X'M l 9~a). whlcb includes only the head . with chord symbols indicatingthe ha r mony. The tune forAnthropotogy is typical in consisti ng of sho11:, rapid bu rsts of n otes separnted by suq>ri s ing rests. creating a jagged, unpredictable melody. The head is then followed hyseveml choruses. so lo improvisations over the harmony. and t.he piec.e ends with a nnal statement of the bead. ln tl1e classic recording of An-thropology. Parker playeel a sizzling solo of unusual length (transcribed in NA'(('M 19:'h), taking up three choruses and surrou.nding the chord chaoges with a 0urry oí

Many of these musicians pioneered new jazz styles in the l 950s, seeking paths for individual expressio n by extending t he methods an d ideas of bebop. Miles Davis was behi.nd a series of innovations. beginning with his album Birth of r.he Coo! (1949-50). lts softer timbres, more relaxed pace. and rhythmic subtleties inaugurated the trend that became kn own as coo/ jazz. soou taken up by the Modero Jazz Quartel, Dave Brubeck (1920-2012), an d many otbers. Whereas bebop had beb'UD as an improvising soloists' music. Birth of the Coot pul the com poser-ar ranger front and center. A con tr asting style was hard bop. dominated by drummers such as Kenny Cla1·ke. Max Roach, anel Art Blakey {19] 9- 1990). which focused on the percus· sive and propulsive side of jazz. InKi,11-dofBlu.e (1959), Miles Davis exploredyet another new style known as modal jazz. wh ich featured slowly unfolding melodies over stable. rela lively stalic moela] harrnonies. Davis also collaborated with pianist Gil Evans (1912- 1988) on a series of albums 1ha1 incorporaled elements of Spanish and classical music, including adaptalions of classical works by Spanisb composers on Sketches ofSpain (1959-60) and Miles Davis at Carnegie Hall (1961). Cool jazz, hard bop, and modal jazz were ali at tempts to tem per the extremes of bop. t hrough mellowness, the use of e lernen ts from rhyth m an d blues, or more freedom for melodie anel harmonic improvisation. Th e n ew jazz styles frorn bebop on, collectively known as modero jazz, have been cornpared by some historians lo the multiplicity of modern styles in twentieth- century clas sical music, anel they derive from a similar source: a desire to say something new in a distinctive style tbat remained rooted in the tradition. ln the l 960s, alto saxophonist Orne lte Colcman (b. 1930) and his en · sem ble introduced a more radically n ew jazz language known as freejct,z z, named after their landmark album Free Jazz (1960). which contained a single thirty-seven-minute- long group i mprovisation. This experimental style moved away from jazz standards and familiar tunes. turning instead to a lan guage built of melod ie and harmonic gestur es, innovative sounds, atonality, and free for ms using impr ovisatio n that was carried on outside the st ri c ttu·es and slrnctur es of standard jazz forms. Tbe style was compared lo lhe free-form abstract expressio ni st paintings of Jackson Po ll ock (19 12-1956), made by dr ipping paint on canvas; in deed, t.he cover of Free]azz, s hown in Figure 36.3. openecl up to reveal a repr oducl ion of Pollock's White Li.ght. partly vi~ihl,; t hrough a ho]P. c.111 in t hP. covr.r·s front panP.I. The tri butr. was appm pria le, because Pollock listened to jazz whlle painting. Around the same time, John Coltrane developed a personal avant-garde jazz style based on very fast playing, molivic developmcnt. new sonoril ics. and

Cooljazx

Hard bopand modal jazz

Freejau

Avant-garde jazz

910

C H A 1> T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar C ro,scurre nt,

FREE JAZZ

A COLLECTIVE IMPROVISATION ~ BY THE ~;if~~ ORNETTE COLEMAN. 1

~~,i

Popular Music

greater dissonance and density of sound. Like avant-garde composers, creators of J'ree jazz and other avant -garde jazz styles queslion some of the basic assumpt ions of the tradition yet clearly draw from it.

JAZZ AS A CLASSICAL MUSIC

While some jazz per·fonners were pursu ing new alternatives. others maintained older styles, reviving ragtime anel New Orleans jazz or contiuuingto play swing. ln a striking parallel to the rise of lhe classical concert reperloire over a century earlier, by 1970 the jazz wol'ld had developed its own roster of classics that were treasured on recordings and kept alive in performance. A sense of his101·y was inculcated by written histories and recorded historical anthologies of jazz. At the sarne time. FIGURE 36.3: Cover~{the LP Pree JazzóyOmette Colemun 's audiences for jazz were shrinking; swing ensemble. co1Misting~{two q11artets of rced instnimen1s. tnu11pe1, bass, a11d drum$. On the lower righ1 is a hol-e c1tt ihrough ihe was no longer the most popular kind of music. and the newer jazz styles from bop cardboard. thrrmgh whiclica.n be seen part of the reprod1<ction to free jazz were more eso Leric. aimed at of]ach~on Pol/ock ·s painting \Vhite Light 011 the i11sidecover. ( flll lNO tN"Tf.flTAINMENT COMPANY) con no isseurs. As younger listeners turned to rhythm and blues and other new tradiLions, jazz increasingly became music for Lhe well-informed listener. Jazz critics and historians began to describe jazz as .a ldnd of classicaJ music. Jazz ensembles were formed at many schools, colleges. and universities beginning in the 1950s and 1960s. and jazz history became parL of the curriculum. Now res pected as an ut music, jazz nonetheless retained some of the aura of the rebellious popular music it had been half a century before. \Ve have seen in bebop, free jazz, and avant-garde jazz examples of the themes mentioned ai the beginning of this chaptei-: a growing ambition for the music itseH, reflected in heightened demands on both players and list eners: a focus on listening with concentration to the music for its own sake rather than uslng it for dancing or background music; experimcnting with new techniques. sou nds. and textures: and borrowing styles from other traditions. As we will see. these sarne themes are also apparent in popular m L1sic of the time.

DOUBL~·~:·, QUARTE ~~~

Popular Music ln the interwar years, popuJar music in the United States had been closely allied to jazz and to Broadway musicais. But after th.e war, musicians took popular music in severaJ separa te directions.

Economic growth in the postwar yea1·s gave young people greater leisu re time and more disposable income. For the frrst time. teenagers became signilicant for the marketing induslly, and clothing. cosmetics, magazines, movies, and entenainment were designed for and ma rketed to them. lncreasingly, youngpeop le had their own radios and record players, and they listened to and bought recordings of music that rel1ected their own tastes. Record companies responded by market ing specil'tc kinds of music to 1he Leen and young adu lt market that became known as pop mnsic. Some types of music, like rock and roll, united most teenagers in lhe late l 950s and early 1960s, creating a "generation gap" between them and older genera lions. But as popula1· music continued to split into n.i.che markets, people of ali ages found thal the music they listened to marked their identity as strongly as the clothes they wore and the ways they behaved. Each type of music had ils own stars. fans. and radio programs, and the popularity of songs in each catego1y was tracked on cl,arts, weekly rankings by sales of 45- rpm singles. The va rieties of popu lar music surveyed here. from country music lo rock to salsa, are sometimes refe rred lo as genres of music; lo avoid confusion with lhe use of that word for a type or composition, such as a symphony o r ballad, we wiJl refer to them as traditions or styles of music.

[dentity through

music

COUNTRY MUSIC One tradition. associated primarily with white so uthemers. was co,wlry 11111sic (also caJled cor.mt,y-and -westem). a type of popular music with folk-

music roots that began between the wars, sprcad r.hrough radio shows and recordings, anel grew in popularity after World War li. As suggested by the painting in Fib'Ure 36.4. country music was a blend of many sources: the hillcount1y music of the southeast, based on traditional Anglo -American ballads anel fiddle tunes; western cowboy songs and styles popu larized by Gene Autry and other movie cowboys: popular songs of the nineteemh and early twentieLh centlu-ies; blues, banjo mus ic, and otl1er African American traditions; big- band swing; and gospel songs. Such a combinalion of traditions across sociaJ and ethnic lines is typicalJy American. Counuy music was valued for its energy. its sincere sentiments. its witty wordplay (part of its herilage from Tin Pa.o Alley), and its ability to articu late the experience of rural and working-c lass Americans in a rapidly changing world. Most countiy songs told stories. often first -person nanatives of heartbreak, hard Limes, or nostalgia for home, that were especially appealing to people from ruraJ backgrounds who were now in urban areas. Country music established itself as a kind of popular music in the l 920s and l 930s. the period when the United States population shifted from main]y rura l to primarily urban. and grew steadily in popularity as the move lo cities and suburbs intensifr.ed a fter World War I L The distinctive characteristics of cou ntry music in clude markers ofrural speech, from word eh o ice to a southern twang. and signals of sadness and nos talgia. frorn breaks in lhe voice to hencling notes on th e steel guita r th at have been compa1·ecl to sohs. Typically count1y music centers on a singer stmmming or picking a guitar· accompaniment, often joined by othe rs sin.ging in dose ha nnony or backed by a band dominated by fiddles and guitars (eventually eleclric anti pedal

Characterístics

911

912

C H A 1> T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar C ro,scurre nt,

FIGURE 36.4: The Sou rces of Coun1ry Music (1975), 11wra.l 1',r 17iornas Hart Be111on for

rhe Counrry Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville. Tennessee. 771e sources depicred include (counler-clockwise froni lowerlef1) traditionalAnglo -American ballads accompa • nied by Appalachian dulcirner.fiddle lunes played fordancing, cowboy songs witligui1ar accompaniment. AjricanAmeri.can songand banjo tra.dilion.s. popular songs (represenied by the shows in the distant steaniboal). traveli-ngsongs (represented by the train). and gospel .songs and hJ7nns, ( COURff.SV Of' C01Jlli""fl\Y M usrc HALL or PAM r.• ANO .t.fUStU>-0

steel guitars). Several distinctive styles developed, including western swing, a style of dance music that blends country ftddJi.ng wiith cowboy music, jazz, and big-band swing, and bluegrass. an up-tempo amaJgam of old-time nddling and banjo picking with blues and jazz. marked by impressive vi.rtuosity and by solo improvisalions on new or lraditional melodies, and, li.ke bebop, intended more for focused listening than for dancing. Two stars of postwar country music, Hank \'ifilliams (1923- 1953) and Johnny Cash (1932-2003), reached both counLry and mainstream audiences. Nashville became lhe cen ter of country music in part because of important ve~1ues suc h as the Grand OI' Opry, made famous through radio and later television broadcasts. By the 1970s, t'here were cotmtry music stations all ovcr the United States, and country became a nationwide style with conlinui.ng regionaJ, raciaJ, and class associations. much as New Orleans jazz had done tifty years earlier.

RHYTHM AND BLUES AND ROCK AND RO LL

Electric blu.es

The war and postwa1· yea.rs saw a continuation of the Great Migration of Afri canAmericans to northern cities, seek.inggreatereconomic opportunities. As bluesmen moved from lhe rural soulh to the urba11 no1·th, many began to play

Popular Music

electric guitars and cleveloped a new style known as elec1ric blues. Chicago was an important center for the development of electric blues, personined by the music of Muddy Waters (Mcl<inley Morganó.eld, 1915- 1983). Ln 1949, Jerry Wexler, a reporter for Lhe i-ecord induslry journal Bitlboard, coin ed the term "l'hythm and blues" to replace "race music" as the name for the magaúne's weekly chart of music markeled chiefly lo African Americans. Soon rhytl11n aud blues (or R&B) was beingused as lhe name ora new sound that cleveloped in urban areas in the years just after Worlcl War JJ. Rhythmand-blues groups typically i.ncluded a vocalist or vocal quartet. a piano or organ. saxophone or cleclric guilar, bass, anel drums. anel they performed mostly new songs buill on rwelve-bar blues or lhlrty-rwo-bar popular song formu las. ln the l 950s, electric guitar and e lectric bass beca me increasingly common, i;'radually clisplacing lhe saxophone and acouslic bass. Rhythm and blues is dislinguished l'rom n·adilional blues by insistent rhythm, wirh emphasis on the second anel fourth beats-called the ba.ck bea.ts-in : meter; wbining electric h'ttitar: anel a repetilive amplif1ed bass line. Al hrst inlended for an African American aud ience. rhythm and blues reacheel white teenagers Lhrough radio a ncl recordings. The leens were attracted to the sexual themes of the lyri cs, th e strong rhythms, and the intcnsity of the performa nces. Recognizing an opportunity. recorei compa· nies produced covers, recordings by while singers of songs already popular in performances by black singe rs. Por example, Hound Dog, a twelve·ba r blues by the white SO%'Writing duo Je rry Lei.ber and Mike Sloller. was a hit for black blues-singer Willie Mae "Big Mama'' Thornton (J 926-1984) in 1952, but solei millions more copies in the 1956 recording by Elvis Presley (1935-1977). ln a time when African Americans were struggling for equal rights. the popularity of a black urban stylc of music among white tcenagers was a force for change. Alan Preed, a popular radio disc jockey in Cleveland, is credited with coin · ing rock a11d roll as a name for a new style that blended black and white traditions of popular music. Rock and roll combined the driving beal of rhythm anel blues with thc milder guitar background of countiy music and drew on numerous elements in both t.raditions, from rhythm to tjmbre. The instrumentation consisted of amplined or electric guitars for both rhythm and melody, hacked by eleclric bass and drums and somelimes augmenled by other inst ruments. Song forms drew on Tin Pan Alley as we ll as blues, anel rhythms and vocal styles encompassed eve1ything from boogie-woogie to country lwangs andgospel shouts. The words, most ofren concerned with !ove or sex, were often delivered in a raucous, sometim es wailing voice. although there were also gentle romantic ballads su1\g in a deliberately subdued tone. Both the words and the varied styles spoke directly to leens' experiences, cre· ati.ng a close idcntif1cation betweell lhe lisleners and lheir music. R.ock and rol l was launched natio11a lly iin the 1955 nlm Blackboa.rd Jungle with the hit song RockAround the Clock by Bill Haley and the Comets. The nrst mega-slar was Elvis Presley. who enjoyed phenomenal success with his hip swiveling hlend of country anrl rhythm anrl hlues. By l 960. rock and rollsoon si.mply called rock·-was being hearcl all over the world. especially i.n English-speaking arcas, and was outselling every other kind of music. Black singcr· songwriter Chuck Berry (b.1926). one of lhe pioneers in blending

913

Rhythm and blues

Rock and rol/

914

C H A 1> T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar C ro,scurre nt,

cou.o ny music wilh rhythm and blues to create rock and roll, caught the bravado of the you ng displacing their elders in his l 956 Jtit Rol! Over. Beethoven: "Roll over. Beethoven. and dig these rhythm a.od blues.."

THE SIXTIES

1'he Beatles

Rock branches out

FIGURE 36.5, 7'he British rock group t/1e Beatles pe,fonningo,i the 1ele11ision series The Ed Sullivan Show on Febmary 9. 1961. Already we!l-known m êngland. 1/ie Beatles became a woddwide culmral phenome,1 on. Their appearance onAmerican televi·

aio,; whcrcd ir; wh1>1

beca me known a.s Beatlemania. (Hui:ro, ARCl-llVt:/Gl.TfY 1MACES)

By tbe early l 960s. many or rock's earlies1 sta rs bad l'allen off the pop ch;u·ts. l nto the void stepped the Beatles, a quartel from Liverpool, England , composed of two creative singer-songwr iters, Jo lrn Lennon (1910-1980) and Paul McCart.oey (b. l 942); gui tarist a.od so.ogwriler George Harrison (l 9432001); and drummer fungo S1a.rr (b. 1940) . "Beatlemania," already taking hold in the United Ki ngdom in 1963, reached America in F'ebrua1r 1964· when the Beatles. shown in Figure 36.5. began a tour of lhe United States. Aiter a few yea rs of touring, the Beatles began devoling 1heir energy to studio recordings, experimenti.ogwi lh novel instrumental combinations and tech niques of sou nd manipulation that were i mpossible to produce in a live setling. The resulti ng albums, especia lly Sgt. Pepper·s Lonely Hearts Cltib Ba11d (1967), embraced a wide variecy of musical styles, from British rousic hall songs to l ndian sitar music, in songs whose leve l ofin terest to connoisseu rs began to rival that of classical music. Their example encou ragecl other rock bands to experime.ot with r ecordi.og technology and to create rock- based mu sic of depl h. The Beatles' 1964 Amer ican tour began the "Br itish lnvasion." an inllux into North America of British bands such as the Rolling Stones, the K.inks. the Animais, lhe Who, and Cream. Many of these bands were blues - basecl, inlJuenced by African American bluesmen s uch as Robert Johnson. The emphas is ou blues and an increasing focus on electric ,guitar solos gave rock a hai-der edge. Guitar vistuosos such as Jirni Hendrix (1942-1970) anel Cream's Enc Clapton (b. 1945) became for t he electric guitar what Paga nini and Liszt we1·e for the nineteenth- century violin and piano. Hendrix's stunning solo

Popular Music

improvisation ou The Star-Spangled Banner in from of an audience of half a mi.llion people at the outdoor rock festival Woodstock (l 969) was both a protest against k.oce -jerk patriotism and an asscrtion of virtuosic prowess. As bands sought an i ndividual sound, they developed many new styles within the broa d tradition of r ock: t he Ca li fornia su1f style of t he Beach Boys, combining rock wilh dose vocal harmonies and experimental effects Oike the elec lronic sounds used in Cood. Vibra,tions) to sa lute 1he good l imes or sun ;rnd summer; t he cicid. rock or psychedel.ic rock of Jefferso n AirplaJ1e and the Gratefu l Dead, evoking lhe mind- altering effects of psychedelic drugs lhrough surreal lyrics, exteoded solo improvisations, electronic sounds. manipulations of sound in the recording smdio, and use of lndiari instruments sucb as sitar and tabla; the loud and aggressive hard rock of Led Zeppelin and Aerosmith , marked by a heavy. distorted electric guilar so u.od and driving back- beat druro rhythms; and theavant-garderockofF1·ankZappa (1940-1993), who drewoninlluences from Varêse, lves, and Stravi nsky to rhythm and blues and on tec hniques from group improvisation to sound collages. Music and lyrics often expressed opposition to the prevailing political culture o r social expectations. By the late l 960s, rock music was a·imed not just at teenagers but at lis teners in their twenties and thirties, who had been teenagers in the l 950s and had stayed with rock as it grew up with them. Although some rock could s till he da.oced to , most rock music, like hebop or ocher modem jazz, was intended and used prima r ily for attentive listening rather t.han for dancing; fans lypically bo ught the latest album. took it home. and listened lo it re peatedly, like art music. Concens, howeve1·, were raucous affairs, with high leveis of amp litication an d audience response, an d none or t he sit-quietly decorum of classical concerts. l n lhe postwar decades, rising interest inAmerican folk songs led lo a new kind of popular music that drew on folk lraclilions. Groups like the Weavers and Peter, Paul, and Ma1r performed genuine folk songs alongside n ew songs in similar styles. Although the latter by defmition were popular songs (newly composed by k.oown authors anel sold tluo ugh shee1 music and recordings) rather tha n fo lk songs (which have un known origins an d are passed down orally). the whole tradition became k.oown as folk11m sic. ln opposition to the increasing sophistication and professionalism of most other popular music, folk rousic was deliberately simple, featuring one or more si.ogers with guicar or banjo accompaniment, anel often t he audience was encouragecl to join in the singing. Llke rock and roll, folk music was an importanl musical voice for express ing identity a.od ideology. Since the .oinetee.otb century. singer- so.ogwriters bad adapted folk. popular. and hymn tunes to política! ends by writing new texts in support oflabor u nions a nd other sociaJ causes. Many such songs were created for lhe Civil füghts movement, including the moveme.ot's anthem We Shall Overcome, aclapted from a hymn . ln t he l 940s anel 1950s, Woody Guthrie (1912- 1967) and PeteSeeger (b. 1919), stepson ofRuth Crawford Seeger, were especially prominent as singers and songwri ters of folk and protest songs. ln t he 19/í0s. the !.truggles for civil righ ts and agai nst the Vietnam War galvanized younger musicians such as Joan Baez (b. 1941) and Bob Dylan (b. 1941) who voiced the protests of their generation in their songs. Dylan's songs Blowin' in the Wind (l 962) and The Times They Are A-Changin' (1963) combined

Rock grows up

Folk and proies t m!LSÍC

915

916

Broadwoy ond F,lm Mu,ic

C H A 1> T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar Cro,scurrent,

1raclitional J'olk styles wHb simple guitar harmonies. a rough voice, blues hannon ica, anel a keen sense of poetry. By the miel -sixties. Dylan was using electric guitar in a blend of folk ancl rock traclitions. His complex lyrics, markecl by unusual rhymes. puns. aJlitera lion. anel appar ently cleep or hidden mean ings, captivated a generatiou anel inspireel many other pop artists. The leading African American tradition of popular music in the 1960s was sou.l, a clescenelant of rhythm and blues in which the imense expression, melismas, an el ecstatic voca li zations of gospel sini,ring were brought over lo songs ou !ove, sex, and other secular subjects. Among the leacliug exponents were singer-songwriter R.ay Charles (1930-2004). shown in Figure 36.6, who popularized the new trend from the mid 1950s on; James Brown ( 1933-2006), lhe .. Kinp; of Soul"; Otis Redeling (I 94 1- 1967); and Aretha Franklin (b. 1942). Soul became closely asso ciated with 1he struggle for African American equality through songs like Brown's Say lt LcudFIGURE 36.6: Ray Charles slww1> pe,fo,mingni t/1e pfru10. f'm Black and f'm Proud (1968) anel Franklin's in a photogrC1ph takcn around 1960. <•r;t1'MANN1co•••s> recording of Redeling's Respect (1967). The sounds of Motown- a Detroit- baseei Motown recorei company founded and owned by African Amer ican entrepreneur Berry Cordy (b. l 929)- dominated the soul charts of the l 960s and often crossecl over to wp lhe pop chans as well. Gorcly's imenlioo. was lo create pop ula r music that would appeal to botb blac.k anel white audiences. ln-house songwriting teams and studio musicians produced a, consistent. groomed sound for groups like Smokey Robinson anel the Miracles, lhe Supremes, the Temptations, tbe Fotn· Tops, and Martha anel the Vande ll as. Other signiJicant performer-composers who got their start at Motown include Marvin Gaye (1939- 1984), Stevie Wonder (b. 1950), anel Michael Jackson (1958- 2009). Te:i::-Mex and salsa Latino-Americans produced 1helr own styles of muisic, drawing on traditions from Central or Latiu America. ln Texas anel the southwestern United States, Tex-Mex or Tejano music combined elements of Mexican mariachi music wi1h folk styles such as German and Czech polka style and American country music. ln New York City and Puerto Rico, a dEstinctive type of dance mnsic called salsci emerged in the 1960s. Salsa is a mix of Cuban dance styles with jazz, rock. anel Puerto Rican musical elements. A typ ical salsa cnsemble includes lcn lo fo tu-leen members on vocals. piano. Cuban percussion (snch as tim bales. claves. and conga drums), bass, anel brass. Each instrumentplays a d istin ctive rhythm , for ming a driving dance beat of interlocking, polyrhythmic oslinatos. Championed by Tito Puente (1923- 2000) anel other performers. salsa embocl iecl the rich ethnic mix of New York·s music scene anel offered tbe Puerto Rican immigrant community a distinct musical identity. Pluralism and The diversity of populai· traditions shows the pluralism of modem society hybrids hu t also ils common threads. AJthough identified with a particular group of

917

people, each or these tradilions represents a blend of elements from severa) sources, including common roots in prewar popular song, jazz. and blues. Popular music in other nalions likewisc hlcnded local anel regional traditions wilh elements absoi·bed from American popular styles. Although the traditional mi1sic of a culture or region once he lped provide a sense of common idenlity for ali generalions. the emergence of new styles anel types of popular mus ic in each region reflected and re info rced tensio ns between older a nd younger generations and between rura l and urban populations.

Broadway and Film Music Broadway musicals after \Vorld War II screngthened the emphasis on integrated musicals tha1 began with Show Boai, in which ali aspects oi' the production support the plot. As in the past, most Broadway shows were collaborations, anel the greal songwriting tcams produced hit tunes well into the l 960s. Composer Richard Rodp;ers (1902-1979) initially coUaborated with lyricist Lorenz Hart (1895-1943) and !ater with Oscar Hammerstein li (1895- 1960). and Frederick Loewe (1904- 1988) wrote music for the books and lyrics of Alan Jay Lerner (19 18-1986). Irving Berlin was still active, producing classics suc h asAnnie Cet Your Cun (1 946) anel CaU Me Mado.m (1950), and Cole Porler had one of his biggest hits with Kiss Me. Kate 0948). based on Shakespeare's The Tamingofthe Shrew. Successful musicais tendeel to ônd their way to Hollywood ó.Jms within a few years anel were also quickly disseminated to the public through recordings anel productions by touring, amateur, and. in !ater years. high school theater groups. Rodgers and Ham.rnerstein produced some of Broadway's best-loved s hows, including OklC1homa! (1943), CC1rousel (1945), South PC1cifi.c (1949), The Kingand I (1951) . and The Sound of Music (1959). Their nrst collaboration, Oklahoma!, nol only enjoyed a record- breaking run of over two thousancl performances but a l.so marked a pivotal moment in the developmeut of the integrated musical. Set in the Oklahoma terrirory arou.nd 1900. the story is richly textured, ftlled with both elramatic and comeelic subplots. The cbaracters are developccl not only through dialogue but also through song. Dance, choreographed by famed dancer Agnes de Mille, also played a crucial dramatic role. The story's emphasis on American folk histo1y anel the simple pleasu res of rural life appealed grea tly to Americans during war lime and the early postwar years. Rodgers and Hammerstein also exp lored innovative themes of racial prejudice and encounters between Polynesia or Asia and the West in several shows tha t use eleme ms of non -Western music to evoke a sense of place: Sout.h Pacifi.c, set on a Pacil1c islancl duri ng Worlcl War 11; The Kingand /. about an English governess in Siam (modern-day Thailand); and Flower Drum Song (1958), a sto1y of Chinese immigrants and Asian -Americans in San Francisco's Chinatown, which also featurecl a song in rock style lo clepicl a young. thoroughly assimilated son of an immigrant. Leonard Bernstein (1910- 1990) wasa majorpresence both on Broadwayand in classical music. Inilially known as a classical composer, he became an overnight celebrity ln 1944 after brillfantly concluctingthe New York Philharmonic

Musicais

Rodgers and ffammerstein.

Leonard Bernstein

918

C H A 1>T E R 3 ,6 • Po,twar Cro,scurrent,

FIGURE 36.7: Jerome

Band and Wond En,emble Mu, ic

ln the 1960s, Broadway musicals forther diversified their subject matter and therefore continu ed to adapt styles from other traditions. Jerry Bock evoked Jcwish folk music for Fiddler on the Roof (1964), set in a Russian Jewish village, and Gah MacDermot's Hair (1967), a picture of urban hippie life, used a rock band and emu lated Motown, acid rock, and folk music alongside lraditional Broadway styles.

Robbin$ leods dancers

inarehearsal of"Cool:· for the 1961 niovie of Leonard Bernstein·s \Vest Side Story. (O NY-Pt,)

LaterBroadway

FILM MUSIC

as .a last- minute replacement. That sarne year. bis Broadway musical On the Town opened for a run of 463 performances. ln addition LO his career as a conductor and composer of symphonies and voca l music, Bernstein enjoyed enormous success with his musical West Side Story (1957). with lyrics by Stephen Sondheim (b. 1930), book by Arthur Lau1·ents, and choreography by Jerome R.o bbi ns. Set in gang-ridcle n New York City of the I 950s, !11/est Side Story is a retelling of Shakespeare's Romeo an,l}1,liet. suhstituting rival gangs for the warring families of the original. The set ting provided Be ms1 ein with rich op portu nities for including a variety of musical styles, iocluding Afro-Caribbean dance styles, jazz, and soaring melodies in Tin Pan Aliey AABA formulas. "Coo!" fromAct l of West SideStory (l\AWM 1?8) exemplines his approach. West Side Story mixing traditions and s1yles io a rder to convey the pem- up energy of one of 1 Fui! i\\ 1 the gangs before a hght. Figure 36. 7 shows Je rome Robbins rehearsi ng the dancers in this scene. where Lhe Jets are trying to "cool" down before meeting with their rivais, the Sharks. ln "Coo!," modem styles of jazz symholize the urban American setting anel the youthfu l vigor of the characters, alternatiog between coo! jazz. as Lhe Jets attempt to calm their nerves, and the tense energy of bebop. These styles mix with elements of modernist classical music embodiecl in a fugue on a twelve - tone theme, representing for Bernstein lhe co nfusion and an xiety of modem life (through atona lity) a nd the hlending of old and new and ofhighand lowtypical of America (modern sounds in a neo classicaJ fugue in Lhe midclle oi' a jazz song in a Broadw.ay show). Th e music of l!Vest Side Story shows how much Bernstein was under the sway of the integrated musical of Rodgers and Hammerstein. a geore Berns tein described at the time as the tn1e America n form of opera. West SideStorl is typical of rus compositions io bl urring genrcs- musical comedy. tragecly, and opera-anel juxtaposing highly contrasting styles for a meaningful purpose. His bleud of jazz and classical elements resonates both with ea rl ier s uch comhinations. like Milhaud's La création d1, monde and Gershwin's Rhapsodl in BLue. and with the tendency of modem jazz musicians like Duke EIJington and Miles Davis to draw on classical music and to conceive of themselves as artists rathe r than entertaiuers.

Film music also diversift.ed in the postwar em, as composers chose styles and souncls ihat were appropriate to the subjec1 and mood. Miklós Rózsa (J 9071995) developed severa] differe nt styles, from an angular. contra pu nta], yet tonal modernism that helped to define the mban crime drama genre known asfilrn noi,- to a mock-ancient style for histoi-ical e pies such as Ben H11r (1959). The score to A Sr:reeicar Na.rned Desire (l ?51) by Alex North (l 910-199 1) popu· larized lhe use of jazz to represenl urhan set Lings. sexual situations. and social ills from alcoholism to crime. Leonard Bemstein used a dissonant modernisl style in bis score for On the Water{ront (195 4) , and otbers adopted atonal anel serial music where their tense emotional qual ities were appropriate. Bernard Herrmann (1911 - 1975). whose dissooant tonal lan!,>Uage drew on lves, Berg. Hindemith, anel other modernists, became famous for his scores to Orson We ll es's Citizen Kane (1941) and Alfred Hiuchcock's Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), and Psycho (1960). Westems often J'eatured music in tbe diatonic Americanist style championed by Copland in his ballets and fLlm scores, but the lta lian composer Enn io Morri cone (b. 1928) created a new, pop-i nfluenced style for his Western scores. including The Good. the Bad and t,he Ugly (1967). National and elhnic lraditions helped to establish place and atmosphere, l'rom Mikis Theodorakis's score for Zorbci the Greek (l 964) to the blend of traditionaJ and Western elements in the füm music of lndia. China, and Japan. Electronic music was used frequently for psychologically upsetting events, the strange or supernatural , and space aliens. Popular music con tinued to be a strong element in postwar nlm. ln bis jazz-influenced score to Laura (1944), David Raksin (1912- 2004) introduced a therne song that was woven throughout the l'ilrn and became a hit song in its own right. Many !ater óJms also featu red tberne sougs, whose presence on the pop charts could earn additional income and advertise the film . Rock and other forms of pop music appeared in movies aimed at the teen market. from B/,a,ckbocird}ungle anda series of films starriog Elvis Presley to lhe beacb movies of the 1960s. The Beatles· A Hard Da.y's Night (1964) was a fmancial success both as a film and as a soundtnck recording. and many other movies followed a similar model of marketingthe ülm and soundtrack together.

Band and Wind Ensemble Music Band music, tradil ioually viewed as a ki nd of popuJa1· music, underwem a striking t ransform ation in the postwar era with the creation of a large

Popular songs andfilm

91 9

920

C H A 1>T E R 3 <, • Po,twor C ro»current,

Concert bands

Comrnissioning serious works

U1/ind ensemble

Works for winds

repertoire of serious works for winds, especially in North America. This change in focus resu.lted from the co nverge nce of several factors . Over thc previous century, the wind band had grown in po pularity to become one of the fix tures of American life. There were amateu1· bands in most towns of any size, along with severa! professio na l ba nds . The most famous b,todmaster after Sousa was Edwin Franko Goldman (1878- 1956). He and hisson, Richard Fra nko Goldman (19 10-1980), conlinued lhe tradil ion of outdoor band concerts through the nationa lly broadcast Goldman Band summer series from New York's Central Park. Bands were especially impo rtant in tbe schools; virtually every high school and college had one, and by the l 960s there were ftfty thousancl wind bands in schools.across the country. The American BandmastersAssociation (fou nded 1930) and Coll ege Band Directors NationalAssociation (CBDNA. founded 1942) promotecl bands and hand music, incl ueling professional training for coneluctors and s tandardization oi' ensembles. Most important, they promoted the co ncept ofthe co11.cert bane/ (o,- symphonic band) as a vehicle for serious concert music. ln purpose. role, pel'Íonning context, and repertoire, a concert band is more like an orcheslra lhan like the marching banels oi' holielay µarades anel l'oothall games. Goldman, the CBDNA. and various conductors were eager to broaden the repertoire for winds. building on the foundation laid by Holst. Seh.mitt. Grainger, and Vaughan Williams early in the century (see chapter 32) lo create a body of works pa railei in weight and seriousness to music for orchestra . They embarked on ambitious programs to commission works for concert band. Major compose rs contributed pieces for the meelium, including Schoenberg's Thenie and ~iria1io11s, Op. 43a (1943), Milhaud's Suile Française (1944), and Hinclemith's Symphony in 131, (1951). Then in 1952. Frederick Fennell (1914-2005) founded the Eastman \Vind Ensemhle at the Eas tman School of Music in Rochester, New York. The wiml ewsemble was a group ded icated solely to sel'ious music, rather than the mix of marches and other fare typically played by bands. Band pieces were traclitiona.lly scored for multiple players on each instrumenta.! part anel with each musical line in more than one instrument so that suhslitutions couJel be made to suit the availahle players. But the wind ensemhle was different: each instrumental part became essentiaJ and all or most were played hy soloists, as in a Jarge chamher ensemhle. Wind ensemhJes quick.ly spread to oLher schools, and there are now severa! professional wind ensem bles such as the Detroit Winds. The notion of specinc rather than variahle insmrmentation iníluenced banel scoring as well. The presence oi' serious conce1i ensembles. well- funcled commissions. and the prospect of enjoying widespread performances and earning contin uing income from the ir music attracted ma ny compose rs to wri te for winds. particularly ai a time when orchestras werc playing l'ew works hy living composers. Many composers who worked in a variety of med ia achieved their most frequent performa nces and most enclu ring success wit.h music for winds. such as Vincent Persiche tli (1915- 1987: Divertimento. 1950. and Symp hony for Band. l 9S6) anel Will iam Sr.human (19 10-1992: Geo,ee 111/a~hington Bridge) . or have written one or more pieces that are now part of the permanent repertoire of serious classical music for winds. inclucling Copland's Em blems (l 964). Krzysztov Penclerecki's Pittsburgh Overture ( 196 7). Mwic for

Roll Over, Bc,thoven

921

Pragtie 1968 (1968) by Karel Husa (b. 1921). anel ... and t.he mounta.ins rising nowhere (1977) by Joseph Schwantner (b. 1943). As a group, these works for band or wind cnsembJc rellect the sarne wide range of styles anel concerns as do contemporary orchestral works, from neoclassicism to lwelve-tone methods, new sou nds and textures, and ava11t-garde effects. Persichetti's Symphony for Band. Op. 69 (1956). exempliftes the new Persi ch.etti's asp irat io ns fo r hand and wind ensemble m usic. Wri lt.en on a commission Syrnphony for Band from the Washington Univers ity Band and premiered by them a nd by the Goldman Bancl, it is a full four- movement symphony. adopting the form anel status of the most prestigious genre in the orchestral repertoire; incleed, Persicheui called it Symphony No. 6 in his series of nine sym phonies, and as a symphony without strings it forms a sort of con trasting pair with his Symphony No. 5 for s tring orchestra (the others are for J'ull orchesll'a). The fu·st movement (NAWM 199) reatures a slow introduction folJowed by a fast sonata form, as in many Haydn symphonjes (co mpare NAWM 119), in a mod ernist neotonal style markecl by lluicl themes. rapicl development. constanl changes of tone color, a large amount of percussion. and dissonant ba rmo n.ies that usually have a triadie or diatonic basis. Engaging melod ies, jazzy rhythms, and quicksilver contrasts of timhrn anel texture give the symphony immediatc appeal, whilc the inventive fragmentation and recombination of the themes creates imrigue tha1 invites repea teel hearings. TWs symphony qu ickJy beca me one of the central pieces in the newly forming classical repertoir e for hand anel wind ensemhle. Composing for band or wind ensemble was at tractive for classical com- The problern of posers like Persichetti, because the wind repert.oil'e was much more open to prestige new works than the crowded repertoire of music for orchestra. string quartet, or piano. As Persichetti commented, "Band music is virlually the only ki nd oi' music in America today (outside the pop úeld) which can be introduced, accepted, put to immediate wide use, and hecome a s tap le of the l.iterature in a short time." But there was a downside as well. Despite the trcmendous growth in quantity and quality of the repe1'!0ire, wind music still lacks the status of music for strings or orchestra, dueto its longstanding associatio ns with marches. entertainment music. and amateur performers. For example, although Husa's Musicfor Prag1ie 1968 has received over eight thousand perfor mances, more than any other Husa work aod more than the great majorily of twentieth-century classica.l compositions. Husa·s music instandard classical genres has won him more prestige. including prizes for his String Quartel No. 3 (awarcled the Pulitzer Prizc in 1969) and bis Cello Concerto (winner of the Grawemeyer Award for 1983) .

Roll Over, Beethoven ln this hrief survey of postwar clevelopments, we have seen a proliferation of nP.w stylP.s anel trael itioM in jazz. popu lar m 11sir.. mnsi~ak li lm musir.. a nel band music. AU of these were introcluced in eaTlier chapters as types of vernacular music, yet in each we have seen in the postwar era a desire to reach the status of art music. Trad itions as disparate as hchop. bluegrass. rock

922

C H A 1> TE R 3 <, • Po,twor Cro»current,

music, Broadway, anel concert band music made increasing demands on performers, making a virtue of virtuosity. and on listeners, requiring the sarne focused attention expccted of listcners to classical music. We have seen jazz artists, rock musicians, and band composers experirnenting with new techniques, and have encountered musicians in ali ofthese traditions who borrow or evoke other styles. from the use of classical and avant -garde elements in modero jazz, to Lhe inco rporation or As ian inst ruments anel sounels in rock music, to the assim il ation ofjazz, classica l, rock, and non-Western traclitions in Broadway musicals. Tbe eclecticism of the music of th.is time is in part a reflection of the people hearing il, most ofwhom listeneel to anel loved more than one type or music. We will see these sarne themes played out in the classical arena, discussed in tbe next chapter. ln lhe years sioce 1970, popular music has grown ever more central to musical life. The teenagers who listened to Elvis Presley, the Beatles, Bob Dylan, or Aretha F'ranklin grew up but helcl onto the music they loved. There are now classics in pop music as surely as in classical music- nurtured and introduced to new generations by lhe "golden oldies" radio stations that emerged in the 1970s-and it is the music or t be l 950s and l 960s that lies al the heart of that repertoire. Repertoires of classics emcrged also in jazz. Broadway, film music. and bane! music. Jazz numbers by Charlie Parker, Miles Dav is, and John Coltrane have become as standard as earlier works by Armstrong and l::J'lington. Musicais by Rodgers and Hammerstein. Bernstein. and others from the postwar decades are staged eve1y year by touring companies and in schools, and are occasionally revived on Broadway. F'ilm music has of course endureci in its role as accompan.iment to lhe movies themselves, but in recent years it has received attenlion for its own sake as well. Tbe campaign to create a repertoire of an music for concert band aod wind ensemble succeeded by the 1970s and forever changed the nature of band conce1is. ln each of these musical traditions, the music from the postwar era has never ceascd being played (at least in 1·ecorded form) and is now among ihe most frequently heard and deeply loved of the enti re traclition. As these new canons of musica l classics have become established. the first such canon- classical music itseli- has seen its share of the market and of the conce1i audieoce shrink in proportion. Chuck Beny's mocking suggestion that Beethoven roH over anel make way for a new kirnd of music now seems like a prophetic voice. ~ Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

POSTWAR HEIRS TO THE CLASSICAL TRADITION The tradition of classical music performance became stronger than ever during the years after World War U. Audiences grew, government support in many nations rose, schools of music expancled, and music education in primary anel secondary schools increasecl in quantity and quality. But the living composers who s.aw themselves as participants i n the classical traclition sha recl less and Jess common ground, with little consensus on style, aesthetic, or purpose. Some composers sought to p reserve and extend particular aspects of the lradition, from audience appeal to modernist complexity, while others focused on the new. Mter two world wars, nationalism seemed to be a dangerous relic of the past. ln every nation there was a diversity of styles anel approaches, and ideas that began in one place were often imitated elsewhere. Thus it makes sense to divide our sun•ey, not by nation but by large trencls, using individual co mposers as case studies while recognizing that some composers participated in severa) dilfer ent trends, reflecting the diversity of the time in their own music.

Diversity and Common Themes There were many competing approaches in the postwar decades to the problem of composiog oew music that nt the times, aod no brief sur Vf'.Y is~ hl f'. to nf'.s~ribf'. thf'.m ali. Th f'. fo i lowing~an only bf'.gin to snggf'.st the range, from the extensio ns oftradition to the radical avant-garde. This spectrum inclucles tonal and neotona] music; post-tonal styles

924

C H A 1> TE R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

drawing on composers frorn earlier in Lhe century: increasingly complex app roaches to twelve-tone and serial composition; lhe new virtuosity; applications of i11deter111i11acy and c/w11ce in composition and pei:formance; music that TIMELINE exp lored sound itself by employing new instruments, elecPostwar lfeirs to the tro11ic music, or new sounds on existing instruments: incorC!assica! Tradition pora1 ion of e le men1s from other trad itions such as jazz and non-Western music; anel pieces based on q11otatio11 anel MUS ICAL HISTORICAL collnge of past music. Yel amid alJ this diversily. there are also commonalities. • 1940-41 Olivier Messíaen, ln much of this music we will encounter the same 1hemes we Ouartet for the E,,d of Time observed in other traditions in the previ.ous chapter, inc lud• 1944-45 Benjamin Britten. ing increasing dernands on performers anel listeners: a con PeterGrimes linued focus on allenlive listening; experimentalion with • 1945 World War li ends new tecbniques, sounds, textu res, and technology; anel borrowing elements from other traditions, both Western and • 1946 - 48 John Cage. Sonatas non -Western. and lnterludes We w-;JJ tum f1rsl to composers who sougbt a place in the • 1949 North Atlantic T,e;,ty permanent classical repertoire alongside the masterpieces of Organization formed tbe past anel designed theirworks to function in thesame way as • 1950-53 Korean War the estal.,lished classics had, drawingon Lhe art music tradition, proclaiming a distinctive musica l personality, and rewarding • 1950 Pierre Schaeffer and lhe lislener at each rehearing. These composers pulled the Pierre Henry. Symphonie pour goals of modernism into a new generation. As we will see. tbese un homme seu/ incllvicluals span a broacl spectrum- from those who aimed to • 1951 Cage, 10usico{Changes contribute something new that listeners could immediately understand. such as Samuel Barber and Benjamin Britten. to olhers, such as Milton Babbin. Pierre Boulez, Luciano Berio, anel Ellioll Carter, who pushed the twe lve -tone method. atonality, or peTformer capabilities to new extremes. creating pieces that were ve1y hard to perform anel struck their fu-st listeners as radicalJy new and often diJ&cult to comprehend. Tben we will examine composers of the avant- garcle, who sought to remake music from the ground up. As noted in the discussion of Satie and futurism in ehapter 32. avant - garde composers chalJenge accepted aesthetics. even the very concepl of permanenl classics, anel inviLe listeners lo focus on whal is happening in lhe present. The central ftb'ttre from the J 950s on was John Cage. who questioned the role of the composer anel demanded attentive lis tening even to unintended sounds, anel whose work has had a greaier impact than any other postwar composer. The next section considers composers who focused on new sounds anel tex:tures, includingthe new technologies of electronic sound creation, record ing, and manipulation. Many or their wo.r ks were experimental. designecl to t1y out new methods for their own sake. whi le others were modernist or ava nt •ga rd e. The final section addresses stylistic mixtures. borrowing from non-Western rnusic. and quotation . Ali of these trends hlur the houndaries between modern art music anel other traditions. and some also blur the lines between modernism anel other trends. Together they set the stage for new developm ents in the late twentieth and twenty-ftrst centuries.

925

Oivers1ty and Common Themes

ln some discussions or twentieth-cenrnry music , ali of the radical new approaches in the postwar era ase lwnped together as manifeslations of lhe avant - garde. But lhis obscures important differences. The distinctions be1ween modern ism, the avant-garde, and experimentalism do not lie in whal lechniques are used bu t in the music's purpose: is it to erea te new music tha1 wi ll fmd a place alo:ogside older classics, to cha ll enge listeners' preconceptions of music, or to t1y something new with little reference to the past? \Vhile these distinctions are useful, we wilJ also ímd t hat increasingly in the postwa r era lhese broad currents inlermingle. Some composers, such as Karlhei nz Stockhausen, participate in ali of them; there are aspects ofhis work lhal are experimental. lrying oul new resources, or avant-garde, intended to shock his auclience and raise questions. Yet ultimately he sought a permanence for bis music lhat marks him as a modernisl. It can be hard to Db'ttre out a composer's motivations: did Krzysz tof Penderecki intencl his Threnodr (see below) as an experiment in new musical sounds and resources, as a challenge to the basic concepts of concert music. oras a piece to be heard repeatedly, admired, anel played alongsicle the classics? Thal it has been performed and recorded many times suggests the Jasl. bul the very queslion shows how entangled lhe three streams have beco me in postwar music.

• 1953 USA and USSR both

test hydrogen bombs • 1953- 55 Pierre Boulez, Le

marteau sans maitre • 1958 Edgard Varese. Poeme

électronique • 1958 European Common

Market formed • 1960 Krzysztof Penderecki,

Threnody • 1963 President John

Kennedy assassinated • 1964 Milton Babbitt. Philomel • 1969 Neil Armstrong and

Buzz Aldrin are first humans on the moon • 1970 George Crumb. 8/ack

Angels THE NEW PATRONAGE As aiways, how composers ma ele a living is pa ri of the slory. A few oJ' tbem, such as Stravinsky anel Copland, wereable to supportthemselves with commissions. royalties. and income from conducting or performances. 0ther composers required patronage, but withoul 1he kings anel aristocracy of eadier centuries, it had to come in new forms. ln Europe. composers oft.en were suppo1ied by the state. through radio stations. annual subsidies, grants. arts agencies, or educalional institutions. ln some couniries, such as the United Kingdom anel most communist nations, government suppoii tended to make composers responsive to public tastes. Yet in others. such as West Germany (now Germany). France, anel Poland. the goverrunent sponsored the most radical new music, as pari. of its responsib iJiiy to support the nation's culrure. ln the Un ited States an d Canada, ma ny composers were employed as teaching faculty in universities. colleges. and conservatories. giving them time 10 compose, a ready audience, anel aceess to performing organizations, inc.luding ensemb les set up to perform new music. Since coJleges and universities prize academic freedorn. the music coming from academic cornposers has been diverse, va1ying from traditional styles to avant-garde and e,--per imental. Indeed. lhe safety of tenure and the ivory to.ver tcnded to isolatc composers from the public and make them independent of its support. Some saw that as a virtue. allowing music to advance in its own tenns. without having to please the untutored listener (see Source Reading, p. 926). To a great extent, the type of music encou raged ata schoo l varied with th e

The university as patron

926

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Extensions of Trad1tio11

and !tis studem anel co lleague Milton Babbit t. The Universities of IUinois anel Michigan wer e also important centers, wb ere arm ual festivals of conte mporary m usic served as J'onuns for both avant -garde and tr aditional approaches.

COMPOSITION AS RESEARCH Milton Babbitt, professor o-f music and of mathematics at Princeton University. argued that composers, like scientists, engage in ,esearch that advances knowledge and should be supported for that work, even if it lies beyond most people"s comprehension. His view extends in new terms the nineteenth-century v1ew of

music as an autonomous art to be pursued for its own sake. This excerpt is from an essay he wrote under the title -The Composer as Speciallst,-changed by an editor at the magazine where it first appeared to the more provocative "Who Cares lf You listen?"

- ~ Why should the layman be other than bored and puzzled by what he is unable to understand , music or anything else? lt is only the translation of this boredom and puzzlement into resentment and denunciation that seems to me indefensible. AFter all. the public does have its own music, its ubiquitous music: music to eat by, to read by, to dance by. and to be im pressed by. Why refuse to recognize the possibility that contemporary music has reached a stage long since attained by other forms of activity7 The time has passed when the normally well-educated man withou t specia l preparation can understand the mos t advanced work in, for example, mathematics, philosophy, and physics. Advanced music. to the extent that it reffects the knowledge and originality of the informed composer, scarcely can be expec ted to appear more intelligible than these arts and sciences to the person whose musical education usually has been even less extensive than his background in other fields. But

to this, a double standard is invoked, with the words •music is music," implying also that "music is jvst music." Why not. then. equate the activities of the radio repairman with those of the theoretical physicist. on the basis of the dictum tha t "physics is physics"? ... •.• 1dare suggest that the composer would do himself and his music an immediate and eventual service by total. resolute. and voluntary withdrawal from this public world to one of private performance and electronic media. with its very real possibility of complete elimi nation of the public and social aspec ts of musical composition. By so doing, the separation between the domains would be defined beyond any possibility of confusion of categories, and the composer would be free to pursue a private life of professional achievement, as opposed to a public life of unprofessional compromise and exhibitionism. But how, it may be asked, will this serve to secure the means of survival for the composer and his music? One answer is that after all such a private life is what the university provides the scholar and the scientist. lt is only proper that the university, which-significantly-has provided so many contemporary composers with their professional training and general education. should provide a home for the "complex," • difficult," and "problematical" in music. From Milton Babbitt, · who Caros lf You Listen?," H;gh Fidelity 8. no. 2 (February 1958): 39-40. ln SR 174 {7:5). 1305-11.

cornposers who taught t here. Among m any refugees from Europe, Schoen berg taught at lhe University of California a t Los Angeles ; Milhaud at Mills Cnll egP- in Oakland . C:a lifnrn ia: a nrl Paul Hinrl e.mith at Yale . Walte r Pistnn. a Nadia Boulanger student who taught at Harvard. encouraged a neoclassi ca l approach, while Princeton was domfoated by approaches derived from Scboenberg and Webern. particu.l arly through lhe inlh1e11ce of Roger Sessions

Extensions of Trad ition Although critica] discussion has often focused on n ew sounds and techniques, most postwar composers usecl lraditional means. Likc their forebears. they sought an individual voice within the classical tradition.

TONAL TRADITIONALISM Many twentietb·century composers clevelopecl ind.ividual slyles with· out depar ting radically from the past. Tonality or neotonality often. though not necessarily. cha racterizes their music. Seeking to communicate with as val'ied a public as possible, these compose1·s offered listeners a threacl that ca n be followed t hrougb identina ble themes. r eadably aud ihle fo r ms, or programmatic subjects or titles. The most successful also discovered the secret of inspi.ring perfo rmers to champion their music, crealing wor ks that musicians are eager to p lay m ore rhan once. Amon.g such composers were Bernstein anel Persich etti. whom we encountered in the previous chapte r: Prokoflev, Shostakovich, and other Soviet composers affected by the expecta tions of the state that music should bave wide appeal; Poltlenc, Hindemith, and other composers wbo establisbed thei r reputations between the world wars: and Richard Strauss, who was still composing tonal music in his own personal idiom in the late l 940s, culminating with his Fotir Last Songs (1948). Of the Am eri can composers who rema in ed comm itted to tona li ty, on e of the most successful was Samuel Barber (l 910- 1981 ). His rnnal romanticism is fully expressed in his best · known work, Adagio for St.rings (a.rranged from the slow movement ofhis Stting Quartel, 1936), and in his Violin Concerto (1939) and Piano Concerto (1962). He ofte n incorporated modernist resources into his tonal mttsic; for exampl e, his Piano Sonata (1949) uses twelve· tone rows in a tonal J'ramework. Ba.rber was renowncd for his vocal music, includ ing Dover Beach 0931) for v()ice and string quar tel. Knoxvitle: Su.mmer of 1915 (1950) for voice and orchestra. and three operas. The songs in his cycle Herrnii Songs ( l 952- 53), on rexts by medieval lrish monks and hermits. are a lways tonally ce ntered, yet each offers a novel blend of traditional tonality with modem techniques. For instance . 77ie Monk a1id His Cat . sbown in Example 37.1, is solidly in F major yet features almost no consonant har monjes. Barber uses o pen lil'ths in the bass lirie lo suggesl a medieval acmosph ere and dissonant augmented unisons (Bl,- Bq and E-EI,) in the piano to suggest the cat. Aga inst the stearJy rhythrn of t he piano, th e vocal melody projects the na tural text accentuation in a synco pated . Jlexible line. whose r ise anel fali rnughly para ll ds the contour of th e piano·s chan t like m elody a perfect fourth higher, like an embellished st_yle of medieval parallel organum. 'fhis song shows Barber's ability to write music tbat sounds fresb, like no other music. while using only traditional rcsources.

Samuel Burber

927

928

C H A 1>T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

EXAM PLE 37.1, r-i •

Extensions of Trad,tion

Barber, T.he Monk anel His Cat.from, Hermit So ngs opcr1 51hs

x : han i10nic3ugmcn1ed urlisons

Prir.

tJ A

/ '"' ver( ical lincs intlicale disp1aced parallel fou.11 hs Muuer·1to lluwing J • - 2 mp

s: "": ~ _,

%ll.

,empre ú,gat-o

1::

~· *

whitc

~: %ll.

Pan { ~gur.

)'ow_ hfp d ·,

1::

* •

7f: %ll.

Pf\r

•

\~e ar6

BENJAM IN BR ITTEN

Musicfor amateurs

Hornosexualit_y

The most prominent composer in the tonal or neoto nal trad ition to win an international reputation in the postwar decades was English composer Benjamin Briuen (1913-1976). After studying priva tely and at lhe RoyaJ College of Music, Britten s pent severa! years in the late 1930s writing music for ftlms, an C>-'Perience that sbaped his style by teaching him to com muni cate through the simplest means. Like Copland. he tempered rnodernism with simplicity to achicve a clear and widely appealing idiom. As a young man in tbe 1930s, he was deeply influenced by humanitarian co ncerns and ideais of pu blic service. manifest in his interest in writing music for children and amateurs. his allegoricaJ pleas for tolerance, and his paci.üsm. The English chorai tradition was n urtured in churc h anel cathedral choirs. schools. anel amateur choruses. Most of Britten's choral music was conceived for s uch groups, a11d wo rks such as Hymn to St. Cecilia (1941-42),A Ceremony of Carols (1942), and Missa brevis (1959) havc become :standards. His one-act opera Noye's Fludde (Noah's Plood, 1957-58). on the textof a med ieval mira ele play, is intended for a m ixture of professional performers with children of various ages and includes hymns that che audience is invited to sing. These and his other works for nonprofossionals are meloclious. challenging pier.es that suit their performers' ahilities yet are not limited by them. Brit ten was a homosexual and was lhe life pai-tner of lhe tenor Peter Pears (19 10-1986).Showo in Pigure37.l. lhe two met in 1936 anel livccl togetheruntil

Britten·s death fourdecades later. Britten wrote most ofltis tenorroles for Pears, and the two collahora ted as performers anel as producers of the an nual mus ic festival atA!deburgh in England. Severa! of Britten's operas have themcs that relate tohomosexuality, includingBil!yBu.dd (1950-Sl)anclDeathin Vi?nice (1971-74). PeterGrimes (1944-45), whi ch established Britten's reputation and became the fust English opera since Pur cell to enter the international reperlory. centers o n a lisherman who is disli keel by the othe r resiele nts of his village, pu rsued by mobs, and ultimate ly driven to suicide. The theme ofthe individual persecuted by the crowd can be readas an alllegmy for lhe condition ofhomosexuals in a hostile society. TelJingly. Grimes is nota sym.pathetic character; we are meant to see ourselves, not in him, but in the ugly crowd that unthinkingly persecutes ou tsielers on the basis of suspicions and misinformation, forcing a poignant catharsis in the final 11-agedy. ln lhe last scene (NAWM 200), as a search pany pursues him calJing his name, Grimes raves anel mocks th em in an unmeasured recitative, until his friend Balstrode urges him to sail bisboal oul to sea and sink it. Tbe opera ends with a stunningdepictionof the uncaring sea and eq-ually uncaring townsfolk in a most successl'ul application of bitonalily: strings, harp, anel winds arpeggfate thirds that encompass all the notes of the C· major scaJe, depicting lhe shimmering sea, as the town's citizens go ahout their business. singing a slow hymn to the sea inA major, each key srnbbornly ignoring Lhe other. The entire scene displays the eloquent dra matic effects Bri tten creates out of simple means. Britten's pacilism- his conscientious objection to war in any form- is expressed in bis choral masterpiece, the War Requtem (196 1-62). Commissioned for the coosecration of the new cathedral ar Cove ntry, a city destroyed in a German bomhing raiei during World War IT, the work weaves together the Latin tex t of lhe Requiem Mass with verses by Wilfred Owen, English soldier and poe1 killed in France in l 918 just clays before the end of World War 1. The contrast of texts is highlighted by contrasts of perfo rmfog fo rces: the Lalin texts are set for soprano soloist, chorus. and full orchesti-a, with sections for boys' choir and organ, and the Owen poems are scored for altern ating tenor anel baritone soloists with chamber orchestra. Ironies abound. As the chorus sings "Requiem aeiernam" (Gra111 them eternal rest), they hammer home a tritone (F~-C). the least restfu l of intervals but the tonal axis of the entire work. Britten interleaves the Englisb texts so that lhey comment on the Latin, and vice versa, as in tbe ''Lacrimosa," where the melodie links hetween the soprano's tearful plea for mercy and the tenor's English verses hlghlight the futility be feels at the death of a friend in battle. Britten·s commitment-to paciftsm . to to lerance. to includ ing a.li ages and talents in music-maiking- gives his musica quality of sociaJ engagement that has attracted many performe1·s anrl listeners and has inspil'ecl later composers. Its enduring success shows the continuing power of music wi th a tonal center to move audiences and ea rn a place in the pennanent repe1toire.

929

Pete r Gri mes ~ BR IT TEN , Petet Grimes. Act Il i, Scene 2: To hei/ w,rl> ~li your mercy!

FIG URE 37.1 : Ben janiin Brilten (righi) and Peter Pears on. 1he balconyof the Old Milt Snapeinabout 1944, when Brittei. was

worki ng on his opera Petc r C rimes. (r»oTO, EN I D SLAna1, (,'()URTl!;SY

OF'CHE BR.lfft.N • l'EAR.S

l.l 11R.A11Y. Al,.DEnu nGn)

930

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heor, to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

OLIVIER MESSIAEN

Religious subjects

While Britten used a tonal or neotonal icliom that drew on English lraditions and communicated social meanings, Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) extended techniques from Debussyand Sn·avinsky to creat.e a personal posr-tona l musi cal language based on ai-tilicial modes. harmonic stasis. nnnmetric rhythms. and colorl'ul harmonies and timbres. and used it 10 create music that inspil'ed coolemplation. Shown in Pigure 37.2, Messiaen was the most important Prench composer bom in lhe twenlieth centu ry. A native of Avignon in southero France. he Stltdied organ and composilion at the Paris Conservatoire, was organist a t St. Tri nité in Paris from 193 1 on, and beca me professor of han nony at the Con · servaloire in 1941. After the war, he taught many important composers of the younge r generation, including his fellow Frenchman Pierre Boulez, lhe Cer main Karlheinz Stockhausen (botb discussed bel.ow), and the Ne1herlander Ton de Leeuw (1926- 1996). li is a tribute to the quality and impai-tiality of Messiaen's teaching that each pupil went his own way. A devout Calholic, Messiaen composed many pieces oo religious subjects, such as t he Quatuorpourlafm d1i temps (Quartel for the End ofTim e) for violin. clarinet. cello. and piano, written at a German military prison camp in 1940-41 for performance by the composer and three J'ellow prisoners: Vingt, regards sur l'Enfant·]ésus (Twenty Looks at the [nfan t Jesus, 1944) for piano: his opera Saint Francis oj'Assisi (1975-83): and n umero us works for his own instrument. lhe organ. Other principal compositions include lhe Turangalila Symphony (1946- 48) for orchestra and Cntalogue d'oiseaux (Catalogue of Birds, 1956-58) for piano. Messiaen sought to emhody in musica stance of ecstatic contemplation. His works typically present an experience of concentrated meditation on a few materiais, like a musical mantra. Rather than developing themes. he juxtaposes sta tic ideas, showing his heritage from Debussy and Stravinsky. Messiaen used severa! characteristic <levices. descrihed in his hook The 1'echniq1,e of My M1i.sical Language (1944). that helped him achieve his goal of writing medita· tive music. The opeuing movement of the Q1,a1uor poi,r la. findu tenips, titled Liturgiedecristc,l (Crystal Lihtrgy. NA\VM 201 lc••,,.. ,.,11~ ). illustrates several of them. as shown in Example 37.2. Messiaen often wrote down birdsongs in musical notatíon and used them in severa! compositions, where they convey a sense of contemplating the gifts of nature and the divine. ln Example 37.2. both the violin aod clarinel play fi.gu1·es that suggest bi rdcalls (ma rked "comme 1,m oiseau," 1ike a birei), repeating the m at irregu lar intervals . What Messiaen called modes of limited lra.nsposition are r.oller.ti ons of notes. like the who le tone anrl or.ta -

FIGURE 37.2: Olivier Messi.aen . <v=,ço,s •ocnos,oAMMA-RArnovi• o•l'fv 1M•or.s>

tonic scales, thal do not change when transposed by certain intervals; for example, an octatonic scale transposed

931

Extensions of Trad1tio11

EXAMPLE 37.2,

Messiaen. openingof Liturgie de cristalfrom Quatuor pour la nn du temps

(tomme un oisc:iu)

Bien modéré. c n po udivicmcn1 har.mon ic:"x (J = 54 environ)

.;,,.

Violin ($nn Oútê.ffrf ia poin1r:)

Clarincl in

Violincello

PP (\ibraro) ~ Bien rnodéré. r n f,I01U ln1irmt' nl h:unrrnnirnx (J = 514, environ)

932

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Ha rmonic stasis

Duration, not meter

Additive and

nonretrogradable rhythms

EXAM PLE 37.3,

a minor third , 1ritone, or major sixth will yield tbe s.ame set of notes. Such scales lackthe differentiation of diatonic scales and so do not create a strong desire for resolution, making them well suited for music designed to suggcst contemplalion anda negation of desire. ln Lilurgie de cristal, the cello notes are al i from a single whole tone scale, in a repeating sequence of live notes (C- E- D- F;-131,). Messiaen's harmony also avoids moving forward to a resolulion. Rathe r. chord series are simply repeated to create a sense of stasis or meditation. ln this movement, the piano plays a succession of twenty-rune chords six times (the last incomplete); lhe second statcmenl begins in measure 8. Messiaeo trea1s rhy,hm as a maller of duralion , nol meter. Rejecting 1raditional Western meters based on strong and wea k beats. he drew inspiration fro m systems based on d uration. iocluding ancient G.-eek poelic meters lhat alternate long and short syllables rather than stressed and unstressed ones; the Prench Renaissance practice of musique mesurée (see chapte,· 11), itself based on ancienl Greek poetry: and the durat-ional system of lndian music. known as tala. Meter. as a series of beats organized in measures, is a human or worldly thing, associated with dance and hearcbeats. \Vhen we ,·espond to music metrically, we are in our bodies, but when we attend instead to durations we are in the realm of time. ruled by the divine. ln Example 37.2. the changiog no1e-lengths in the cello aod piano do not create a sense of syncopation against a rnetri c framework; instead, che smooth, legato playing style makes us hear pallerns of shorler and longer d urations. Throughoul the movement both piano and cello play repeated pai terns of duralions chat resemble the 1a.!ea.. or repeating rhythmic pattern, of medieval isorhythm (see chapler 6). The piano íeatures a series of sevenleen durations played ten times. of which thc nrst two statements appear in Example 37.2. Against this talea, the twenty-nine-chord series accs like the color in medieval isorhythm. Sim ilarly, the cello has a ta lea of lifteen durations, framing its ftve-note color. These repeating pitch and rhythmic series create cyclic repetition. which again invites contemplation. Exa mple 37.3 shows the piano and cello taleae written out in in tegra l no te values (without ties). The piano talea features a <levice Messia.en used to emphasize duration over meter: what he called addedvalues. suchas the dotted eig:hth note amid even eighths or the Jone sixteeoth note, which add a small durational value to produce units of irregu lar length. T he cello part includes another Messiaen trademark that he dubbed nonretrogradable rhythms. which are the sarne forwards and backwards; as shown by brackets, the lirsl three notes form one such rhythm , the next twe lve another. Such patterns preserve their identity outside oftime-whether heard in normal time or reverse time, they are the same-and thus symbolize the eternal, lhat which exists ou tsicle ol'time.

Durationa.l patterns in Liturgie de cristal

a. ln piano

r r r UJ I wu.n1u·r r

b. ln ce/lo, wirlt nonretrogradable rhyrhms

Extensions of Trad1tio11

Pinally, Messiaen preferred beautiful t in1_b res anel colorful harmonies. Here. the cello plays in hjgh harmonics (soundingtwooctaves a.bovethe notated pitchcs). creating an cthereal sound, augmented by thc gentlc birdcalls in the high violio anel clarinet, over soft dissonances in the piano. Messiaen invites us to meditate on these sonorous objects as they constantly recombine in new ways yet remain lhe same. like colorful shapes in a kaleidoscope.

Beautiful sounds

SERIALISM Alongside extensions of tonality and individual post- tonal id ioms such as Messiaen·s, another prominent currenl in lhe postwar era was seri<tl 11111sic, based on the twelve-tone method or similar approaches that use series of pitches or other elements. Followiog Schoeoberg's invention oi' twelve- tone m11sic in the early 1920s, severa! composers in Europe and the United States adopted serial methods in at least some of their works, as we have seen with Berg. Webern, Krenek. and Crawford. Schoeoberg's methods were inlroduced to the United States in 1927 byAdolph Weiss (1891- 1971), who badgone over to sludy with Schoenberg in Vienna and Bedin and subsequently tau~ht severa] America n composers. The in llux of composers fleeing th e Nazi regime, inclucling Schoeoberg himself in 1933 anel Krenek in 1938, reinforced in1e1·es t io serial techniques, and during and al'ter World War II the number and prom inence of twelve-ton e co mposers in the Americas continued to grow. Established composers Jike Stravinsh-y. Copland. and Barber took up serialism in the l 950s, as did many in the generation of composers who were just beginning their careers at the end oi' the war. The situation was quite different in Etu-ope, where the mosl prominent twelve- tone composers had died or fled during the Nazi era. But after the war. young composers in Germany anel elsewhere embraced music that the Nazi regime had condemned, especially that of Schoenberg and Webern. By the early l 950s. many composers had adopted serial methods. adapting them to 1heir owo purposes. Their interes t was partly musical, rellecling e111husiasm for new possibilities suggested by music they had been kept from hearing, and partly political, e"'Pressing a rejection of the Nazi and collllnunist ideologies thal had suppressed such music. The new developments were encoura.ged by governme nl- sponsored musical institui-ians. such as the courses for new music held in Oarmstadt, Germany, each summer beginning in 1946 (with the secret assistance of the Uoiled States' occupying forces). At a memo!l'iaJ concert of his works at Darmstadt in 1953, Webern was hailed as the father of a new move ment. Some composers adopted serialism as a way to achieve a music free of nationalist. fascist, or leftisl ideology and thus escape the tainl of politics many styles had acqui red during the 1930s and early 1940s. The ideas fostered at Da1·mstaclt and other centers for new music inspired compose rs in many countries. But every composer who embraced serialism worked independeolly. striking out io new direclions. cultivating a personal language and style. and using serial methods in a unique way. Bei,rinning in the late 1940s. some composers applied the principie of Schoeoberg's tone rows to musical paramelers other lhan pitch, giviog rise to what has sometimes been called total .serinlism. 1f the lwelve no tes of

933

The spread of sedalism

Politics and institutiona l support

fndividua.l

approach.es Extensions of serialism

Extensions of Trad1tio11

Finally, Messiaen preferred beautiful tincb res and colorful harmonies. Here. the cello plays inhjgh harmonics (soundingtwooctaves a.bovethe not.ated pitchcs). creating an cthereal sound, augmented by thc gentlc birdcalls in the high violin anel clarinet, over soft dissonances in the piano. Messiaen invites us to meditate on these sonorous objects as they constantly recombine in new ways yet remain lhe same. like colorful shapes in a kaleidoscope.

933

934

C H A 1> T E R 31 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Beautiful sounds

SERIALISM Alongside extensions of tonality and individual post- tonal idioms such as Messiaen's, another prominem current i n lhe postwar era was seri<tl 11msic, based on the twelve-tone metJ1od or similar approaches that use series of pitches or other elements. Following Schoenberg's invention oi' lwelve-tone m11sic in the early 1920s, severa! composers in Europe and the United St ates adopted serial methods in at least some of their works, as we have seen with Berg. Webern, Krenek. and Crawford. Schoenberg's melhods were introduced to the United States in 1927 byAdolph Weiss (1891 - 1971), who badgone over to sludy witb Schoenberg in Vienna anel Berlin and subsequently tau~ht severa] American composers. The inllux of composers fleeing the Nazi regime, inclucling Schoenberg himself in 1933 anel Krenek in 1938. reinforcecl in te1·est in serial techniques, anel during and al'ter World \Var li the number anel prominence of twelve-tone composers in the Americas continued to grow. Established composers like Stravinsky. Copland. and Barber took up serialism in the 1950s, as did many in the generalion of composers who were just beginning their careers at the end oi' the war. The situation was quite different in Etu-ope, where the mosl protninent twelve- tone composers had dicd or fled during the Nazi era. But after the war. young composers in Germany anel elsewhere embraced music that the Nazi regime had condemned, especially that of Schoenberg and Webern. By the early 1950s. many composers had adopted serial methods. adapting them to their own purposes. Their interes t was partly musical, rellecting enthusiasm for new possibilities s·uggested by music they had been kept from hearing, anel partly political, e"'Pressing a rejection of the Nazi and collllnunist ideologies that had suppressed s11ch music. The new developments were encouraged by government- sponsored musical institutions. such as the courses for new music held in Oarmstadt, Germany, each summer beginning in 1946 (with the secret assistance of the United States' occupying forces). At a memorial concert of his works at Darmstadt in 1953, Webern was hai led as the father of a new movement. Some composers adopted serialism as a way to acbieve a music free of nationalist. fascist, or leftis t ideology and thus escape the taint of politics many styles had acqui red during the l 930s anel early 1940s. The ideas fostered at Darmstadt and otber centers for new music inspired compose rs in many countries. But every composer who embraced serialism worked independently. striking out in new di..rections. cultivating a personal language and style. and using serial methods in a uruque way. Bei,rinning in the late 1940s. some composers applied the principle of Schoenberg's tone rows to musical parameters other than pitch, giving rise to what has sometimes been called t otal serinlism. 1f lhe twelve no tes of

The spread of selialism Milton Babbitt

European composers Politics and institutiona l support Karlheinz Stockhausen lndividua.l approach.es Extensions of serialism

tbe chromatic scale could be serialized, so could clurations, intensities, timbres, or otl1er elements. Despite its name, total sedalism is never total; typically only some nonpitch elements are treatecl scrially. often only duration , and lhe rest are used to highlight the serial strncture. Ülher new extensions includeel methods of deriving subsidiary rows from the main series of a work, using fragmenls of a row. and subjecting rows lo various olher lransformaLi ons. ln these new clevelopments, Milton Ba bbill (19 16-2011; see Figu re 37. l Obelow) beca me the leading composer and theorist in the United States, a.nd Pierre Boulez of Paris and Ka.rlheinz Stockhausen of Cologne, both pupils of Messiaen anel associated witb the Oarmstadt summer courses, became the principal exponents in Eu rope. ln Babbitt's Three Compositions for Piano (1947), the ftrst piece to apply serial principles to duration. he used combinatorial pitch rows (see chapte1· 33) anda four-number durational row and manipulared them by the usual operarions of inversion a TI d ret rograde. His mu sic quickly grew more compJex, as he went beyond lhe practices of Schoenberg and his ci.rcle to realize new polentials of serialism. from 1947 to about 1961, Babbitl focused oncombinatorial rows and derived rows related by trichoreis (three-note group i11gs wühin the row), a.nd organized duration through number rows . ln the early 1960s, he began to use "all- partition arrays" of interrelated rows using ali possible ways of segmeming tlle row into groups of va.rious lengths. A.round the same cime , he developed a "time point" approach to duration, in which each meast1re of music is divided inlo lwe h•e equal unils of time. numbered from O to 11. and notes are assigned to begin at particular points on this time grid using num ber rows. Babbitt converted a pitch row into a number row by indicating the number of setnitones each note lies above lhe ftrsl note, as in Example 37.4. ln this way, at leasl in concep t, the sarne row that is used for the pitches also determines che rhy1hm. Babbitt once commentecl, "I want a piece of music to be Iiterally as much as possible;· and he has pursued tJlis goal by making the relationships between no,tcs as numerous anel intricate as possible. Composers in Euro pe explored similar ideas, independenl of Babbitt. ln Mode de va.leurs et d·intensités (Mode of Durations anel lntensities), the third of Quatre études de ryihme (Four Rhythntic Studies, 1949) for piano, Messiaen created a "mode" comprising tbirty-six pirches. each assignecl a speci.nc dura tioo, clynamic levei, and articu lation to be used every time chat pitch occutTed. Although the pitcheswerearranged in lhree divisions. each includingall twelve chromatic notes. the piece itself was not serially organized. But it inspired Boulez and Stockhausen lo write the Etrsl European works oi' total serialism. Stockhausen, shown in Pigure 37.3, heard Mode de vaLeurs at Darmstadt in 195 1 and composed bis KreuzspieL (Cross -Play) for piano. oboe. bass clarine1, and percussion that fali. ln the fu·st section, the pitch row is permuted

EXAMPLE 37.4 :

Ba-sic pitch row and nwnber rotv froniBabbitt's StringQuartet

No. 3 (1970)

• li

- 'RFJ. 7

• • P.• 2

- d4

935

Extensions of Trad,tion

tbrougb a complex process of rotation, in wbich notes are shifted from the ends of tbe row to the middle to create a derived row. and subsequenl rows are derived by similar procedures. Each of the row forros is stated only once in Part l, which is over aFter ali have been stateel. Each note of the chromatic scale is linked to a certain dLtration anel dym1mic levei. crealing rows of duration and dynamics that permute with th e pitch rows. A similar process oi' rotation occurs in the percussion. using two clifferent rows of dt1ration. MeanwhiJe, another serial process controls the register in which each pitch is beard: half of the notes begin in the lowest r,e gister and rise to tbe highest over the course of Pari l. Lhe other half move from highesl to lowest. Stockhausen sets up these processes of change in pitch, duration , dynamic, and register so that they all cross at precisely lhe same point in the middle, hence the title, Kreuzspiel. Stockhausen continued to develop serial procedures in Kontra-Punkte (1952-53) and other works, but also moved in many other directions, combining serialism witb other methods while crealing a body of work as diverse as any composerofth e time. \Vewi ll encounterhim several times in this chap terancl the next. in relalion to electronic music. indeterminacy. quotation, and other trends. ln Kontakte (1958- 60) anel !ater works, Stockhausen used moment forin, in wh.icb formaJ units of contrasting character follow each other without necessarily suggesting a process. di.recLion, or narrativ·e, creating a sense of tirnelessness. Serial ideas continuecl to inform many of Stockhausen's works. but bis music was also marked by a const:mt search for new procedures. Boulez, shown in Pigure 37.4. was also inspired by Messiaen's Mode de valeurs to apply serialism to both pitch and duration. His Structures (1951- 52) for two pianos used the nrst of Messiaen's three twelve - note divisions as the pitch row. transformed bot h pitch and duration rows through retrograde, inversion. and other methods. and used dynamics and arliculation to distinguish rows from one another. Boulez noticed that the work could give a listener an ilnpression of randomness. because the piece lacked readily perceived themes, a dislinct rhythmic pulse, or a sense oí progression toward points of clima,x, and instead presented a sequence of unrepeated and unpredictahle musica] events. Seeking a more expressive language, but convinced that composition must be logical anel systematic. Boulez developed new methods of deriving related rows from a basic row tbat provided him witb enormous flexibility aJtd expressive polential.

936

C H A 1> T E R 31 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

The divemty of serial music FIGURE 37.3,

Kadltei11zStockltatise11.

(tRicu

AUEI\BACIIIIIDl,TON AIICIIJVfJGF.'MT IMAGES)

His best-known piece is Le marieau sans mait1·e (The Hamm.er without a Master. 1953-55). in which he fused his pointillist style and serial methods with sensitive musical realization of the text. This work in nine short move ments is a setling of verses from a cycle of surrealist poems by René Char, interleaved witll instrum ental movements t ha t comm em on the vocal ones hy realiúng the sarne mate ri.ai in differenl ways. The ensemble- a differenl combinat ion in each movement, as in Schoenberg·s Pierroi Lunaire-comprises alt o voice, alto flute, xylori mba (a large xylophone), vibraphone, gu itar, viola, and a variety of soft percussion instmments. The ensemble produces a translu cent scrim of sound. ali in the middte anel high registers, witb effects sometimes suggestive of Balinese gamelan music. The vocal line is characterized by wide me lodie intervals, glissandos, and occasional Sprechstimme. The sixth movemenl. a setting of Char's Bourreaux de solitude (NA\VM 202) . is typical in that the complex serial procedures Boulez used are almost impervious to analysis, yet the mu sical surfoce is attract ive and always changing in interesting ways-no UOLtbt because of those very procedures. Moreover. the general shape is clear: the instrumental prelude and postlude rapidly and repeatedly ci rculate ali twelve chroroatic notes anel the entire set of durations, dynamic leveis, and timbres that Boulez is using, while the cent ral portion with the song-setting has a thinner texture. longer melodie lines. and frequent unisons or repeated pitches between voice anel instruments, giving it a completely different chat·acter. These composers and works should no l be taken as representative of postwar serial music. They ar e ve1y different l'rom each other. and in that sense alone they are typica l: vinua lly eve1y compose1· who used serial procedures , from Schoenhergon. <lid so in a unique way, devising individual approaches and. in many cases. usingdilferent Lechniques from piece to piece. The diver sity ol' serial music is a relleciion of the basic condilion of iwentieth-centtuy classical music we have observed since chapter 32, that each composer seeks to crcate music that is individual. distinctive. and innovative. yet linked in essenlial ways to the m usic of the past.

THE NEW V IRTUOSITY

L11cia no Berio

FIGURE 37.4:

PierreBoulez. (T. ,wlTisoT,

Lf.llRECnT MUSIC:: &ARTS)

The music oJ tota l serialism was extraorclina rily di lncult to perform. for ihe stnicture to be clear in a work like Boulez's Le marteau sans mailre, nol only must the pitches anel rhythms be absolutely accurate, but the dynamics must be exact- every JJ' exacily that anel notf or.lff ln tbe postwaryears, a new gen eration of technically proncient performers emerged who were capable of playing such works and wbo made careers as champions of tbe newest music. Thei.r presence encouraged composers to write pieces to challenge the skills of these new vi rtt1osos. Much of this new music was not serial, but drew on sounds and textures like those explored in serial music. Tbe newvi rluosity is well represented bythe series of works titled Sequ-enza by ltalian composer Luciano Berio (1925- 2003; see Figure 37.13 below). Each Sequenza is for an unaccompanied solo instrnment from flute (] 958) to cello (2002) . and each was composed for a specinc performer. Toe excerpt from Sequenza. IV for piano (1965- 66) in Example 37.5 shows the rapid gestures

937

Extensions of Trad1tio11

EXAMPLE 37.5,

938

C H A 1> TE R 3 1 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Berio, passage from Sequenza IV for piano

EXAMPLE 37.6,

Carter. ,netric modulation in String Quartel No. 2

P --==c===:,ff= 1,,.

and sudden changes of register and dynamic levei that are typical of the work. The atonal language, ftguration, and textures Serio uses here resemble those of his earlier serial music. Throughout, he uses the sostenuto pedal (which holds the dampers off the strings for notes that are being held whcn the pedal is pressed) 10 allow open strings 10 continue sounding or to catch hannonics from other notes. creat.ing an unusual effect. The title Sequenza (Sequence) refers to a sequence of harmonic helds explored over the course of the piece. ln this excerpt, the second chord is derived from the fu-sl (transposing 1he top and bottom portions bywho.l e step anel tritone respectively), and most of what follows is drawn from one or both chords. The American com poser Elliott Carter (1908- 2012) wrote for virtuoso performers as well, using a complex, nonserial stylc charac1erized by innovations in rhythm and fonn. Begi nning with his Cello Sonata (1948). Catier developed what he called metric modu.lation. in which a transition is made from one tempo and metei- to another through an imermediary stage that sh.ares aspects of both. resul ting in a precise proportional change in the value of a durational unit. The passage from his String QuaJ"tel No. 2 () 959) in Exa.mple 37.6 illustrates Carter's methods. Jn this work, eacb instrumental part takes on adis tinctive personality tbat interacts with the others as if in a dramatic work. The instruments are differentiated by their most prominent intervals: the lirst violin dwells on minor thirds and perfect hl1hs, the second violin on major sixths and sevenths. the viola on tritones and ninths, the cello on perfect fourths and minor sixths. They are also distinguished by rhythm: rapid , even notes in Lhe fu-st violin, regular punctualions in the second vio lin. tripieis in the viola. anel a uotated accelerando in the cello. witb a dotted arrow indicating license to speed up smoothly rather than exactly as notated. The ftrst violin effects the metric modulalion: what was a sixteenth- note quintuplet in measures 57- 58 is renotated as a sixteenth note in measure 59. then in measure 60 the dotted eighth (equal to three sixteenths) becomes th e beat, creating a 3 :5 proportion in tempo, from 112 beats per minute to 186. 7. There is also a proportion of 8:5 between the fust violin and the second violin . whoM! r.hord~ articulate a tempo of 70 attacks per minu te. The result is a counterpoint of sharply differentiated lines. inspired in part by the multilayered tex tures in the music of Ives, whom Carter knew in his youth.

...

•

(>J..

Ji =.~(J\, :

•

186.7)

------=-

--== u .

Elliott Carier

-.·, >

,.-·········;~~-----~

Demandson

listeners

L~.

The performance difftculties of works like these have meant that t.hey are seldom performed and are known mainly through recordings. Yet. like nineteen1h -century virtuoso showpieces, Lhe bes1 of these pieces attract some of the top performers and are likely to endure. The extraordina1y virtuosity they represent has parallels in jazz and popular music of the same era, f'rom the blistering solos oi' Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and ot.her bebop and modem jazz artists to the f'eats of rock guitarists like Eric Clapton ana Jimi Hendrix. Performers in ali of these traditions were willing togo to new extremes to make ao impact and claim listeners' attention. The demands on pedormcrs by composers like Berio anel Carter. or by serial composers such as Babbitt, Stockhausen, and Boulez. were marched by their demands on listeners. Each piece was difficult to understand in its own right. using a novel musicallangL1age even more distant from the staples of the co ncert repe.rtoire than e.arlier mod erni~t music harl heen. Compounding listeners' difiiculties was that each composer and often each piece used a unique approach, so that even after gettingto know one such work, encountering the

John C•g• • nd the Avont·Gorde

939

nexl one could be like staning from scraLch. Again 1here are parallels with Lhe rising demands on tbe listener imposed in tbe sarne decades by modern and avant-garde jazz or by the mosl advenlul'Ous arlists in po pular music. Such challenges had Lremendous appeal LO some members of the audience for dassical music, the mode1·11 equivalems to the con noisseurs of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But many listeners. like many players, found the new music harde r to grasp tban an)1hing they had eve r encountered.

John Cage and the Avant-Garde The music we have examined so far. from Barber's lona! works to lhe complex sounds of Messiaen, Boulez, and Bel'io. can ali be rega rded as modernjst in essence, because each composer extenclecl aspects of existing music in new directions. But the music of John Cage and other avant-garde composers raises more fundamental questions. What is music? What counts as musical sound? How should we listen, and to what? What is a composilion, an<l what is the ro le of the composer? Where is the boundary between art and life-or is there any?

JOHN CAGE Over 1he course of a long and inlluential career. John Cage (1912- 19'92). shown in Figure 37.5, crea1ed sounds, approaches, and ideas that previously had been excluded from music. After studying with CoweU and Schoenberg. he composed serial music in the mid - l 930s. worked in Lhe experimen1alisl lradilion 1hrough the 1940s, then turned i n the 1950s a nd 1960s to ever more radical reconceptions of music that made him lhe leacling composer and philosopher of the postwar avant- garde. Throughout his career, he worked closely with artists in other Eielcls, from painters to dancers. His most frequent collaborator was mod era dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham (1919-2009). who was his life partnerfrom the mid1940s until Cage's death almost fi.ve decades )ater. ln lhe late 1930s and early l 940s, Cage wrote numerous works for percussion ensemble. following the lead of Varêse·s all- percussion work lonisation. Cage's search for new sounds, part of his heritage from Cowell. is evident in bis use of untraclitionaJ instniments. such as tin cans ofvarying size and pitch in Third Construction in Metal (l 941). :md an elecb·ic buzzer and electrnnically amplined noises in Jmaginary Land~cape No. 3 {J 942). Composing for percus- FIGURE 37.5. John Cagcwo,·lo'ir1go,d1i-a Sonata& sion raised the question of form. since traditional and lmerludcsjorpreparedpiano, 1947. (cou•1·,sv fonns based on pitch, themes, and developmenl were OFTHE JOHN CACE 'l"JIUST)

940

C H A 1> TE R 31 • Po,twar Heirs to the Cl•,,,cal Tradition

oot suitable. While SchoenJierg bad impressecl upon Cage the need for musical structure that relates the whole to the parts, Cowell had introduced l,jm to the concepl of tcila. or organization by duration. in Indian music. Combining these ideas, Cage devised s1ructures based on dura1ion in which the proportions of the whole were reflected in each part: a movement is clivided into as many unils as each unit has measures. and lhe grouping of unils into secliotts is the sarne as the group[ng or measu res withio each unit. For examp le, F'irst Consiru.ction in Metal ( 1939) has sixteen units of sLxteen measures each; the units are grouped into contrasting sections in lhe pattern 4+3+2+3+4, and within eacb unit the measures are grouped in the sarne patlern, with contrasting material in each group of measures to make 1he durationa l pattern audi ble. Cage sometimes caJled such astructure squ.are rootfomi. since the numbe1· of measures in each unit is lhe sq uare root of lhe total in the movemenl. The organization of music in terms of units of time ra1her than pilch and rhythmic relatiooships was one of Cage's most importaot in novations and continued to underlie much ofhis later work. Cage·s experimentalion with timbre culminated in his invention of the Prepa.red pia.no prep a r ecl /JÍ<1.110, in which various objects-such as pennies, bolls, screws, or pieces of wood , rubber. plastic. weather stripping, or slit bamboo-a re inserted between the strings. resulting in delicate, complex percussive sounds when 1he piano is played from the keyboard. Essen1ially, the prepared piano is a one-per·son percussion ensembJe, with sounds that resemble drums. woodblocks. gongs. and other standard or unusual instruments. Cage·s best - known work for prepared piano is Sonatas and Interludes (1946- 48). consisting of sixteen "sonatas"- relatively brief movements, most in binary fomi without thematic returns-and fom interludes. Tbe pian:ist prepa res the piano in advance. following detailed instructions concerning what objects to place between the strings and where Lo pu! them. Each movemenl explores 1 Concise i\\ 1 1 Full i\\ 1 a different set of ti m bres and ftgurations. Sonata V (NA\'(/M 20]) illustrates the contrasts Cage achieves between wood. drum . gong. and unaltered piano sounds, and lhe inleractions he creates between 1he conlent-the succession of sounds- and the durational structure- the units of time determinecl by binary and square root forros. Cage's pieces for perciussion and prepared piano continued in the tradition 1950s a.nd 1960s of experimental music of his former 1cacher Heruy Cowell. Bm in 1950, Cage met composer Morton Feldman (1926-1987), and the two became the nucleus of a small group of like - minded musicians in New York. Their conversations . together wüh Cage's grow ing inleres l in Zen Buddhism and in 1he arl of Robert Rauschenberg (1925-2008). moved Cage in new directions that were no lon ger experimenta\ist but were unmistakably avant-garde. ln bis lectures and writings, he strnngly opposed the museumlike p reservation of music from the past and argued for music that focused the listcner's attcntion on the prescnt moment. He did not seek to write works that expressed emotions, conveyed images. developed materfa l, revealed a coherent structure, or unfolded a logi cal series of events. as music had done for cenlLtries. lnstead. inlluenced by Zen Buddhism. he created opportunities for experiencing sounds as themselves. notas vehicles for the composer's intentions (see Source Reading). His three main Slrategies for accomplishing this were cluuu;c, i11.dctcr111i11.ac y . anel the blurring of boundaries between music. art. and lifc.

John Cbge •nd the Avont·G•rde

941

942

C H A 1>TE R 3 7 • Po,twar Heor, to the Cl•,,,c•I Tr•dition

M USIC IN THE PRESENT MOMENT John Cage articulated his views about music in a series of lectures given at Darmstadt, Germany. in 1958. and published in his first book of writings, Silence (1961). The lec ture "Chang es: from which the following is excerpted, was interleaved in its presentation with

excerpts from Cage's Musico{ Changes.

(ln my recent works,] the view taken is not of an activity the purpose of which is to integrate the opposites. but rather of an activity characterized by process and essentially purposeless. The mind, though stripped of its right to control. is still present. What does it do, having nothing to do7 And what happens to a piece of music when it is purposelessly ma de? What happens. for instance. to silence7 That is. how does the mind's perception of it change? Formerly, silence was the time lapse between sounds, useful towa rds a variety of ends, among them that of tasteful arrangement. where by separating two sounds or two groups of sounds their differences or relationships might receive emphasis: or that of expressivity, where silences in a musical discourse might provide pause or punctuation; or again, that of architecture, where the introduction or interruption of silence might give defi nition either to a predetermined structure or to an organically developing one. Where none of these or other goals is present. silence becomes something else-not silence at all. but sounds. the ambient sounds. Tlhe nature of these is unpredictable and changing . These sounds (which are

called silence only beca use they do not form part of a musical intention) may be depended upon to exist. The world teems with them. and is. in fact. at no point free of them. He who has entered an anechoic chamber, a roam made as silent as technologically possible. has heard there two sounds. one high, one low-the high the listener's nervous system in operation. the low his blood circulation . There are. demonstrably. sounds to be heard and forever, given ears to hear. Where these ears are in connection with a mind that has nothing to do. that

Indeterminac)'

mind is free to enter into the act of listening , hear

ing each sound justas it is.notas a phenomenon more or less approximating a preconception . ... The early works have beginnings. middles. and endings. The later ones do not. They begin anywhere, las t any leng th of time, and involve more or fewer instruments and players. They are therefore not preconceived objects, and to approach them as objects is to utterly miss the point. They are occasions for experience . .. . T he mind may be used either to Ignore ambient sounds, pitches other than the eighty-eight (keys on a piano] , durations. which are not counted. timbres which are unmusical or distasteful , and in general to control and understand an available experience. Or the mind may give up its desire to improve on creation and function as a Íaithful receiver of experience.

From John Cage. ·ch•nges." in Silence: Lectures and

Wrltings (Middletown. CT: Wesleyan Un,vers,ty Press. 1961), 22-23 and 31-32.

By leavingsome of the dec isions normally made by a composer to chance, Cage created pieces in which the sounds did not convey his inte ntions , but simply were. His approach varied from piece to piece but typically involved chonsing a gamut of P.lem,mts to he indurlerl. planning hnw they were til he selected and deployed. and then using chance operations to do the selection. Music of Changes for piano (1951, Book I in NAW.\,I 204) took its name from the ancient Chinese book of prophecy 1-Ching (Book ofChanges). whichofíers

Chance

Full ~

FIGURE 37.6:

The score ofCage 's 1hree·movemen1 work 4'33" as p1iblished oy Edition Pe1ers. "Tacet .. meons "be silent .. and is nomiallyt,sed in orchestral parts when an. insmm, en1 i-S silent foran endre nwvement. (1.1. RIU~ (; H1' ,.s usrc & Ak'l'S

l'l:IOTO LI BRAllY)

a method of divination by tossing coins six times to determ ine lhe answe1· from a list of sixty-four possibilities. For Music of Changes. Cage devised charts of possil>le sounds (half were silences). dynamics. durations. and tem pos and used the merhorl from the 1-Ching to seteei which were to be used, lilling in a fonnal structi.1re based on units ohime. The resu lt is a piece in which sounds occur (and may recur) randomly and at random volumes. durations. and speeds. Perhaps surprisingly, beca use humans natu rally frnd patterns even in random events- think oJ'the conste ll ations, randomly scattered stars in which ancient cultures found images of animais anel mythological beings- listeners can heareven chance-determinecl musicas interesling and beau1iful , full of intriguingchanges in densily, register, and sound. Thus we may fmd a chance composition appea ling, even while recognizing that il does nol convey an emotion. story, or other inlenlion. Cage hoped lhat listeners would fmd his chance works engaging precisely because lhey olfer the opportunity to hear souncls si mply as themselves, uot as vehicles of communication or mysteries lo puzzle out. Chance is a way to delermine certain aspects of the music without imposing lhe composer's inlentions. A.nother approach Cage piooeered is what he ca Úed indetemiinacy. in w]lich the composer leaves certain aspects of the music unspeci.fted. He drew the idea in part from the work ofb.is friencl Morton Feldman, who in pieces such as Projection J for ce!Jo (1950) used graphic 11otation to indicate register in genei·a l terms ralherthan specifyingprecise notes (see cliscussion below). Cage's Concert for piano and orchestra (1957- 58) includes sbcly· three pages containing various kinds of graphic notation. lntended to be realized by the player·s according to instructions in lhe score; the exact sounds produced vary considerably from one pe rformance to another. Cage·s most extreme indcterminate work- and bis most famous picce- was 4'33" (Four Minutes Thirty-Th_ree Seconds, 1952), shown in F'igure 37.6, in which the performer or performers sit silently at their instruments for a span of time specined in the title (subdivided into three "movements"). while what ever noises can be heard in the concert hall or from outside constitute the music. The piece imp lies that silence is simply openness to ambient sound anel that there are always environmental souncls worth contemplating. ln chance music. some elements are detennined by chance; in indeterminate music, some elements are lefl unspecified by lhe composer. ln both, Cage invites the listener simply to hear sounds as sounds. whether notated in the music or not, whethe1· generated by the performers or occuning as part of the a.m.bient sounds, experiencing each sound as il comes along, not trying lO connect it to what precedes or fo llows it. not expecting the music to communicate feelings or meanings of any kind. but listening as intently as we would listen to any art music, so that we learn to extend our auention beyond music to the world itselJ. We saw in the prcvious chapler thal postwar musicians in jazz. popular music. Broadway. and band music often demanded more atten tive listening from their audiences, tJ1e same kind of close attention expected from listeners to classical music; Cage's music asks that we give that sarne levei of attention not only to musical sounds but to alJ the sounds we hear. Beginningin the late 1 950s. Cage moved toward complete openness ineve1y aspecl of composition and performance. Variations W(l 963), for instance, uses both indeterminacy and chance (transparent plastic sheets with lin es. dots ,

John Cbge • nd the Avont·G•rde

and other symbols are superimposed randomly and tben readas graphic notation) to create a piece ''for any numher of players, any sounds or combinations of sounds produced by any means. with or without other activitics." The "other activ it ies·· might include speech, theater, dance, and activilies of daily life. lncluding these in "musical" works blurred the boundaries between music, other arts. and lhe rest of life. Musicircus (1967) is an open· ended "happen· ing;· consisling of any nu mber of rnusicians and ensembles. each performing different music, aiI playingat once in a large space while the audience wanclers freely. Through such events. Cage sought to focus our attention on whatever is happening in the present. experiencing it without prejudice. lo bis later years, Cage contioued to io novate, but chance anel indeterminacy remained cornstant tools. Several of these )ate r works submit music composed by othe rs to chance procedures that transfonn the sources ia u11expected ways. For example, Cheap lmitalion (1969) takes che entirety of Satie's Socrate a nd transposes me lodie segments of raudom length by random inter· vals. Another gro up of pieces. titled by the numher of players (with a superscript for each oew piece for that number, sucb as Two' for two pianos. 1989). presenta succession of notes, chosen by chance, co be played within specifted tim e ranges; these pieces combine chance. in determinacy. and structure based on duration with a new simplicity of material.

943

Laterworks

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heor, to the Cl•,,,cal Tradition

pieces Available Forms 1 ( 1961) foi' eighteen players and Available Porms }[ (1962) for large orchestra. in which the musicians play comple tely scored fragments-with some leeway in the choice of pitches- in the order and tempos determ ined by lhe cond uctor. 1 1n such works the piece will vary considerably from performance to performance, wbile its overaJI characleJ' remains within a certain range. Encounters with Cage or his music prompted several European conlemporaries to adopt chance procedures or indeterm inacy. Among them was Stockhausen, who used indeterminacy ~ in pieces such as Kl<wierstuckXJ (Piano Piece XI, 1956). The score is a sinp;le large sheet with rúneteen short segFIGURE 37.7: Earle Brown. Deccmber 1952. <o Lnm<c11T stusic &ARTSl ments of music ibat are to be played in succession as the player·s eye happens to light on one after another. Not ali need be played, any may be repeated, ana the piece ends after the pianist plays any segment for a third lime. Many other composers, even Britten, called for brief periods of indeterminacy in lhei1· music in order to acb ieve a certain sound, gesture, or effect. 1!7itold L11toslawski The Polish composer Witold Lutostawski (1913-1994) made selective use of indeterminacy. while insisting on his autborship of the entire composition-a stance quite at odds wiib Cage's, suggesting an orientalion more modernist than avant-garde. ln his String Quartet ( 1964), pitches and rhythms are specifted but not the coordination of parts: the players begin a section together, but each plays independently, changing tempo as desu-ed, until the next checkpoint is reached. when ata signal from one of lhe players they begin together again. Symphony No. 3 (1983) applies this method with great subtlety. Some sections invi te individual players to dwell upon a figure in thc manoer of a soloist playing a cadenza; at other times, eight stands oJ vio lins. guided by prescrib ed pitches but on ly approximate durations, go their own ways like tendrils of a vine. These passages achieve a freedom and eloquence hardly possible through precise notation and show the power of limited indeterminacy within a traditiona l genre. Significance of Mauy other composers aclopted indeterminacy in some form under the indeterm inac_y intlue nce of Cage or his associates. One by- product of indeterminacy is the variety of new kinds of notation. Scores range all lhe way from fragments of conventional staff notes through purely graphic suggestions of melodie curves, dynam ic ranges. rhythms, and the like to even more slippery and meager directives. Another conseq uence of indeterminacy is that no two performances of a piece are identical. ln effect. a composition does not existas such. but only as a performance. oras the sum of possible performances. Tluough the reconsideration of "the musical work" that indeterminacy and

INDETERM INACY IN WORKS OF OTHER COMPOSERS As we have seen. Cage was inspired to use indeterminacy in part because of Monon Feldman's example. Feldmao was closely associated with the New York abstract expression ist painters, including Jackson Pollock. Mark Rothko. and Philip Guston. who inspired him to trust instinct. reject compositional systems and tradilional fonns of expression, and compose in a manner ana logous to their flat, abstract images. His Projection I for so lo cello uses boxes rather than noteheads to indicate approximate register. leaving the specinc pitches up to ibe player. But timbre and rhythm are speci&ed (although shown by graphic rather than standard notation), and the pattern of sounds and silences and of changingtimbres and densiries of attack will be the sarne no matter what pitches are chosen. By deemphasizing pitch. Feld • man focuses our allention on other aspects of lhe music. ln other pieces, Feldman notated specilic pitches but left the durations indeterminate. and in some he used conventional notation. However notated. his pieces m·e gener ally sparse in texture, quiet, atonal, and pointillistic, showing the influence of \Vebern (whose Sympl1ony, NAWM 175. sparked Peldman's ftrst meetingwith Cage) but with a completely distinctive sound. Another member of the New York group around Cage and Feldman was Earle Brown (1926- 2002). His December 1952 (] 952). shown in Figure 37. 7. is a piece in graphic notation in which nothing is specift ed. He offers lines and rectangles of various s izes, some vertical and othe,·s horizon ta l, and exp lains in a note that the score can be placed ia any orientation, read ia any direc· tion. an<l performe<l for any length of time by any number of instruments or other sound- makers. It is up to the performers to determine how to trans late the signs on the page into sounds. Inspired by the mobiles of Alexander Calder. Brown took another approacb to indeterminacy in his "open form··

944

Morton Feldnian

Earle Brown

New Sound, •nd Texlure>

A prominent strand throughout rwentieth- century music was the exploration of new musical resources, inc luding new sounds and new conception s of music. Particularly aclive in this respecl were composers of experimental musir. sur.h as C:owr.11 anel Var<'sr.. hui. r.omposr. rs of ali stripr.s r.~1,lo r·r.d n r.w resources, from the noise-makers of the futurists to the Sprechstimme in Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire and the souncl effects in Bartók's Music for Strings,

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po, 1w•r Heors to 1he Cl•»•c•I T,.dilion

intensi.óed, including the use of new instruments, sounds, and scales; electronic music; and music of texture and process.

NEW INSTRUMENTS , SOUNDS, ANO $CALES

MUSICAS THEATER AND PERFORMANCE ART

New Sounds and Textures

946

Perctission and Celesta ln tb.e postwar period, the searcb for new resources

related notions stim uJated, musicians in the Ja1 e twentieih centmy became increasingly awa re of the openness of early musicas well, coming to understand that a medieval song or an early Baroque aria is also a platform for perfor mance open to a variety of choices within a stylistically ap propriate range , nota rigid ly delineei , unchangingwork. A simil ar openness character ized free jazz (see chapter 36) . whose freedom from lhe set ha.rmonic progressions and convent ions of ea rl ie r jazz paralle ls th e free spon Laneity of indeterm i nacy.

Cage·s embrace of indete rminacy ando r all tY]>es oi' sounds and actions as possible materia l fo r composition inspired others to challe nge accepted deftnitions of music a11d art. P erform<mce <trl, in which performing an action in a public place constitutes a work oi' art, carne into ils own in the l 960s, spearheaded by F'luxus, a loose group of avan t-ga rde artists in Europe and the United States who cooperated to produce concerts and publications of their pieces. For exam ple, Composilion 1960 No. 2 by La Monte Young (b. 1935) iostructs Lhe performerto .. Build a nre in front of theaudience." Grapefruit (1964) by Yoko Ono (b. 1933) is a collection of such pieces, many of them conceptual, aimed as much at Lhe performe r as at any observers; in her Earth Piece (1963), Lhe per former is directed to .. li sten to the sound of t he earth turning." Ono broughr her avant -garde approach into rock m usic in collaboration wilh]ohn Len.non of lhe Beatles after their marriage in 1969. Some Fluxus pieces were never intended to be performed, bUl their very composition cballenges our concep tions of music, the concert, performance. and the aud ience. Su ch a piece isAnAnti-Personnel Bomb (1969) by Philip Corner (b. 1933), which asks the performer to throw into the audience ''an anti-personnel-type CBU bomb"a type used in th e Vietnam \Var. against which the piece obliquely protests. One of the central ftgures of the Fluxus movement. Korean-born Nam June Paik (1932-2006), devised exhihits wilh mullip le television seis tlial blended music, vídeo, performance art. an d scu lpti1re. Performance art is intended to be temporary, experienced in the moment and essentially unrepeatalile. Such pieces had no place in the concert reper toire bccause they proceeded from wholly eliffercnl asswnptions. But they lefl lingering questions about what music is anel what purposes it serves. opening up possibilities that a1·e still being explored.

945

Fluxus

Temporary a.rt

ln their efforL to offer something new anel distinctive in a r t music, many co mposers sought out new sounds, sometimes building n ew instrum ents or reconligi.u-ing traditional ones, anel some explored scales featuring intervals smaller than a semitone. \Ve have already seen severa) examples of postwn composers exploring new sounds, in Cage's percussion music and prepared piano pieces and in the novel combinations of instruments in t he chambe r· works of Stockhausen a.nd Boulez. Han:r Partch One composer who com.bined the exploration of new instrumental sounds with a new approach to pitch was Hany Partch (1901- 1974), who undertook an individualistic. single - minded search for new sonic media. He repudiated equal temperamenL and \Vestem harmony and counterpoint to seek a wholly new sysi-ern insp ired panly by Chinese, Japanese, Native American, African, anel rura l American music. His writings speak of a "monophonic.. musical ideal. ba.rking back to the ancient Greeks. Partch devised a new scale wil.h fony-tbree ootes to Lhe octave based on just intonalion, in whicb notes relate to each ot.h er through pure intervals from the harmoni c series. He then built new instru ments that could play using this scale. including modil'ied gui tars, marimbas, tuned cloud-chamber bowls (large glass containers used in eal'ly partic le pbysics), a large string .i nstrutnent Jike the ancient Creek kithara , and the gow·cl lree, shown in Figure 37.8. ln his multimedia works of lhe 1950s and 1960s. Lhese insm,ments accompany speaking and chanting voices and dancing by sLnger-actor-dancers. ln Oedipus- A Music-Dance Drama (1951) and Revelation in the Coimhouse Park (1962), based on Eurípides' 11ie Bacchae. Partcb aspi_reel to the idea 1 of Greek tragedy. George Crumb (b. 1929) has been most imagina tive in coaxing new sounds out of ord inary instruments and objects. ln Ancient Voices ofChildren (1970). a cycle of four songs on poems by rederico García Lorca with two ínstrumenta1 interludes. unusua l sound sources include toy piano. musical saw. harmonica. mandolin, Tibetan prayer stones, Japanese tem pie bells, and electr ic piano. He obtaineel specia l effects also from conventional instruments: for example . players must benel lhe pitch of the p iano by applying a chisel to lhe strings. thread pap er in the harp strings. and tuoe the mandolin a qua11er FIGURE 37.8: HarryPar1chplayingthegourd rree. oneof tone flat. ln Black Angels (1970, NAWM 205 theinsrn,,nenrsheinventedtorealtzehi.smusicbasetlon !Caoc•••"IJ'~ ). a st ring quartet is electronically hisforty-three-noteirntempereclscale. amplinecl to produce surrealistic dreamlike jux-

New Sound, • nd Texlure>

947

tapositions. The composer ei..'Piored unusual means of bowíng, such as striking the strings near the pegs with t.he bow and bowing between the left- hand :Emgers and the pegs. The new and unusual elfects in Crmnb's music always have a musical pu1'pose, providing material for juxtaposilion and variation, and usually evoke extramusical associations as we ll. Here, they he lp to express his reactions to lhe VieLnamconflict. lhe social unrest it1 the United Sta tes. and the ho rrors of war.

ELECTRONIC MUSIC As oew technologies developed , musicians explored their potential. No technology promised more far-reach ing changes for mus ic than the e lectronic recording. productio.n. and transformation of sounds. These technoloi;ies were l'll'st exploiled in art music but ultimately became more signiJ'1can1 for popular music beginning in the l. 960s. One approach was to work with recordeei sounds. taking the entire world of sound as potential material for music, manipulating the chosen sounds throu11;h mechanical and electronic means, and assemb ling them into c ollages . Pierre Schaeffe r (1910-1995), who pion eered music of this type at Radiodiffusion Françajse (French Radio) in Paris in the l 940s. named it musique concrete because the composer worke<l with conc rete sounds tbemselves rather than with music not:aiion. Schaeffer's lirst experiments, Cinq êttides de bruits (Five Stuclies of No ises) for phonograph. were p remierecl ata concert in Paris in 1948. then he collaborated with Pierre Henry (b. 1927) to create the fu-st major work of musique concrete, Symphonie pour tin liomme seu! (Symphony for On e Mau). premiered in a 1950 radio broadcast. Tape recorders . which became widely available around that year. made it possible to record , amplify, and lransfonn sounds, then superimpose, juxtapose, fragment, and arrange them as desired to produce p ieces oi' music. The tape on whlch sounds were recorded had glossy plastic on one side and a thin layer of iron oxide on the other. lt ran ata regulai· speed past electromagnetic heads that used magnetism lo record sounds on the iron oxide or. when p laying ba ck previously recorded sounds, to translate the magnetic signature already on the tape. Running the tape by the playback heads at differem speeds changed the pilch and ofren lhe tone color (the pattern of harmonics associated with a pitch). Many other playback effects were possible. anel the tape itself could be cut and respliced to juxtapose fragments of sound. Composers used all these tools to manipulate the sounds they had recorded. creati ng music by a process that often physically as well as artisti cally resembled collage. Another source fo r new sounds was to produce them electronically. Most electronic sounds are created by oscillators. inventcd in 1915. The lirst successful electron ic instrument was the Theremin, invented around l 920 by Lev Termen, wh ic h changed p itch acco rding to th e d ista n ce b etwee n the instrument's antenna and the performer's hand. The Ondes Martenot. invente<l in 1928 hy Maurice Ma r te.no!. was controlle<l hy a wire. rihhon. or keyboard. Both instruments produced only one note at a time. were capahle oF glissandos along the entire pitcb continuum, and projected a haunting, almost voicelike sound. Featu red in sorne orchestral works , such

Mus ique concrete

Tape recorders

Electronic sound

948

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,1w•r Heors lo 1he Cl•»•c•I T,.dilion

as Messfaen's Turanga.lila Symphony, 1bey became common in liJm scores like Hitchcock's Spellbound. where they lent ao eerie or futuristic effect, and in some popular songs such as the Beach Boys' Good Vibrations. but they were nol used in eleclrnnic music itself. Electronic music Between 1951 and 1953, stud ios to create electronic music were founded studios al Columhia University i.n New York anel at radio stalions in Cologne (Ger many). Mi lan ( Jtaly), and Tokyo (Japan), fo llowed by many othe rs ac ross Europe and the America.s. These stud ios were funded by governments ançl grants because lhey were very expensive and time -consumingto equip and to run; at Cologne. for example, Karlheinz St.ockhausen had a dedicated team of lechniciaos, and his electronic compositions took hundreds of hours to create . At most studios, composers focused on producing sounds electron icaJJy and manipuJating them through eleclronic <levices and on tape. A whole new realm of possible sounds became available, includiog sounds that could not be produced by any "natural" mea ns. Gesangder Stockhausen and others often used recorded sounds alongside eleclronic Junglinge ones, as inhis GesangderJ11nglinge (Song of the Youths. 1955- 56), whlch incorporated a boy's voice. This was the rrrst major electronic piece lo use multip le tracks , played in concert through several loudspeakers placed in various posi tions rela tive to the audience. wh.ich created a sense of the music coming from numerous di reclions an d moving t hro ugh space. Poem e Varêse's Poême électroniqtte (Electronic Poem, 1957-58, NAW\,1 206 !Conc1s<&J ) also co1nbined eleclronic sounds with recorded ones. from noises to a élcctroniquc ~ singer, anel represented a pinnacle of his concept of spatial music. Commissioned by the Philips Radio Corporation for the Brussels Exposition in 1958, the eightminute piecc was projected by 425 loud speakers ranged alJ abom Lhe interior space of the pavi lion designed by Le Corbusier. shown in Figure 37.9. accompanied by moving colore d lights and proj ected images. Fif teen thousand peop le a day experienced this multimedia piece over a six- month period. Electronic music was at :ârst produced by combining, modil'ying, and control ling in various ways the output of oscillators . thcn recording these sounds on tape. The composer had to s plice the tapes and mix their output. sometimes in co mbination with recorded sounds of physicaJ objects in motion or of musicians , speakers , or singers. Electronic sound synthesizers were developed to make the process much easier. Th e composer could call on pitches FIGURE 37.9 : The Pliilips Pavilion at the 1958 lll'orld·s Fair J'rom a music keyboard and wilh switches in Br11ssel~. Be/gi..,n. Edgard Varese colla.borared with the and knohs r.ontrol harmon ics. wavefor m a1,:/1itcc1 Lc Co,·buaicrto }ili rlii.a bl<ildi11g with thc aou11d of (whlch determines timbre) . resonance . and Poême élccn·onique, composed a1 rl1 e Philips laboraro,ies ai location of sound so urces. The RCA Mark Eindhoven i n 1l1e Netherlan<ls. ccoutt'l'fsv },tUSt0>,1 º",.,ooEkN AM'I'. NtWYOR.K) ll Synthesizer. shown in Figure 37.1 O. was

NewSound••nd Teoture•

949

950

C H A 1> T E R 31 • Po•twor Heirs to the Cl••••c•I Tr•dition

FIGURE 37.10: Mi/t.on Babbill at. 1heconsoleof1lleMark li RCA Synthesizerat, 1he Colu,mbia,-Piinceion Electronic ,\fasic Center in New York.

in dialogue. accomparüed by synthesized sounds, aUworked out according to Bahbitt's usual serial procedures. Electronic music. whcther played in concert or distrilmted in the form oJ recordings for priva1e listening. allracted a small, devoted audience wilhout ever gaining broad popu larity. Yet most of the music produced today, especially popular music. uses technology developed by lhe pioneers of electronic music.

(l>,1CACe COURTtS:Y 2M P A8CUIVES)

MUSIC OF TEXTURE AND PROCESS

lannis Xenakis

developed al the joint Columbia -Princeton ElectTOnic Music Center in the late 1950s a nd used by many composers Írom the Uniled States and ahroad. ln the mid - 1960s., Robert Moog and Donald Buchla each developed far simpler and more compact synthesiiers based on voltage-controlled oscillators. When these became commercialJy available in 1966, they were adopted by electronic music studios and individual composers around the world. The Moog and Buchla syn.thesizers reduced lhe time needed to make electronic musicand were much less expensive, all owingcomposers to buy and use them ac home. One of the early works created on the Buchla synthesizer was Silver Apples of the Moon (1967) by Morton Su.botnick (b. 1933), the nrst electronic piece to be commissionecl by a record company, designed lo Jill two sides of an LP and to be played ai home rather chan in concert. The new syntbesizers were also adopted by popular artists such as the Beatles. and electronic synthesizers soon became a familiar SOLtnd in pop music. The electronic medium gave co mposers complete, unmediated control over their compositions. Much of the new music already demanded complex rhythms and minute shadings of pitch, intensity, and timbre that could ba rely be realized by human performers. but in the electronic studio. every detail could be accurately ca1culated and recorded . This is one reasou practitioners of total serialism embraced electronic music. Yet the absence of performe rs hindered the acceptance of purely electronic music. since audiences expecl to nave performers to watch and respon<I to, and since performers are the main promoters anel advoca tes for new music. Recognizing this. composers soon began to create works that combined prerecorderl tape witb live performers. One of the mosi moving early examples was Milton Babbitt's Phil-0mel (1964. farst section in NA\VM 20"."), for soprano soloist with a tape that includes altered recordeei fragments of the singer asweU as electronicsounds. The live voice anel tbe voice on tape engage

Krzysztof

Role ofpe,formers

Penderecki 1 Full :\\ 1

Tape and l1ve pr.1fnrnianre 1 Conci$e :\\ 1 1 Full :\\ 1

Varese's conceptio n of musicas spatiaJ, with sound-masses moving through musical space and interacting witb each other like an abstracl ballet in sound , opened the door to music that centered not on melody, ha rm ony, or coun te rpoint hui on SO Ltnd ilself. Moreover. the exploration of eleclronic sounds slimulated the invenlion oJ' new sound effects obtainable from conventional instruments ,md voices, often imitating electronic music. Composers now wrote pieces whose material consists primarily oi' striking sound combinations lhat cre,lle interes ling and novel textures, organized by gradual or sudden processes of change. One of tile ftrst to write such music for acoustic instruments was Jannis Xenakis (1922- 2001). A Greck who spent most ofhis career in Francc. Xena kis was an engineer an d architec1 as well as a composer. Like the anciem Greeks. he saw mathematics as fundamental to both music and arcl1itecture, so he based his music on mathematical concepls. In Melastaseis (1953- 54). he gave each string playe,· in 1he orchestra a unique pan to play. ln many sections of the work, eacb p layer has a glissando, moving slowly or quickly in comparison to the olher parts. ln Figure 37.11 . Xenakis plotted out lhe glissandos as straigbt lines on a graph that add up to creale an effect of curves in musical space. He then transfen-ed the lines to standard musical notalion. The resulting motions. of a chromatic cluster graduaUy closing to a unison or a unison expanding to a cluster. resemble changes achievable in electronic music through che use of pitch ftlters. The ove rali effec1 is very st rongly visual, although the materia is al·e musical. lndeed, Xenakis later app lied the sarne idea of straight tines creating a curving effect in the design for the Philips Pavilion (see Figure 37.9). on whichhe worked with Le Corbusier. One of lhe best-k:nown pieces baseei on lexture and process is Threnody for the Victim.s of Hiroshima (1960, l\A\X'M 208) for ftfty-two string instruments, by Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki (b. 1933). The score gi.ves few den nile pulses or no te values, and instead measures üme by seconds. Again each instrument has a unique pa1t to play. Each section focuses on a particular kind of sound. using newly invented notation that shows the effect graphically but not imprecisely. At the beginning, four to six instrnments enter ata time, each playing its lüghesl possilile note. like a scream of very high clusters. This grad uallygives way to a section in which each player rapidly repeats a series of sound effects-such as bowing or arpeggiating behind the bridge (producing ltigh pitches). striking the soundboard. or bowing or plucking lhe highest possible note. The players may choose one of four patterns. they may move at different speeds (each as fast as possible). and the exact sounds each produces are indeterminate, but the overall effec1 is essentially the same in each performance, creating a p1·ickly, interesting textu re. Next is a section based on sustained

950

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

in dialogue. accompanied by synthesized sounds, aUworked out according to Babbitt's usual serial procedures. Electronic music. whether played in concert or distrilmted in the form of recordings for privaie listening. allracted a small, devoted audience wilhout ever gaining broad popu larity. Yet most of the music produced today, especially popular music. uses technology developed by the pione,ers of electronic music. MUSIC OF TEXTURE AND PROCESS

lannis Xenakis

Krzysztof Pend.erecki 1 Full :\\ 1

Varêse's conception of musicas spatiaJ, with sound- masses moving through musical space and interacting wítb each other like an abstracl ballet ín sound, opened the door to music that centered not on melody, harmony, or coun ter-point but on sound itself. Moreover. tbe exploration of electronic sounds slimulated the invenlion oJ' new sound effects obtainable from conventional instruments and voices, often imitating electronic music. Composers now wrote pieces whose material consists primarily of s11-iking sound combinations that cre,lle interesting and novel textures, organ:ized by gradual or sudde11 processes of change. One of the ftrst to write such music for acoustic instniments was Jannis Xenakis (1922- 2001). A Greck who spent most ofhis career in France, Xena kis was an engineer and architec1 as well as a composer. Li.ke the anciem Greeks. he saw mathematics as fundamental to both mi1sic and arcl1itecture, so be based his music on mathematical concepts. In .Metastascis (1953- 54). he gave each string player in 1he orchestra a unique pan to play. ln rnany sections oi' the work, each player has a glissando, moving s lowly or quick.ly in comparison to the other paris. ln Figure 37.11 . Xenalcis plotted out lhe glissandos as straigbt lines on a graph that add up lo create an effect of curves in musical space. He then transl'en-ed the tines to standard musical notation. The resulting motions. of a chromatic cluster graduaUy closing to a un.ison or a unison expanding to a cluster. resemhle changes achievable in electronic m usic through the use of pilch fthers. The overall effect is ve1y strongly visual, although the materia is are musical. lndeed, Xenakis later app lied t.he same idea of straight tines creating a curving effect in the design for the Philips Pavilion (see Figure 37.9). on which he worked wilh Le Corbusier. One of lhe best- k:nown pieces based on texture and process is Threnody for the Victim.s of Hiroshima (1960, l\A\X'M 208) for ftfty-two stri ng insh1.1ments, by Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki (b. 1933). The score gives few den nite pulses or no te values, and instead measures üme by seconds. Again each instnnnent has a uuiq1.1e pa1t to play. Each section focu:ses on a particular kind of sound. using newly invented notation that shows the effect graphically but nol imprecisely. At the beginning, four to six instruments enter ata time, each playi.ng its highesl possible note. like a scream of very high clusters. This graduallygives way to a section in which each player rapidly repeats a series of sound effects-such as bowing or arpeggiatiug behind the bridge (producing h.igh pitches), striking the SOLtndboard, or bowing or -plucking lhe highest possible note. The players may choose one of four patterns. they may move at different speeds (each as fast as possible). and the exact sounds each produces are inde· Ler.minate, but the overall effecl is essentially the sarne in each performance, creati ng a pri ckly, interesting textu re. Next is a secti-011 based on s1.1stained

951

New Sound,ond Textures

J-1,o 8 v10lól$ A

1 -,. «T• !---'

li _

_;. _ _

~ Á - ---

'K,...tll.1

-- + - -

FIGURE 37.11: Xenakis'sgraph forn passage in Metastaseis. wirhpitch as rhe vertical axis a11d time as rlteltoriwntal a~is. Tlte lower halfoftliegraph rcpresent,s the lowerstri,ngs attackinga chromatic clt1ster togethcr. then curving upward as the lowest pi.1ches i.n the cluster rise in rapidgl.issandos and lhe higherones move progressively more slowly. A rnea.sure laier·. rhe upper strings enteron another cluster. rhen rise and ft,IL in t.heirow11 pa.Uem. 1'owurd the end of tlte passage. groups o/strings enteron the sanie note one afteranotlier, each successively rising in afaster glissan.do until ali end 1ogether in a chromatic clu.srer.

tones, quarter-tone clusters, and glissandos berween ihem, shown grapbically in the score in Example 37.7 and notated precisely in the pa.rts. The entire pitched and Ltnpilched world, animate and inanimate, wailing and weeping at once, oFten in polychoral and antiphonal calls and responses, seems to mourn in this dirge. Remarkably. Penderecki originally conceived the work as a purely abstracl play of sound and titled il 8' 37" (its liming); the evoca tive fmal ütle has won it ~ mucb larger audience than it would otherwise bave bad by connecting the new musical resources it uses to the tradilion of expressive instrumental music extending back to tbe eighteenth centwy. Penderccki uscd similar tcchniques in many other pieces. including lhe St. Luke Passion (1963-66) and his opera The Devils of loud.im (1968). which show how t.he new resources can be used dramatically. But in these works he already began to incorpora le elements of more tradilional styles. and in the micl - l 970s he turne,1 to a personal style of nM -Romanticism (see chapter38). Toe music of Hungarian composer GyõTg)' Ligeti (l 923- 2006) achieved world reuown through Stanley Kubrick's science liction hlm 2001: A Space Odyssey. which uses excerpts from three of his works: Atmosphere.s ( 1961).

Gyorgy Ugeti

952

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heor, to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Mixing Style, ond Trodit,on,

Penderecki. Thnnody l'or the Victims of Hiroshima

EXAMPLE 37.7,

md.

•4

.", . ,. 24Vn

-=·-*'

.;•4

·"···········;·········································· 1iz== . :-

13-24

...

'" ' ;o«1

.,,.,,

' 1ov1

NEW THINKING

.. :1...... 1-10

, L.......

::: ._

·· ;--· · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. ~

IOVc

; •• 1 •

! : '

: 1 .

.,,

;;-

Mixing Styles and Traditions

?10"

120"

___

•l .,...._ . . . . , .... .......... ,.•• , .. _ _ ,..._ , _ _ _

.... -...- .......

\Vhether using new instrnments, traditional instruments, modified iustru ments (such as prepared piano or ampliJied string qua n et), electronic instruments, or tape. composers using new sounds had lo make choices ahout how to cons truct their music to incorporate the new materials. The spectntm of choices earlier composers had roade, from the novel pitch s trnctures of Schoenherg·s twelve-tone musicto Varese·s use of sound-masses, inspired the youngergeneration to explore these and otherpossibilities. Much ofthismusic requ.ires listeners to forego tradiLioual expectations for melody, harmony, aud forro and to engage each work instead as an experience of sound itself. These pieces demand new thínking ahout music from their listeners as much as from their composers, anel the questions anel new insights they slimulate are part of what many have vaJued in these works .

• ........... e:::::=.

8Cb

' 15"

Requiem, (1963-65), anel Luxaecerna (1966). This rnusic is in constam motion, yet static both barmonicaJJy and meloelically. Atmospheres begins with Etftysix muted strings. together with a selcction ofwoodwinds anel horns. playing simultaneously ali the chromalic notes through a five-octave range. lnstruments imperceptibly drop out unti l on ly the violas anel cellos remain, imitating au effect Ligeli had experiroented with in an earlier un.fJ.tl.Ísbed eleclronic piece, Piece étectronique No. 3 (1957). An o rclnestral t.uu i l'o llows wit h a simila r panchromatic layout, but out of it emerge two clusters: ooe, in the strings, made up oi' the seven notes of a diatonic scale, contrasts with the other, a pentatonic clus terof the rernaining live notes of the chromatic scale, in th e wooel winds and horns. While oue group crescendos, the other dimínuendos, then the two reverse, creating changing sonorities that suggest the play of light aud shadow on clouds. Al times Lige ti uses what he caJJed "micropolyphouy," canons with many lines rooving at dif-ferent sates to create the efJ'ect of a mass of sound slowly moving through space; this too is a technique from the eleclronic píece. ln one spectacular passage. these lines gradually rise until they reacb lhe top of tbe o rchestra. with four piccoJos sounding/orti-ssimo notes a haJf-step apart high in their range; at such a high register, the differences in pitch create resultant tones octaves lower. Thís eerily electronic-sounding cffect is then cut off by a low cluster in thc basses.

a......._ .... .,...__._.,_,. , _ _ • .._, ...-. - .. . - -.....

..,- ...... --~ -................. ....................,-................ .. - -~-.- .. _.--..,..........__ ............ -..l.a-1-... ..._.......... .,.._~... ...... _....~ .___._ ................ ._ .. _........,_ .,_e-.-....,. ... -......,.......,._..,......,. .._____. ...

.... ___ _.,.._ ... _ _ ,.....,..__

\Vhile some postwar composers exp lored new resou rces in the rea lm of ahstracl sound. others couliuued doing wnal Westeru musicians have doue for centuries: absorb elements from other musical traditions into th ei r own. Th e wide dissemination oi' music from aJI over the worlcl encoi1raged com posers to mi.x styles and lraditions. Some s tayed close lo home , blending t.heir own national 01· regio nal traditions with international one.s. as previous generations had clone. But many shared lhe sarne interest in music of Asia that we have seen in popular music, aod still others turned back to ea rlier periods in the Western classicaJ tradilion lhrough quotation.

953

954

C H A 1> TE R 3 7 • Po,twar Heirs to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

Alberto Ginastera

Third Stream

Michael Tippeu

Asian infliiences

Alberto Ginas1era (1916-1983) oi' Argentina, the most prominent Lalin American composer in tbe generation after Villa- Lobos, d rew on both national anel international sources. He diviclecl his carcer into thrce periocls. His ..objective nationalism·· (lo 1947), typined in Danzas a,gentinas for piano (1937), is characterized by tona l music infused with traditional Argentine folk elements. ln the second period. "subjective nationalism" (1947- 57) . he íorged an original style lhrough a Bart.óklike syn1hesis of native and in ternational elements, as in Po.rnpeano.s No. 1 for vio lin and piano ( l 947) and No. 2 for cello and piano (1950). His "neo-expressionism" (after 1957) combines earli er traits with twelve - tone anel avant - garde techniques, as in his operas Don Rodrigo ( 1963-64), Bomarzo (J 966-67), and Beatrfa: Cenci (1971). Ginastera's turn from nationalism to a more abstract style is typica l of the postwar em. In 1he l 950s and l 960s, as jazz was being taken more and more seriously, some American composers who were co nversant with both jazz and classical music sought consciously to merge the two. One of the most successful of these, Gunther Schuller (b. 1925). called this cornhination .;third stream." ln his Tran~(ormar.ion (1957), a pointilJistic twelve-tone contexL with elements ofSchoenberg's Klangfarbenmelodie is transformed into a full -blown modem jazz piecc. Leonard Bernstein also incorporated jazz elements in his classical music, including Prelude. Fugue and Riffs for clarinet and jazz ensemble (1949), Symphony No 2 "The Age of Anxiety" (1949), anel the opera Candide (1956). Englishman Michael Tippet t (1905-1998) represents a dilferent kind of synthesis, remarkabJy open to historical, eth ni c, and non -\Xlestern styles and materials. The rhythmic and metrical independence Tippelt assigned to instrumental parts derived partly from English Renaissance music. The Piano Concerto (1953- 55) anel lhe Tripie Concerto for violin, viola, and cello (1979) reveal Tippetfs admiration for Javauese gamelan music. the ftrst in its textmes and instrumental comhinations. the second in its use of a Java nese melody with rippling ftgu1·alion and sounds such as gongs in the accompariiment of the slow movement. Tippett's respectful approach to Javanese music is typical of the postwar era, in which growing sensitivity to the perspectives of other cultures led to an exi>lo ration of thei r music with respect for its uniqueness, racher than invoking the "foreign" for its sheer otherness as in nineteenthcent1.1ry exoticism. We have seen that Messiaen, Cage. and Partch drew on ideas from Asian music and thal jazz, pop, anel Broadway composers did as well. Canadian-American composer Colin McPhee (1900-1964) studied music in Bali in the 1930s. transcribed gamelan music for Western instruments, and composed Ttil>uh-tabuhan (1936) for orchestra and many ocher pieces that elrew on Balinese materiais. Henry Coweffs IHelong interest in Asian music grew after World War II, and traveis to Iran. lndia. and Japan led lo several works that blended Asian and Weslern elements, including Per.sian Set (1957) for chamber orcheslra, Symphony No. 13 "Madras" (195658). Onga.ku (1957) for orcbestra. anel two concenos for the Japanese koto (a plucked string instrument) and orchestra (1961- 62 and 1965). His Slttclent and rriend Lou Harrison (1917- 2003) comhined i11teres1s in jusc

955

Mix,ng Styles •nd Trodit,ons

intonation anel inventing new instruments, inspil'ed by Partch, with enthus iasm forthe music of Asia. After visiting Korea and Taiwan in 1961- 62. Harrison wrote severa! works that combine \Vestem and Asian instrnments, inchtding Pacifika Rondo (1963) and la KoroSutro ( 1972), anel beginningi n the 1970s he composed dozens of pieces for tradilional J.avanese gamelan. lnte res1 in lin king Asian and Western traditions exteneleel as well to Asian composers forn iJiar with European styles. Western music. botb c:lassical anel popular. became well known in Asia over lhe course or the twentieth century, anel by midcentury many Asians were writing music in the European classical trad ition. Among the most inventive anel best known was Tõrn Takemitsu (1930- 1996). showninfigure37.12. who wrote music for Western ensemhles and was inspired by European iníluences, such as Requi.e,n for strings (1957), before turning in the 1960s to the music of his native Japan and blending the Lwo lraditions. His November Steps (1967) is a sorl of double concerto, contrasting the sonorities of the Japanese shakuhachi (a bamboo ilute) and biwa (a pear-shaped Lute) with those of a Western orchestra. Takemitsu often combined Japanese and Western instrumencs and techuiques in his rnany lilm scores. such as the score for A.kira Kurosawa's Ran (1985). a retelling of King Lear in a Japanese setting.

FIGURE 37.12,

Tom

Take111itm. <•osTo>< CLODt VlA OETTY EMACl!S}

QUOTATION ANO COLLAGE A resource used by many composers of vaJ-ying orientations was <111.otntion of existing music. including a collagc of multiple quotations. The ways earlier composers from Bach and Handel lo modernists like Schoenberg, lves, and Stravinsky had reworked borroweel materia l served as inspiration, as did quotations in modem poetry and collage in modero art. But postwar composers turned borrowing to new pu rposes, using evo~tions of older music to carry meanings that were not available by other means. English com poser Peter Maxwell Davies (b. 1934) drew on cha nt and English Renaissance music for many works. emphasizing the gulf between modern times and the distanl pasl by distorting the sottrce material or trans· fonning it through modero procedures. His opera Tavemer (1962-70). on the life of Renaissance composer John Taverner. reworks the latter's ln Nomine in a variety of ways before fmally presenling it in recogn.izable form at the end, recalling Jves's cumulative form. American composer George Rochberg (1918-2005). who had written mostly serial mus ic, found it inadcquate to express his feelings on the death of b.is son in 1964. anel hLrned lhe nexl year to works based on borroweel material. Contra mortelll et 1e11tpus (Against Death and Time) quotes passages from Boulez, Berio, Va rêse, and lves, and Music for o. Magic Theo.ter incorporates music of Mozart, Beethoven, Mahler. Webern. Varese. Stockhausen. and his own earlier wm·ks. seeking in both pier.es to evoke "the many-layered density of human existence." Nach Bach (After Bach, 1966) for harpsichord is a "commentary" on Bach's Keyboarcl Partita No. 6 in E Minor, BWV 830, in

Peter Maxwell Davies

Rochberg. fim. Criimb

956

C H A 1> T E R 3 7 • Po,twar Heor, to the Clo,,ocol Trodition

which fragments of the Bach, altered to va1ying degrees, emerge from Rochbe1·g's own atonal mus ic to create a dialogue between composers and styles. A similar work is Baroque Variatioris (1967) by Lukas foss (1922- 2009), whose thi-ee movements subject pieces by Handel, Domenico Scarlatti, and Bach respectively to a variety of transformations from add ing clusters to fad ing out lo inaudiliility. creating what lhe composer called '"dreams· about these pieces:· George Crumb also o[ten reílects on music oh' the past; fo r example. his Bla.ck:Angels quotes the chant Dies irae and SchuberfsDeath and the Maiden Quartel fortheir alfective associations. StockhatMen Stockhausen used borroweel material in several works. notably Cesang der Jti:nglinge, Telemusik (1966), Hymnen (1967), and Opus 1970 (1970). Hymnen incorporates words an el melodies of many different nationaJ anthems in a performance combining eleclronic sounds with voices and instruments. The intenlion, Stockhausen claimed, was "not to interpret, but to hear familiar, old, preformeel musical material witb new ears, to penetrate an el n-ansform it with a m usical consciousness of today." This aim represents a new way of relating music of the present: lo that of the past. Opu-s 1970. written for the Beethoven bicentenary in that year, includes transformed but recogn izabJe ÍTai:(ments from Beethoven's wo rks, assembleel ou tape and played from four loudspeakers alongside tive music: the older composer·s music is clistorted and overwheJrned in an act more of violent conquest than ofhornage. Berio's Sinfonia One of the richest pieces based on borrowed materia l is the thirel movement of Luciano Berio·s Sinfonia (Symphony. 1968-69) . Serio. shown in Fig· ure 3"7.13. incorporated mos1 of the scherzo movement of MahJer's Second Symphony and superimposed on it a n ampliiied verba l co mm ent.a ry by an eight-voice ensemble anda musical co=entary by a large orchesh·a. The bar- to - bar continuity of lhe MahJer is mostly maintafaed, although at times it disappears lemporarily or appears with pans of the texture omitted. Overlaid on the Mahler are quotations from over one hundred other works. including Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier, Ravel's Lo. valse. Berg's 1Pozzeck. an el Debussy's La mer. Each quotation co n.nects in sorne way to the MahJer or to the spoken texts, drawn mostly írom Samuel Beckett'sThe Unnaniable, an interior monologueofa man who has just died. Both words and music suggest a stream of consciousness. as the memories of a Jiretime emerge and slip away. Music based on quotation can carry many meanings. but often it gives the audience something familiar to grasp-either the quoted piece itself or the style or type of piece it l'epresentsand provides a new experience d rawing on what the listener already knows. As a result, many lis teners .ünd it much more approachable than the unfamiliar sounds of serialism. the avant-garde. electronic music, and other postwar trends. For FIGURE 37.13, Lu.cio11o Berio. <••e"""º"· s,111·•11.rn•.:c•T some composers, using borrowed material has r.tus,c uRrs> been a way to red iscover styles and methods of

NewPoths

the past, inclueling tonality. This is one origin for the recent treuds of neoRomanticism and post modernism, discussed in the next chapter.

New Paths ln the postwar period, composers of every stripe were trying to create something new, from the new ílavors of tonal mus ic in Ba rber and Britten, of post - tonal music in Messiaen. anel of serialism in Babbitt and Boulez to the radical rethinking of music in Cage's works, the new sounds of electronic music, the incorporation of Asian elemen ts , an el the new approach to quolation. Like jazz. popular music. musicais . .and band music of the sarne era, postwar classicaJ music borrowed from other tradilions, experimented wilh new techniC[lleS anel tech nology, and made , ncreasing demands on perform ers and listeners, in some cases demanding u nprecedented leveis of aliention and comprehension. ln part because ol' this great diversit)' of sound and approach and the greater difliculty it poses for the audien~e. much of the music by postwa r composers in the classical tradition still seems new and unfamiliar to most listeners, even while works hy their contemporaries in jazz, popular music, and Broadway have become a mong the most familia r and wel l-known pieces in those traditions. Some works have become established in the permanent classical repe11oire. such as the postwar symphonies and quartets ofShosta kovich and the operas and choral music of Britten, anda few others are part of the canon thal well-educated classical music ians and lisleners k:now, including Messiaen's Quartel for the End of Time, Boulez's Le marteatt sans maitre. Crumb's Black Angels, and Penderecki's Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima. But most art music of the era, whether traditional or inn ovative, still remains less well known than works from earlier in the century. Some of the experiments in to tal serialism, incletenninacy, performance are, electronic music, anel other new ideas now seem dateel, anel works whose impact depe nded in part on the unfamiliarity of their sounds or techniques do not always stand up well to rehearings. Yet the impact of this music should noL be underestima ted. Many of those sounds and techniC[lleS have beco me commo n currency for !ater composers of classical. popular, and hlm music, from electronics and Asian instruments to variegated textu res and q L1otalion, and Cage's philosophy of m usichas opened up new possibilities that have borne fruit in recen tdecaeles. from minimalism to dance theater events like STOMP. Virtually eve1ything is fair game now. ~ Resources for study and review available a t wwnorton.com/stud yspace.

957

A Glob•I Culture

959

of contrasting siyles from different histor ica l eras; anel, overlapping with these other trends, a rising concern among classical composers for writing immediately accessib.l e music.

A Global Culture

THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY ln the last three decades of the twentieth cen tury, the Western musical tradition continued to diver sify. New institutions were created to preserve the history of jazz and popu lar music, whi le new types of popular music such as punk and hip hop emerged to serve specinc audiences. Boundaries between traditions blurred or became irrelevant as mus icians c reated hybrids between popular and classical traditions or Western and non -Western ones. Digital synthesizers and computers provided new resources for electronic music in both classical and popular traditions. New forms of mixed mediei challenged old distinctions between art and popular music and between music, theater, dance, and other arts. Among composers in

the classical tradition , an increased interest in reaching a broad audience produced a number of new curren ts, including minimalism and neo-Ro11u111ticism. At the sarne time, almost ali the trends discussed in the previous chapter continued, and many composers pursued indi-

vidual paths. Because this chapter cannot do justice to ali the varied music of this era , we will look at only a few salient issues. We will begin with a survey of the changing world of music, noting especiaily the broaden ing conception of musicas an art, the cross-fertilization of traditions, the influence of new digital technologies, anel the increasing importa nce of m ixed media. We will then exam ine five trends that seem especially prominent in these decacles: the fragmentation of popular music; minimalism and its offshoots; the continuing strength of modernism in new and individual idioms; polysty lism, the juxtaposition

The late l 960s and l 970s brought a seri es of political anel eco no mie shocks to Western nations. Studen l protests symJiolized a growing gulf bctween younger and older generations. ln 1he United States, urban riots, growing discord over the Vietnam Wa r, anel the assassin ations of Martin Luth er King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968 marked increasing social strife. The Orga nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries e ut oi! production in l 973 to force up prices, leadfo.g to economic disruptions aod inflalion for the oext clecacle. The Watergate scandal. over a political burgla1y anel subsequent cover- up . led to the impeachmenl and resignation of President Richard Ni.xon in 1974 and greatly diminished Americans' f'ailh in their government. Meanwh ile, Colei War tensions began to ease du ring the l 970s. Under th e policy of detente, the United States and the Soviet Union sought greater cultural contacts and signed treaties to reduce nuclear anns. European leaders reachecl across the divide between NATO anel the Warsaw Pact. President Nixon initiated diplomatic relations with the communist government in China after years without formal contact. Authoritarian regimes in Spain and Portugal. the last clictatorships in western Europe, were peacefuily replaced by democratic governments. lncrcasing contacts witb western Euro;pc and the election in 1978 of a Polish pope, the ftrsL from a communist country, helped lo inspire movements for change in eastern Europe. Begi nn ing witb the 1980 strike by the Solidaxity movement in Poland. and clim:axing with the fali of the Berlin \Vali in l 989 and the union of Eas t and Wes t Cermany the followingyear, the people oi' central anel eastern Europe freed themselves from Soviet domina tion with remarkahly little bloodshed. ln the Soviet Union itself. Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glas11ost (openness) and peresrroika, (restructuring) encouraged freer expression anel a more ent repreneurial cconomy. Al1hougb he sought to reform the Soviet Union. the ultimate result was its disso lution in 1991. lts nfteen constituent republics. from massive Russia to tiuy Armenia, became independent oaLions, with govemmeots ranging from demo crat ic to authoritarian . The Soviet Union's collapse ended the Cold War that had defmed tbe postwa r world. lt did not end the fear of a nuclear attack, however, because the knowledge anel tec bnology for manufacturing nuclear weapoos was spreacling. ln the post-Soviet era, regional conflicts from the Midd le East to the Korean pen ínsula became more urgent, and civil wa rs proliferated from the Balkans andAfrica to the Philippines. .Extremis ts increasingly turned Lo terror as a tar.tic. whetber directed at thei r own government. as in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, or other lands. as in Al Qaeda's attacks on United States embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in August l 998. Yet it was also a time of growing equa li ty. ln the Unitecl States, lega l

Detenteand demucrac-y

Collapseof Europea11 communism.

New conjlicts

Gro wing equalüy

960

C H A 1>T E R 3 8

•

The Lote Twentielh Century

discrimination against AJrican Americans had ended and economic opportunities were increas ing, aided by new programs in education. college admissio11s, and hiring. A.rouncl the worlcl, women were breaking through barriers anel gainTIMELINE ing more econ omic an el political power, becoming doctors, The Late Twentieth Centurr lawyers. judges, business leaders. politicians. and pr i.rne minis ters, includ ing lnd ira Gand hi in lnd ia (1966-77 and MUS ICAL HISTORICAL 1980-84), Golda Meir in Israe l (1969-74) , anel Ma rga ret Thatcher in the United Kingdom (l 979-90). • 1968 Students riot in Paris. ln the economic realm, the end of the Co ld \Var encour antiwar protests in United aged a trend toward integration acros:s national boundaries. States The Com mon Ma rket became the European Union. absor bing • 1972 American President new memhers from eastern Euro pe and ptu-suing a un.ifi.ed Richard Nixon visits China European economic sys tem. Asian countries enjoyed rapid • 1973 OPEC oil embargo growt.h, sustainecl by increasi ng trade with the rest of the forces up prices world. Reductions in lrade barriers and new technologies led to rising productivity in lhe \Vestem democracies, producing • 1974 lmpeachment and resigan eco nomic boom in tbe l 990s. By then, almost every counnation of President Nixon try was part of an interwoven global economy, so that a stock • 1975 David Dei Tredici. Final market crash in one place had ripple effects around the world. Alice News, entertainment, and the arts became global as we ll. • 1976 Alfred Schnittke, The sp read of commu n ications sate lli tes anel cab le televisio n , Concerto Grosso No. 1 and the advent in the l 980s and 1990s of personal comp uters, fax machines, cell phones, a nd the Internet, put people • 1978 Election of Pape John arouncl the worlcl in immed iate touch with on e another. Ma ny Paul 11. first Polish pape issues, from the environment to the drug trade to terrorism, • 1979 Stephen Sondheim, crossed nationa l bou ndaries, requiring countries to work Sweeney Todd togelher. \Vith easy travei, diseases from flu to AIDS spread • 1980 Solidarity strikes in rapidly across the globe, prompting international cooperaPoland tio n in response. lmproved com.nrnnications and travei also fostered a global market for the arts. Many forms of e ntertainment reached aucliences ali over the world. from Hollywood movies to touringgroups oftraditional artists such as the Bulgarian Women's Choir and Tuvan throat-singers. Prom conductor Seiji Ozawa to composer Tan Dun, Asians became prominen t as musicians in the Western classical lradi tion. while some A.mericans a nd Europeans became proncient performers of lndian. Ja vanese. or other Asian mu sics. Music from ar ound lhe world beca me increasingly accessible through recorcli ngs, the Intern et, and live performances. The diversity of the world's mu sic brought a growing awareness in Europe and the A.mericas that each mu sician's work is but one strand in a global tapestry.

The Changing World of Music Jn the multidimensional wol'id of music since lhe l 970s, most people cross mu s ical boundaries every day. A person ntight attend live con certs and collect rccordings of classical music. jazz. rock. and non -\Vestern music, anel hear

The Chonging W orld of Music

pop songs ai the gym, coun lly music on 1he radio, anel backgrou ncl music of various types in shops. elevators, and offtces. Musicians livc in the sarne fluid environme11t. and their work reflects it; for example, count1y m.usicians who grew up in the 1960s and 1970s and began profession al careers in the 1980s and l 990s found it natural to incorporate sounds and styles from the rock music they hea rd in 1heir you th. Crossing anel blencling tradi1ions beca rne comrn onp lace.

• 1981

BROADENING THE MEAN ING OF "ART MUSIC

• 1983

961

Steve Reich, Tehi/lim

Sofia Gubaidulina, Rejoice!

• 1981

New disease described, later called AIDS

• 1982

Laurie Anderson, United States /-IV

The idea of art music~ music listened to with rap t at tention. • 1985-2001 Gyõrgy Ligeti, va lued for its own sake, anel preservecl in a repertoi re of Études classics- began in the tl'adition of concert music, but by the • 1986 John Adams. Short Ride late twentieth century it had spread lo other tradilions. in a Fast Machine Each style of jazz continued to attract performers and lis teners even after the "next" style emerged, so 1hat jazz of all • 1988 Arvo Part. Seven eras remained available in performance and on record ings, Magnificar Antiphon< just like classical music. The reissuing of old recordings on • 1989 Berlin Wall torn down LPs anel com pacLdiscs (see Mus ic in Contexr, p. 969) made • 1991 Soviet Union dissolves. the en ti re history of jazz read ily accessible, and books and ending Cold War courses on jazz histo1y proliferated since 1970. lncreasingly. jazz musician s have been tra ined at conservatories, schools • 1995 Rock and Roll Hall of of rnusic, and universit ies, in the sarne way as classica1 musi· Fame and Museum opens in cians. and while at school perform in jazz ensembles that play Cleveland music from the entire jazz I radition. • 1995 Bright Sheng. Seven ln the 1980s, new institutions were createcl to preserve Tunes Heard in China and present classic jazz of former times. The Smithsonian Jazz Orcheslra. led by David Baker. ol'fers live per formances oi' jazz from pastgene rations, scrupulously transcribed from recordings or reconstructed from the original charts. Jazz at Linco ln Center, fou nded by Wynton Marsalis in 1987 as an ensernble :and concerl series for historically inspired jazz performances at th.e complex sharecl by lhe New York Philha rmonic anel Metropolitan Opera, got its own hall in 2004 , a short walk from Lincoln Center. By then it was widely accepted that jazz was an art mus ic with its own repertory oi' classics. Bul Lhere has been controversy. especially aboul Marsalis's dismissal of avam-ga1·de jazz and other recent styles as deparwres from jazz tradition , his efforts to preserve e.arlier types, and his own compositions in traclitional jazz iclioms. Many jazz musicians viewed Jazz at Lincoln Center as lockingjazz in a museum. The strong views on both sides exem.plify th.e conílicts that can result from constructing a repertoire of musical classics in any tradition. ln a similar vein . academic musicians from the generation that grew Rock museums up I iste1úng to rock music began in the l 980s to teach courses on rock his tory and emhrace il as a subject for study a]ongside classical music and jazz.. \Vealthy donors funded new institutions dedicated to preserving the rock legacy. notably the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame anel Museum in Cleveland. shown in Figure 38.1, and the Experience Music Project Museum in Seattle. These institution s. along with the enduring popu lari ty of rock and pop songs

962

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

• The Lote Twentielh Century

FIGURE 38.1: The

Rock and Rol/ Hui/ of Farne and Muse111n in Cl.eveland. Ohio. ·n,e building. on ,he shores of Lake Erk was designed by inrer-

nationally farnous a,-chitecr /. M. Pei und

opened in Septentber ] 995.

( BILL ROSS/ CORBIS)

Musiccils

from the 1950s on as shown by sales ftgures. "'golden oldies" radio stations. and live performances by lhe anis1s 1hemselves or by tribute bands, indicated that this music had become a trad itioo of classics , akin to jazz and classical music. Country music was not far behind; lhe Country MusicHall of Fame and Museum, which dates back to the 1960s. opcned a spectacularnew building in Nashville in 2001, and interest in preserving older styl es continued to grow. The musical, too, became recognized as a trad ition of classics. ma rked by academic books and courses if not yet by museums or performing institu· tions. New produclions of shows by Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lerner and Loewe, Kern. Portei-, Berlin , and othe1·s were staged on Broadway and arou nd the wo rld. Musicais that had not been seen since tbeir original runs decades ea dier were revived with the same com.mitmenl shown by those who rediscovered, edited. and performed works of ea.rlier centul'ies. New mus icais often aspired to the levei of art music more than ente rtainment. The dominant figure in the American musical in the late twentieth cen Lury was Stephen Sondheim (b. 1930), whose musicais include the plotless social commenta1y ofCompany (l 970): the melodramat icSweeney Todd (1979). about a murderous London buber: Sundayin 1,he Park with George (l 984), based oo a f'amous pointillist pa.i.ntingby Georges Seurat; andAssassins (1991), featuring successful and wou ld - be assassins of American presidents-a ll subjects earlier musicais would notlikely have touched. As a teenager, Sondheim studied privately with lyricist Oscar Hammerstein li, wbo coached him in how to create the book. lyrics, and music for musicais. Sondhcim's lyrics are w'itty and poetic, and his songs draw on Broadway and popu lar styles whil e often brea king from convention , sounding a bit like art songs in a semi- popu lar idiom. Andrew Uoyd Webber (b. 1948) was lhe leading English composer of musicals. inclurling}ems Chri.uSuperstar( l 970-71). a rock-music re1ellingof Jesus' lifo: Evita (l 976- 78), about Eva Peron, wife of Argentinian clictator Juan Peron: Cats (1981), on poet1y by T. S. Eliot; and The Phantom of the Opero (1986) and Sun.set Bou.levard (l 993). two of the ó.rsl musica1s to be baseei on classic lilms,

The Chonging World of Music

reversing the usual dfrection taken by adaplation. Like lilm composers, Lloyd Webber d rew on a wide range of styles to suit the dramatic situation, while retaining the musical's tradilional focus on lyrical. affccting melody. Also remarkably successful with audiences were the musicais of French composer Claude-Michel Schõn berg (b 1944), notably Les Misérables (1 980; English ver sion. 1985). a selling of Victor Hugo·s novel of poverty in Paris. and Miss Sai· gon (l 989). retell ing Pucci nfs Madama Butte,fty in the contex1of the Viet nam \Var. Other musica is baseei on operas foll owed, such as Rent (1996) by Jooathan Larson (1960-1996), which adapled the plot of Puccini's La /10/u!me to lhe pop music styles of New York in the era of AlDS, anel Aida (1998- 2000) by pop sta.r Eltoa John (b. 1947) andlyricist Tim Rice, based on the s tory ofVerdi's opera. Many of these musicals resemble operas in their serious tone. use of spectacle, and almosl conlin uous music. Some recent musicais also absorb the sound and feel oi' opera, notably The Light in the Piazzc1 (2005) by Adam Guettel (b. 1965), grandson of Richard Rodgers, which Features a lush score marked by neo -Romanticism. extended operalic melodies. and classical orchestra. Western listeners increasingly became aware of Asian classicaJ tra ditions, iocluding those of Japan, China, lndonesia, lndia, and lran. At the same time. a contiouing treod toward passive listening and away from aclive music- making gave most young people in Europe and the Americas a more allenuated connection to lhe \Vestem classical lradition than in past generatio ns. Now \Vestem classical music is no longer the only, or even the most. presligious musical tradition. but one oi' many.

963

Orher traditions

BLURRING THE UNES ln a world where musicians are aware of such a wide range of music, the boundaries between traditions naturally begin to blur, especially l'or those wbo value music from more than one t radition and seek to create compa rab le music of their own. While many musicians have stayed within their own traditions , others cross over from one to another or blend aspects of several, so that for them and their Iisteners the existing boundaries for aU iutents and purposes clisappear. If the splintering of the classical tradition into a va1·iety of currents since 1he mid-nineteenth centu1y can be compared to the delta oJ' a great river approacbing the sea, a similar metaphor of strearns com iug together and becoming une river can suggesl the convergence of lraditions. Prominent in this convergence have been commercial pop musicians who create music for classical ensembles, gcru-es, or recorei labels. Paul McCart • ney brought classical influences from Ba roque music to John Cage, as well as electronic music. into his work with tbe Beatles. and !ater brought his pop sensibilities to classical genres in works like the Liverpool Oratorio (1991) and th e orchestral a nd chorai pieceStandingStone (l 99--z). Elvis Costello (b. 1954), a British singer-songwriter whose albums range from rock to country, collaborated with the Brodsky Quartel on The]1tliet letters (1993) , a song cycle for voice and string quartel. and wrote the orchestral score for thc ballet II SogM. premiered i.n Bologna in 2000. which rose to the top of the Billboard classical music chart. Ryuichi Sakamoto (b. 1952). trained in classical composition anel ethnomusicology in bis native Japan, achieved internalional success as songwriter. keyboard player, and singer with the electronic pop group Yellow

Pop and classic·al l~ybrids

964

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

frankZappa

FIGURE 38.2: Ásror

Pia,zzollci playing t,he bandoneoll in Rome, /999. ( tLIOIO PAONl/CON• 1'RASTO/ Rl;l>U~)

• The Lote Twentielh Century

Magic Orch.estra andas a solo arlist, pioneering new 1rends f'rom electropop to techno and incorporating music from traditional Japa nese so ngs to Brazil · ian bossa nova. Sincc lhe 1980s. Sakamoto has composed award · winning film scores, includíng The Last Emperor (1987), 1hat encompass orchestral music, extended playingtechniques, and musique concrête , anel created Discord (1998). an orchestral work that blends popular melodie styles with so ttnds and procedures from mode rn classical music. Some classically 1rained composers have absorbed pop styles to create similar blends, such as Christopher Rouse (b. 1949), whose Banham (1988) for percussion ensemhle celebrales John Bonham (drummer for 1he rock band Led Zeppelin) anel quotes severa] of his drumbeats, anel Steven Mackey (b. 1956), whose experience as a roc k anel jazz h'Uitarist in his teens reso nates in pieces like TILT (l 992) for 01·chestra and Tror,badour Songs (l 991) for electric h'liitar and strin15 quartel. ln hybríd works like these the old distinctíons becween popular anel classical trad i.tious can seem irrelevant. Tbe music of American guitarist and composer Frank Zappa (19401993) exemplihes lhe convergence of traditions. He made bis reputation in the 1960s and l 970s with avanl·l:(arele rock that broke down distinctions between rock, jazz, anel classical music, anel he blended the traditions in 200 Motets (l 970) for rock band and orchestra. ln the l 980s anel l 990s, he also proclucecl a series oi' orchestral and chamber works recoreled by the Lo11don Symph ony Orchestra (l 983-87), the Ensernble ln terContemporain conclucted by Pierre Boulez (The Perfect Stran.ger. 1984). and tbe contempornry music group Ensemhle Modem (The Yellow Shark. 1993). Several of h.is pieces for classical ensembles include transcriptions oi' material ii rst devised for his tou.ring rock bands. Zappa's work often conslitules a critique of the music business, of ils manipu lalion of pop music consumers. and of tbe pretensions oi' classical music supponers. Ooe of his wiltiest barbs, highlighting scbolars· deliberate ignorance of contempora ry popular music in preference for the music of the past. was his album of faithful electronic performances on tbe Synclavier digital syntbesizer (sbown in Figure 38.5) of works by Fra ncesco Zappa (1717-1803), an o bscu re composer who was inclucled in theNewGroveDictionaryo[MusicandM1isicians (1980). the mammoth Englisb-lang1rage encyclopedia of music, while FrankZappa (who must have tried looking himseJf' up in it) was not. Another hybridizer was Argenline composer Ástor Piazzolla (1921 - 1992). shown in Figure 38.2 , who comJJincd tb-e Argentine traelition of the tango with elements of jazz and classical music to create a new style. neu.vo tango (new tango). He encountered jazz d uring bis childhoocl in New York, became a professional tango musician in Argentina. and studied composition with Alberto Cinastera anel Nadia Boulanger, so he was weU schooleel in ali lh.ree traclitions. His nuevo tango incorporated improvisation from jazz and d1·ew severa! elements from the classical traclition, including the Baruque procedures of counterpoint. fugue. and passacagHa; modern

The Chonging World of Music

chromaticism, dissonance, and aogi.tlar melodies; anel the ideas of extencled forros and of music worth listening to for its owu sake. After developing the new style playing witb bis ensemble in bis club in Buenos Aires. Piazzolla moved in 1974 to Rome, wriling more ambitious pieces like libertango (1974), the three·movement La Camorra (l 989), and Five Tango Sensarions (1991) on commission from lhe Kronos Quartel. ln works like bis tango opera Maria de Buenos Aires (1968) anel h is Oouble Conce rw ío r guitar, banrl oneon, a nd s tring orchestra (1985), Piazzolla drew on a livtng popular trad ition to create music in classical genres. like Gersbwin in bis Rhapsody in Blue and Porgyand Bess. Jazz nrnsicians have also crosseel boundaries to procluce hybriels. as the tensions between jazz as an art music and jazz as a popu lar music playecl out in new forms of jazz. Havingpioneered coo) jazz and modal jazz in the 1950s (see chapter 36). Miles Davis launched a new trend calledfusion (orjazzfiision) in 1970 wilh his best-selling album Bitches Brew, bis greates t commercial s uccess. Fusion joinecl ja1.z with elements of other traditions, especially the elec· tric guilar sound and propulsion of rock and the rhythms and cbaracter of soul and of rhythm and blues, in a new style of instrumental mus ic. fusion was seen as a wa_y to renew jazz anel appeal lO a ,vider pu blic than the more esoteric styles since bebop bad clone. Some Eusion artists, like pianis ts Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea. eamcd thc rcspect of jazz fans witb their inventive improvisalions while also reaching a broader audience. Bm a l 980s offshool of fusion that blended jazz with pop music, k nown as srnooth jazz. was seen by purists as a sellout to easy-listening commercialism. despite (or because oD tbe popularity of arlists such as saxophonists Kenny C and David San.bom. Al the opposite enel of the spectrum was the experimental jazz ofthe Art Ensemble of Chicago. formed in 1969 anel active for more than four decades. whose name and seriousness of purp ose made clear lheir devotion to jazz as an arl music for a selecl auelience of connoisse urs, while emhracing iníluences from non-\Vestern music to perfonnance art. The career of John Zorn (b. 1953) epitomizes the work of musicians who transcend categorization. His eclectic tastes were formed as a you1b growing up in New York in a family whose members listened to a range of music from classical anel jazz to rock. country. and world music. As a teenager. he encoun • tered avant-garde and experimental music, which became the core of his approach. After stuclying composition in school and takiug up jazz saxophone as his main instru ment. he established himself in New York as an avant-garde performer and composer who drew on elements of jazz. rock. classical music. úlm music, popular styles, anel klezmer (a European Jewish popular style), among others. His music is unclassiftab le and very diverse. represented on a series of al.bums of nlm scores, titled Filmworks (1990- 2008): recordings wilh his avant-garde ro ck bands Naked City a nd Painkiller; h undreds of ti.mes drawing on klezrner anel other traditional Jewish styles, co ll ected in the Masada Books (l 993- 2004): severa! collaborations witb jazz artists: and numerous pieces for classical chamher groups and orchestra, incl utling the cbamher work Kristallnacht (l 993), about the 1938 Nazi attack on Jews known as the Night of Broken Glass. and Aporias: Requia,Jor Piano and Orches1,ra (l 998). The old boundaries tba t se parate jazi, po pular, classical, avant -ga rde, modernist, anel experimental mus ic do not app ly to Zorn or to oth er

965

Fusion a,nd other jarz blends

JohnZom

966

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

lnstitutions and ensembles

•

The Lote Twentielh Century

m u sicians wbo have simiJar all-embracing tastes. But ali of what Zorn does is at bea rt art music, music one listens to with full attention and val ues for itself rather than for any other purposc it may serve. Such music shows how interconnected ali these lnanches of the Western rradition ult irnately are . The blending of traditio ns is evid ent a lso i n musica l in stitutions an d ensembles that make it a pr iority to reature diverse fare and encourage borde1· crossings. 0ne such inst itu1io n is t he Meltdown Festiva l. held in Lo ndon since 1993, which brings togetber a varied mix of perfonners, chosen by the directo r for that year; directors bave ranged from pop artis ts Elvis Costello and David Bowie to free jazz p ioneer 0rnette Coleman. performance artist Laurie An.derson (see below), anel classical composers Magnus Lindberg (b. 1958) an d Louis Andriessen (see below). Bang on a Can. directed by composers Julia Wolfe (b. 1958). David Lang (b. 1957). and Michael Gordon (b. 1956), is another diverse group who put on an annual Marathon concert in New York high lighting innovative music fr om a variety of traditious, from Cage and Zom to electronic pop to new sounds from BLtlgarian folk ensembles and Balinese gamelan or chestras, with the goal of b1·eakíng down barr iers between musical communities. The Kronos Quartel, foundecl in 1973, is a classically trained string quartet whose reperto ire embraces the diversity of mu sic in the late twcntieth and early twenty - nrst centuries, ranging from newly commissioned works and modernist classics to jazz. rock, and early mi1sic (see ln Perfor mance: Kronos Quartet). Such eclectic p rogramm ing also blurs the lines between traditions. Despite all this blurring and blending, ma ny musician s adhere to their owi, traditions, anel forthem the li nes between traditio ns have not co llapsed . ln this and the next chapter, we will continue to refer to lhe various types of mu sicas separate entities. while remembering t hat jus.t how separate-or how connected-they ar e is a choice thaL must be made by e.ach musician, now that the possibilities of cross-fertilization anel hybridization are always present.

INT ERACTIONS WITH NON-WES TERN MUSIC

World Bea.l

Asian hy brids

Crossing and hybridization of traditions was taking p lace not just within Western music b ur also between \Vestem and non-\Ves tern traditions, as people or1ali cont inents beca me more famiJ iar with each othe1.-s music. Closely linked to the globalization of music was World Beat. a term referring to African popular musics that reached international audiences. African musicians like the Nigerian Fela Kuli (l 938- 1997) mergcd popula r styles l'rom the Un ited States and elsewhere with local t raditions to create new soun ds . ln the l 980s. their music in turn began to be heard worldwide. and pop artists in Europe and Ame rica incorporated \1;Torld Beat into 1beir own music. Paul Simon's African - infosed, Grammy Award-win ning a i.bum Gra,celand (]986) raised the issue of cultural appropriation: one hit song from that album. Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes, fea.tured Simon on lead vocals backed by Ladysm.ilh Black Mambazo, a South AJrican unaccompanied men's chorns in the isicathamiya singing tradition . and on severa] tracks Simon mixed together coutributions recorded by musicians from around Africa. mak:ing use of their work wi1bout any direct collabora tion. Severa! composers born and trained in China and la ter active in the Uni ted

The C honging World of Music

KRONOS QUARTET The Kronos Q uartet is both one of the leading string quartets in the world and one of the classical ensembles most dedicated to performing a wide range of music. Formed in Seattle in 1973, they underwent severa! changes of personnel. then took up residence in San Francisco in 1978 with the players shown in Figure 38.3. While the members of the quartet are expert performers on their instruments. they approach music with an eclec ticism that is far from traditional string quarteis. and with the energy and informal garb of a rock band. They have become the most widely known and heard ensemble for contemporary classical music, in part because they appeal to audiences outside the worlds of classical music or "new music• and perform such a diverse array of pieces. Kronos carne to prominence in the 1980s with recordings that induded rock star Jimi Hendrix's Purple Haze; jazz by Thelonious Monk and Bill Evans: modernist works from earlier ln the century by Bartók, lves. Webern. Shostakovlch, and Crumb: and music- much of it commissioned by Kronos-by contemporary composers from John Zorn and Ástor Piazzolla (discussed

ÇiG U RE 38.3,

above) to Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Arvo Part. and Alfred Schnittke (discussed later in this chapter). Later albums include medieval music by Perotinus (Viderunt omnes, NAWM 19) and Machaut (Kyrie from his mass, NAWM 26a). blues by Willie Díxon. Mexican music. movie soundtracks, lndian movie music (known as Bollywood). music of central Asia, and works by Sigur Rós. a post-rock band from Reykjavík. lceland. The quartet has also performed on recordings by the Dave Matthews Band. Nine lnch Nails. Nelly Furtado. and many others.

The quartet has commissioned and premiered over seven hundred new works. ln 2003, in celebration of the quartet's thirtieth anniversary, they initiated a new program that commissions works From composers under the age of thirty. 1n association with the quartel. the Kronos Performing Ares Association ·continually re-imagines the string quartel experience." Through the association. Kronos mentors and collaborates with other artis ts and includes educational concerts and activities in its touring schedule. The quartet has become one of the most inAuential and formidable groups of our time.

Thc Kron.os Quartet a.t New Yor/1·• Centra.! Pa.rn SummcrSta-ge. 1992. with ~up founder Daoid

Hiirrington, first violin: John Sherba. second violin: 1/ank Duu, viola; and]oan}eanrenaiLd, cello. (J~C< v~•roocu11•1ceTTY I MACLS)

967

968

C H A 1>T E R 3 8

FIGURE 38.4:

Sheng.

Brigh1

( 1•H0To KY WAH 1.u 11

COUllTE-SY OF Ulll( HIT

SIII NC)

Other blends

•

The Lote Twentielh Century

States have created music in the WesLem classicaJ trad i tion that represents a hybrid withAsian lraditions. Bright Sheng (b. 1955), shown in Pigure 38.4, stud ied piano as a boy in Jus native Shangh ai. Sent lo the prov ince or Qingbai in his 1eens during Lhe Cultural Revolution, he learned and co llected folie music tJ1ere. He then earned degrees in composilion at the Shanghai Conservatory and in New York, where he studied with Leonard Bernstein and Chou Wen - chun15 (b. 1923). a sluelenl of Varêse. He has made his career in the Uniteel States. He seeks to integrate elements of Asi:an and \Vestem music while respecling the integrity of each. inspired by the attempts ol'Bartók lo do the sarne with eastern European folk and Western classical music. ln the solo cello suiteSeven Tunes Heard in China (1995), Sheng joins lhe European tradition of lhe Bach cello suites-with sequences, douhle stops. anel implied polyphony- to the playing style of Chinese bowed string instruments. markeel by grace notes , glissandos, sudclen dynamic changes, and ílexible rhytbm. ln the ftrst movement, Seasons (NAW M 209), the mostly pentatonic Chinese tune used as a source is fragmented anel spun out using both Baroque anel modernist methoels, including polytonality. The result blenels together fun damental aspects of Chioese, \Vestem classical, anel modem music. Several oilier composers have pursued parallel pailis, including Chen Yi (b. 1953) and Zhou Long (b. 1953). The best known oí this group is Tan Dun (b. 1957), who learned to play tradiüonal sLring instruments in bis native China, then-like Sheng and the others-moved to New York in the 1980s and stu.elieel with Chou Wen- chung at Columbia University. Iniluenced by John Cage a.nel other experimencal composers, he has combined Chinese instruments and non-Western vocal timbres with Westem techniques in works such as the hlm score for Crouching Tiger. Hidden Dragon (2000) as well as Water P(l$sion ajier St. Matthew (2000) for soloists, chorus, and orchestra , commissioneel to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach. A similar union of Western and non-Westem styles anel sensihilities can be founel in other composers' works. White ManSleeps (1985) for stringquartet by South African native Kevin Volans (b. 1949) draws on African traelilions, and Songs ofSea and Sky (1987) for clarinet and piano by Australian composer Peter Sculthor pe (b. 1929) incorporates or imitatesAhoriginal melodies. ln the final ana lysis. ali the works descri bed in lhis section are at th e sarne time hybrids anel quintessentially Western. representing new instances of the centuries- olel capaci ty of Ule Westem tradition to absorb foreign elements and arrive ata new syntbesis, as in lhe merging of F'rencb. ltalian. anel English styles into an international language in the fifteenth ce ntury (see chapter 8) or of various s1yles and habits into the cosmopolitan icliom of the Classic era (see chapters 20- 23). These recent works go beyonel nineteenth - century exoticism in the respect they show for the intrinsic value of the non-Western traditions on wbich they draw.

The Chonging World of Music

969

DIGITAL TECHN O LOGI ES IN T HE 1980 s ln the 1970s and early 1980s, music joined the digital revolution. Inventors devised a method for translating sound into a coded series of on-off pulses, or ls and Os, in the same way that computers stored and transmitted data. Soon digital processes were replacing older ones. known as analog because they rely on creating an analogue of the soundwaves, such as the undulations in the groove of a record. By the 1980s. musicians were using digital synthesizers, as in Figure 38.5, instead of the older analog <levices that produced sounds generated from or processed by electrical circuits. Because digital processes produced and recorded sounds as streams of numbers. musical sounds could be reproduced and controlled precisely. Electronic keyboards combined with computers made synthesized music accessible to musicians everywhere. Through computers. composers could control ali the parameters of pitch. timbre. dynamics, and rhythm, and the characteristics thus digitally encodeei could be translated directly into music through MIDI (Musical lnstrument Digital Interface). Some musicians combined live performers with synthesized or computer-generated music into a performance medium that is now commonplace. Using software programs that respond to music, the composer devises formulas that are then played on a synthesizer, digital piano, or acoustic instrument. ln this way. a musician can generate imitative or nonim itative polyphony. rhythmic or melodie ostinatos. heterophony, and a variety of other textures by playing

on a synthesizer keyboard in "real time·-that is, as actually played and heard. rather than laboriously prepared in advance and tape-recorded, as electronic music was in the 1950s. Vinyl records, the primary means of distribution for decades. gave way in the 1980s to compact discs (CDs), which were smaller, more durable, and able to reproduce music digitally, offering greater fidelity. Thousands of recordings first released on 78- or 33-rpm records were reissued on CDs. making an entire century o f recorded sound more widely accessible than ever before. Portable playback devices with headphones or earbuds made it possible to carry music of one's own choice everywhere.

FIGURE 38.5, Keyboard consoleoftheSynclavier

II digi1al symliesiurft-orn 1981. (COURT tsY YAJ(JN0 CAT .MUSIC STTJOrO)

NEW TECHNOLOGIES New connections across 1,·aditions si nce the 1970s were accompanied hy new technologies that have altered the ways musicians work wilh music anel listeners consume it. Among the most important inventions were the dig ital synthesis. recording. anel reproduclion of sound (see Music in Conlext: Digi tal Techno logies in lhe 1980s). which have given creators of mus ic new tools

970

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

Sampling

Compttter mttsic

•

The Lote Twentielh Century

and listeners new llexibility. Digital synthesizers, J'irst widely availa ble in the 1980s, were much cheaper, smaller, andeasierto usethan previoussynthesizers. As a resull. they were adopted by a ,vide range of musicians. amate1uand professional alike, work:ing in traditions from classical to popular music. One signiticant technique is sctmpling, a process of creati ng new compositions by patching together digital ch unks of previously recorded music. Allhougb sampling raises copyright concerns. il has been used extensively in hip hop (see below) and other forms ofpop music, as well as in experimental, avant-garde. and classical concert music. Advances in computing anel the mini.aturizalion of the computer have offered many new possibililies, explored by composers whose music is pa1'l experimentation with technology anel part sound sculpture. One of füe pioneers ol' computer music is Charles Dodge (b. 1942). whoseSpeech Songs 0972) features computer-synthesized vocal sounds. mixing lifelike imitations of speech witb transformations that change vowels into noise or natural inflections into melodies to create a word-based music well suited to the surrealistic poetry he uses as a text. Paul Lansky (b. 1944) developed his own :software to createcomputer works. He manipulates recorded sounds, sucb as speecb in Six Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion (1979) and Smalltalk (1 '988) or highway traffic noises in Ni.ght Traffic (1990). transforming them beyond immediate recognition and using them as a kind of pitched percussion. Despite lhe unusual sound sources, his mt1sic draws on pop traditions, with tona l hannonies, regular meter. propulsive beat. and layered syncopated rhythms. A veiy different aesthelic is pu1·sued at Lhe Ins titui de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/ Musique (lnstitute for Acoustic and Musical Research and Coordination) in Paris, one of the premier centers foi· compute r music in Europe, fou"n ded by Pierre Boulez and opened in 1977. In lnhamionique (1977) and other works written during bis time as director of the IRCAM computer music departmem, Jean-Claude füsset (b. 1938) uses the computer to mediate between live voices or acoustic instniments and syntbesized or electronically processed sound. He has continued to design new sounds, exploring Lhe intesaclion of sound waves, harmonics. timbre, and other basic elements of sound" The work ofthese three composers only begins to illustrate the potential of computer music. In addition, computer software for notating and publisbing music. such as Finale and Silielius, beca me availahle in the late 1980s and 1990s and is now widely used by ,c omposers and arrangers in ali branches of music.

MIXED MED IA

Stage shows and music vídeos

Music in the late twentietb centlll)' has grown closer to other performance ans, as it increasingly has beco me part of mixed media artworks. A pop music concert in lhe early 1960s. like those of lhe Beatles. typically consisted of a group playing music, perhaps with some exaggerated physica I gestures to charge up the audience" But by the l 970s and 1980s, stage shows for performers like Kiss. Michael Jackson. or Madonna. rhough slill ca lled r.oncerts. invo lved e lahorate sets anel costumes" intricate choreograpby. and visual effects sucb as lighting, fog machines, and pyrotechnics. The spectacle was almost as important as the music, which was only one component in a multimedia extravaga.nza. Mu.sic ·v ideos , short fllms tbat provide a visual accompaniment LO songs, carne of age in Lhe ea rly l 980s, serving as

The C honging World of Music

971

the mainstay oi' l'he cab le channel MTV (Music Television) and quickly becoming a primaJ}' form of contact for popular music consumcrs. Most were elaborate productions, with sets, costumes, dancing, and rapid -ti re editing a ll calcuJated lo catch the eye, draw attention to 1.he song, and promote sales. ln lin e wilh the tendency of some works in a ll tl'aditions to be experienced and valued as art music (see above), a good number of music vídeos came to be considered works of art, and some have been collected and exhfüited by museunns sucb as the Museum of Modem Arl in New York. Both spectacular stage shows and artistic mu sic vídeos continue to be signiftcan t :as visual companions to popular music. Wbile pop music was becoming moi·e FIGURE 38.6 , Pe,fomwnceartis1L«urieAndersonplaying visua l, performance art was becoming more an elec1ronic violin du.ringa concerL ( LYNN c0Los>J1TH1co•••s> musical. One of tbe leading performance artists. Laurie Anderson (b. 1947), shown in figure 38.6, incorporated a wide range ol'media, includingsinging, violin pl ayiog, poell}', speaking, elec1ronics, ftlm, slides, and lighting" Her single O Supenncm (1981), whicl, featured her synthesizer-processed voice in a simple, repetitive song wilh light electronic accompanimenl, was an unexpected pop hit, winning her additional audiences and reinforcing the musical element in her work. She released several albums of songs. but the hea1i oí her ast remained in ber stage shows. Most amhitious was United Stat,es [-IV (1983). a seven-hour extravaganza that used ali the Lools of modem media to comment ironically on lhe aliena1ion and social ills of the culture that inventecl them" A new genre of musical theater emerged in the 1990s in which the process Spectacle works of making music itself became a visual spe<:tacle. STOMP (1991), created by Luke Cresswell and Steve McN.icholas in England and on Broadway and on tour since 1994, has no dialogue or plot. but consists entirely of a troupe of performers using everyday objects from matchbooks to brooms 10 garbage can lids to produce elaborate percussion 1nusic carried out with stunning choreography, as in Figure 38"7. Blue Man Gl'Oup. formed inNew Yorkin 1987 by Chris Wink. Matt Goldman. and Phil Stanton and presenting full -lengtb shows around tbe world since 1991, features percussion - based experimental music using unusua l instruments played by three musician-mimes dressed in identical clothing and wearing light blue makeup on their hands and heads. like blue-skinned aliens. Jim Mason's Blast! (2001) took the rnutines of a marching bane! haJftim e show and dn1m corps performance, souped th em up with new choreography, and put them on the Broadway stage. Film is a mtdtimedia formal of long standing, and although music played Film music an important role from the start- so-called silent ftlms always had piano. organ" or orchestral accompaniment-its signincance in recent decades has heightened. ln a growing numher of movies after 1970. music no longer served as background accompanimenc but became as much a part of the to tal artwork as the music in an opera or musical " Many tilms used existingmusic; George Lucas'sAmerican Graffiti (1973) set a pattern by employing pop music

972

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

• The Lote Twentielh Century

FIGURE 38.7: Scene from tlie London production ofSTOM P.

Niche:; m Popular Music

973

Niches in Popular Music

{R08BtEjACK/C08.IU5)

of the late 1950s and early 1960s to accompany a leen drama set in that era. But most striking was the retllrn to foJJ -scale symphonic scores organized around leitmotives. The music by John Williams (b. 1932) for the six Star Wars movies (1977-2005) was arguab ly as impo11ant as the actors in conveying the dramatic acrion. Symphonic movie soundtracks became hot -selling recon.lings, outpacing ali other orchestral music and raising the stalure o i' l'ilm composers . Some compose rs arranged their fi lm scores as concert works. Among the mosl ambitious was The Lord of the Rings: Symphony inSix Movemerits (2004) by Howard Shore (b. 1946), drawn from his scores for the movie trilogy The Lord of the Rings (2001 - 2003).

TRENDS The broadetúng conception of musicas an ar!, lhe convergence of formerly distinct types of music. the blending ofWestern and non -Western elcments, Lhe application of new technologies, and lhe growing interaction of music witb other media are justa few of the trends apparent in recent music, butthey are characteristic in crossing or weakening boundaries between n-aditions. Other crends resulced from pressures within tradlt.ions. The strong ide11rificatio11 of 1950s anel l 960s teenagers with rock aJJd pop music prompted a search by smaller social groups for a music to call their own. They were abet ted by a popular music industry that was eager. as always. to exploit new markets. As a result, the popular tradition became fragmented. Meanwhile, in the classical tradition, modernism and the search for individual styles-the centra l theme of twentieth -century classical music-continued strong. prompting new approaches. The study of sound color led to che new trend of spectral music, and an awa reness of the continui ng presence of historical styles combined with the breakdown of a common musical language stimulated a new self-conscious polystylism. At the sarne lime, the desire of some composers to connect with listeners who were unsympathetic to modernist or avant-garde music prompted a search for more accessible languages. including minimalism and neo-Romanticism. Thus. ironically. while in many musicians' work popular and classical music were converging, in other respects each lradition conti.n ued to break apart int.o more and more diverse streams.

As lhe supply of music has increased and choices have became more varied, the a mount of music com mon to all members of a sociery has diminished . The days are over when ali of America hea.rd lhe songs of Irving Berlin, or 1he Beatles were famous a round the world. lnstead, popular mus ic has spli ntered into .niche markets and competing trends, each identili.ed with particu lar social groups. Some trends won widespread, though usually short-lived, popltlarity, whilc others rernained lhe property of speci:lic groups. Th.e following sampling of a few popular music lrends in No11hA.merica and Europe after 1970 is not an attempt to survey the whole of popular music, which would be beyond the scope of lhis book. but may begin to suggest the ways various segments of society built a group identily by sharing a common music. ln the 1970s, a new style of dance mus ic known as disco developed in New York clubs lhat catered primarily to African Americans. Latinos, and gay men. then become an international craze. CJubgoers valued lhe steady meter an<l unil'orm dance tempo of disco songs, which allowed disk jockeys to move smoothly from song to song and the dancers to keep movingwithout interntption. Lush orchestrations anel slick production pleased the ea1· while the relemless beat moved the body, joining glamour, fun, and sexuality in an intoxicating hrew. Disco ,·eached its height of popu larity with the f, lm Saturday Nighi Fever (1977) and the accompanying soundtrack by lhe Bee Gees. Another 1970s trend was punk. a har<l- driving style voicing teenage alienation. The most notorious punk band, tbe Sex Pistols, popularized edgy fashions such as safety pios through flesh and preached nibilism i.n their lyrics. Most punk musicians were largely tmtutored. preferring raw. unskilled sounds to th.e virtuosity and smooth produetion of rock and disco. New Wave musicians like Blondie and Ta lking Heads fol lowed closely on the heels of punk. sharing some of its nihilism withom disdaining musical skill. and won wiclercommercial success. Jndie rock (or independent rock), a catch-all lerm for rock music set apa11 from the mainstream. was nurtured by college and independent radio stations and performing venues, then carne to domina te in the early 1990s thanks to grunge rockers from Seattle. sucb as Nirvana. Soundgarden, and Pea,·l Jam. Grunge combü.nccl the nihilism of punk and rhe electric-guitar-laden souncl of heavy metal with intimate lyrics and dresseddown fashions (especially flannel) . Nirvana's 1991 song S111ells Like Teen Spirit brought grunge to national a tten!ioo. Each or these styles became an etllblem foryouth of a certain age.while offending or being incomprehensible to most of their elders. Hip hop, also called rap. emerged in the 1970s as the music of hip hop culturc. an AfricanAmerican w·ban youth cult111re th.at originated al block parties in the South Bronx neighhorhood of New YoTk. DJs (disc jockeys) isolated the percussive break passages on soul, funk, and disco 1·ecordings and looped them (played them repeatedly. using two turnrables) for dancers. stirnulating the elaborate and athler ic dance style known as breaking or breakdancing. Over these breaks a rapper or MC (master of ceremonies) recited or improvised lyrics, in a tradition with roots in earlier AfricanAmerican, African, anel West Indian practices. From these origins hip hop developed iota a style with

Disco

fünk. New Wave. indie rock. and

grunge

Hiphop

974

C H A 1>T E R 3 8

•

M1nimalism and Postmmimalism

The Lote Twentielh Century

FIGURE 38.8: Rap group Pu.blic Enemy. featuring soloisls Terminator X (froni left), Flavor flav (cen ter. with /tis trodemark gian t waich), and Chuck D(righi). CsTr,,·r,

975

heavy meial of Judas Priest to the gentle sounds of ambi.eni m1isic, pioneered by Bdan Eno (b. 1948). W'herever there is a group with distinctive tastes or nceds, there is a markct niche and rousicians lo fill il. froro polka bands in Milwaukee to Bollywood singers in lnilia. Ec1ually significant is thal unlike the 1960s, when almost eve1y teenager in the English -speakingworld listened to the Beatles. Bob Dyhtn. andA.retha Franklin. popular music in lhelasl quarter or 1he twent ie1h ce nt.ury was rragmen ted into niche audiences. anel no one achieved the sarne broad popu larity.

Jt:NNINCSICOll.616)

Minimalism and Postminimalism

Musical subcultures

Niche markets

rapped (or sometimes sung) lyrics over music mostly composed of samples from earlier recordings. As il spread to otber cities and recordings, hlp hop branched into mtthip le types, includinggangsta rap, celeb rating lawlessness, anel political hip hop or conscious rap. which voiced the woes of inequality and racism and addressed social and political issues. With songs like Fight the Power, the rap gro up Public Enemy, shown in Figure 38.8, led the ran.ks of conscious rap in the late 1980s and early 1990s. ln a par:all el to the discovery of rhythm and blues by white teens in the l 950s. rap became the popular music of a generalion of white suburban teenagers, especially males a11racted to its heavy beat and themes of ma te dominance. By the late l 990s, styles Telated to hip hop were practiced around the world from France to Bangladesh, some derived directly from AfricanA.merican rap music, others pari of a la.rger continuuro or African. West lndian. and LatinAmerican music-roaking. Other types of music served to foster group feeling among particular segroents oí society but rarely attracted the attention of outsiders. For example, Lhe movemen t calledwomen's nrnsic encompasses songs in various s tyles, often fo lk-influenced, with texts that reflect a feminist perspective. Nu11ured by concert circuits organized by women outside the usual venues and by annual l'estivalslike the Nationa!Women's Music Festival, the movement developed its own roster of headlin ers beginning in the l 970s. indud ingsinger-songwriter Holly Near (b. 1949) and classical composer Kay Ganiner (1941-2002). and its own recording companies such as Olivia Records. More widely known is contemporary Christion music. which uses currenl popular styles lo convey evangelical Christian themes. As is true for wome1ú music, the message is more important than the style in deftning this type of music. Performing at youlh revivals and festivais, pop singers like Amy G.-anl (b. 1960) and rock hands such as Third Day dress. play. and sing like secu lar pop artists. seeking to capture the interest of youth tbrough the music and lel the words cany the reügious content. The types of popular music listcd here are only a few or the many vari eties currem since 1970, which range from the acoustica Uy overwhe lming

Composers of art music have also cultivated a varied range of styles and approaches. One of the most prominent trends since the l 970s has been 111ini111a lis111, in which materiais are reduced to a minimum and procedures simplifaed so that what is going on in the music is iromediatcly apparent. Minimalism bep;an in the early l 960s as an avam-p;arde aesthelic focused oo the musical processes themselves but over time became a widely used and popular technique. capable of a wide range of exp ressive contenl. Composers of minimalis t works absorbed inlluences from rock, African music. Asian music, tonality, and ftn ally Romanticism, to create what has been ca ll ed the leading musical style of the late twentieth century. Art critic Richard Wollheirn coined "minimal art" in 1965 as a tenn for ari that reduced materiais and forro to fundamentais a.nd was not intended to e,qiress feelings or convey the artist's state of mi nei. [t represented a reaction against the complexity. density. irregularity. and expressive intensity of postwar abstract expressionism, in favor of simplicily, clarity, and regularüy in a.nworks that do not require interpretation. Minimali:st artworks often feature a Tepetitive patte rn of simple elements. For example. Carl Andre's 64 CopperSquares (I 969) consists of sixty-four squai-e copper plates laid on the iloor in a square, anel Frank Stella's paintingHyeMS!-Omp (1962). shown in Figure 38.9, forros a spiral pattern from straight tines anel bands ofbright color. Such ai1 focused on its materiais, maki.ng it p:u1 of the avant-gai·de concept art of the 1960s. A parallel movement was nunured among musicians in New York City and in the California countercu lture. Lin ks between early minima list composers and artists were ve1y strong, and performances often took place in at1 galleries and lofts rather than traditional concert venues. In parallel with minima list art , minimalist composers wer e reacting against the complexity, density, anel sheer difnculty of recem modernist music. from the chance music of Cage to the serialist music of Babhitt, Stockhausen, and Boulez anel the virtuoso works of Carter anel Serio. lnslead of overwhelming the listener with unfamiliar conte nt anda rapidly changing musica l surface, minimalist composers recluced the amou nt of material and the pace of change to a mini mum and inviled lisleners lo focus on the small changes lhal do occur. One of the pio neers of musical min imal ism was La Monte Young (b. 1935). whose music centers on a small number of pitches that are sustained ai great length. Composition 1960 No. 7 consists simply oi' the notes B and F~ .. to be held for a long lime ... While challenging traditional concepts of music in an avam-garde spi rit. lhe piece also di rects lhe listener's allen 1.ion

Minimalisrn in a.rt

Early minimalism in music

ln, Mnn.te Ynnn.g

976

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

•

the minute changes in pitch and timbre that inevitably happen as a musician sustains -1 ,;; a pitch. The Tortoise: His Dreams and Joumeys l'!.ii ,;; (1964) was an improvisation in which instru11'1 l'!.ii mentalists and singe,·s come in and out on I,;'! ,;; ,;; li! various harmonics over a fundamental played I,;'! as a drone by a synthes izer. Among bis later ,, lól ,:. 11'1 projects is The Dream Ho11se (1996), a souod and light envirorunent open to the public at bis house in New York. withlight installations ,;; I,;'! by bis wife and collaboraLor, sculptor Ma r,;; ian Zazee la. Giant speakers project drones ,:. 11'1 of thirty - lwo differenl frequencies tuned in ~ just intonation that interact in differenl ways ,;; 11,1. at different points in the room, so that the ,;; ~ ' sound is s tatic if one stays still. but changes I,;'! 11'1 as the listener moves througb tbe space. cre~1- l ~ ating a dreamlike experience. / \VbiJe Young reduced music to sustained FI GURE 38.9: Hyena Stomp by frank $relia (o. / 936). tones, Tel'l)' Riley (b. 1935). who once perSte/la, reduced pail1ring to its fw1damenrals. iniending 1ha1 formed in Yo ung·s ensemhle. explored pat/,is work be undersrood a,s onlr a pla,r offom, an d color. not terns created througll repetition. He began as an e:1pressio11 ojfeelings. The title.from ajazz pi.ece br Jel!y by experimenting wi th tape loops , sho rt Roll Morton. rejlects Stel/a, 's inrerest in transla tíng S)Otcopasegments of magnetic tape spliced into loops Lion into vi-su.alfonn. in this pciinting. ('rAT tGAu,r.1w, LONnON. that when fed through a tape recorder play the 1 1.IOTO: 'fAl'L CALLf.RY/AflT RESO URCL . :-Y, ,O ARS. Nt:W YORK) sarne recorded sounds again and again. His tape piece Mescalin Mi:r: (l 962- 63) piled up many such loops, each repeating a shorl pluase, over a regular pulse. His most famous work, ln C ( 1964), uses a similar procedure with live instniments. lt can be performed by any number of instruments. each playing the sarne series of lbrief repeated flgures againsr the backdrop of a quicl<ly pulsing octave C, with the munber of repetitions in each part and tbe coordination of parts left indeterminate. The resulting sound combines a steady pulsation with a process of slow change from consonance to diatonic dissonance and back. The concept and materials are simple and lhe process inunediarely audible, but the multilayered texture is comp lex and like nothing ever heard before.

$teve Reicl, pructicing<1this apartment in New York. On tl,eshelfbehind him can be seen earliereditions of1hi,; book and its accompanying FIGURE 38.10:

I , li'!

.ô ..

,..

977

Minimal1sm and Postmmimal,sm

The Lote Twentielh Century

Olllho/ogy. (LEBRECUT M USIC 4' AltTS f'TIOTO LIBRAJIY)

...

FROM AVANT-GARDE TO WIDESPREAD APPEAL

Steve Reich

While Young remained an avant-garde experimentalist and Riley moved toward rock music, three other Ame ricans brought minimalist procedures into art music intended for a broael audience. Steve R.eich (b. 1936). shown in Pigu re 38. l O. developed a quas i-canonic procedure in which musicans play the sarne material out of phase with each olh.er. Like Riley. he began in lhe eleclronic sludio. He created Come Out (19/ílí) by superimposing tape loops of a spoken phmse ("come out to show them") in such a way that one loop was slightly shorter and thus gradually moved ahead of the other, an effect called phasing. As the texture grows from two to four to eight simultaneous loops, each out of phase with i-be others. we

can no longer hear the words. only their constituent vocal sounds (especially tbe consonants '·k," "m,'' anel "sh" anel the vowels "uh" and ''oh"), each endlessly repeating io its own plane of sound. ln Piano Plu,se (1967). whose opening measures are shown in Example 38. l, Reich applied a similar idea to a work for two pianos. Botb pianists repeat Lhe sarne figure in unison severa! times, then one gradually pulls ahead until that performer is exactly one eighth-note ahead of the other (at measure 3 in the example). and they repeat the figure severa! times in rhythmic synchronizationbut melodically out of phase. This process is repeated twelve times, proch1cing a different series of harmonic com bin ation s each time the parts slip into synchrony. until the two parts are again in melodie unison: then the same process is used for a figure of e ight notes and then one of four notes. As the opcning melody rcpeats and moves out of phase with itself. il seems to split imo two planes, the notes in its upper range (b'. cf. and d") moving in one melodie stream. its lower notes (e'andh') in another. each rip pling in constant variation. The fascination in music like tbis lies in observing gradual changes and the many possible pe1·mutations of very simple ideas. The processes tliat underlie the composition are revealed for every listener EX AM PLE 38.1,

Openingof Reich's Piano Phase

). • ca. 72 Repe.:it e:aeh b:u :ripproitim:itely numberof 1ime~ written.

1 (x6-8) r.h.

2 (x12- 18)

(x4-16)

3 (xl6-24) hold 1crnpo a

m.-«I. vcry s.lighlly

978

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

Philip Glass

• The Lote Twentielh Century

to h ear and experience. Sucb music is noL intended 10 be eiq)l·essive, b11t the moments when the melodies c]jck into phase can be enormously satisfying, like a resolution lo consonance after a long dissonance. Reich fonned his own ensembleand was able to makea livingby pel'Íorming, toul'Íng, and recording his works. Much of hjs music in the l 970s, such as Drumrning (J 970-71). was percussive. superimposing layers of &guralion in ways lhat parallel African drummiog, one source oi' bis inspira1ion. He attl'actecl a wide range of listeners, drawingaudiences accustomecl lO jazz, rock, and pop music as well as classical music, as lhe diatonic material and rapid pulsalion gave his music wide appeal. By the 1980s, Reich no longer subscribed to a minimal ist aes lhelic, instead using minimalist techn iques to create large-sca le works with signilicant emotional contenl. often drawing on his Jewish heritage. Tehillim (1981) is a setting of psalm texts in the original Hebrew for four singers and orchestra, using rhytbmic and me lodie canons at the unison in constantly changing meters over pulsing percussion and sustained diatonic hui d issonant harmonies. Each of the first three sections uses different proceduc·es. and the fotll'th sectio n (NJ\\VM 210) combines all tbese techniques, adcling layers anel building to a cli mactic conclusion. ln the lirst and last sect ions, as me lodies ftrst hearcl alone are treated in two- part and then four- part canons at the unison in repeatingloops, it becomes pl'Ogressively ha.rder t0 follow a single pa.rt, and we begin to hearthe repeating melodie high points as a sepa ra te plane of sound in a way that parallels the eJ'fects of phasing in Come Out and Piano Phase. A piece as rich and com pi ex as this can harclly be called minimalist. yet il shows lhe applicaüon of minimalist techniques in ~he realm of art music. For this reason, Reich's musi.c since 1980 is sometimes called postminimalist, reflecting the influence of minimalist procedures while moving beyond the original minirnalist aesthetic to inch1de traditional methods (such as canon and harmonic moti.on). more varied materia l, and renewed expressivity. His la ter works include DiJferent Trains (l 988) for string quartel and tape. a moving reflection on the Holocaust, and The Cave (1993) for voices, ensemble, and video. which explores lhe rclationship of Judaism. Christianity. and lslam to each other and to thei r common patriarch Abraham . Over the course of bis career, Reicb has moved from avant- garde experimentation to a focus on co11struclion in the 1970s anel Jinally to using rhe tools he bad developed in wo1·ks that convey meaning anel are intended to frnd a p erma nent place in the repertoire. Philip Glass (h. 1937) had puhlished twenty works by the time he completed degrees at the University of Chicago and The JuiJliard School and frn ished studies witb Nadia Boulanger. but withdrew all of them after working with the lndia n sitarist Ravi Shankar in Paris. Glass's works since the mid 1960s have bcen deeply influenced by the rhy1hmic -organization of lndian music. They emp hasize melodiousness, consonan ce, and the s imp le ha r monic progressions and abundant ampli fication of rock music, and have won Glass a large anel diverse following from rock enthusiasts lo classical lisreners. Like Reich. he in itially wTote mainly for his own ensemb le. hut he has secured bis reputalion wilh a series of major works, including operas. symphonies, concertos, anel hlm scores. His one-act. four-and -a - half- hour operaEinsteinontheBeach. premiered

Minimal1sm and Postmmimal,sm

979

at theAvignon Festival in France in 1976, was a co Uaboration with avant-garde di.rector Robert Wilson. who wrote the scenario. The opera avoids narrative , has no s ung text other than solfcge syllables (the modem descendants of solmfaationsyllables; see chapter 2), and involves repetilious and commonpla ce stage geshnes that play with the viewer's sense of time and conceprs of an. The music consis ts primarily of repealed li.gures. mostly arpeggiated lriads. pe rformed by an orchestra oi' elect ro ni c keybo;ird ins lrumenLs, woodwinds, anda solo violinist. The work of'fered a completely different experience from lraditional opera. raising Fundamental questions ahout the nature of opera, and became one of the most influential works of music theater in lhe past severa! decades. Other operas followed, including Saiyagraha ( 1980), abou t Gandhi 's nonviolent struggle for lndian independence, andAkhnaten (1984), ahout an Egyptian pharoa.h martyred for his mono lheislic worship ofthe s un god. 11ie Voya.ge (1992) , commissioned by the Metropolitan Opera co commemorate rhe f1ve hundredth anniversa,y of Columbus's voyage to the New World. blends his signat ure style of multilayered oslinatos. rapid pulse. and slowly changing lona! or modal ha rmonies with the standard orchestra. rec italives, anelarias of lhe operatic tradition. Glass's app1·oach to opera served as a model for many later composers. Glass also excrciscd a profound influcnce on álm mus ic. His focus oo repetition was perfect ly suited to Godfrey R.eggio's ftJm trilogy, Ko:ra<misqatsi (1982), Powaqqatsi (1988), and Naqoyqatsi (2002), composed of images withoul dialogue or narralion. \Vith modilications. the concept works equally well for narrative movies and has been adopted by other composers. Glass has scorecl over rwo doze n ii lms, garnering Academy Award nominatioos for Kundun (1997). 71te Hours (2002), andNotes on aScandal (2006). He adapted music from some oflüs nlms for chamberworks , and has also wrilten a series of symphonies, two of which-No. 1, Low (1992) and No. 4, Fferoes (1996)-are based on tbemes from albums by experimental pop musicians David Bowie and Brian Eno. John Adams (b. 1947), shown in Figure 38.11 , bas traced a path from minimal ism to a personal postminimalist style that bl enclsminimalist tecbniqueswitb a variety of other approaches. His lirst major composition, Phrygian Cates for piano (l 97778), is representative of the period when minimalism was moving beyond its avantgarde origins to become a style rather than an aesthetic. Except for a midcUe section of s hifting sustained choreis, this twentyfour-minute piece relies almost entirely on quick repetitive figurations, primarily in dialonic mo eles. Thc music goes tbsougb what Adams calls "gates." changing from one set of notes to another: írom the Lyd - FIGURE 38.11: Amencan composerand condu.ctorJohn Adams ian scale on A to lhe Phrygian scale on A, conducting,he BBCSymphonyOrcl, estro i,n. t ondon. ( NiCLI as shown in Example 38.2, then the Lydian LUCK.HUBST/Ll!BRCCHT MUSIC & A.R.TS PHOTO LJBRABY)

980

C H A 1>T E R 3 8

EXAMPLE 38.2,

• The Lote Twentielh Century

Modermsm and lndividual,sm

Agaie change fromAdams·s Phrygian Gates

)~~;;::J:tt:;:CCO~;~:~~~li:~fi :f~ •

fnjluence

•

*'.fu,_

""'-- - - -

and Phrygian scales on E. and so on. These changes give the work its title. and they convey the sense of a journey through a gradually changing environment. Adams continued to use minhna list techniques in his la ter works, but also emhraced elements from popular and classica1 music. Harmonielehre (1 985). a symphonic suite that d raws on Romantic and modernist styles. was greeted by one news magazine with the enthusiastic headline, "The Heart ls Back in the Game."" The f1rst movement begi ns with loud, repeated E-minar chords, then moves thl'Ough a minimalist landscape to arrive at a middle scction in which twillering ostinatos in the upper register accompany a tragic, almost expressionist, long-breathed melody that recalls late Mahler or Berg. Adams's opera Nixon in China, (1987). on Nixon's 1972 trip to China to open relations with the cornrnunist regime, treats ils up-to -date subject with the formality of a Baroque hfatorica l opera whHe applying minimalist techniques. Sbort, driv ing, pulsaling ideas. insistently repeated. constantly evolve. using an orchestra dominated by brass, winds. and percussion. Typical of this idiom from the l 980s is the orchestral fanfare Slum Ride in. a Fast Machine (1986; NAWM 21 1), wh ich has become one of Adams·s mos! frequently played pieces. A sense of harmonic progression. activated by ostinatos and repeating chords. moves the music forward, and wide-ranging melodies emerge to dominate ihe texture. culminating in expansive three-part coimterpoint over slowly changing but rapicliy pulsing harmonies. The melodie element tha t eme rgerl in Adams's works of the 1980s has grown stronger over time. ln Tlte Wound Dresser (l 988) for baritone and orc hestra, the poem by Walt Whitman relates his experiences as a nu rse ca ring for wounded soldiers in the Civil War. The instruments provide a background of modal harmonies, slowly repeating figures, and ga tes between pitch coll ecti ons, drawing on the minima list techniques of Adams's earlier music. Butthe focus ison thesinger's melody, alternatingwith melodie orchestral interludes. and the slow pace and Romantic harmonies and orchestra1 pale tte convey a mood very different from his previous works . The Vio lin Concerto (1993) has a similar texture, with a rhapsodic melody in the solo violin unfolding over more rebrular, endlessly moving ftguration in the orchestra. The tradit ional elements. incl uding virtuoso playing. caclenzas, and the chaconne and toe cata in the latter two movements. are more prominent than the minimalist techni ques. By integrati ng traditional harmonic a nd co ntrnpu ntal procedures with minimalist ones, Adams has cleveloped a personal style of great tlexihility anel emotional power. ma rkecl by gre.ater varie.ty and range. than most of his contemporai-ies. The diversity and depth of both his style and his suhject matter have won Adams a broad anel enthusiastic audience. Minimalism has had a profound inlluence. Since the music of Reich, Glass,

981

and Adams achieved popularity in the 1970s :md l 980s, m.inimalist techn iques have grown increasingly common in popular rnusic and ftlm music, leading some to claim that minimalism is the common musical language of the late iwentieLh and early twenty- l'u-st centuries. Many composers in the classical tradition have adopted some elements of minimalism , such as repetition, d rones. gradual processes of change. reduction in complexity. or modal b,1.rmo nies, while rejecting others. For so me, lhe gi-eatest impact of minima lism was the permission it gaveto wl'ite music that was comprehensible anel appea ling. By refuting (o r simply ignoring) the nmeteenth-century idea of pl'Ogress in musical style-a notion that underlay tbe strand of modernism that led from the New German School through Schoenberg to Babbin, Stockhausen, and Boulezminimalism hclped to create an atmosp bere in wh.ich anythingwas possib le.

Modernism and lndividualism Among lhe possibilities, of course, were continuations of modernism, in a vari ety of directions. Co mposers of the gene ration who dominated modern ist and avant-garde composition in the l 950s and 1960s were still active, anda younger generation bom during or after World War II explored new ideas and developed highly individual approaches. Several postwar modernists extended their personal id ioms into the late twentieth or ea rly twenty -nrs t centuries. Milton Babbitt developed further extensions of serialism, becoming more prolill.c chan ever alter devising "superarrays.. oí interrelated rows in the ear ly l 980s. Karlheinz Stockhause n spent bis !ater years composing Licht (Light. 1977- 2003) . a massive cycle of seven o pe ras named for the days of the week and composed using serial melody-formulas associated with the tllree main characters, Eve, Lucifer. and the archangel Michael. Pierre Boulez focused on elaborating severa1 of bis older pieces in new guises and on work with IRCAM on music for acoustic instruments with live electronics that transform the sounds of the instruments as they play, as in Répons (1980- 84) for six soloists. chamher orches1 ra, and electronics. But some in the older generation changed their approach more radically. Gyorgy Ligeti. shown in Figure 38.12, had been a leader in lhe posl\var exploration oftextu re and process (see chapter 37). He felt his compositional options constrained by the doctrines of modernis m and the avant-garde hut found new possibilities in the musicof minünalists like Rileyand Reich and in reclaim ing aspects of the nineteemh-century heritage, includi ng Chopi.n; all tllree 3re cited in the title of his 1976 piece for two pianos Self Portrait with Reich ond Riley (and Chopin i~ alM there). Between 1985 and 2001. Ligeti wrote a series of études for solo piano that comhined elements of his earlier music, which focused on dissonant textures that gradually change,

The older generation

FIGURE 38.12:

C,,ôrgy

Ligeti. <e1uc11 • "'-"'"'cu, cern 1><Ac<sl

982

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

Spectraltsm

Younger composers

• The Lote Twentielh Century

wich repetitive procedures inspired by minimaJism anel witb aspects of the virhtoso tradition of the nineteenth century. Inhis Étude No. 9. Vertige (Vertigo. 1990. J'.,AWM 212). the ideas are essen· lially simple and familiar: descending ch.romalic scale segmems that enter in succession and overlap to form eborda i sonorities. Bu t they move so quickly thal they fuse together into an undulating texture in which Lhe individual lines become d iflicu lt to hea r, reca lli ng the micropo lyphony of Ligeti'sA1mospheres (see chapter 37). Ligeti varies the texture tbrough the number of s im ulta · neous lines. the interval between lhem, their range. and the dynamics, and at limes overlays melodies anel choreis. The constant repetition of simple material reflects the influence of minimalism, while the texture of overlapping contin uous lines co mes from electronic music concepts elesigneel by Jean- Claude Risset al IRCAM (see NA\VM 212 commenlary) . The piece is novel, thoroughly modernist, and consistent with Ligeti's previous work, but at the sarne time it is elramatic, emotionally expressive, anel immediately comprehensible. This comhinalion of lhe most engaging as pects from mod ernism, minimalism, and Romantic virtuoso music has given Ligeti's études a w-ide appeal to audiences and to performers, wbo l'm<l these études a formi· dable but rewarding challenge. Amongyoungcr composers, rcsearch at lRCAM and elsewherc on analysis of timbre and sound spectra led to a new trend know.o as sp ectral 11111sic or spectralism. wbich is nota style but an approach to sound and to composition. ln reaction to the abstraclion of serial music. spectraJism Focuses on perception, acoustics, and tone color. The timbre of a musical pitch is a com· bination of a fundamental note and its overtones, each ata specif1c frequcncy and intensity in comparison to the fundamental and to each other; a violi n sounds different from a clarinet playing the sarne note because thc combina· rion of overLones is elifferent. Because each frequency and level of intensity ca n be representeel nu merica lly, a timbre can be elepicted by a soun el spec· trum or sonogram and analyzed mathematically. and complex sounds can be created by juxtaposing spectra through processes characteristic of electronic nmsic, such as ring moclu lation. Spectral music centers on tbe propcrties of sounel identilied by such analysis. using acoust ic instntments to recreate the ha:rmonic relationships within the sounds analyzed. Spcclralism was fi.rst devcloped by French composers including Gérarcl Grisey (1946-1998) and Tdstan Murai! (b. 1947), cofounders of Ensemb le L'ltinéraire in 1973. Grisey's Partíeis (1975) begins with a low trombone E folJl.owed by a chord on other instruments derived from the sonogra.m repre sen ting the timbre of that low E. anel alternates this wit h choreis that simulate electronic sounels produced by ri11g modulatio11. Another group of spectralist composers centereel in Cologne, including former students of Stockhausen. usecl simila r techniques of ha rmony but comJ>ined them with a greater emphasis on melody. 11otable in Lonely Child for soprano and orchestra by Canadian composer Claude Vivier (1948- 1983). Spectra lism in flu enced composers elsewhere who adapled il in personal ways. including Magnus Lindberg and Kaij a Saariaho (see chapter 39) from Finland and British composer Jonathan Harvey (1939- 2012). Minimalism and spectralism were among the last" -isms" of the twentieth century. which spawnecl more such competing schoo[s of composition than any p revious era (see chapter 32, and below for two more -isms). But mos1

Modermsm and lndividual,sm

younger composers resisteel conforming to a school or group, anel sought a uni que voice. One of t:he most hcrmetic was Brian Ferneyhough (b. 1943). whose use of microtones and astonishingly complex durations makes hi s music extraordinariJy diffi cult t o play, like anA.rs Subtilior for the late twentiethcentu ry (see chapte r 6). fo r 01he rs, Hke Sofra Cu baidu· lina , Louis And ri essen, and .R. Mu rray Schaf.er, what was most impo rlant was to frnd ex-pressive means that conveyecl a personal vision. Sofia Gubaiclulina (b. 193 1), show·o in Figure 38. 13, was born in the 'ratar Republi c, an au tono· mous region in central Russia. four h undred miles east of Moscow. Her childhood there, together with her combinecl Tatar, Russian , Po lish, and Jewish heritage. led to a profound interes l in blending sounds and influences. She once said, " l am the place where East aod West meet." Despile the ofti.cial atheism oi' tbe Soviet Union, almost ali her works have a spiritual dimension. She came to inter· national prominence with ber violio concerto OJJ'ertoritun (1980. rev. 1982 and 1986), writteo for violinist Gidon K.remer, wbich captures lhe coocept of self-sacriftce-para lleling that of Jesus on the cross, or of tl, e composer for the sake of hcr music-by presenting. deconstructing. and reconstructing. note by note, the theme Frederick the Great offered to Johann Sebastian Bach, who maele it the central idea of his Afasical Offering (see p. 441 and Exa mple 19 .3). The ftve movements of her sona la Foi- violin and cello. Rejoice! (1981) , were inspired by eighteenth-century devo lional texts. According to the com· poser, the sonata expresses the transcendence from ordinary reaJity to a state of joy anel relies particularly 011 the passage from a fundamental note to its harmonics to embody this journey of consciousness. The nfth movement (NAWM 213), inscribecl wilh the text "Listen to the still small voice wilhin," is a study in chromatics. tremolos, anel ha rmon ics. pa11icularly glissandos from low fundamental notes in the cello to theiT higher harmonics. ln these anel other pieces, Gubaidulina's music is both moclemisl. in ils combination of a higbly individual musical pcrsonality with evocations of lhe classica 1 tradition. and immediately appealing through its spiritual resonances and beautiful surface textures and timbres. A differcnt Ilavor is convcyed by the music of LouisAoclriessen (b. 1939), the most signiftca nt Dutch composer of the postwar era and a major influence on younger composers in Europe and the United States such as the Bang 011 a Can group. After ea.rly mentoring by his father and older brother, who were also composers, b.e studied composition at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague and then with Luciano Berio in Berlin and Milan. Committed to left- wing polit ics, he participatecl in 1969 in disrupting a performance by Amsterdam's Concertgebouw Orchestra as .a protest against its conservative programming. He rurned his back on orchestral music and writes insteael for ensembles that combine orchestral instruments with sounds from big- band jazz and rock music, such as saxophones, synthesizer, electric guitars anel bass guitars. anel drum sets. Often füs music is put together by juxtaposing contrasting blocks of energetically pulsing sound. as in the music of

983

FIGURE 38.13:

Composer Sofia G11baidulina.<ANNE PUkKISS/ 1.CkRECHT MOSIC &AK'rS)

1 Concis• ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1

Lo1tisAndriessen

984

C H A 1>T E R 3 8

R. Murray Schafer

• The Lote Twentielh Century

Stravinsky, and layering disparate musica l stranel s as in lves's orchestral woTks; Stra,,insky was a n ea rly anel fundamen tal influence on his music, and lves a passion in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ln ,v-orks like De staai (The Rep ublic, 1972-76, with texts from PlaLO·s Repttblic) for four female voices and large ensem bl e an el the four- part music theater iPiece De materie (Mat · ter. 1984-88). Andriessen interweaves European and American procedures and popu la r anel classical sounds. including minimalis1 repet i1 io n; ca non. hocket, passacaglia, and other trad itiona l <levices; nonfunctional diatonic melodies and harmonies conlrasted with stringent chromatic dissonance; sonorities modeled on Claude Vivier's spectralism; and references to fomil iar styles from Bach toccata to boogie-woogie. His subject matter rellects both his social concerns anel an interest in a bstract philosoph icaJ issues, as in De staut. De materie. anel De tijd (Time, 1980- 81) for female chorus and large ensemhle on texts by St. Augustine. R. Murray Schafer (b. l 933), the leading Canadian compuser of the era, lraversed a wide variety of styles from neoclassical to avant-garde. yet most of his pieces are based on extramusical inspirations. His orchestral works Dream Rainbow Dream Thunder (l 986) anel Manitou (l 995), for example, reJlect icleas from the culture of the lnuits, natives of Canada. His most striking innovation is what hc calls environmental music. pieces that break out of the con · cert hall and require more than passive attention from lis teners. Miisic for Wildemess lake (1979) is to be perform ed at sunri se and su nset at a small lake away from h uman settlements, with twelve lrombonists positioned around its shores playing medita live melodies 10 one another across the water, cued by a conductor in a raft, anel joined by anima l sounds. ldeally, listeners would partici pate in the event by experiencing lhe lake. its stillness. its sounds. and its surrounding wilderness as the music is performed; in fact. most can only watch the event on ftlm. Pu rsuing d ifferent aims , Ligeti. tlle spectra]jsts, Ferneyhough, Gubaidulin.a. Andriessen. and Schafer arrived at very different ends. each developing a uniq ue musical language. Ye t they have ai leas t one thing in common: each is a n in dividua list with roots in modern ism and ultimate ly in the classica l tradition itself.

Polystylism The profosion of individua l idioms in tbe twentieth ceutury had as a corolla1y the breakdown of any com mon musical language. Composers in earli er eras s hared a fu nd ofm usicaJ resources , styles, an d procedures, butall tbat musi cians as diverse as Sheng. Adams, Ligeti. anel Gltba id ulina had in common was their heritage as co mposers in tne class ical tradition. At the same time, cou ntless musical idioms of the past were also part ofthe mus ical present, in performances and recordings of music from aJl eras. ln the far.i, of such stylist ic profusion. some composers ri,sponcled by combining pasi anel p resent styles. Such blending of old anel new styles in mus ic has been com pared to the architecture of Philip Johnson, Robert Ven turi. Cesar Pclli. anel others. who left behind the bare glass façades of miei·

Poly>tylosm

985

twentieth cenimy modernism by incorpot·ating elements of earlier styles into essen tially modern designs as in Pigu re 38.14, a mixture that carne to be called p ost111oderuism . A central aspect of JlOs tmodernism is a turning away from the belief, cruc ial to modernist tho ught, that history progresses ineversib ly in one direction . ln music, this idea mea ns aban do ning the notion that musicaJ idioms develop conlinuously. as iJ according lo a plan or some inner necess ity. To the postmodern ist. history gives the a rtis t mo re freeclom than that; the styles of ali epochs and cu ltures are equally available as musica l material. lo be employed as the composer sees ftt. A composer who borrowed past styles effectively was AHred Schni.ttke AlfredSchnittke (l 934-1998). He worked in the Soviet Union, where he was known chielly for his film music, before movi ng to Ge rmany in 1990 after the fali of the Bedin \Vall. The Soviet government began to relax ils cone rol over culrure in rhe 1960s under Nikita Khrnshchev, exposing Schnittke anel other young composers to \Vestem trends s uch as serial. chance. and eleclronic music. After wriling severa] wo rks based on sel'ialism. indeterminacy, anel new instrumental sou nds, Schnittke turned to what he called p o lystylism, a com bination of new and older styles created through quotation or stylistic allusion. His Symphony No. 1 (1969-72) incor porates passages l'rom works by Haydn. Beethoven, Chopin. Tchaikovsky. Grieg. ]ohann Strauss. anel Sclmittke himself. For listeners familiar with works of thesc composers, such music emhodies a contrast not only of styles but of historical periods. Schnittke's Concerto Grosso No. 1 (1976) juxtaposes styles of the eighteenth century wi th m odem atonal and popula r styles, th rough allusion rathe r than quotation. The seconcl movement (NA\VM 214 ~ ) includes sections tha l evoke Vivaldi concertos, galant style. twelve· tonc music, anda hymnlike popular style. but Schnittke defamiliarizes each style through canons and polytonality. ln the fmal section. ali the themes are combined a t once. resolving the stylistic conllicts by forcing ali into adense modernist polyp hony. Such sty· listic contrasts have p recedents in Mozart's use of topics (see chapter 23) and Ives's stylistic he terogeneity (see chapter 33). anel like them can serve h otb formal FIGURE 38.14, TheAT&TbuUding(/984) in anel expressive ends. But because the styles Schnittke Netv Yo1* City. la1er r·enamed the Sony Tower. uses cross centuries and trad itio ns, hfa music violates Th.e architect. Phílip}ohnson. blendedele· listener expectations anel thus raises fascinating ques· ments from rhe p<i,~i. S1<ch CI$ che C()!umrl$ and tions for analysis and interp retation. slanied roofline. rogeilier with modem elem en ts Like Schnittke, the American composer John Cori- oj'glass and concrete ir1 his design. Tltis blendgliano (b. 1938) often juxtaposes styles to convey mean- ingufeleme11t.sfro11, dijfereni periods. someingR. drawing on a styliRtic r.ontinuum írom IBaroqui, anrl times callcd poahnodcrniam . ,·cjccts the starlr. Classic to avant-garde. His opera 77ie Ghosts of Versailles glass wal/.s a11d undecorated façades of many (l 987) centers around ghosts in the French royaJ pal - mid· !went,i.eth-centu.ry builclings. (AI.AN sc Hr.1 s ace, incluel lng Queen M.irie Antoinette anel otbers slain PffOTOCRAJIHY/CORBlS)

986

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

Peter Schickele and P. D. Q. Bach

• The Lote Twe ntie lh Century

du•·ing the Revolution, anel a play stagecl fo.r their entertainment; the ghosts are rendered with modern serial music and timbrai effects, while the play is set in a style based on Mozart operas. Thc range of styles and influcnces evoked in 1his opera is immense, including chant, Broadway, Schoenherg, Stravins!...-y, and opera composers from Rossini to Penderecki. Corigliano's Symphony No. 1 (1989). a memorial to friends who died of AlDS. incorporates quotalions íro m some or I heir l'avorite pieces framed by deep ly exp ressive, oflen ang,y or tragic music clrawing on a variety of modem techniques. ln his Academy Award-wi nning score for the hlm 111e Red Violin (1998). which follows a violin from its maker through a series of owners to its auction in the present, Corigliano created a leitmotive for the violin and elevelopecl it into a series ofpieces representing the era and style of each owner, from an eighteenth-century concerto to Roma (Gypsy) musicand a nineleenlh-cent1uy virtuoso improvisation. Col'igliano aelapted the music for concert use in the Red Violin Chaconne (1997) and Red Violin Concerto (2007). The wittiest and mosl popular composer to use stylistic allusion is Peter Schickele (b. 1935). His works, such as his ôve string quartets (1983-98), are mostly tonal. They draw on a wide variety of st)'les, from Stravinsky 10 jazz and rock, and create form and expression through contrasts of style, mood, texture. faguration. timbre. dynamics, and other factors , sometimes using quotation for humorous effect. Heis bes1 known for bis music uoder lhe guise of P. O. Q. Bach, tlie supposed youngest soa of J. S. Bach wlio inherited none of his father's talent. This persona allows Schickele to spoof old music. its pedwming practice, anel musicologists. Performing convenLions go awry, as in the long-wincled co ntinuo accompaniment in the cantata lphigenia in Brooklyn (1964): bizarre instruments are fealureel, like the double-reed slide music stand. parodying the unfamiliar instruments called for in early music: and every stylislic expectation is violated, wüh hilarious resulls. For example, in lhe .. Howdy" Sympliony (1982)-a response to Haydn's Farewell Symphonythe ô.rst movement Allegro uses contrasts of style to delineate form. as in Classic-e ra music (see chapter 23), but here the styles range from Classic to vaudevi ll e, big-band jazz. and modernist dissonance; the witty incongrnit ies and surprises typical of Haydn become burlesque. \'i:lhether used for comic effect, to convey meanings through associations carried by existing music, to upend listener expectations, or to create clisjunctions that comment on our experience of time and histo1y, allusions to past styles gave audiences something familiar to hold onto, often even more directly than the use of quotation and collage (cliscussed ln chapter 37). For many listeners. such all usions made this music more engaging and easy to folfow than the unfamiliar sounds of modernist composers. ln another sense. however, polystylism-even if considered an aspect oi' postmodernism-was yet another kind of modernism. anel anotherwayforcomposers to engage the past while creating a distinctive voice of their own.

The New Accessibility ln the late twenlieth ccntu,y. composers in the classical tradition faced a ncw reality. Whi le they we re able to make a liv ing ceaching at universities or con-

l he New Accessibility

987

servato1ies, obtainingperformances for their music was increasingly difticttll. lt was often easierto win a commission for a new piece than to secure a second or third performance of an existing work. Few new compositions entered the repertory, and few listeners heard a recen1ly composed classical piece live more than once. ln some respects, the situation was like that of the eighteenth cenlury. when a concerto or symphony was seldom heard twice by the same listeners. Moreover, ata Lime when music was growing more plent ifu l and easy to access, the auclience for classical music seemecl to be sh rinking. Some composers. such as Babbitl and Perneyhough. took this situation as the price of artistic freedom and remained committed lo complex anel hermetic styles. But many and perbaps most composers of 1he time sought to altract wider audiences by writing mi1sic tha t could be appreciated on first hearing. Rouse, Mackey. Zorn. and others found one solution by incorporaling elements of pop11lai- m usic. Reich, Glass, anel Adams found anocher in minima lism. Other composers used a vari.ety of approacbes, often in !andem: modifying their modernisl idiom to make il more accessible: radically simplifying their material and proceclures: invoking extramusical imagery and meanings; or renovating nineteemh-century tonal Romanticism.

ACCESSIBLE MOD ERN ISM Some composers writingin a modernist idiom have made their music accessible by keeping the ideas and proced11res relatively simple and easy to grasp.For example, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (b. 1939) joins continuous variation with oleler forma l devices of recurrence a nel contrast. Like Schoenbe rg, she presents the main idea ai the outset. then elaborates it through developing variation in which eve1ythinggrows Iogically from the initiaJ seed. Yet the basic ideais usu ally sirople and the text1u-es clear, making her music much easier to follow than Schoenberg's. A prime example is her Symphony No. 1 (1982). which won the ô.rst Pulitzer Prize in Music awarded to a woman. ln the ô.rst movement. ali the melodie material derives through variation from 1he initial interval of a dsing minor third , and tbe hannonies comliine tbircls to produce clissonant sonorities. The soft opening gesture. a threefold l'ising thircl with an accelerando. serves as a mouo that generates a gradital increase in tempo, dynamics, and density lo a centralAllegro, then toward lhe end [he musicslowsand chins to a quiet close. 111e gradual process of development is easy to hear, and the experience of listening is both intellectually and emotionally satisfying.

Ellen Taaffe Zwilich

RAD ICAL SIMPLIFICATION Other composers comhined a radical simplif1catio11 of material anel proceelu res with a return to diatonic music. One stTain can be found in minima lism, discussed above. hut not ali music of this type fits the minimalist category. Estonian composer Arvo Part (b. 1935), shown in Figure 38.15, forged a highly individual. instantly recognizable style using lhe simples! materiais. following early neoclassical anel serial works. anel others that contrasteel modernist with Baroque styles. he turned to a study of Gregorian chant aud early polyphony. ln the 1970s, he devised a method he called tintinnabtili, after the bell-like sonorities it produced . lts essence li es in cou nterpoin t between n pitch-centered. mostly stepwise diatonic melody and one or more

A,vo PCirl

988

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

FIGURE 38.15· Aron

Part. (cou•"""·º'•"""º"' Lesarc»T Mus,cl

• The Lote Twentielh Century

The New Accessibility

other voices that sound only notes of the tonic triad, with the placement of each note determined by a preset system.Pãrl established his international reputation with instrumental works in tint innabuli style, notably Tabula msa, Pratres (Brothers), and Cantus in me,no· riiun Benjamin Britten (ali 1977). then increasingly focused on religious chorai music. especia lly afte r leaving the Soviet Union in 1980. \'(/ith its calm, steady tempo, quiel sw-face, gentle cLiatonic dissonances, and stylistic features reminiscent of medieval chant and early church polyphony, his music suggests an aura of mysticism and embod ies a simple beauty many listen · ers flnd deeply satisfying. Part's tintinnabuli technique and chorai style are exemplilied in bis Seven Magnificai Anti.phons (1988, rev. 1991. excerpts in NA\~[ 215 [F. " ) and illustrated in Example 38.3. which shows lhe opening of No. 6, O Kó'nig aller Vó1ker. TI1e second tenor (lhe lower part on the tenor staff) presents a plafo modal ttme that is centered on A and that moves no more than a fourthaway in either direction. Its rhythm is restricted to quaner and hali' notes, and measures change Jength 10 ôt Lhe text accentualion. The tenor melody is echoed by the second soprano to form an augmentation canon. The altos recite the texl. phrase by pluase. on D. The other parls sound no tes of the D- minor triad, following stricl but simple rules reminiscent of early polyphony (see chapter 5). Toe bass and Jirst tenor surround the second· tenor melody, each singing the note of the 0-minortriad that is second closest to the melody note: thus, at the outset. we fmd the D below and the F above the melody's openingA. Meanwhile, the fu-st soprano sings the note from the triad that is nearest above the second soprano melody. The resitlting texture alter· nates between consonance and diatonic cLissonance. allowing for variety and dramatic cliniaxes within a stripped-down, pitch-centered style.

EXAMPLE 38.3:

,t)

.... 1

'P nig

_fl

Võl

kel',

rreo-Rom<ml icism.

. .

Võ l-ke r. 1

nig

1 . nig

ler

Võl • ker.

Võl • kcr.

kr-war • tung

R 1

John Tavener

ln their search for expressive tools that connect directly with listeners. some composers adopled lhe familiar tonal idiom oJ' nineteenth -cenlury Romanticism or inco rporated its sounds and gestures, a trend known as

ler

Õ Kõ - ni g ;i _l; ,.

,t)

Joan Tower

NEO·ROMANTICISM

'PP

T -

Using sitnpler ma terial and processes thal were easier to follow was one strategy composers used to make thefr music more accesssible, appealing, anel meaningfu l. Another was to in voke extramusical imagery, hoping that lisleners would accepl unusual sounds if lheir meanings were clear. Many works by American compose r Joan Tower (b. l 938) are baseei oo images. Silver Ladders (J 986) for orchestra reatures rising lines (the "lad · ders" of the title). either stepwise o r leaping by fourths. moving al düferent speeds amid a variety of textures. Toe "silver.. in the tille is meant to evoke thc metal in bolh its solid state, embodied in lhe dense orcbestral sections, and its molten state, representeei through free ly-tlowing solos for cla rinet, oboe, marimba. and trum pel. The piece off'ers an abstract play of musical ideas. bul the imagery offers the lisiener a welcome h ook that makes the work easier to fo ll ow. Tower's Made in America (2005) is baseei not on a visua l image but on a sonic one. Commissioned hy small- buelget orcheslras anel played in ali fifty states during the two years after its composition. the piece is a fantasy on Arnerica the Beautiful. Kraclually revealing more of the lune over time wiihout ever stating it in fulJ. Evocations of spirituality can give listeners an immediate connection to new music, continuing music's long association wilh religion and the tra.nscendent. 'l'his is part of the appeal of Reich's 'fehil!im, Gubaidulina's Rejoice!, anel Pãrt's Magn.ificat Antiphons. described above. and it runs counler to Lhe tendency of much twentieth-century music to focus on secular concerns or on the abstract play of musical parameters. Englisb composer John Tavener (1944-2013) is one whose music has centered on spiritual concems. After writingworks inlluenced by StravinsJ...-y's serialism anel block construction. he joined the Orthodox Church in 19Tl and began to incorpora te elemems J'rom its li tu rgica l music, as in LiturgrofSt. John Chrxsostom (l 977) for unaccompa· nied chorus. He made his reputation with sacreel choral works in a harmoni· cally simple, chant-derived idiom, then app liecl a similai- style in a series of instrumental works on re ligious subjects that won inteniational renown, of which Th.e Protecting Veil for cello and string orchestra (l 987) is best knowo.

O Kõnig a Ile r Võlker, No. 6 of Pürt's Seven Magnilicat Antiphons

J ~ J:lO

s "

EXTRAMUSICAL IMAGERY AND MEAN INGS

ler

Okingofallpeoples. tlteir~pectation fandltope}

Er-war - rung

For example, after making his reputation with pieces based on texture and process (sce chapter 37). Krzysztof Pcnderccki focused increasingly on meJody and drew on past styles, genres, and harmonic practice in neoRomantic works oi' the miel - 1970s and beyond, such as th e Violin Conceito No. 1 (1976- 77) and the opera Paradise Lost (1975- 78). The s truggles of the tracle union Soliclarity to achieve democracy in Polan d iMpi rerl the Poli,~h Requiem (1980- 84) . in which Penderecki combined neo -Romanticism, elements from Renaissance and Baroque s tyles, and bis signature textures from tb e 1960s in a new synthesis of styles.

Penderecki

989

990

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

George Rochberg

David Del Tredici

EXAMPLE 38.4:

• The Lote Twentielh Century

The New Accessibility

Having turned from serialism to quotation in the l 960s (see chapter 37), George Rochbergmoved on in the l 970s to use Romantic and early modernist styles for 1heir expressive polenlial. His String Quartel No. 5 (1978) is neo · Romanlic in three of its fl.ve movemen1s. Each movement is written in a consistem style, but the styles differ considerab ly between movements. The lirst movement is a sprightlysonataform inAmajor reminiscent oflate Beethoven o r .Schube rt ; the second, a sad E'-,-minor s low movement whose canons and loosely clissonanl harmonies recai! early Bartók; the third, a Beethovenian scherzo in A minor with a Mahlerian trio; the fourth. an atonal serena de that rescmhles works of Schoeoberg or Berg; and thc !inale. an energetic, con· stan1Jy developing, rapídly modulalingye1 tonal rondo in late Romantic s1yle, a.kin to Schoenberg's Pirst Quartel. The mixture of jdioms cha llenged the tradilional expeclation lhal music be stylistically uniform. bul even more radical was Rochberg's choice to reclaim styles of the past and use them in a who lehearted effort to make their resources his own without the clistancing eHects notable in Stravinsky's neocbssicism or Schniltke's polystylism. David Dei Tredici (b. 1937) emhraced neo·Romanticism for a different reason. Al'ter using atonal and serial melhods in lhe l 960s, he chanp;ed his sty le radically when he started to set excerpts from Lewis Ca rroll 's stories for children. feeling that their whimsy called for a direct. comprehensible presentation. Final Alice (1975), to a texl from the final chaplers of Alice·s Adventures in Wondertcmd, is scored for amplilied soprano and orchestra, with a contrasting "fol.k group" of banjo. mandolin. accorclion. and two soprano saxophones. The lush orcheslration gives lhe musica Romantic sound, as do the diatonic meloclies, rich harmonies, anel expressive use of dynamics anel rhythm to create exhilarating waves of music thal build, climax, and dissolve. The soprano narrates. plays ali lhe parts. and sings a series of arias. The cen • tral motive of the piece, a rising major sixth introduced by Lhe saxophones, is taken up by other instruments and becomes the fundamental interva l of "The Accusation" sung by the White Rabbit. shown in Example 38.4: a greater coocemration of rising sixths in a melody is hard to i magine. Through thís and other a rias, the orchestra and folkgroup accompany in a kind of nonsense tornality. with slightly off-kilter dance rhythms and multiple layers in differing tempos. Most of tbe music is tonal, ranging from folkli.ke episodes to an idiom reminiscent o i' Richard Strauss. But when Alice begins to grow larger, Del Tredici suggests the strange occurrence with atonal music, a twelve·tone motive. and the electronic sounds of the Theremin. By using tonal and atonal styles side by side for their expressive effect, Dei 'fredici renounced the

ON REACH ING AN AUD IENC E David Dei Tredici's Final Alice won immediate praise from listeners, as noted in the reviews of its premiere in October 1976.

When the las t stroke of Final Alice died away at the Chicago Syrnphony concert. the audience broke into sustained applause which qu ickly grew into a standing ovation. Cheers and bravos mingled with the handclaps.... lt was the most enthusiastic reception of a new work that I have ever heard ata symphony concert. Thomas Willis. Chicago Tribune. October 9. 1976. But some of his fellow composers viewed the piece as a betrayal of the tenets of modernism. and Dei Tredici found himself having to defend his success.

-*-

About halfway through (composing] the piece, 1 thought, "Oh my God, if I just leave it like this, rny colleagues will think l'm crazy: But then I thought. "What else can I do1 lf nothing else occurs to me 1 can't go against rny instincts." But I was terrifíed

rny colleagues would think I was an idiot . . . . People think now that I wanted to be tonal and have a big audience. But that was just not true. 1didn"t want to be tonal. My world was my colleagues-my composing friends .... The success of Final Alice was very defining as to who rny real friends were. 1 think many composers regard success as a kind of threat. lt's really better. they think, if nobody has any success. to be ali in one boat. Composers now are beginning to realize that lf a piece excites an audience, that doesn't rnean itºs terrible. For my generation. it is considered vulgar to have an audi -

ence really. really like a piece on a first hearing. But why are we writing music except to move people and to be expressive1 To have what has moved us move somebody else? Right now, audiences just reject contempo· rary mus,c. But if they start to like one thing, then they begin to have perspective. That will make a difference, it always has in the past. The sleeping giant is the audience. From an interview with John Rockwell. in The New York Times. Sunday. October 26. 1980. Section D. pp. 23, 28.

modernist ideology of progress. ln its place. he returned to eighteenth· and n i ne teenth· cencury ideais of music, mixing diverse s1yles in a cohe1·e11t whole that is comprehensibJe on lirst hearing to an unt rained listen er yet holds hidden delights for the connoisseur. The result was music that was immediately appealing to audiences but provoked a strong reaction from some of Del Tredici's modernist colleagues (see Source Readings).

"TheAcctisation. "frorn Del 11-edici's Final Alice Allc1,"T'ctto

OIRECT COMMUN ICATION

J•,~

ftt##tU?J F9-7+=JEF. "The

Queen ofi Hear1s. she mnde sorne

, r·

J', ::

Jqf

o[ llcarts .

stolc

lhosc tarts

lt1.11s,

And

AII

took

surn .. mer

them quite

dtiy: _ __

•

way!'"_ __

Thc

991

The pieces discussed here represent onJy a few of the many strategies com· posers bave used to commtmicate directly with listeners. By the l 990s, most composers sought to write music that nonspecialist audiences could grasp. hy P.mp lnying familiar id ioms. gP.sWrP.s. and other P.lements clrawn f'rnm th e entire range of music history, popular styles. and musics of the world. These familiar elernents were often juxtaposed or blended in unprecedented ways in order to provide a new experience anel achicve a distinctive proi1lc. Thus.

992

C H A 1> T E R 3 8

•

The Lote Twentielh Century

composers sough1 to uphold the bigh value p laced on in clivicluality since 1be nineteenth ce11turywh ile seeki11g to reclajm lhe immediate appeal that. ma11y felt, had bcen lost in thc moclernist era.

Finding an Audience The trends explored Íl1 this chapter axe still with us. many of them just as characterislic of the early twenty - firsl century as of the late rwenlieth. as we will see in the nexl chap ter. By now il seems obvious thal classical music is not th e only art music, and that ali kinds of mus ic can be valued for thei r own sake. The discipline of musicology, founded in the nineleenth centtuy co unearth , edil, and describe the rnusic of the past anel to curate the growing canon of classics, now embraces every son of music in the Western tradi · tion. Fusions anel hybri<ls between popular anel classical music. rock anel jazz. or "\Vestem anel non-Western rnusic have grown ever more common. calling the very boundaries between traditions imo question. Popular trends that once had millions of fans, then seemed to fade. endure on recordings and are eventually revived: disco. punk. anel grunge. ali passé by the l 990s. carne back again after 2000. Other styles like hip hop and elec1ronic pop have sprea<l ali over the planet. Postminima list sounds and textures are everywhere, from pop to concert music lo f1lrn scores. no longer the center oJ' at tention hui now a framework for ali manner of musical styles and approaches. Modem· ism is still a force, as it was a century ago, appealing to a small but passionale audience. while lhe movements fonned rn reaction to modernism. from polystylism to nco· Romanticism. havc also found their nichc. The c\iverse music of the late twentieth century .is slill with usas well. Toe tendency we have seen for classics to emerge in each tradition as it develops has kcpt in circulation path-breaking music of the past. in every realm. from classical concert works to film scores anel pop music. !ln the tradition of classic.al music, the composers anel pieces we have surveyed in 1his chapter are not household names like Bach or Beethoven, but they have found performers to pro mote them and listeners who value their music deeply. There is no longer one mainstream, onc taste for music, but maoy streams anel tas1es. ln tb.is <liverse musical cu lture, each new sounc\ of the late! 900s has a special appeal. a u1Iique sound that sets it apart. anel has found an audience. ~ Resources for study and review available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Time and bistorical distance will tel1 whetber or not the year 2000 markecl the beginning of a new era in music. from our current vantage point, there seems to be more continuity than change from the final decacles of the last century through the second decade of our own, since most of the trends discussec\ in the previous chapter have continued, and what new styles and types of music emerged were often linked to the past. Toe most sigruncant changes have been in new technologies for rnaking and distrihuting rnusic, which have put unprecec\ented capabilities in the hands of anyone who wants to produce anel distribute music, thereby decentralizing the marketplace. One new technology, the 11wslutp. is an appropriate metaphor for the most characteristic feature of today's musical life, the mixing of elements from disparate sources to create something new.

The New Millennium Jmages of an interconnected global cu ltul'e were captured on New Year's Eve anel New Year's Day 2000, when television showed celebrations of the new millennium arriving around the world as midnight crept across time zones from South Pacinc nations to Alaska, and nreworks went off from Australia ·s Sydney Opera House to the Eiffel Tower in Paris. sbown in Figure 39 .1. The only worry was that computer cones designP.d in the miíl - tn - late 1900s with ,latP.s thM allowerl just two digits for the year would suc\denly stop to function when 2000 dawned, taking down electric grids and oth er basic services, but no such chaos occurred.

994

C H A 1> TER 3 ')

FIGURE 39.1: Fireworks going ojfJrorn 1/i e Eiffel Tower ji,st after midnigh1 on New Yeors Doy. 2000. to celebrote

tltenew millennium. (Al,t~XlS lo!O,.l l! SO.VCf;'n'\' UtM;t~ti)

• The Twenty-First Century

Less than two years latel'. the dream of globaJ understanding was shattered when, in the name of distancing thc lslamic world from the West , A1 Qaeda 1erroris1s plowed hijacked planes into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington. D.C. on Septemher 11, 2001. Responses to 1ha1even1. from w,ffS to debating the proper ba lance between security and liberty, continue lo shape society and politics today. Meanwh.ile, governments were slow to react to a oew potent ial threat, wheo scientists concluded that the atmosphere and oceans weregradually warming because ofhuman activ ity and that changing climate pattems would likely cause flooding to coastal areas, heighten the strength and severity of stonns. and affecl food production. Yet hopes for a better world continue to emerge, in the increasinp; l'reedom for women and yo tmg people around the globe; the gradual replacement of dictatorships wi.th democratic governmems, from Latin America to Notih Africa and the Middle East; and the growing numbers of people s ludying and working abroad, l'rom Asian students ai American universities to American businessmen in Asia. The integration of lhe global economy continued. as factories in Asia became the prime suppliers of manufacturecl goods for Europe anel North .America, andas food from alJ continents was shipped thousands of miles to make formerly seasonal fruils and vegetahles available almost everywhere in almost any season. The European Union introduced a new shared currency, the euro, adopted by most memher nations in 1999 for accounting purposes and circu lating in coins and banknotes beginning in 2002. Des[Pite such international ties, natio11al economies did not movei n lockstep. As China, 1oelfa, anel Brazi1 boomed. the lirst elecaele of lhe century brought new economic problems to the United States, including the declining value of the dollar. increasing oil prices, stagnant income l'or lhe great majority ofhouseholds, expensive wal'S in lraq and Afghanistan . and the co ll apse of major corporations from airlines to fm:mcial institutions. culminating in 2008 in the Great Recession. the worst worldwide downtum since tbe l 930s. Yet in the recove1y since 2009, the United States. thanks to government spend ing and tax cuts. recovered sooner than Europe. whose Jeaders compounded their problems with austerity measures tbat shran.k their eco no mies.

COMMUN ICATIONS TECHNOLOGY Among the greatest anel most signü1cant changes were new communicalions technologies that are now so much a fabric of everyday li fe around the world

The New World of Music

that i1 is hard to remember how new they are. Digital cameras, Jirst marketed in 1995, virtualJy replaced falm cameras by 2005. Cell phones, once a vision of the future ou the 1960s television show Star Trek. beca me ubiquitous around the wodel afier the development of 3G (thiird generalion) sys tems in 2001 , and now serve over six billion subscribers, almost 90 percent of the world 's population. The iPhone. inlroduced in 2007. anel other smarl phones pul lhe power o r a computer in anyone's pocket. wilh more computing power than the largest comp uter in the world n fty years earlier. Flat screens using liquid crystal clisplays or plasma paneis replaced cathode ray tubes in televisions and comp\lter monitors, anel the continuecl rniniaturization of computer components led to the developmem o f tablet computers like the iPad , introduced in 2010. These oew <levices ünked users into a global web of communication anel infonnation, both privately through direct personal exchanges anel publicly tbrougb tbe Internet. Emai 1, used widely in schools and businesses since tbe early l 990s on desklop computers. was now accessible on mobile phones and tablet computers as well. Young people used cell phones more often for sendini:( text messai:(es thao makini:( calls, a:nd it became easy to stay in con stant toucb with friends, which coulel be a boon ora distraction. Facebook, launcbed in 2004. became the world's la1·gest social networking service. with over a billion memhers making contacts, exchanging messages, posting updates, and participating in group conversations, rep lacing email for some users. Google. created in the late 1990s. anel other search engines allowed quick access LO anytlting on lhe Internet; knowledge about almost everything was immediately ava ilable, bu t so was misinformation and disinformation, anel it could be dilncult to gauge whicb sources were reliable. New web publishing too Is such as Blogger, Tumhlr, and WordPress fostered a proliferation of blogs (web logs) , so that everyone coulcl be a jot1rnalisl or pundiL, or could s implypost pictures of and stories about theirchildren or pets for their family and friends to read. YouTube debuted in 2005 and made it easy to post vídeos that could be viewetl worldwiele. 1\vitter has become instrumental in getling news and photographs out qu ickly to the world, from the demo nstrations in tbeArab Spring of 20 l Oto the latest celebrity scandal. ln the fu-st ftfteen years of tbe twenty-f1rst century, aJJ of these technologies changed comrnunication i mmensely, allowi.ng anyone to share his or her thoughts with lhe world, without passing through the f1lter of publishers or print media.

The New World of Music NEW T ECHNO LOGY ANO T HE MUSIC INDUSTRY By giving people everywhere the means to access, produce, and distribute digital material thro ugh the Internet. these new <levices and software pro· grams radically changerl the music industry. The iPod p011ahle merlia player. iutroduced in 2001 . put an entire library of :recorded music in a pocket-sized elevice usingauclio hles, and i'l'unes, law1cheel in 2002, was one of tbe &rst services to aJJow Iisteners to purchase pieces of musicas audio files rather than

Global commtmication

995

996

C H A 1>T E R 3 '9 • The Twenty- First Century

on CDs, LPs, or tapes, after Napster (1999-2001) and otber peer-to-peer f, le shari ng programs had popularized illegal lile sharing. Lis teners could download audio liles as podcasts (from ''iPod" and .. broadcast") or listen online to s treaming TIMELINE aud io webcasts (from ''World Wi de We b" anel .. broadcast"). The Twenty-Pirst Century As a res1u.l of lhe grea ter porlability and availability of audio files. sales or CDs plummeted: according t.o Nielsen SoundMUSICAL HISTO RI CA L Sca n, wh ich tracks al bum sales in the Uni ted States, Canada, lhe United K.ingdom. and Japan, sales of albums drnpped írom • 2000 New millennium 680.2 miJJion in 2002 to 330.6 in 20] l . Recording com pacelebrated worldwide nies were hard hit frnancially and have become increasingly • 2000 Jennifer Higdon, blue dependent on audio file sa les thrnugh online distributors like cathed,al iTunes and Google Play. • 2000 Kaija Saariaho, L~mour At the same time, new technologies made it possible for deloin anyone to create, recorei, produce, and distribute music (see lnnovations: Music Technology for Everyone, pp. 998- 99). • 2000 Osvaldo Golijov, La Amateurs and professionals alike co uld bypass the record Pasión según San Marcos ing com panies and make the ir music available by posting • 2001 Wikipedia launched it to YouTube or on their own websites as podcasts or web• 2001 Terrorist attack on casts. Professionals somctimes offer their rnus ic for frec. as World Trade Center anel advertising for their concert tours or CDs. or fmd ways to sell Pentagon the online conte nt. Aspiring musicians promote their music online with proJiles on MySpace. SoundCloud. and Reverb • 2002 Euro circulates as Nation and by posting vídeos on YouTube, hoping to be discurrency in European Union covered: Lily All en (b. 1985) and Sean Kingston ( b. 1990) had • 2003 War ln lraq begins popular MySpace pages before being signed to major labels, • 2003 Project to map human and Justin Bieber (b. 1994) rocketed to worldwide Carne after genome completed a talem manager saw him singing in videos his motber posted to YouTube. It is still true that the greatest financial rewards for musi cians in popular or classical tradilions come through established instirulions of 1·ecording companies and concert manage me nt, a11d working musicians often struggle to earn much through online sales and royalties. But making lhe means of production widely available has decentralized the music industry and has opened new paths to success. One such palh is crowdsourcing. Using online platforms s uch as Kickstarler or ArtistShare, a munher of popular and classical artists have asked fans LO invest fmancially in thcir forthcoming projects ill l:lllrn for a certain stake, ranging from a single MP3 for a 99-cent donation to backstage passes and face time with the artist for a five- hundred -dollar donation. Jazz composer Maria Schneider (b. 1960) was one of the Ürst musicians to use Art.istShare to t'und an en t ire ai bum, her Concert in the Garden (2004). which won a Cram my Award the followingyear. Not unlike the way Prince Lobkowitz. Prince Kinsky. and Arch duke Rudolph gave Beethoven a s tipend to prevent him from leaving Vienna and were rewarded by dedications on his future compositions (see chapter 24), artists achieve greater security through crowdsourcing anel repay their financial indebtedness with creative contrilmtions and new works of art. Through s uch distriliuted ünancing, patronage-long the mainstay of musicians from the Midd le Ages through the nineteenth century-ha s returned in a new guise.

The New World of Music

997

TRENDS IN POPULAR MUSIC ln response lo ali these changes. Lhe popular music industry is 1·einveoting ilself. The sound of recordings has changed to • 2004 DJ Danger Mouse, The compensate f'orthe compression in MP3 aud io nles (see lnnoGreyA/bum va lions: Music Technology for Everyone. pp. 998-99). With • 2005 John Adams, Doctor the decline in CD sales, there is a renewed Jocus on live perAtomic formances. Major artists can demancl very high ticket prices • 2005 YouTube launched in large venues and make mo re from a conce 1i lour than from ao cntire year's royalties on CDs or downloads; other tour• 2006 Elliott Carter, ing performers can also make a living. Tlüs situation marks Caténaires a reversai from the previous four decades, and a return to • 2006 One billionth song conditions before record sales took off in the mid - 1960s and downloaded from iTunes became the most hicrative part of the music business. Televi• 2008 Great Recession begins sion shows like American Ido! and The X Fo.ctor promote new interest through elaborate competitions lhat allow amateurs • 2008 Barack Obama elected to asp ire to stardom like that achieved by contestants Kelly first African American Clarkson (b. 1982) and the boy band One Di.rection. president of USA The spHntering of tbe pop music audience has con tinued. • 2010 Arab Spring begins encouraged by easy access to many different kinds of music. • 2011 JeremySams. The Some 1·adio s1ations maintain a focus on mainstream pop, but Enchanted /stand golden oldies and mixed formats have proliferated, includ ing mix lures of current and older music on both pop and coun• 2011 Global population try stations. Hits from the 1960s tru ough the l 990s have sold reaches 7 billion well alongside newer songs, and some artists have recorded • 2011 Osama bin Laden killed remakes of vintage songs. • 2013 Benedict XVI resigns as The b'l'owing presence of older music is not the only retpope rospect i.ve trend. Hip hop has cont.inued to draw on sampled music from earlier decades, enlarging its reac h to include jazz and earlier hip hop recordings themselves. And paralleling the references to the past we have seen in modem classical music, pop musicians have revived anel reneweel sounds from the l 960s through 1980s. Among the first revival movements was neo soul. comhining 1960s soul and R&B wit'h jazz, funk. hip hop, anel African iniluences and exempli&ed in D'Angelo albums Brown Sugar ( 1995) anel Voodoo (2000): Erykah Badu's Baduizni (1997); a nel Lauryn Hill's Tlte Miseducation of lauryn Hill (1998), which won five Crammy Awards. The disco revival movement joins the dance beat and vocals of disco with the new sounds of records produced after 2000, as in Madonna's s ingle Htmg Up (2005). based on a sample from the 1980s groupABBA. and Lady Gaga's nrst hit.Just Dance (2008). The harder styles of the l 970s were also resunected in the post-punk revival o r garage rock reviva!, exemp lifted by the White Stripes' White Blood Cells (2001) and Tb e Strokes' This Is lt (200 1). which drew on blues, new wave. md gnmge.

MASHUPS Another fonn ofrecycling is the 11wslmp (also calJed bootleg), crea ted by combining eleme nts of two or more recordings, such as the vocal line from one song with the instrumental track of anolher. Since lhe material mashups use

NNOVATIONS Music Technology for Everyone

ince the year 2000. the constantly improving capabilities of personal computers have made music-making easier. both creatively and logistically. As computers have become more powerful and more portable. professional and amateur musicians are increasingly making and recording mus ic outside of professional studios. Software has become available that increases the ability to create a variety of sounds and makes editing, altering, and manipulating recorded sound easier. Other new software allows users to turn nonmusical materiais into music, Such developments have helped produce a distinct yet diverse Ravor for music in the new millennium. The Internet grants musicians and their audience unprecedented access to music. Thousands of radio stations from around the world are available on the Internet Streaming services such as Pandora Internet Radio (which uses an algorithm to recommend and play music based on musica listene r already likes, launched in 2000) and Spotify (a browsable library of music from participating labels, begun in 2008) allow people to listen to music that they do not own. Since its launch in 2005. You Tube has become the primary Internet site for audiovisual material of any kind, induding music. Videos of musical performances from opera companies to local bands can be viewed online, as shown in Figure 39.2a & b, and professional and amateur musicians alike can upload their own performances for the world to see and hear. Social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter provide ways for musicians to share their music and promote themselves to their audience at little to no cost. Audio distribution platforms such as ReverbNation.com (created in 2006) and SoundCloud (established in 2007) let musicians create a profile. upload their music. and communicate with fans. promoters. FIGURE 39.20 & b:

Ttuo screens/1ots of Ph-ilip Class·s opei-a AkJrnaten, as performed at t/1e Indiana University Opera Theaterand s1recuned live over the l111emet. (o 201> THF. TRUSTF.ES OF INDIANA UNI •

Vtl\Sl'T'YICOUK'ftSY Ot' IU Ql'f; M ANO BALLETTtlY..ATtB.)

998

festivais, record labels, and potential collaborators. These distribution platforms allow musicians to collaborate with other musicians they have never met; a singer can purchase an instrumental track from a producer and add his or her own lyrics, or post an a cappella track in pursuit of a producer to create an accompaniment for it. AII of these developments give musicians a greater amount of independence, making it easier for them to earn a living without management ora record contract. And audiences are exposed to more music than is provided by radio, television, and what they can purchase on LPs or CDs. Much of the music distributed through these systems is in the form of digitally compressed audio files. The first such format was the MP3, released in 1995. which uses an algorithm that finds and eliminates inaudible frequencies in music, greatly reducing the amount of space needed without impairing the perceived quality of the recording for most listeners; the resulting files are a fraction of the size of files in an uncompressed format such as WAV (Waveform Audio File Format) or AIFF (Audio lnterchange File Format). New file formats such as FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec. first released 2001) allow for compression. but retain the exact quality of the original recording. ln the past, musicians had to buy their digital instru · ments. audio processors, and recording equipment separately as hardware. Software equivalents now exist for many popular hardware devices that are as good as or better than their predecessors. Digital audio workstations (DAWs), originally hardware devices created in the late 1970s as an alternative to recording, mixing. and

editing with tape, now exist in a multitude of sofrware versions with a range of prices and features. DAWs can record both acoustic sound through microphones and digital sounds through MIDI , Notable DAWs include Audacity, Garage Band, Pro Tools, and Reason. Depending on their design, DA Ws also let musicians create music in real time, which they can then record using the sarne program, Many DAWs, through the use of plug-in com ponents, le t performer s coordinate as many instruments and audio processors as they can fit on their hard drive, allowing one person with a compu ter to create a seemingly endless variety of sounds without having to collect an extensive amount of equipment, and create finished pieces of music without a recording studio. While companies such as Korg have recreated their hardware synthesizers in software form, developers such as Native lnstruments and many independent programmers publish software synthesizers which can be operated by MIDI controllers and other input devices on a moderately powerful personal computer. Synthesizer software is available both as stand-alone programs for performance and recording, and as plug-ins to be used in tandem with DAWs. Audio processors allow for the sounds created by both digital and acoustic sources to be altered in terms of pitch. duration, timbre. and in many other ways. Auto-Tune, a popular audio processar, was developed by Antares Audio Technologies in 1997 as a hardware device and !ater as software in 2002. lt measures the pitch of sounds and then reassigns them to the nearest semi-tone in equal temperament. in effect correcting the pitch of the original sound. When certain settings are placed at maximum, Auto-Tune creates a distinct vocal effect popularized ln the late 1990s by Cher in the hit song Believe (1998) and in the late 2000s by T-Pain. Auto-Tune can also turn speech and other nonmusical sounds lnto musical pitches, which artists such as The Gregory Brothers have utilized in their YouTube "AutoTune the News" shorts. AII of these devices put !Ools that once were expensive and restricted to record ing studios and record companies into the hands of Individual musicians, pro· fessional or not. ln the nineteenth century, millions of amateur musicians played the piano or sang for their Families and friends or their own pleasure. ln the twentyfirst century, there are millions of amateurs using digital software to create music for their own enjoymenot and share it with the world,

9 99

1000

C H A 1> T E R 3 '9 • The Twenty- First Century

The Crey Alhum

is copyrighted, mos1 are distributed online for free, avoidingthe legal liabifüy a commercial release would entail. New software tools such as Ableton Live, introduced in 2001. made it possible to isolate certain layers from recordeei music anel auLOmatic.illy synchronize samples to match tempo anel pitch. Such too Is allowed users wi th rela tively little training, workingon a laptop or desk· top computer. to oveday elemenls from elifferenl songs in much less time or expense than was possible using previous techniques such as tape splicing or professional studio mixi ng. Th e result has been an ex-p losion of mashups such as A Stroke of Cenie-Us (2001) by Freelance Hellraiser. which layers pop s tar Christina Aguilera's voice on Genie in a Bottle over the loud guitars from Hard to Explain by the neo·garage rock banel The Strokes, anel 2ManyOJs· Smells Like Teen Booty (2002), whk h combines lhe a ngst· ridden guitar, bass, and drums of grunge band Nirvana's Smells Like Teen Spirit (see chapler 38) with the bubble-gum pop vocal llne of Destiny's Chilel's Booiyliciou.s. Mashups like these often aim to undermine the seriousness of eithe,· or both source tracks, by interchanging lhe components of either. and to erase the lines between high and low popular music. treating songs by revered artists with tbe sarne Jack of respect as tbe music or artists perceived to be more ír ivolous. Over time, many mashup producers moved beyond simply matchingvocal and instrumental lines from different songs to a more complica tcd process of cornbining many small fragments J'rom a variety of different songs. Anotab le examp le is th e United State of Pop series t.bat DJ Êarwonn has created every year since 2007. comprising a mashup of the top 25 songs on the Billboard chan for that year. Perhaps the most ambitious mashup so fa r is The Grq Album (2004) by DJ Danger Mouse. which blended the a cappella version of rappe r Jay-Z's 2003 The Bla.ckAlbum wilh the Beatles' 1968 album known as The W'hiieAlbum (because its cover was all white with no lext bm lhe band's name). Danger Mouse ex-tracted h undreds of sonic frabrments from the Beatles· songs and wove together a new accompaniment for Jay -Z's lyrics from tiny slivers of sound from guitars, clapping, voices, drums, and even h,u-psichord. Despite (and perhaps because of) threats of lawsuits from the owners of the Beatles· copyrights. The Gre:y AlblLln has been downloaded over one million times. It has becorne a prime example for those who argue tha t intellectual property laws are outdatecl and inhib it creaHon of new music. [o response, tbose who support copyright laws a rgue that they prateei the original artists from having their m\1sic used in ways they do not approve. and that without aelequate copyrigh t protection artists woulel lose control oi' 1.hei.J" work- and any right to profit by it-as soo n as it was released. 1t is a debate that is typical of our age. as the ideal that information should be widely available for free on the Internet collides with the truth that those who create that information, o r that music. are givi ng away somethi ng of value without getting pai d .

FUSIONS The trend toward blurring and dissolving Unes between musical traditions in the 1980s and 1990s (see ehapter 38) gathered moment1.1m after the tum of the centuiy. More anel more organizations, fes tivais, and venues enco ur· age mixing of artists and aud iences by programming a diversity of music. For

The New World of Music

example, Le Poisson Rouge , a multimed.ia ar1 caba!'et in New York that openecl in 2008 (motto: "serving art and alcohol"), presents groups playing co ntempora1y jazz. folk music, inelie rock. classical music. hip ho p, electronica. Broadway, and other types of mus ic, or free mixtures of severa! types. While the shows change dai ly and provide a wide ra1,ge of music, the audience is equally eclectic ia thei.r tastes. filleel wilh young people who take in Webern. Messiaen. Boulez, and Ligeli as music of in1:eres1 in the sarne way they liste n to avant·ga rde rock or electronica. Duke Ellington saw his own musicas "beyond categoiy" (see chapter 34), and increasingly tbat is true of a wicle range of today's musicians. Composers like Edgar Meyer (b. 1960), Christian Fennesz (b. 1962), Nico Muhly (b 1981 ), and Ty Braxton (b. 1978) easily blend classical and populartraditions in music that denes categorization. Pop star ToriAmos (b. 1963). who is classically traineel, is now composing for lhe classical Jabel Deutsche Grammophon, beginnjngwithNighto/Hunters (20 11), a so ngcycJewith chamJJermusicaccom · panime111 tha t is also a set of varialions on a ~herne. Pop groups like Radioheael create music that attracls the atlention of classical musicians and critics. With inclie rock anel electronic pop music, popular music bas its own avant· ga!'de and modernist trenels; the intricacy of the music interests a diverse range of listcners and musicians. further bluning the lines between new art music and these pop sryles. Jazz pianist anel com poser Uri Caine (b. 1956) has coUabo· rated wit.h klezmer, funk, anel hip hop artists, and his reworki ngs of Mahler's Fifth Symphony (1998). Bach"s Goldberg Variations (2000). Beethoven'sDia.belli Variati-Ons (2003), Vereli's Oiello (2008), and Vivaleli's The Four Seasons (2012) are not mere tra nscriptions but are fu nd am entally reimagi necl as up-to-date icliomatic works of fusion. Jason Moran (b. 1975) is a jazz pianist whose music combines the inlluences ofThelonius Monk and avanl -garde jazz with modern popular souoels, sampling, and hip hop, mixing old and new in an appeal· ing new fusion. Singer and bassist Esperanza Spalding (b. 1984) and pianist Robert Glasper (b. 1978) are also jazz artists who not only incorporate elements of hip hop hui work with hip hop artists inclueling Q-Tip and Kanye \Vest to explore new avenues. Such co ll aborations inspire a high levei oi' a1iistry and allow tbe music to reach a wieler a:udience, including fans of all the musicians in volved. These fusions of popular music, jazz, anel contemporary a1i music can be seen eq11ally as enriching eacb of these tracütions and breaking down barriers between them. especially for younger listeners.

1001

Bqond category

C LASSICAL MUSIC: DYING OR V IBRANT? Given the new technologies. and the increasing convergence of traditions. how is lhe classical 1raelilion faring in the new millennium? ln the ea rly twenty-first century, a flurry of newspaper articles and blogs in the United States argued that classical music was in a criticai situation and in elanger of elying out. The number of radio slations playing classical music is dwindling. as is the propo1iion of younger listeners anel concert • goers: the recording inelustry is being supplanted by digital downloads anel self- recording, which can affect musicians' income: and several major orchestras have experienced financial hai-dships. The League of Ameri· can Orchestras reported a steep d rop in the num ber of orchestras and

A dying tradition?

1002

C H A 1>T E R 3 '9 • The Twenty-First Century

Agolden age?

Responses

performances in the Unitecl States, from over 300 professional orchestras and nearly 4,750 concerts in tl1e 2007-8 season to less than 150 professional orchestras performing just under 2.000 concerts in the 2009- 1Oseason. But others have argued in r esponse that we live aL the besLtime for classic.a l music (see Sou r ce Reading). More classica l music is available, anel more people listen to it worldwide. than ever before. Every medium from concerls to :recorei ings to YouTube vídeos is mo re access ib le I han ever. The levei or pe1-formance has never been higher. And we have access to t he entire range of music from the pasl, often in outstanding performances informed by new uoderstand ing of how that music was originally performed-or, conversely, tak.ing a new and individual approach. There is truth in both perspectives. Liste ners eageno explore music from chan t to a piece premiering this evening have more available to them than ever, and performers and composers can use the new media to get their music out to the en t ire world. But whe n the Internet offers so much for free, gettiog paid for making music can be a challenge. And unless people are introduced lo a type of m usic by their families, in school, by friends, or by others around them, they may never care about it or even know it exists. Many institutions are meeting these challenges with innovative program ming and marketing. 0rchestras and chamber groups sponsor cducation and ouneach p rograms, give concerts for 1argeted audiences l'rom teens to toddle r s, offer pr e-concert lectur es and post-conce1i discussio ns, collaborate wit h pop and m ultimedia artists. and fmd other ways lo engage audiences and cultivate fans. The Metr opolitan Opera in New York reaches thousan ds ol'viewer s through live broadcasts in movie theaters, a nd universities str eam concerts and opera productions on the Internet. Conservatories and schools of music are adding courses in music business and entrepreneurship to enable iheir students to create careers for 1hemselves. AJJ these types of institutions have p rograms in public schools to encourage engagement with music and broaden their audience. Meanwhile, ou1side the United States classical m usic remains vibraDL. ln Êu1·ope. t he o ld trad itions of home m usic- ma king have e ndured, more t han in lhe United States. ln Latin Ame rica. classical music is b eing used as a way t0 engage young people from disadvanlaged backgrounds, developing their self-cliscipline lhrough training in performan ce and thereby improving their educational and economic p rospects. as in the Venezuelan initiative El Sistema. The number of Asians pursuing t raining and careers in Western m usic continues to grow, from internalional s1ars like cellis t Yo -Yo Ma and pianist Lang Lang to the Afghan Youth 0rchestra, t he rising prominence of Asian students in conservatories around the world. and the iifty million children s1Udying Western class ical music in China, who will also be avid liste ner s for the r est oftheir lives . AII tol d, it seems t hat the classical tradi tion has a lot of life left in it.

MUSIC IN CLASSICAL G ENRES That vibrancy is reflected in the continuing output of new music. in a bewil de r ing variety of styles. Composers who work in the classical trad ilion in ou r cen tury have an unpr ecedented range of eh o ices before them . Most of tbe approaches discussed in chapter 38. from serialism to simplmcation to

The New World of Music

1003

A GOLDE N AG E FOR CLASSICAL MUS IC? ln response to opinion pieces in The New York Times and elsewhere daiming that dassical music is dying, political commentator Heather Mac Donald suggests it is thriving.

1n many respects. we live in a golden age of classical music. Such an observation defies received wisdom, which seizes on every symphony budget deficit to herald classical music's imminent demise. But this declinist perspective ignores the more significant reality of our time: never before has so much great music been available to so many people, performed at leveis of artist:ry that would have astounded Berlioz and his peers. Students flock to conservatories and graduate with skills once possessed only by a few virtuosi. More people listen to classical music today. and more money gets spent on producing and dissem inating it, than ever before.... The declinists who proclaim the death of classical music might have a case if musical standards were falling. But in Fact, ºthe professional standa rds are higher everywhere in the world compared to 20 or 40 years ago." says James Conlon, conductor of the Los Angeles Opera. .. . The radical transformation of how people consume classical music [due to recordings] puts the current hand -wringing over an inattentive. shrinking audience in a different perspective. Beethoven·s Eroica Symphony premiered before an audience of 100 at most. These days. probably 10,000 people are listening to it during any given 24-hour period, either live or on record, estimates critic Harvey Sachs. Recordings have expanded the availability of music in astounding ways .... Recordings have also. it is true. taken a toll on the communal, participatory aspect of musicmaking. But the explosion of classical music on

the Internet has revived some of that communal element. The ever-expanding offerings of performances on YouTube. uploaded simply out of love. demons trate the passion that unites classicalmusic listeners. A listener can compare 15 different interpretations of "Lã ci darem la mano" [from Mozart's Don Giovanni] at the click of a mouse, all-amazingly-for free. Organized websites, such as the live classlcal-concert site lnstantEncore.com, are creating new ways of disseminating music that will undoubtedly reach new audiences. Even with recording technology's impetus for pas-

sive. private listening. the percentage of amateur musicians studying classical music has risen 30 percent over the last six years. from an admittedly small 1.8 percent to 3 percent. Many of those nonprofessional musicians, as well as their children, are uploading their own performances onto the Web. Contrary to the standard dirge, the classical recording industry is still shooting out more music than anyone can possibly take ln over a lifetime. Has the pace of Beethoven symphony cycles slowed down? We'II survive. ln the course of one month arrive a rias by Nicola Porpora. an opera by Federico Ricci. a sym phony by lldebrando Pizzetti-three composers previously known only to musicologists-Cherubini's C/1ant sur la Mort de Joseph Haydn. and Haydn's The Storm. This cornucopia of previously lost works is more than any of us has a right to hope for. The much-publicized financial difficulties of many orchestras during the current recession also need to be put into historical perspective. More people are making a living playing an instrument than ever before. and doing so as respected and well-paid professionals, not lowly drones. From Heather Mac Donald. "Classical Music's New Golden /\ge." City Journal 20 (Summer 2010).

hybrids with popular or non-\Vestern music, are still curr ent. Many composers continue the modernisl lradilion, o tbers acl.opl an avant- garde or experi mema list stance. anel st ill oLhe rs abandon old o nhodoxies w focus on direcL

1004

C H A 1> T E R 3 ')

Kaija Saariaho. L'amour de loin

FIGURE 39.3: Kaija

Saariaho.

(AAvuAtL

CAllL\.ROEfCAMMA• RAPHO V I A C f.1TY IM'.ACP.S)

• The Twenty-First Century

engagement with listeners in the presem. whetber that be a small circle of connoisseurs ora ,vider public. Really anything is possible. Wilhin this great varie ty. we will examine a few pieces that share one over a.rching chai-acterislic: they extend one of the late-twentieth-cenwry trends we examined in chapters 37 and 38, whi le also directtiy evo kiug music of the more clistao l past. We make no claim that such pieces are representalive oi" all contempo rary music in the classical tradition. But their comb ination or retrospection with an up-to-date approach echoes wlhat we saw throughout the lwenlieth century. wheo composers sought to create music that could Jind a place in lhe permanent repertoire next to lhe classics of lhe pasl while sayingsomethlng new and individual. Such pieces also seem chai-acteristic of our time, para ll eling the mashups. hybrids, and blends in popular music and jazz wilh a similar spirit of comLiniog veiy düforenl rnusics. And io rellecting oo music of the past, from the Midclle Ages to the twentiech centu1y, these works provide an apt conclusiou to our survey oi'the en tire Westem n-adition . Kaija Saariaho (b. 1952). shown in Figure 39.3 . studied composition in her native finJand. then in J 982 moved to Pai·is to work al IRCAM. There she was deeply Lnlluenced by s pectral music composers Gérard Grisey and Tristan Murai.! (see chapter 38). She made her reputation in the 1980s a~d J990s with works in the spectralist tradition that focused on timhl·e. deriving ha.rmon.ies fro m computer analysis of instrumental sounds and combining live electronics with acoustic i nstnnnen ts, as in Lichtbogen (l 985-86) and Nymphea (l 98?, written for the Kronos Quartel). ln her opera L'amotir de loin (2000). Saariaho applied her spectralislin11uenced musical style to the story of rwelfth -century troubaclour Jaufré Rude) (fl. 11 20-11 47), who sa ng of an idealized !ove from afar. ln tbe last tableau of Act IV (NAWM 216 !Condw;<\l ~ ) . Jaufré is at sea oo his way to meet his be loved, ofwhom he has on ly heard descriptions. Ou,·ing a storm. he is overtaken by regret for making the voyage iostead of keeping h is love at a d istance aod therefore pure. The melodie material is thoroughly modem ist, using cells based on arrays of semitones and tritones within perfect fiftbs. But tbe forro of Jaufré's lament, alternating variants of three phrases or melody in a d istinctive pattern, evokes the patterns of repeating phrases found in trouhadom· songs, and the melodie style of short phrases focused arottnd certain pitches bas s imila.rities to troubaclour melodies (see chapter 4 and NAWM 8 anel 9) . The melodies in the dialogue that precedes the lam enl, as well as the stonn music a nd other orchestral material. are dcrived from melodie cells in Jaufré's lam ent. drawing together the troubadour- shaped melody and spectralist -flavored orchestral hannonies in a uoique fusioo of lwelfl h- and twentieth- centu1y i<lea~. A literal mashup in a classical gel1l'e is The Enchanted Island, wlúch premiered in December 201 1 at the Metropolita o Opera in New York. Composer anel librettist

The New World of Music

Jeremy Sa.ms (b. 1957) devised a plot that brings together cbaracters from two Shakespeare plays, as the pairs of lovers from A Midsummer Night's Dream are shipwrecked on Prospcro's islancl from The Tempest. Sams drcw lhe music from Baroq ue composers: the arias mostly from Handel's operas. oratorios, and canta tas and from voca l works of Vivaldi, anel choruses an d descriptive instn1 mental inlerludes from Rameau. Leclai.r. and other French composers. ln one sense, 1he wc)rk is a pastiche ope ra, a co mmon 1ype or the Baroque era, when it was often easier anel more prolitable to assemble a new opera from existing music than to hire a composer to write ooe from scratch. But in another sense, Th.e Enchanted Jsl.and is a work of quotation anel collage. fully at home in the postwar tradition of such wo rks (see chapter 37), and it calls into quesLion ideas of authorship a nd originality. making it a thoroughly postmodern work. Yet il is also utterly enjoyable as enlertainmenl. combining lovely music wilh a fun comedic plot that has serious philosophical overtones. The appeal to spectacle in the stagi ng and cos tumes is also typ ical of Baroque opera, yet no less typical of modem opera houses. pop concerls. music vídeos. and movies. Osvaldo Colijov (b. 1960) grew up in Argentina in a Jewish immigrant fam ily bearinp; classical music, Piazzolla's nuevo ian_go, synap;op;ue music, and klezmer, aod has drawo oo alJ of them in his music. After studyiog with George Crumb, he has made his carcer in tlle United States. Among his bestknowu works is his Grammy Award-winning opera Aina.damar: Fountain of Tears (2005), on the 1936 m1Jrder of Span ish poet Pede1;co Ga rcia Lorca by the fascisls . The spellbinding score combines compute r music. musique concréle. and modernist dissonance wilh elements from Spanish llamenco music, Cu ban 1·hythms, and Latin American popu lar music. Such blending of classical, modero , aod popular traditions is a vital lreod in music of the last nfty years. as is the pointed juxtaposition of contrasting s tyles with in a single piece (see chapter 38), anel both are typical of Golijov. A s imilar fusion and polystylism is found in Golijov's La Pasión según San Marcos (The Passion according to St. Mark). composed for the Passion 2000 project, thro ugh whlch the Internalional Bach Academy in St uugart commemorated the 250 th anniversa ry of the deatb of Johann Se bastian Bach by commissioning settings of the Passion by four composers from arouncl the world: Golijov from the An1ericas, Sofia Cubaidulina from Russ ia, Tan Duo from China, and Wo.ll'gang llihm (b. 1952) from Bach's nat ive Germany. As a Latin American anda Jew, Golijov offered an outsider's take on lhe Passion story. drawing on African- influenced traditions from Cuba and Brazil to create a piece that enacts Lhe story as a kincl of ritual through voices, dance, and theatrical movement, as shown in Figure 39.4, ra ther tban simply narrating it. ln the passage when Jesus is taken and tried. and Peter denies knowi.ng him (NA\VM 217) , Golijov omits the oanation that Bach gaveto the Evangelist in his St. Matthe-w Pa$si.on (co mpare the para llel section in NAWM 104) and has the chorns play ali the roles. distilling the events into the words and feelings of the people in volved. The varied timbres of LatinAmerican percussion instrumenls. each playing a distinctive: rhythm, lay down a complcx bed of sound. As in Bach's St. Matthe-w Passion. Peter·s remorse at betraying his friend is captured in a lyrical. beautifully ernbellished aria io dialogue with a solo violin, evoking at once the sounds of Bach and other early music a.nd lhe vocal styles of Hamenco and folk so ng.

1005

Osvaldo ColijOI'. St. Mark Passion

1006

C H A 1> T E R 3 ')

• The Twenty-First Century

FIGURE 39.4, Scene fiwn La Pasión según San Marcos ÔJ' Osi,a/do Colijov as performed by singers

and ÍIMtnwientalists

froni Venezuela and New \'ork ar. Carnegie Hall on March 10. 2013. { HIIIOYUKI TTO / TffE w.,;w Y(JlfK T'rMl)SfflLUUx)

Elliott Carter, Caténaires

John Adams. Dor.tol' Atomir.

If these pieces by Saariaho, Sams, a nd Golij ov evoke medieval and Baroque mu sic whi le exten ding the late-twentieth-cen l:1.try tren ds of spect ralism, quotation. and stylistic hybridity and polystylism respectively, Elliott Carter rep resents the enduring presence of postwar moclernism and serialism in the new millennium. Having cultivated the new viriuosity in the l 950s and 1960s (see chapter 37). he remained in constant demand for commissions from performers. especially Europeans. throughout the late twentieth and early twenty-nrsl cemtu-ies. He became music's most proliüe centenarian, producing a torrent of orchestra l, chamber, and solo works i11 his n ineties and past his hundredth birthday in 2008. Caténaires (2006) fo r solo piano (NA\V1f 218) is unusual for Carler because, instead of his usual polyphonic anel polyrhythmic textures, it con sists of a single melodie lLne in sixteenth notes, played as fast as possible. Th.is tex:ture evokes the fast perpetua! motion final e of Chopin's Piano Sonata in m Mi:nor, Op. 35, whieh eonsists of a single uninterrupnecl line playecl by both hands in paralJe l octaves. Such evocation of the past ns rare for Ca l'ler, suggesting that the homage to Chopin is intentional. At the sarne time. the pitch stnicture is baseei on chords derived from a twelve-lone row that is p resent in the musie, not as a melody but as a chorei from whlcb Carter's melod ie Une draws its notes. The piece unfolds as a series of cho rds derived from the main sonority thsough inversion, transpositio n , and other permutations, lüikeel together through common tones that Carter em phasizes in bfa melodie nguration . Thus the piece is inn ovative whil e evoking both the nin eteenthcent1.11y piano vi rtuoso traclit ion anel mid - twentieth -cen tury se,·ialism. John Adams has continued to embrace a wide range of lopics inhis recent mu sir:. from r:dr:hralingJr:sus' Na1ivi1y in thr: oi-atorio E! Nirio (1999- 2000). to mourning the deaths in tbe 200 1 terrorist attack on lhe World Trade Cenler in On the Transmigration ofSou Is (2002), to hls opera Doctor Atomic (2005), ahout lhe pressures on Robert Oppenheimcr and olher scienlisls as they prepared

The New World of Mus,c

for the li rst test of 1he atomic bomb in tbe summer of 1945. Oppenheimer's aria Batter niy hea,rt (NAWM 219) exemplifies tbe blending of poslminimalist techniques, which dominate the orcheslral interludes. with the singer·s slowly unfolding, expressive voei! line, whose tonality, arching s hapes, anel emotive power reca ll ninetee11th-centu1y opera by Verdi and others. Adams is able to fuse lwo such difJerent styles as minimalism and Roman1 ic opera by fmding 1he poin ts of co nlac1 between them, inc lud ing sectional forms , tonal melodies, s low-moving harmonies anima ted by repeating Etguration, and strong contrasts in sound. tempo, dynamic levei, and otber parameters that c,,n convey powel'ful emotions. Finally, Jennifer Higdon's blue cathedral (2000) exemplif1es accessible moclerni sm. one of the trends we observed in chapter 38, wh ile reaclü ng back lo Lhe trademai·k procedures of one of Lhe fu·sL anel most beloved modernisls, Debussy. Higdon (b. 1962), showninFigure 39.5,grew uplisteningto popular musican d bluegrass, taught h.ersel f to p laythe fl ute at n fteen, then discovered classical music in college a t Bowling Green Sta te Universily. After studying at the Curtis lnstitute in Philadelphia and with George Crumb at lhe Universily of Pennsylvaoia , she returned to Curtis to ieach. The 2002 premiere of her Concerto for Orchestra by the Philadelphla Orchestra put her on the mapas a composer, followed by thc 201 O Pnlitzer Prize for hcr Violin Concerto and a Grammy Awa rd for her Pe rcussion Concerto. Her blue cathedraL (NAWM 220), a one- move ment 01·chestra l tone poem , has been performed hundreels of Limes, ranking among the mosLwidely per· formed orchestra works composecl in the las! twenly-five years. ln the words of her prog:ram note, the piece represents a ..journey through a glass cathed ral in the sky." Hígtlon w:rote the piece in memory of her brother, anel the piece fealures the flute. her instrnment, and lhe clarinet. h is instrument, as they dance in dialogue in their upper regislers, !ater joined by solo violin anel other instruments. Undergircling the soloists are effects that are typical of Debussy. The strings and brass play triads in parallcl motion, as in Nuages (NA\VM 167) anel other works , and changes of pitch collection, in trus case di fferent tra nspositions of the díatonic scale. demarcate phrases or smaller musical units and provide a sense of har monic molion (compare Example 32.2). Alth ough 1here are no tonal p rogressions, the triads and diatonic li.elcls are fa miJi ar, and together with coloristic orchestration inspired by Debussy they create a sheer beauty of sound that is pa1i of the piece's wide appeal. ·These half-dozen p ieces are too few to be fully represen tative of the ve1y diverse music being created in classical genres in our century. But each represents a vital cunent among today's composers, includ ing spectralism anel min:imalism, quotation and hybridization. and the range of modernism from astringent serialism to accessible diatonicism, and each also evokes signiücant music of the past, from the twelfth to the early twentieth centuries. Like masbups. they recycle old material into new forros and link familiar sounds. strnctures. and ideas to create new combinations. That, if anything, may be what is mos t characte ristic of the music of our age.

1007

1 Condse ~ 1 1 Full ~ 1

.. ADAMS , Oocro, Aromic, Act 1, Scene 3

Jennifer Higdon. blue cathedral

FIGURE 39.5,

Jennifer Higdon. ( 1•uo·roc;RAJ•H BY J. o. SCQTI'/COUhTESY OF IA•' O(JN PH&SS)

1008

C H A 1>T E R 3 '9 • The Twenty- First Century

The Future of Western Music The popularily of mashu ps, mixtures, and blends in recent years is only the la test manifestation of a long-st.a11ding trait in the \Vestem tradi tion: com bining multiple inl1uences lo create somelhing new. Ancienl Greek writers said that dirl'erent ha rmoniae o r modes carne from di ffe re n1 regions, bu1 together they made up lhe Greek system (see chapter l). Gregorian chant, the liturgical chant of the \Vestem ch urch. had roais in Jewish and Byzan line practice anel combined elements from local chant traditions like Roman and Galllican (chapters 2-3). Tb e musical language of tbe Renaissance carne from a. union of Prench, ltalian, and English elements and spread ali over Europe fro m Spain to Poland (chapters 8- 9). Opera was invenled as a blend of ancient Creek drama, ILalian pastoral drama, anel cuHent musical geni·es like the ail', ma.drigal, and canzonetta, anel then opera in tum infosecl new voca l styles into church and chamber music (chapters 14-15). French composers in lhe seventeenth century remade ltalian genres in new F'l·ench styles, keyboard cornposers borrowed from lute style, and the English clrew ou both ltalian and Frencb models (chapter 16). German composers like Bach and Handel blencled French, Italian, and Gcrman traditions (chapters 17 and 19). Mozart's m usic was so d iverse in slyle. both between and wi1hin works, because he trave led so wid ely as a youth and learned so many different styles, which he la ter comhined in his matu re composítions (chapter 23). In the nineteenlh century, French opera composers borrowed ideas from Italian opera, German composers used both !talian and French operas as models, and Russian composers a.dapted ideas from ali tbree regions (chaple rs 27-28). Once the music of the past began to be widely available. composers drew on olde r styles and procedures as well (cha pters 26 and 29). Jazz is a blend of African Amerj ca n traditions with Cari bb ea n and European elements (chapter 31). Ravel, Stravinsky. anel others combined eighteenth- century and modem sounds and procedures in neoclassicism, and Bartók, lves, anel other composers integratecl international traits with stylistic featu res frolll their own regiou to produce music in completely new styles (chapters 32. 33. and 35). Rhythm and blues, rock, country. hip bop, anel most other postwar popular styles are blencls l'rom muhiple sources, as are the music of Astor Piazzolla, Jobu Zorn, Bright Sheng, a nd others who create hybrids that are beyond categorization (chapters 36 and 38). Again and again, in ali corners of\Vestern music history. we encounter people creating new gemes, s tyles, and traditions by incorporat ing aspects of other music. Often wbat makes the difference in which strands are interwoven with eaeh other is access. The contributions of the English no the Continental style in t he lifteenth cen tu ry, of lta lia ns to music in Cermany, Po land, England. and Russia. anel of Africans and their descendents to jazz and other traditions in North America would not have happened without those people visitíng or living ín those regions. And now. of course. tluough digital recorclings anel the lnternet. there is instant access around the wo rld to almost everything. ln such a world every type of music and every piece of music is fail' game for being reused in novel ways. The only limit is our imagination. Th is abilityto absorb oth er musics ande reate new blends has been a delin -

The Futuro ofWestern Music

ing characteristic of the Western traclition from its beginnings to now, anel it sets \Vestem music apart from many other musical traditio ns. Japanese composcr Tõru Takemitsu once observed that he could use Japancse ínstruments, sounds, and techniq Ltes in a work in a Western genre such as a concerto, but he could not use \Vestem tu nes or tech ni ques within a Japanese tradition such as music for lhe Noh drama or for shakuhachi, because those traditions did not permit outside inlluences; a ny hybrid b-elo nged to 1.he Western trad ition. Much th e sa rne is true for the gamelan music of Java and Bali or the classical music oflnilia or Persia. But th is capability to ahsorb influences is ai the very core ofthe Western tradition in a Uof its branches, from church music to clas sical concer1 music to jazz, pop, anel hip hop. We may well woncler whether the term "\Vestem music" is still appropriate when Western culture has spread around the world, and some of lhe mos l prncticed performers and interestíng new composers come from China, Japan, and Korea. Given its global reach, it may be time to rename füis tradit ion, but as eclectic a nd diverse as it has become. its roots are still in \Vestem cultur e reachíng back through Europe to ancient Greece. lt is too early to know what music from tbe late twentie1h o r early twenty&rs t century will be remembered, performed, and listened to in the futm·e or will int1uence !ater music. 'freneis cha nge too quickly to give a balanccd or complete overvjew of recent mus ic. But i1 seems clear that there is a continuing tension in ali forms of mu sic between fmding a niche of com mi tted listeners whose support will endure and fmding a wide audience. There are few pieces tha t everyone knows; perhaps 11ational anthems anel scores for blockbuster tilms come closest to providing the s hared musi cal experiences that seem to have been more common ín tbe past. The great success enjoyed by Beethoven in classical music. Verdi in opera, Duke Ellington in jazz, or the Bealles in popular music seems no longer possi.ble, beca use tbe audience isso divided that sucb unanimity of opinion is unlikely to be achieved. Yet perhaps the relative lack of giants may be a good thing. Music of the past and of the entire world is more availal>le now than ever. Thanks to radio, recorclings. the Internet, and marketing, most of the music we have studied in this book is heard by more people each year today than heard it during the composer's life time. There is no need lO focus our interest on a few great composers when lhere isso much va1·iety to enjoy. Tb e choices we bave for music to listen to or perfonn have become a.lmost li mitless. So to o are the possibilities for new music. \Vith new computer software and techniques of sampling and synthesis founcl in tradiüons l'rom art music to hip hop, it is now possible for people with access to tech nology to make their own music, without training in performance. ln some respects. we are surrou nded by more music than we can ever consume. But perhaps we a1·e also returning to something aldn to the practice of music long ago. when every singer sang his or her own song. ~ Resources for study and revíew available at wwnorton.com/studyspace.

1009

GLOSSARY

Within a deftnition. le rms thal are rhemselves cleftned in 1his glossa1y a re printed in SMALL CN'ITALS. Terms definecl i,1 general dictionaries are not inclucled here. Prommciation of fo1·eign worcls is approximate and is given o nly when 1.he spelling makes m is pronunciation like ly: " nh .. siands fo r a final " n" in French. wh ich nas alizes the prececlingvowel (as in "chanson ... Tendered he re as ·'shanh -SONH").

'º"".

Abgesa.ng ( pro11ounced AH P-ge-zang) See BAJI ab&olutc rnusic Music tbat is iadepcndcnl of wo rds. drama. visual ímagcs. or any ki nd of reprcse ntational a cappclla Otalian. "in chapei stylc") Mannc r of chorai

singing ,...-ithom insrrumenr.al :iccompaniment. accidental Sign th31 calls for altering che pitch of a Non: a s harp (l) raiscs 1he pi tch • sem iro ne. a fla1 ( 1) lowaccidentol. accompani ed rccitativc Hr.c1TAn v-e that uses

:'l

prcvious

ror.Yl'Hom·. :i pa.rr in

:1 R..\NCr.

bctwcen thc Tr.Non :ittd 1hc

Amhros ian t'hant A re pertory of ecclesinstical C HAN'1r used in Mi lan . answer ln r.he tXPOSITTON oí-a rucu·1~, 1he second e mry or lhe SUBJF.CT. no rmally 0 11 the nOM 1NAN1' if li,e subject was on 1hc ·roN rc. anel vice versa. Also refers 10 subsequent 311swers to tbe subject. anthem A POLVVHONIC sacre<l work io English íor An.gHca.n religious services. a nti1>ho n ( 1) A 1.tTVRC ICAL CtlANT that precedes an<I íollows a PSAJ.M o r CA,.,·,cu: in tbe ÜFF1ce. (2) lu tbe MAss. a chao l originaUy associatcd wilh ANTU'HONAL PSAJ..MOOY: spccif,colly. t hc COMMUNtON and the f1rs1 and final portioL1 of the lN-rRon. antiphonal Adjective clescribinga m:mner of perfor1113nce in wbic b rwo or mo re groups alternate. Acruitaninn polJ11hony Style of POLYPHONV from the cwelf1h eenn,ry, encompnssing both nrsCANT and F LORID

ORCHF.STRAI.

:1s S~ldness. joy. fe:tr, or wonder; one goaJ of

mucb BAROQUE music was to arouse Lhe affecüous.

~""'s Dei ( Latin. " Lamh of Cod") Fifth or tbe f,ve mttjo r musical items in tbe MAsS Oao1 NAtw, based on a litany. agré111e11C ( Frencb. "' cbarm- ; pro nounced ah-grayMANH) ÜRNA,\lfNT in l'rench music. usually indjcated by a sigo. air Englisb o r Frcncb song íor solo voice with iustnunental accompaniment. setting rhymed p-oeLry. often STllOPHJC. :mel usu.1Hy in the M ETt:ll of :i DANct:. a.ir de colt.r ( French, ··cow·L air.. ) Type o í song for voice and :iccompammen1 , prominent in France fro m aboull 1580 through the sevenleenth century. AJh crti ba8s Broken - CHOJ\D accompanimeot conun o n in lhe sccond half o f Lhe eightec nlh ccntllry and n arnccl aftcr Domcn ico AlbcrtL wbo usc d thc J' t CUR.ATtON frequcn1ly. Alleluia Item fro m che M•ss PRoPER. sung just befoTe the Cospe! reacling, comprising a Rtst>ONn to t he cext ·'Alle:1

in modcralely fast qu3druplc

SU~F.ftlUS: originally CONTllATF.NOft At.TUS.

affectioos Objectif,ed o r archerypttl emo1ior,s o r states of

h1i:1,"

lHNAl\Y f OH.M,

work. 011:u s (Luin , .. h igh ..) ln f1f1een1h - and si<1cen1h- cen,ury

accompn.niment to drilmarize the text. act M:iin dh•ision oí nn ortRA. Mos, operas h:ive rwo co rive :icts. ahhough sorne have only one. mind, such

with almost continuous movcmcnt , bcgiuuing

wüh an upbcat. Popu lar during thc RtNAJSSANCt :ind BAROQUt:: appearingoften as thc f1rst dance in a sutTP.. alto ( from ALTUS) (1) Relacively low fcmale voice. or h igh nul e voice. (2) P:1r1 for such :1 voice in :rn tN~t;Mnr t

aspccts.

crs it :. semitonc, :rnd ·" n:ui.ar.11 (ú c:i nccls

OANCt: M E'rtH

vctsc. :1nd :1 rcpctüion of 1he rcspo nd.

ORCA.NUM ,

aria ( llalian. "ai,-) (1) ln thc lote six1cco1b aod carly scv· e nteenth centuries. any section o f ::i n ltal ian STtLOPHIC poem fo r a solo singer . (2) Lyrica l monologue in an OPER.A

or ochervocal work snch 3s CANTATA and OR.AT O R10 .

arioso (1 ) llrc1TAnvo •• •oso. (2) Shon. ARIA - like pa.ssage. (3) Sryle ofvocal wrir ing rhar a pproaches rhe lyricism or an ARIA bu1 is íreer in form. aq,eggio (írom ltalian arpa, .. harp .. ) Broken -CHORO

CRANT

alleluias 3re nol'rnally M e11SMA1'l C in style and sun g i n 3 RtSPONsonrAL m~mner, one or more soloists a.lter11~ting with the CHOU\. allemancle (French for "German dance ..) Highly styliied

FI CURE!.

Ars No,•a (Lalin . "new a,, -) S1yle of ro r.vPt10NY from fourteenth-centul'y France. distinguished from e arlier

Gl ossary

styles by a new system o í rhytbmic NOTATION tlm allowed duple or tripie division of NOTE values. SYNCOPATION. and gre3C rhyThmic íle,ibility. A1'8 Sublilior ( l_1ri n... more sul>rle ,rc .. ) Style o f POLYPHONY from 1he 1~1c íou 1'lecmh orvcry e~rl,y f1f1centl1 ccnruries in somhern Franceand northcrn ltoly, dis!inguished by extrem e complexity in rhythm and NOTATrON. ali mus ic Music th:u is (or is me:mt to be) listenecl 10 with

rapt nttemion. forits own s.ake. Compare POPUT..All Musrc. art soug A song intended to be apprechned as an artistic stalement rac her rhan 3S e ,,te ..tainmenl. fea1uring precisely nolàleJ music. usually THkOUCtt coM1-osto. and requi ring professional s1anclards oí performance. Compare l'OPULAR SONC. ttlonal, atonality Terms for music that avoids establishing

a central pitch or tonal cente r(such a.s theTON1c in TONAL music). aug m enfation Tbe uniíonn len~rthenirigoí a Mt!LOOY using looger NOl't values. íor exawple by doubling 1he leogtb of cach aotc:. au los Ancicm Crcck rccd instrumc:nt. usually playccl in patrs. :mthentic mocle A Mont (2) in which the RANCE normally extends from :t STFP belowthe PTNA1. to an oct:we 3bove it. Scc also PLACAL MODC. a,•ani•garclc Tcrm for mus ic (::md art) that is iconoc1astic. irrevercnt. antagonistic. and oihilistic. secldng to avcrth row establish ecl oestheti cs;.

balanced hin:.ny form Sinary form in which che latterpart of tbe flrSl section retu rns 3 'l l he end of 1hc second sec· liOH, but in lhe 1'0NIC. baIJad ()) Long narra tive poem, or musicol setting of such a poem. (2) Late-eighteenth-century Cerman poetic ro rm 1hat imitated the folk ballad of Engla nd anJ Scotland and was sei to rnusic by Cerman cornposers. The ballad expanded the L,to in both FOftM and emoc io nal contcnt. ballaJ opel'a GtNHE of eightee oth-century Eng lish comic play featuring songs Ln wb..icb new words are set to bor• rowed tunes. ballade ( 1) French FOllMF. r1xr., norm:illy in three srnn1.:1s. in which eacb s1anza has the musical FORM aabC and cnds with a R•tRAtN (C). (2) 1nslrumenlal picce inspi rcd by tbc c,NRÉ oí narrativc poetry. ballata (from ltalion ballare. "to dance": pl. ba/late) Four · ieenth - century ltalian song e r.N RE with rhe FORM Abb:iA. in which A is 1he ripresa. or RtFRA I N, and 1he single st,mz:i consisrs o f rwo piedi (bb) nnd a volto (a) sun g 10 ,he music or rhe ripresa. ballet rn shncenth· .and seven1eemh .. cenH11y Fr::ince. an entertainrnent in which bocb professionals and guests danced; Inter. a s iage work d.ance<i by pro fessionals. halle tto, ba lle tt ( l tal ian, .. l ittle d,,nçe") $i.riecmh-c.c:n tury llalian (and larer English) song cr.rmo i11 a s imple, dancel ike, n oMOPII ONTC style w'i1h repeatecl sections anel "ía- la - la" reírains.

Gl ossary

band L.arge F,NStM RLF. of wi nds. brass. :mel percu.ssion instru ments, or or br::iss .'.ltl d percussio n inscrumems wichout winds. bar ro-rm Song FORM in which che f1rst scction oi' M ELOOV is s ungtwice wi1h <lifferent 1ex1s (1be two StOLLCN) and the remaincler ( the AncESANC) is sung o uce. ba11l Medieval poet-sínger. especiallyof epics. Rarocp,e JJeriod (from Portuguese barroco. · a misshapen pea ri-) PERIOO OÍ music hi story from aboul 1600 lo a bout l 750. overlapping 1be late RENAISSANCE and early CJ.Ass,c pe riods. bas (rreoch. "low-, pro n ounced BAJi) l n 1be fou rteeuth through sixteenib ccnturies. term for soft insrruments such as v 1eui-:s and IIAHPS. See IIAU'r. bass (from BAssus) ( 1) The lowes1 pan in an CNStMBLt work. (2) Low male voice. (3) Low instrumeut. especiaUy the slri ug bass or bass v1oc. basse donsc (Frcncb. " )ow dan ce'') Typc of slalcly couple DANCE of the faftccnth and carly sixtccnth ccnruries. bano continuo (ltalian. "cominuous bass") ( 1) Sys 1em of NOTATI ON and perfonn:mce pracrice. used in the 8AROQUP. rtnIon. 1n wh1ch rrn 1ns1ru me111al BASS Jlnc is w-rinen ou1 ::ind one or more playcrs oi' keybo::ird. urrr. or sim ilar instn1ments fill i n tbc HAJ\MONY with 3ppro-priate CIIOROS or IMPROVJSF,O Mf.l.ODIC lines. (2) The bass line itself. basso ostina to (halia n. " persistem bass') or gronnrl bass A pattern in the OASS th.u repeats while the ME1.om· above ir cbanges. bttssus (Lat in. " )ow") ln frfteenLh- anJ six1een1b -century rO LYPUONY. the lo west pa r-t: originally CON'rJL\'rENOR BASSOS.

bebop (or bop) AstyleofJAZZ d eveloped in New York in 1he 1940s 1ha1 lrod • diversi f,ed rhythinic te~Lure. enriched HAHMONl C vocabulary. and an emyhasis o n 1MPI\OV1SA · no:.i witb r.tpid Mt.LODJLS aacl asymmctrical PHRASES. bel c:u1to Otaliaa . - bcautiful s ing iug") Elcgant ltalfan vocal stylc of t bc carly nio-c1cc11Lh century markcd by lyrical. cmbellishcd. ,nd ílorid MtLODIES diat show off rhe beamy. agility. anrl fluen cy of ,he singer s voice. hig hand TJpe of large JAZZ ENSF.M nu popular between the world W3rs. feamring brass. rceds, and RHYTHM sr.cT1oss, and pla)'ingprcpared "'rongemcnts rhat included rhyThmic unisons and coo rdiMted dialogue bctween sections and soloists. hlnary f'01,n A FORM comprisecl oftwo co mplcm ent:irysections. each o f which is re pea1ed. The Ílrst section usually ends on che OOMTNANT or 1he relat ive m::ijor. ah hough it rnay end on che TON1c or 01],er KEY; 1he second secrion returns lO 1he 1onic. Types iinchu.le su,rnu: 81NAB\' FORM. llALA:.'CeD BINA.flY f'ORM, anel ROON"Of:O IJINA.ln' k'ORM .

blue nole Slight drop or slide in pitch o n tbe third . frft h. or $eventh degree of a MAJOn SCALt, common in nLues andJAZZ. bl1te& ( 1) African Ame, icdo ,•o cal c1:Nnl'i 1hai Í,!J ba~ed on a s imple repe1itive formula and characlerized by adist..i nctivc style of performance.::. (2) TwtLvt:-bAll HLUES, bop Scc HEHOP.

breve (from Latin brevis. "short") l n medieval and HENAISSANCE systems of RHYTHMIC NO'rATION. a NO'rF. that is normally eqtr,l 10 h,lf ora ih i rd of a IA>NC. b11ll l)1•e Sumerian 1.vn wilh • bulrs hcad 31 o ne encl o f the sou ndbox. burden ( 1) ln Engl ish m ed ieva l PO r.VPHONY, thc lowcst voice. (2) 1n the English CAROL. t he Rl:FRAIN. Byzantin e chan t Th e repertory of ecclesiastic:d CHANT used in 1he Byiantin e RITE and i n rhe mod ern Greek Or1hodox Chu,·ch.

cabaleua. ro the opera1ic scene s tnicture developed by Cio:1c.l1ino Rossini i.n tbe ea.rly 11.ine teenLb century. Lhe last part o f an A IUA or t:NSEMULE. whit h w:is lively and brill iam and e•pressed ac1ive feelings. such as joy or despa ir, See also CAN1'A81LIS30d TEMPO º ' M &ZZO. cablll'el Type o f nigbtclub. lirsl i,uroduced in nineteel\lh ceot ury Par is. 1bal ol'fered ser ious or comic sketebcs. DANCES. sonb"S, and poctry. caccia (halian . "bunt": pronounccd CAli · cha: pi. cacce) Pauneenth·cenmry l 1alta n roRM fe:uurtng rwo voices in CANON over a free untexted TP.Non. eadence Mr,wo ,c or HARMON1c succession that closes a music~..l PHRASE. PtR IOD. section. o r COMPOSITION. cadcnza Otnlia n. "cade ncc") llighly cmbcllishcd pas sage. of1en 1M11aovIsr.D. at an important C.ADt:NCt.:. u.sually occurringjusr before rhe cnd of a piece or section. caf'ê - con cerl Type o i' clin ing es10blishmem . prom inem in l:ne~ni ne1eenrh- anel eaT'ly-twemierh ~cent\l lj' P:ins. rhar combined 1he food and drink ora café wi1h musical e n,ertàinment. usually songs ou senc imental. cornic. or poli1ical ,opies. call and r·esponse Alternation of short PHRAStS between a leader anel a group; used especially for music in the

Africa11 Americnn trãd ition. cambitl fa Clialia n. ··chang:ecl '") Figure in s,x1een1h-cenwry POL'l'PUONY in which a voice skips down l'rom a 01ssoNANCE to a CONSONA.NCt; instead o f rcs olving by S'ttP. then moves to the expected NOTE of resalution. Ca.1ucrata (ltalian, '"circtc·· or .. associaLion'") Ci rcle af intellectua.ls and amateurs of the :ins that mel in Floren ce, l10ly, ;,, the 1570s and 1580s. canou (L.uin. "rule ..) (1) Rulc for performing musie. part..icularly for clcriving more th:m one voice from a s inglc line oí notated music. as wbcn sevcral vo ices sing tbc sarne Mt:LOD\'. cntcring at ccrtain intcrvals of rime ar s inging at d ifferent specds simultancously. (2) C0Mvosrr10N in which 1he voices e1uer successi,1ely ar decermi ned pi1ch and time in 1ervals, :111 perform ing1he same Mtl.ODV.

canso TROU8ADOUR songabou1 PINEAMOUR (co11r1 ly Jo,,e). can tabile ( h alian, "songlike') ()) Songfu l. lyr ic.11. in a songlike sty le. (2) ln 1heoperatic scen e s1 ructt1re d evelopc:d by Cioaçhino RoMini in the c o1rly ninctcc:nth ç.enTU lj', rhe firsi sectio n ornn AfllA or tNSF.M R1.r.. somewhat s low aud expressing a rela1ively calm mood. See also CABt-:l.tTtA

and TtMPO 0 1 MUZO.

cantata (Jral ian. "10 be s1111g") ( 1) ln rhe seven1een r h and eighteen1 h cemt1ries, a vocal ch::imber work wüh CON· T1NV0, usually fo r solo voice, cons isting or severa.J sections or MOVEMENTS tha1 include RtCl1'A'NvtS and A.RIAS and setting :t lyrical or quasi -Jr:tma1 ic tcxl. (2) Fo rin of Lutheran churcb music in tl1e eighteenth century, combining poetic texts wã1h tex1s dr.1wn f rom CHOR./\1,F.S or 1he Bible. and including nr.c1TATITTS, AlltAS. chorale sel1ings. and usually one or mo,·e cnoausEs. (3) 111 later eras. a work for s:oloists. cuonus. and oac ut:STUA ir, several M OVEM t!NTS but smaJler than án ORA1'0RtO. cauticle Hn~N · like ar PSALM - like pass:ige from a p ::trl of lhe Bible other tban the Book of Psalms. canti;,ra Medi eval M ONOPIIONJ C song in Spanish or Portuf,'Uese. ca.11t llena (lali n.

"soni()

POLYl'H ON 1C son g n ol

bascd

on ;;1

CA•1·us ,111 ..11s: uscd especially for polypbonic son,gs by Eoglish composcrs o i' Lhe lnte 1bi rtcentl1 tbrough carly f1ftccnth ccnntrics.

cantillation Chantingoí a sacred text by a solo singer. par 1ic11larly in rhe Jewish synagogue. cauuon:1.l {uytc (fron1 L1ttn conrtorude. '·songbook"') M:mner of scuing CH ORAU;s in CHOAT)At. HOMOPRO).'Y with che Me1.oov in 1he highcst voice. can to1· 1n Jewish synagogne music. the main solo singer . 1n t he medieml Christion church . tbe learler of t he cttorn. canlus (Latin, "melody-) ln J>OLYPIIONY of rhe fourreent h l h rough si,neenth cenniri es. t he highesl voice, especially the texted voice in a poly pho n ic song. c.an tu s f 1nnus ( L:uin. " í1.xed rnelody") Ar, ex.istiug Mt!LOOY, often taken írom a Gaeco111AN C llMff, on wbich a uew POL\'l•ttONIC work is based: used especially for M Et.0011:s presented i n long NOTES.

in which the saine ia C3Cb MOVEMEN'I', normally in lhe

ca nht$-f1rmus 11ta$& PoLYPHONIC MASS CA:n'US PlnM US is used

TJ!NOlt.

in which each MOVEM tNT is based on thc samc polyphonic work. using that work's n :NOK (somctimcs thc SUPEKl US) as a CAt.'T US FIRMUS. normally i n che renor, :mel borrowing some elements from tbe orher voices of the model 10 use in rhe other voices of thc m:-iss. c:a nh1,s • ftrmus v:1rintion& lns1n1men1al cr.Ntu; of the kur 1500s and ear ly 1600s. comprising a sct of VAftlATIONS in which the Mtcoov repeats with little change bui is surrounded by different coNTRAPUNTAJ. material in <!ach variation . ca11 ,.o n• (ca111.011) ( l ralian . "so ng") ( 1) Si.-te,e nrh cemury ltalian ceNRt, an i ns tnne111al work adapted from a CHAJISON o r composcd i11 a si mil ar stylc. (2) l n tbe late s ixtee1nh and e.àrly severuecmb ccmuri-es, an instnunent:d work in several contrasting sections. of which the fust and some of the others are in 1MrTATIVE cantu s- f1rmus/ i.m.ita lion 1nat,.t; POLYl'HON JC MASS

COUNT'CRPOINT. caui'.o neU.a, can:r,0ne i ( ltaliao. -iitt1c song"·) $ixtee1dh -

century ltalia 11 (and la1er English) song CENRt in a sirnple. mostly HOMOPHONIC style. Dimiautive of CANZONA, capriccio (lcalian. '·wbim") ( 1) ln ,hc BAROQUI! PERJOo. a

Gl ossary

VUCAL p icce in continuous I M ITATIV[ COUNTERPO I NT. (2) ln the nineteenth cenmry. a shon coMP0SITI 0N i n free

FORM. usually for PIANO.

cai-oi English song. usuallyon a religio11s subjeer. with se,•cr~l s 1:mz3.s : md a R1.TROP.N, or RtFRAI N. Prom the f1frcenth

century on. most carols are ro1.v1lH0N1c. carole Medieval circle or lin e dance. or the MONOPHON1c

song 1hat accompaniecl it. castrati (sing. casrroto) ~fole singers who were casira,ed beíore pu ber1y to preserve thei r high vocal ••J<CE,

prorninent in the seventeem.b anel earlyeighteenth cen lltries. especially it1 OPtRA. ca.tch E11glish Cf.NkE o f CANON, usually with a humorous o r rihald Lext. cauda (Latin, "taU-; p i. caudae) MtLJ SMA1·1c passage in • POLYPHONIC CON"OVCTtlS.

c hacona (lta lian. c i accona) A vivacious dance-song

irnported íro1n L..·uin J\Jneri,ca into Spain and then i11to haly. popular during Lhe seventcentb ccntury ciaccona) BAROQUE CENRE derived from tbc

c hacon11c (or

CHACONA.

consistingo f VAKIATJONSOVCr a BASSO CON'rJNUO.

chantber sonata See SONATA DA CAMEIL\. ch,nce Approach to composi ng music pioneerecl by John Cage, in which some of 1he decisions normnlly made by the composer a re instcod dctermincd through ron -

dam procedurcs. sucb as tossing coins. Chance d iffcrs from rNDt:.TEEIM I NACY but sbares with it the rcsult that t hc soun ds i n the music do not convey an intention and are 1hel'efore 10 be experienced only as pure sound. c hans on (French . "so ng .. ; p·ronotrnced shan h -SONH) Secular song with French wo rds; used especia lly foi' POLYl'HONIC songs of the íourteeuth through six1eenth ceulUdes. chanson d egeste (French, "songof deeds ") Type of medieval F'tench epic recounting the deeds or tHI.Lional heras,

sung 10 Mf:LOOIC ío rnmlas. cha11so11 11ie r (French. "songbook") Ma n11sc,·ip1 colleclion of secular songs w11h French words; used boLh íor col-

lections MONOPHONJC 'l'tlôUBAJ)OUlt and 'rflOtrVÊRE songs a.nd for colJections of POLYPHONJC songs. chanl ( 1) Unison uuaccompanôed song, particularly t bat o f the Lotin Ll1'URCY (:uso called PLAJNCIIANT). (2) l he rep ertory o f un accompanied liru rgic:tl songs of a panicular Rl'rt.

chant dialcct One of lhe repcrto rics of ccclcsiastica l CHAN'r. inc1uding Gat:COR IAN. BrZANTJNE. Ar.1esos1AN. and Ow RoMAN CHANT. chapei A group of salaried mus.icians and clerics employed by a n1ler. nobleman. church officia l, or 01 her patron,

who off1ciare nt nnd f11rnish n)usic for 1·eligious services. chnr!lCler piece A picce of CHAllACTtRJSTTC MOSIC. cspe c ia lly one for PJAl<O.

Gl ossary

ing eil her in un ison or i n pans. Used especially for the g>'o up rhai s ings in a religious service.

MELODY ovcr relativcly light accompaniment: si mplc. clearly articulated harmonic p l:rns: PER100, c phr:tsing:

el1oral soeiety Amn1cur c11oaus whose members s ing for their own enjoyment anel rnny prty dues to purch3,se rnusie, prty the co.NOUC'J'Olt, rtlHl meel other expenses.

elearly delinearcd ronMs based on comrast berween TH r.M ts. berwcen Ktvs, bcr.\Teen stable :md unstab1e pas-

c h o l'ale (pronouncecl ko - RA.L) STROP11 1c IIYMN in t he Lu thera n 1radition. i ntended 10 be sung by t he congre-

gntion. c hol'a le mote l. Cuo11ALt setting in lhe style of a sixteemh century MOl'fT, c horale pl'e lude RelaLively shorL seuing for orgon of o cuOHA.LI:! Ml:LOOY. used as an introduction for congrega· tional s inging o r as an interlude i n a Lutheran church service. choraJe '1ariations A set o f VAUIATIONS on í1 CUORALE Ml!L00Y,

chonl Thrcc a r more simultancous N0-rts bcard as a s ingle entity. ln TONAL music. thrcc or more notes that can hc arrangcd as a succcssion o f thirds. such as a TRIAO. c horus ( 1) Group o f singers "1ho perfor m 1ogerhcr. usu ally with several singers o n each part. (2) A MOVEM RNT 01· p:-iss:-ige for such a group tn :.1n 0RAT0Iuo, OPERA, or 01her mnlrimovemenr work. (3) The RP.FRAtN of ::i POPULAR SONC, (4) ln JAZZ, a Slatcmcnt of 1be HARMONlC r.oCRF.SSION of the opening tune. over which on e or more

instruments plny vari:mts or new nmsic:il ide:1s. cl11-0 1natic (from Greek chro11,a. "color') ( 1) ln anciem Greek music, adjeclive describi ng a TT.TnAcnonn comprisi ng a minor 1hird ar)d two StMITONtS. ora MELODY tbat uses such tetracho rds. (2) Adjec1ive describing a melody tb:lt uses two or more successive semitones in Lhe sarne direction. à SéALE consisting exclusively of semitones, an I~l'ERVALor c1101u) thal drn.ws NOn:s írom nlore 1h.1n 0l'Ie 0tAT0Nt C sca.le. 01· music that uses rnany such melodies or chords.

clu-ornatic saturation Tbc apptarance of aU twclvc Pll'CH CLASSt:S witbin a segment of music. cltromaticis m Thc use of many NOTt:s írom thc CHR0MAnc SCA L P. in a passage a r piccc. chnl'c h cale ndar ln a Christian 111n. the scherlu le oí days commcmoratingspecial evems, ind ividua is. or 1in1es or

yeor. church son~tn Sec SONATA DA c1ur.sA. c iaccona Sec CHACONA a.nd CHACONNE. Classic ]lc riod ln music history. 1hc era from about 1730 to about 1815. betwecn an<I overlapp in g t he BAROQUF.

anel

BoMANTIC PF.RTOOS.

c lassical music ( 1)

Common rerm for

ART

MOStc or ali

r.:RJOl)S. :i.s dislinct fro 1n POPULAR MOSIC or F'OL){ MUSIC. (2) Music in the lràd ition of Lhe repertoire of musical rnrtsterworks lh:lt fonned iiu Lhe uiueLeenLh cen1ury.

including lesser wol'ks in tbe same CtN8ES (such as

cha.1-acte1•is'Cic (or dtscripHvc) music lnstmmental music

OPERA, OllATORIO, SYMPJIO~'Y, SONATA. STRJNCQUARTET. and

tha1 depicts or suggests a mood. personnlity. or scene. U.)wdly i ndiç.tted in ü~ tltlc.. ch:irts l n postwar POl'tn..An Mus ,c. weekly r:mkings or songs by sales or 01 he r measttres of popttlal'ity. choir A g roup or singers who pe ríorru togeLher, sing-

or for lhe .sarne perfotnting forces ar1d ne\vly co,opo::;ed " 'ºf" b i111coclcd ;tb p;:n-t of the biltnc lhtd i, io n . (3) M usic i n i be CLA.Ss1c Pt11100. classical s tyl c Musical idiom of t hc m icl - 10- la1ecigb1eentb ccntury. gcncrally characterizcd by an cmpbasis on AnT sorJo)

sages, ::rncl bc1wcen sections wit h diffcrcn1 íunc1ions; and contrnstS of mood, style. :\nd fig\lrnt ion ,vithin MOVF.MP.NTS os well os between them. rlaus u la ( Latin, "clnttse:· pl. clousulae) ln Nornr. DAMr POLYPtt0NY.

a self-contained section o f :m oncANUM that

doses with a CAOtNcr.. cl..wecin Preuch term ÍOI' HARllSICROR.O. cl a,,eeinist A person who perfonns on or composes works fonbe CLAVEC IN.

clavichord Keybo:u'tl inSLnuneut popular between Lhe

r,r-

teenth and e ighteenth cemuries. 'rhe loudness. which depends on lhe force with which a brass biade strikes lhe strings, is under Lhe direct control of lhe player. elos See OPCN ANO CLOSEO f!N'Olr:Os. coda (halian. ··1ail'") A supplcmcntary cndi ng Lo a COMVOs r rtoN or MOVEM-EN'r~ a conclucling scc1ion

that Lics out-

sidc , hc ,·oxM as usually describcd.

collage \Vork or p.1ssage tha1 uses mulrlple QUOT.i..noNs witho\H following a s1:md:trd proceclure for doin g so, such as a mcd lcy. collegi,11',. r&us ic u r;. (1) An ossoci3tion or ,motcurs. popu),r dnring thc BAROQUE PERJOD, who gathcrcd to play and sing togcthcr fo r thcir own plcasurc. (2) Tod oy. an en semb le o f u n ivcrsity studems that performs carly music. co lor (L.H in r he 101·lCa l 1erm forornamenr. particuhnly rep· e1 i1 io n. pronounced KOH - lor) ln an 1s0R»YTHM 1ccoMvosrno1<. a repeated MELoorc pauern. as opposed 10 Lhe repeaLing rhytlun ic panero (theTALEA),

colo rahn-a Florid vocal 01\NAMENTATION. Cow.x-.u rtio u hem in t he MAsS PnOPEI\, originally sung durir1g commun iou, compr isiug an Ah'TIPIION wi1 hout verses. con..posHion The ac1 or proeess of creating new pieces of music. or a piece that resltlts from Lhis p rocess nnd is substantially similar each time it is performed; usually

disünt,ruisbed from 1M vnovrSATJON and perfo rm:mce. concert band Luge ENSEMULE o i' winds, brass . .:rnd percussion insrruments rhat performs seated in eoneen ha.11s, like an ORCIICSTIIA,

conccrt étudc Scc ~l VDt. conccrlato r,.cdiuM or conccrtato stylc (from ltalian con· certare. "to rc::ich agrccmcnt") ln sevcmccn1h .. ccntury music. rhe combina tion of voices with one or more insrn1men ts. where 1he instrumentsdo not s imp1ydou ble 1h e vo ices bt11 pby independem paris. con.ce11cd r.,ach-ig:il Early -seven1ee111 h - ccmt1i-y type of M.A0JUCAL for one or mo re voices accom p:mied by 'BASS0

in some cases by other instmments. concerto ( from lt:il ian concertnre. "to reach :igree cor-:rI NU0 and

group) comrasts wirh :m

ORCHF.STRAL tNSEMRU.

Se,e :11s0

CONCF,FITO CROSSO :rnd ORCHP,STilAI.CONCF.RTO.

co n cedo g rosso lnstrumenrnl wo1·k 1h31 explo ics 1he contras, in sonority bctwcen a small tNSl:M tne or solo .i nstrumenLs (concer1iti0), usually Lhe s:trne forces thàL appeared i ll lhe TRIO SONATA, and 3 large ENSEMDLE (nlPltNO orconce,10 grosso).

concitato geuere See s·r1u coNcrTATO. comluclor A person who Jeads a performance, espc::cially for an ORCHtS'r-RA, BANO. CHOROS, or other large E'.NSO1 · :SLt:. by means oí gestures. conductus A seríous medieval song. MONOPHONlC a r POLY PHo~·,c. settinga rhymed. rbyt.hm ic Latin poem. c onjunct ( l ) ln :rncient C reek music . .1djective used co describe the relationship between two TE'r11Ac 11 onos

whcn lhe bottom :;o·,·c of onc is the sarne as tbc top note of tbe otbcr. (2) Of a MELODY. consisting mosLly of STEJ•s. connoisscur (Frcnch. "onc who knows") A ,crm coincd in 1.he early eighteenth century to indicatc an informed Iis-cener who cultiv:11es :t 1as1e for 1he best in music anel an. conscrv:uory School 1h:i1 spcc1al1zcs 1n 1c:1chtng music. conson::rnee , ~.,.r,avAt.or tHot-tn 1h::i1 has a s13ble. h:irmoni· ous sound. Compti.re t'HSSONMlCE. con sort English nome (current ca.

1575-1700) for o g,-oup

of i nstruments. consort s ong HtNAJSSANCF English cr.1<nr. of song for voice

accom panied by a CONSORT of vtots. c o n l e n a n ce angloisc (Fl'ench , "Engl is h gu ise") Charac1eris1ic q uolity of early-íil'tee111h-centu ry Et1glish

music, marke<l by pervasive C0NS0NANCE with frequent use of HAllMONIC thirds and sixths. o ften in pnr:11Jel motion.

continuo

BASSOC:ONTINVO.

co ntinuo ins tru.w.e n ts I nslrurucuts used to 1H:AtIze a 8ASS0 C0N'rJNU0, such as HAHPSICHOIU), organ. LU'rt. or 'rHtORBO.

contrafact (n

JAZZ.

a new

MELOD\· composcd

ovcr a

H.A.8 -

PRocu:ss 10N borrowcd from anothcr song. conlraf'actuw. (btin . .. coumerfeir"; pi. co11trafa.c1a) The prac1ice o f replaci ng the cext o f :1 vocal work with a new MONIC

rcxt while 1hc nmsic rcm:-i ins essenri:-illyrhe s:une; or rhc rcstilti ngpiece.

contrapunlal Employi ng C0UNTF.RP0INT. or two or rno rc simu ltancous M e1.on1c l ines. c ontratc nol' (Latin . "agai nst the ten or") ln fourteen 1h -

and f-ifreemh-cemury P0J.YPttoNY, voice composed nfter or in conjunc1ion wh h 1he Tf.N"Ok and ü 1 about rhe same RANCE, he11>ing to form rhe HAIIM0N1c founcbtion. conlr~1tc nor :LICus, conlr:ttcnor bussus (L:n iu) l:n íi f-teer11 b-ceu1Ury POLYPHO~'Y, CO.NTRA'rENOB prtrts tbn.L lie relaiively high (AL1·us) or low (Mssus) in compo rison 10 Lhe TtNOn. Oíten s imply written as ··aJtus .. or "bas-

sus:· these .1re the aucestofs or the voca l ranges AI.TO

mem") ( 1) 1n t he ~evc.n t eçnt h ~cnhary, r.tt:,:r,M1u,1,. o f

instruments or or voltes wirh one or more instrumems. ora work foi' such an ensemble. (2) CoMvos1TrON i11

whieh one o r more solo instnuL1e1HS (or instrumental

cool ja,.z A style in JAZZ characterized by softer ,·,.<Bues. more relaxcd p ace. and rhythmic stLbtletics. íirst heard in BirthoftheCool (1949- 50) by Milcs Davis.

Glossary

cornctt \Vind ins1 rumem o í hollowecl • out ,..•ood o r ivory.

with tinger holcs anda cup mouthpiece. blown like a

br:i.ss instn1men1. countc11)oint Thc combin 111ion oí rwo or more s imuh:rnc-

ous Mr.1,001c lines ::iccord ing ro :l sei of rules. co11 ut ry 11n1sic (also known as e-0tmu;r-ond · westem) A type

of l'OPUI.AR Mus,c associated vrimarily with white southerners. llrn.t blends elements of Fo 1.K Mosu;. rorui.An SONG. anel o ther traditions.

couplet ln a noNno or sevemeenrh- or eighreem.h-century nosotAu. one of severa) PER tons or passages that alter· n:i.te with the k.tFllA..lN. cour;_tnte A OANCt: in BINARY fOI0.4, it1 comp OtUld MtT l!R ata

moder:ite tempo anel with ao upbeat. fe.atnred as a standard MOVEM ENT of the BAIIOQ'UE dance SUITE. court ba.Jlet Se\'enteenth- century Freoch c i Nnt. an extensive musical- dramatic work wich costumes, scenery, poe1ry. aud DANCE thal íeatured members or the court as wcll as proíessional dancers. courlly lo,·c Scc t'INt:A.MOUR. Crcclo (Latin. ") bcli cvc·) Th ird oí tbc tive major musi· cal tcems ln 1be

MAss OnoJN.ARY. a

creed o r staterue m of

foith. cnunhorn

RENAJSSANCP.

win<l instrume nt, with :1 double

reed enclosed in • cap so tlte playcr s lips do not touch thc rccd. cmuu..lati,·c f'ol'm Fo 1u,1 uscd by Charles lves ::md others in which the principal Tttf.M r.appenrs in its e ntirety only nt 1he end oí a work. preceded by i1s ntVT.t,0PMENT. eycle A group or related works, comp1·is ing Movurv,NTS of a si ngle J3rger en1 i1y. Exam pl es include cycles or CKANTS for 1he MASS O•ouu•r. consisting or oue setting each of the KYR1e, GcORIA, SANC1·us, anel AcNus Dm (aud sornetimes also /te, misso est); 1he l'OLYPnONtC MASS cycle of the hfteenth through seventee11th centuries, and the SONC cvcu: or lhe niueteench century.

da capo aria Á.R tA .FOR.M witb tw-o seclions. Tbe f1rst scction is repeated aíter the sccond section's close. whicb car·

ries lbe ins1ruclion da capo (ltali:m. "from Lhe head ..). c re:itmg an ABA POnM.

dances Pieces in srylized dance rhythms, whether inde· pendem. paired. or linked together in a SUITE. dcacripf.i\'C

mus ic Scc CHA.RAc·rt:RJSTIC MUSIC,

dc,,cJoping ,·ariation Tc rm coincd by Arnold Schocnbcrg for the process o f deriving ncw TJHMES . accompani· me ms. and other ideas throughout a piece through va riations o f a germinal idea.

development (1) The process oí reworking, recombining. fr:igmenring. :i nd varying given

nn;.M tS

or 0 1her m:)te-

rial. (2) ln SONAT,< FORM, the scction 3fter 1hc EXl'OSl'ftON, which MOOULAUS through à variety of KtYS and in which Tnr.Mr.s írom the ex-position .ire presemed in new way$. diatoniç ( 1) 11

ln ançient Greçk nm,Sciç, ,1djeetive de~eribing

TF.TflAC110R1) with IWO WllOU.! TON fS and one

SP.MITONe.

(2) Name for a SCALE 1ha1 indudes f1ve whole 1ones and 1wo sem iLooes, where Lhe semitones are separa1ed by

rwo or ,hree whole tones. (3) Adjecrive describing a MF.t,OOY. CHORO, or passage based exclusively on a single

and fou r ar more

MASQUES

o r long musical i ntc rludcs.

Toclay often called SEM t •OPF.RA.

di:11011ic sc..'lle. dicgcti c m usic or sourcc 11111sic ln f, lm. rnusic th:u is

drone Non: or notes sustained throughout :rn entirc piecc or scc1io n.

hear<l or perfonned by thc characters themselves. digital llelating 10 methods for producing or recording musical sounds by tr>nslaring them into a coded series or on-ofípu lses. or lsand Os, in the same way tlm com·

duph1m (frorn LMin duplus, .. doublc .. ) ln POt.\'PHONY of thc lote twelf1h through fouriecnth ccnrurics. sccond voice fr om thc bottom in :i four-voice Tr.xnuu:. :i bovc the

puters store aud lransm it dala. diminution (1) Unil'orrn re cluctio n oí

dy namics Levei of loudness or so fmess. or ince ns ity. NOTC

T'f.NOR.

values in a

MtLOOY or Ptt RASE. for ins1auce by halving 1he lt ngth of each nole. (2) 'I)'pe of IMPIU)VJSl!D OllNAMENTATION in the sixtee nrb at1d seventeenth c-enturies, in wh.ich relatively long notes :1 re re placed with SCALF.s or othe r P1cu nv.s

composed of shon notes.

echos (Greek; pl. ecl,oi) One of the eiglu uoots asso,ciaced with Bv~1·1xtC HA.NT. electronic music Music based o o sounds that âre pro-

duced or modif1ed through electronic means.

direct Pc rtaining to a mannc r or pcrforming CUAN1' witho ut alternation between g ..o ups (see AN1'IPHONAL) o r between soloist and group (sce RESPONSORuL).

cliscant (Latin. "singing apan ") ()) Twel fah•ccntury stylc of POLYPHONY in whic.h the upper voi ce or voices have about one 101hree NOTES for ,eac h note o f the lowervoice. (2) TRERLE part.

d isjunct. (1) ln ancienr Gl'celc music. adjecrive 11sed 10 dcscribe 1hc relationship bctwecn two TETRACKOR1>S when 1he botto,11 l'IOTE or one is• wtto1.r. TONr. above the top note of che other. (2) Of a Muoov. cons isting mostly of s kips (thirds) and leaps (lnrger rnnnv,1.s) ra,her than

empfandsam style (Gerrn;.HL ... sensltive style" or "senti-

menta l style ..) Close l'e)ahve of tbe OAI.A1n- style. íeas urprising turns o f llAUMON-Y. CHUOMATI CJSM, ncrvous RHrruMS. and spccchJjkc Mt:LOOt ES. cnharmonic (I} ln ancicnt Crcck mus ic . acljccth1c turing

dcscribing a 1't:TRACHOKD comprising :1 major th ird and rwo quanenones. ora MELODY tbat uses s ucb tet-

rachords. (2) Adjective describing the relationship be1wcen two pitches , h,i nrc nouied differently but sound alike whcn played. such as G, anel /JI,. c nsembl c (1} A b~ou p oí singers or instrumcntnlists who pcrform togclber. (2) 1n an º""""· a passagc or piccc for more than one singer.

STP.PS.

dissona nce ( 1) Two or more :NOTES sou nd ing toget her 10 produce a discord, or a sound LhaL rieeds to be resolved to a CONSONA>ICt. (2) A NOn that does belong to the c uoao Lhat sounds simulLaneously wi1 h it: :'l n.onebord

"º'

episode ( 1) 1na rocur. a vassage of cou,.,.r.RPO".,. berween s1a1 e m e nts of 1he StJRfF.CT. (2) ln RONOO FORAf. 3 secrion be1ween two s ratements of 1he main THE MF. (3) A

a long inter-

subsidiary passage bc1ween presentations or 1hc m>in them:llic material. eq"lta1 temperam enl A TtMPtlVJ.ttNT in which the oct.we is divided into twelve equal SEMtTO~ts. This is the most corn mon1y used tuniug for \Y./estenl music today.

lude of •Aci.e-r. solo AIBS, chorai s ingi ng. and s pectacle.

esía1111)ie Med ie"al i nstrumental OAN'CE í htH reatures a

intc ndc d as entertainment.

series or sections, each played twlce with two djfferent cndings. ouvtn·r and CLOS. ethos (Greek. "custam ..) (1) Moral and etbical characteror wayoíbe ingor behoving. (2) Cbarncter. mood , or emo·

'J'ONI!.

diva A lead ingand successful female oPeM singer. See also rfllMA DON'NA,

divcrti&acmcnt ln

nlACÉl'HE tN MUS I QUE.

clivision Anothertcrm íor OIMJNUTION (2). dominant ln

TONAI.

music. 1he

N0T t

and

c Hono

:1 perfecr

hfth above the TON IC. double - f'unction form A combintttion of s ingle -Movn,r.NT :md muhimovement s trucrorcs, s uc h ~s SONATA ronM

superim posed ovcr four movemcn1s of a SONATAor SYMt'HONY that are played without breaks between them. douhle le ading.. tone caclenc,e CA otNCF. popular i n the fourteemh and f1 fteemh cenruries. in which the bortom voice moves dow1, 3 WHOl.t T0?1.'r. and 1he uppe r voices rnove up 3 SEMJTONF.. forming a major lhi rd :i.nd major

s ixrh cxpand ing to an opcn í1 f1h nnd oci,vc. doul,le motd Thirteenth -ceniLury M.OTl?T in th ree vo ices. with different texts in the nuv1uM :ind 'l'RJPLUM. Ooxology A formula of praise to the Trinity. Two fot·ms a re used in CREOOIIIAN C IIANT; the Create r Do•ology. or Ci..01rn,. aml 1he Leó6'er Ooxology, used will, 1N'rtto1TS,

P~LM$,

and other cbants.

dra_matic opera Scvcntecn th -ce ntury EngLisb mixccl Ct:N RE OÍ musical tbeater. :LS])Okeu play withan ovER·ruRr.

tion:11 e ffect of a certain TONOS,

MODE, ME'l't:U,

o r M lt.LOD\'.

éh1de (French, .. sn1dy ..) An instrum ental pieee designed ro develop a particular skill or performing technique. Ccrtaln ninctccn th· century étudcs th:it containcd sig· nif1cant arListic conte nt and wcre plnyed in concert wcrc

called CONCt:KT ÉTUD[S. cxoticism Ni neteenth· centu ry trend in which composers

wro1e mus ic 1hat evoked íeelings and settings of d istant lands or foreign culrures. e~>cf"iment:11 mns ic A trend in ""emic1h-century 1nusic 1ha1 focused on 1he cxplo r,ition of new musical sounds. techniques, and resources.

e,1,osition (] ) ln Huout. n set of entries of the sunJtCT. (2) ln ,1,oNATA ,-onM. lhe Íu:)t p .u1 o f 1.he MOVl',Ml.NT , in w hich rhe mai n TUEM1:s :ire si·ated, begin ning in 1he TONtC and

ºº"

usually closi ng in 1he 1NANT (oi' rela1 ive major}. expres.sio nisru Ea rly-twentleLh-cen,llry terin dtrived

from art. in whi ch music avoids :1II tr!ld irional f orms

of .. bea111y.. in order 10 e<press deep personal fe,elings th rough cxaggcro1cd gestures, angnlor MELODtts. and extr e n1e OISSONANCe.

fobnrdc u J::nglish s1_yle of IMPROVTSED ro1.n110NY írom 1he late Middle Ages anti lh:NAISSANCE, in which n c nANT in

1he midd le voice is jo ined by au uj)per voice moving in parallel a períect íourth above it anda lower voice that follows below tbe cbant mos1ly in parallel thirds. mov• iog to a f1f1b below to mark tbc beginniug and end of phra.ses aad the en<ls o i' mosl words.

fantas ia ( ltalian, .. fantasy..) , fantasy ( 1) Instrume nto) COMPOSITION that resembles an IMPROVISATION or Iacks • strict fORM, (2) IM1'rA·r1vt instrume ntal piecc on a singlt: SUliJEC1'.

limxbonrdon (pronounccd F'OH · boo r•donb) Continen· tal style o f POLYPHONY i ll the carly Rt:NAISSANCI:. in which \foices are wrincn. moving mosrly in parallel s ixths anel ending cach P H RASF. on :in octave. while a third unwr1nen votce 1s sung tn p:1r:1llel perfec1founhs beJow

""º

rhe upper voice. figtaration , ligu,·c Mei,ootc pattern made of comino11 placc materiais such as SCALf.S or ARPr.cmos. usually not dis rinctive e nough to be cons icl ered a MOTIVE or Tu r.M F..

figured bass A form o f 1'ASSO CONTINUO in which th,e RASS line is s11ppl iecl wil h numbers or ílat or sharp signs ro indicaie the approp,·iace c110110s to be played. fina_l The maia NO'rt in a MOOt; Lhe normal closing note of :i CttANT ia that mode . Las1 .MôVEMENl' of :1 work in 1hree o r more movements. or the c losing portion o f :in AC'r in an OPEII.A..

fu1ale

fine a111our (French ... i-eí,ned love .. , pronouneed fl::EN ah·MOOR, Ji11 ' "'"º'" in Occitan: also called oourtly Jo.-e) An idcalized love for an unattainable woman who is admired from o distance. Chid sttbject of the ·rnouBAoouRs :tnd 1'KOUVÊKl:S.

first praclice

See PR I MA PRATI CA.

ílorid 01•gannm Twe 1fth-century style of two-voice PoI.YJ)I-IONY in which , he lower voice sustains relatively

long NoTr,s whilc the uppcr voice s ings nore-groups of varying leng,h abovc e•eh note of 1he lower voice. fol.k music ( 1) Music of unknown authorship from a particular region or pcople. passcd down through oral trad ition. (2) ln the decades aftcr \Vorld War li. n cype o f POPUUR t.t us,c that drew on folk 1mdi1ions. whic h included bot.h genu ine ro1 K soNcs ~nd rortn.AJt SON'CS.

folk song Song of unknowu authotshiJ> írorn a panicu lar region or people, passed down thro11gh 01'311r:1dition. form The slrn.pe or scructureof :L <:0MPOsn'LON or MOVEMtN'r . formes fixes (French. ·'faxed forms .. , pronouneed form FEEX) Schemes of poetie and music., J reperition. each fea1uring a nrr-nATN, l•scd in tale

century F're ncb

CIIANSONS:

n,edi ev.:1.I and í1 flc:cmh-

in particula r. Lhe BALLAIHl ,

RON0t:AU. and VIREIAI. fo rtcpia.no Ty pc of P J.ANO from tbc c ighcecmh o r carly

Gl ossary

ninetcenth ccnturics. d istingu ished í rom Jate r p ianos by a varieiy o f feam r es. noL1bly a sm,ller range :md strings artached ro a woocl e n r athe r than mern l framc. Fr:luco11i:rn not:lti on System oí N0TA'íl0N dcscribcd by Franco of Colognc around 1280. using Mtcshapes to indicate durations.

free jazz An experimental

JAZ7.

style introducecl in the

1960s by Ornehe Cole man . using JMPROVISATJON rhat d is regards l he srandard forms and convenr ions of

jni. French overture Type of ovt11TURE used in

TRACéou; l!N

3nd otbe r ceNR f:S. tbaL opeus with 3 slow. ttOMOPH0N rC, and majestic sectio n , fo llowed by a faste r second section that begins ,vi1h tMrrA'rJON. frollo la (p i. frottole) St~teenth -centttry ceNnE o f ltal ian POLYP110NJC song i11 mock· popular s lyle, iypically snLA.B1c. IIOMOPHONIC. and DlATONIC. with the Mf!LOOY in thc uppcr voice anel marked rhythmic pauerns. fugaJ Rcscmb linga rucut:.: ícaturing íuguc .. Likc 1Mrr.ATtON. fu~ti.ng tunc Eigh1ccnth• ccnm ry America n type of PSAJ. M o r un« N rune t hrn fcamres a p assage ln rree IM ITATJON. usuolly preccded ond followed by n oM0PH0Nrc sections. fu gu e ( from lt,lian fug(l , .. ílighi') COM POSJTroN or section o f o compositio n in IMITATl\'E TEXTURE thot is based o n o s inglc suBJECT and hcgins wlth succcssivc statcmcnts of tbe su bjcct in voices. full anlhem A:.,·HtM for unaccomp:miecl e Ho rn in coNTRAPUNTA 1. style. fnndame ni,J bass Term coin ed by Jean - Philippe R3meo11 10 indic.are the succession oí the roo1s or fundame m.al lones in a. series or CHOROS. futuris m . f'utur ists Twenliet h -century movement tba.l creat ed music based on noise. MUSIQUt

gafa n i (Preuch. "e leganr'") Eiglueenih ·cemu ry musical style tbat featured songl ike MtL0OIES. short PJJRASES. J'requent CAOtNCl:':S. aud lightt accompanimcnt. g-.illiar<l Sixteemh - centu ry da nce in fast tripie Ml!Ti:R. o fte n pai red with Lhe PAVA..NÉ and in the sa rne FOKM (AABBCC). gnmut The e nti re r:inge of p itches normally wrine n in the

Middle Ages. g:n •ot!c BAROQU C dup)c · l imc D ANCI. I N 81NA8\' f'ORM , with a half- measurc upbcat anel n charactcristic rhytbm of

shon•short•long. Gehranchsmusik (Ce rman '"utilitarian music" or "mus ic for use·) Term fro m rhe 1920s 10 d escribe music rhat was socially relevam ,nd useíttl. especially music for ama1e11rs, c hildren, o r workers to playorsing. gcnre Typc 0 1' catego·ry of llHISic~I COM POS ITJON, such 3S SONA'rA or SVMPHON'\'. genus (Larin . "cb ss"; pro n oun ced GHE ll - noos, pl. gen· er(b) ln anei<mt Gr eek mu~iç. o n e oí three ío rm.$ of TF.TflACIIORD: OTATONIC, C11ROMATIC. a nd ~NHARMONIC. Gesn111tkunscwerk (Cerman. ··t01al arLwork'' or "collective a rtwork") Tenn coiued by Richa rd Wagner fo r a

drami"ltic work in which poerry. scenic d esign , srnging. 3Ction , ;m _ d mus ic ~11 \Vork t ogerh er 1ow3rd one 3r1istic e.xpression . gi!,'ltC (Frertch íor "jig") Styl iied OANCe n,ovemen1 o f o standard BAIIOQUE SUITE, in .8lNARY)'0RM, 1Jlorke<l. by fas t compout1<l MtTCR such as : or with wide M1n.001c 1eaps •nd continu ous triple ts. Tl\e two sectio ns usu, lly both hegin with IM ITATt ON. Gloria (Latin. "Glory") Second o f i he frve m ajor musi cal ite rns in 1he MASS OnnrNARY. a praise fo rmula also known as che Gre~uer DoxoLOCY. goliard songs Med ieval Latin songs associated with the goli:uds, wbo were wanderingstudents ::ind. clerics. Gmdual (from Latingradus. "stairstep") ltem iu the MASS P1tovt1t, sung after t he Epistle reading. compris ing a RESP0ND anel VERSE. CuANT graduais are norn,ally MELIS· MA1'1C in style a nd sung in a RLSPONSOR.IAL manner. o ne o r more .solo ists alternating with the c 1:10 1n. gi-and mo!d Frencb version of tbc large· scaleSACREO C0N· CEtlTO. for soloists. cloub)c CHORUS. and ORCH eSTRA. b"T'.m d opera A scrious fonn of OPERA. popular duri ng the Ro..uANTIC era. thac was su n g chroughour anel t nc:luded BAl.l.tTS, CHORUSP.S and specucular staging. Gre ater Doxoloro> Sce Glorio. Greater Perf'cct.Sysi cm ln ancient Grcek music. a systen> o f Tl!TBACHORDS spanningtwo octavcs. Gr cgoria_n chanl Tbe rcpcrtory oí ccclcsiastical CH.ANT used in the Homa n Catholic Church. gi-ound hass AASSOOSTINATO. g,1 it3r· A s tring instn,mem. rel:ued to 1he ttrrt. which has o fiar back, freued f111gerboard. and inwa rd cu rves on rhe s ides anel is played by g>lucking o r strumming the s trings.

half s te p (or sem ito 11 e) 1'he s ma llesr rNTERVAI, norma lly Hsed in \'(lestern music. equivalenl 10 the imerv.il between any 1wo successive NO'rts on lhe P1AeiO keyboard: baH the size of a WHOLE s-rtP. harmonia (p i. harmoniai) Ancient Greek term with multi pie meanings: ( 1) the tmioo of pa rts io a n orcle rly whole: (2) IN1'J:JlVAL: (3) SCAU type: (4) style o f MEL0DV. harmonic proga·ession A logical suecessi on of c uonns witb a sen se of direction: cspecially. the succession o f c ho rds uscd lo accompany a MEL0 0Y or used as ihe basis fo r VAIUATlôNS. harmony Aspcct of music that pcn:iins to s imultancous combinations of NOTES. ,he INTBRVAI.S and CHORDS that result. a nel 1he correccsuccession o f c hords. hnrp Plucke d s1 ring instn1me!'lt with a resonating sound bo<. n cck. a nd sirings in roughly rriangubr shape. The s trings r ise perpend icul ar í rom 1he soundboa rd 10 the ncck. lrnl'ps ir.hord Keybo>rd instnrment in use b etween the ftf. teenth .,nd e lghteen t h ce n turieõ. lt w.,~ di~tingvl.$hecl from ihe C l;J\VICIIORO and lhe P IANO by lhe fact lhat its S I r i ngs were p i ucked, not Slr uck. lra nt (l'rench , "higb.. : p rouounced OH) ln Lhe fou rteenth

through s ixteenth cent urics, tcrm

for

loud i nstrun1cms

such 3S coRNt:Trs i"!nd SACKRUTS. See BAS. h e;id - m oti"e l niti:tl p assage or MOTT\tt oí 3 piece or ·Movr.Mt?.T; uscd e speci:llly for:1 mo1ive or PllRASt that :ip,pe3rs 31 1he b cginning of c:ich mo\lemer11 o r ~ ,YOTTO MASS or C,\NTUS-FIRMUS MAS$.

he ig h te d n c umes ln an early fo rm of NOTATION. NF.UMtS arranged so lh a, their relative he ight inclicatecl higher o rlower p iich. he miola ( l'rom Greek l,emiolios, "one anda halr') A me1ricaJ e fl'ect in which th ree duple un its Sltbstitute for t wo , riple oues. such as three successive quarter N01' t-:S with in a Mt\SUHf: of ;. or Lhree 1.wo .. beat g roup i1'.igs in two rueasures of 1riple Mt'l'llk. Hem iola may occur between voices o r successive measures. hete rophony Musit or musical -rtXTUflE in which a M'tL-oov is per formed by two or more parts s imultaneou.sly in more Lbar1one way. for exa1nple. one voice pe rfo r ming it simply. aud tb e otber witb cmbellishmenis. b cxachord ( from Grcck. "six strings .. ) (]) A scl o r s ix pitcbcs. (2) ln medkval and R..NAJSSA.NCE SOLMJZA'rJON. Lhe slx NOT1:s represemed by t he syllables m , re . mt.j'a. sol, La, whic.h coulcl be rransp osed t0 three position s: the "narur,J" hex,chord , C· D· E· F· G· A; 1he "h,rd'" hexa c hord. G· A· B·C· D· E: and 1he ..soft" hexacbord. F· G· A· ll>· C - D. (3) ln TWELVE·T0N& thcory, the f1rst six o rlast s ix notes ia t.hc KOW. historia l n Luther an music of 1he sixteenth to cighceenth cemuries. a music:'.'1 seni ng b:ised on :i biblical narr:i · rive. See PAss 10N. hoeket (French hoquet. " hi ccup") ln thirtee nth- a nd íourtec,uh -cemury POLVPHONY, tbe device o í aherna1ir'1g rapidly between two voices, each restingwhile tbe other s ings, as if o single MtLODY is split between t hem ; or, a COMPOSlT J ON bnsecl 011 this <levice. h om0J)houy Musical -rrxTunr, i n which nll voices move lOgeihe r irl essenda lly the sa,ue nnn1u..1 . as dishnct írom POLYPIIONY and H['l' EROPIIONY, See aJso MJ!l,ODY ANO ACCOMPA.NIMtl<1' ,

homorhy th.mic Having the same lUtl'"l'UM. as when several voices o r pa rts move togethe r. hmna.nism Movement in the RENAJSSANCE to revive ancient Greek and Roman culmre and io s t11dy things pe rca ining 10 human knowledge a nd experience. huniy - gu1·<ly An i a sl rurnent with Mf! LODY and DHONE strings. bowed by a rotali ngwheel turncd wilb a cronk. wi1h lcvers workcd by a kcyboard to changc 1hc pitcb on ,be melody strini,,(s) . hy,nn Song 10 o r in honor o f a god. l n th c Christian rradi tion, so ng o f prai se su ng 10 God .

i d êc Hxe (Frcn c h , " fi<ed idea" o r "obsession") term coine d by Mector Berlioz for • MELODY that is used throughout .1 piece to repre~ent ., per~on. th ing, OI!" idea. ira ns form ing it co suit the mood nnd situation. irniiMe ( 1) To repear or slightly va r)' in on e voice or parr a segment or MF.LOOY just heard in another. a, pi11ch or

rra nsposed. (2} To follow 1he example o f an exisiing p iece or style in composing a n ew piece. imii~tion ( 1) ln POt.YPH ON1c music. 1he <levice of rcpc~ting ( imit~u ing) ~l MP.l.OO\' o r MOTTVl! ;.mnouncecl i n o nc p:irt in oneor more other parts , often a r a differ en1 pitch levei and sometãmes with minor melod ie or rhyth.mic ahe rations. Usually t he voices enter wit h the e le menr th:1t is imitnted. nlchough sometimes imitation hap pens within lhe middle of a segmem o i' melody. (2) The act oí paue rning a new work a l'ter an existing work or style: especiaUy. to borrow much of the existing wo rk's material. imHation mass (a r parody mass) PoLYPUON 1C MASS i n which ea.cb Mov1:Mt:.NT is b ased on l'he same pol)tpbonie: model. normally 3 CIIANS0N or M0TtT, and a li voices of the naodel are used iu the ruass. but none is use d as a CAN1'US f'LRM.US.

imjtativc cotuitcrpoi.nt CON1' RAPUNTAL 1·rx·ruKe markcd by 1MnAnoN bctwccn \foices. impcrfcct (o r nti nor) division ln mcdic\'al and RENAISSANCI: NO'l'ATION. 3 cli\l'ision of 3 Non: \'alue int o f\1/0 o r the ne,n sm aller \ntlts (r:11her than rhree). See MOl)t. T IM t, AN'l) PR01.A'l'ION .

imprcsa l'io During the BAROQUP. r,rn,oo, 3 businessman who rnonaged anel overso" the production of 0PF.RAS: rnday, someone who books anel stn.ges operns and other musical events. impres.siouism Tel'm derived from :irt. used fo 1· anusic rh,i evokes moods and visua l imagery ,hrougb coloríul f fARM01''Y nnd 'iflStnuttema1 TIMBR"C. imJHO,•isation. improvising Sponta.n eous invention oí rnusic while performing. i ncluding d evisiug VAflJA•noNs. embellis hments. or accompaniments for ex:is ting rnusic. inde term inaey An approach to coMP0S1noN, p ioneer ed by

Jobn Cage. in which tbe compose r lea"es certain aspetts of tbc music un •pecif,ed. Should 1101 be coníuscd witb CHANCE.

insll'umcntaJ fà.mily Sct of inst ruments. ali o í thc sa me type but of d iffe rent s izes and RANCES. suc h as ;a v10L CONSOUT.

int.:1.bufotion Arrangcmenr or .1 voc:il piece for un-r. o r keybo:ird, rypic:illy wrinen in TABl.A'runr.. intc rmcdio Musical inrcrludc o n a pastoral. a llcgorical. or mythological subjcct perfonned bcforc, bctwccn. or after the acts oi' a spoke n comedy or tragedy . inte1·mezzo Eigh1eemh- cenmry ct~Rt of Ita1ian comic OPERA. performecl berween acts o f a serious opera or play. i11tc n 1:tl Dis1ance in pitc h be1wecu two N0'rl'.S. l ntroH (from La1in inrroi"tus, .. e ntrance"} Fi rs t item in tbe M.ss PROPtR, o riginolly sung for the e111rance proces· sion, comprising an ANTJPHON', PSALM verse. Lesser DoxOU)OY. and reprise of theANTlPH()N. i,n·e reion ( 1) ln a M r.LODY o r 'J"W'r,1,v i;· Tor-rr, now. rcvertiing t be upward or d owmva rd di reclioo oí each INTEkVAL wbile mainta iaiog its siie; o r Lhe n ew mt:lo<ly o r row fo n n t hat r esults. (2) ln UAHM0NY. a distribution oí the

AlO

NOT ES

Glossary

in a CHORD so tha.t a note other than thc 1tooT is tbe

lowest n ote. (3) ln

couNTERPOJNT.

reversing che rela tive

anel usually performed wit h action. and li nked 10 the

thc f1rst be:tl. or a stylized f' tANO piecc based on such a

and HAL.F STtP. forming a minor 1hird :tbove 1he TON I C.

UTURCY.

DANCF..

The s ixt h and sevenrh nbove 1he 1onic nre :i lso m inor in 1h e natu ra l mi nor scale but on e or both r».:'ly be raised.

position of two melod ies, so ,hat the one ,hat had been

lihnty Thc prcscribcd body of te<ts 10 be spoken or sung

lower is now above che orher.

and rin,al actions to bc perfotmcd in a religious service. long ln medieval :rnd R tNAtSSANCe syste.ms of R.HY'rJ-iMIC NOTATION. 3 NOTE equal lO t\\10 or three BftEVI!:$. lute Plucked string instrument popular from the bte Middle Ages tlll'ough the B••oQm: vr,R 1on. tyJ>ically pear- or almond-shaped "' it h a rounded back, Oat fmgerboard. freis. and onesingle and f,ve douhle strings. lute song EngUsh ceNnt oi' solo song wüh LO'rt accompani •

iso,.hyi.hm (from Creek iso• , ··eq"al," and r1t,1hm) Repeti ·

tion in a voice por1 (usually thc TtNO•) of on c><1cndcd pat1en1 of durations throughout a section or an entire COMPOSITl()N.

ty])e of music developed mostly by African Ameri· caos in the early part of the 1wen1ieth century that combined elements of Africau, popula r, and Euro • pean music. :m<l th3t bas ev,olved inLo a broad tradillon encompassing many styles.

j ai>. A

jong le ur (F1·ench) ltinera.nt mediev.i.l musician or street

entertainer.

ment. lyl'e Plucked string instnunen t witb a resonating soundbox, two arms, crossbar, and scrings 1hat ru.n pa.ralle l to

the soundboard and attach 10 the crossbar. ly ric op e ra ROMA.NTIC OPf.RA that lies somewhere beLween LigbL OP<HA COM tQt/E aud CIIA1'0 OPEHA,

juhilus (L3tin) ln

CHAN1',

thc meHsma on .. _ia.. tu anÁLu:LUlA.

perfect tone.

cessio n

of tone colors 1h~1 is perceived

:malogous to

the changing pitches in a Mnoov. Kyrie (Creek, "Lord") Onc ofthe f,vc m:ijor musical itcms in the MAss OsotKABY, based 011 a BVZANTtNE litany.

L.1 ndini cad ence (named for F-rancesco Landini) ln POLYPHON"Y of the fourieentb and f,fteenth ceoturies. a decorated sixth·to·octave CAO<NCE in which the upper voice moves dowu a sn:v. then rises a third as 1he ·ri::.Non

descends by step. lauda (from Larin laudare, ··co pr:iise-) ltali:i n de\rotional song.

Leit1uotiv. le itmotive (Cerman. "leading motive") ln an or íalm score. a M01·rvt:. 1·utMt:. or musical idea associatcd with a person. thing . mood . o r idea. which rcturns in original ar altc rcd. form t hroughom. OPEUA

lihrctfo (lralian ... littlc book") Litcrary text for an OPERA a r 0 1her musical

scage work.

having lll3ny M.CLISMAS,

line. (2) Tune. (3) Principal pan accompanied by other

clevcn syllablcs. (3) POLYPHONIC or CO!/CP,RTATO setti ng of such a poem or of a sonnet or other n o n repetitivc

vrns• form. (4) English polyphonic work imit.ating the Jtílli:rn GP.Nll E.

madriga.l comedy. madrigal cycle l n 1he late si.x1een 1h anc.l e:irly se\fenteentb cemuries., :i. series oí MADR1CA1.S 1hat rep resents a succession of scenes ora sim pie plot. 1nad_rigaUs n, A pàrticul:1rly evoca.tive--or. ií used in ad is-

paraging sense. a thoroughly conventional- instance of 'l'l:XT OCPtC'l'ION or W'OJU)- PAINTtNÇ; so called bec3use o f the prorninent role of word-painting io MADIUOALS. major scale D1Ai'ON1c succession of ~o·rns wi tl1 a major third and mujor sevtnLh abo\fe the ·roN 1C. ma.re li A piccc in d up lc or Mt:T&R comprising an nuro-

duction and several STRAINS. each repeated. Typically there àre LWO Slrains in the iluiti:i..l key íollowed by a ·rR10 iu a kcy a fo,,rth ltigher; the opeojngstrains moy or may not re pe::tt :Lf ter the trio. mas hup Com b in3tion of e lemems from two o r more

recordings, such as the vocal line l'rom onesongwíth the instrumental track of 3nother.

m asque Se"c11leenth-centu1]' Engl ish entc r tai n mcnl involviog pocc ry. mus ic. D.ANCE. costumes. cuouusts. and dabor:itc scts. akin to thc Prcncb cou1rr BALLET.

Mass (f'rom Lati n missa. "clis misscd") ()) Thc mosr

l ig,lture N'r:uMr:- l ike noce&hape u~ed to ind içah; a 6hort

Ordin ary i.$ not (,1 mil33}.

litu11,'lcaJ drama Dialogueor1a sacred subject. set 10 inusic

m e litUnO.tiC Üf 3 MtLOOY,

mus1cal sen1ng. h:iv1 ng rwo 01· 1h ree s 1:1n1.as

11s

imponant semce in the R.oma n church. (2) A musi cal work seni ng rhe tens of the O•o111••v of the Mass. typically KYRIP., CtORIA, C•r.DO, SAKC'TUS, and ACN1JS OP.t. ln this book, as in common usagc. the church service is capitalizcd (the Mass). but a, musical sening of the Moss

N'OTATION,

from M INN etumER.

melis ma A long MtLOo tc passage sung to a single syllable oftext.

followed by a R1TORNr.1.1.o. (2) Sixtecmh-ccnniry r,al -

and

Li cd (Cerman ...song": pi. Lteder) Song with Cerman words. whe1her MONOPHONJC, POLYPRONIC, or for voice ,vith accom pnn iment: uscdl especially ío r polyphon ic songs in the RtNAISSANCe ~m.d songs for voice and PIANO in the eighteenth anel ninetecnth ccnturies. nt1YTfu.uc pa1tern i n 1wel fíh- lo sixteemh-ceor\lry

l\eNAtSS,\NCt through thc cigh1ecn1h ccntttry. measul'e (1) A unit of musicol time consisting of • given n11mber of beats: the basic unit of MRTER. (2) Metrical unit set off by barlines. Me is tersinger(German , .. mastersinger") TypeofGerman am31eu r s inger ;rnd poe1 .. composer of the íourteemh through se\fenteenth centur ies. wbo was a 1nember ora guild that cultivated a style of MONOPtl ON1C song derived

melodra ma A CENllt: of musical ahcaLer t hat cornb incd spoken di:tlobruc wh b backbrrou ncl music. melody (l} Successlon o f tones pe rcetved as :i coherent

madriga l (ltalian madrigale. "so ng in the mother tangue .. ) ( 1) Fourteenth -cenmry lrn lian poetic form

fon poem b:wing :iny numb~r of lincs, c.1ch of sevcn or

kcy ln TONAL music. thc hicraTchy of NOTES. CHOROS. nnd othcr pitcb c lcmcnts 3roun d a central note. chc ·rox1c. The re are two kinds of kcys. major and minor. kithara Ancient Greek instnnncnt. a large LYRt:. Klangf'arhenm elodi e (Germnn, ··,one-co lor melody") Term coined by Arnold Scl,oenberg 10 describe a suc·

temper:un ent A type ofTtMPF.RAMtNTin w hich rhc flfths are nmcd small so th:n 1he major t hirds sound well; frcqucmly oscd for keybo:ird ins, rumcnts fronl rhc

m ean- to11e

mêlodlc Frencb ART SONC. lhe Frencb counterpart to 1he Lrno.

an effosive MEUSMA, particularly

just intonat ion A systcm of runing No1·es in thc SCA-Le. common in thc R.tNA JSSANCt. ín wbich rnosr (but not ali) tbtrds. slxths, perfecr founhs. :rncl perfec1 í1 F,hs are ln

All

mawrka /\ type of Polish íolk dance (and later ballroom dance) in rriple MF.1'f!n. cha racterized by accents on 1he second or third bea, and oí1en by doned f1gures on

pan..s or CHOROS.

m.c lody and a cCOJUJ):lllime nt A kind oí HOMOrJ(ONIC TtXl''UflE in which thcre is onc main MELODY, wh.ich is accompanicd by cttoaos o r othcr r1cuRA1·10N. mc n suration ca.non A CANON in which voices move ~t dif·

ferent rates of speed by using differem MeNSURATION SICNS.

meusura1ion signs ln A.J\s NOVA and RENAISSANCt sys1ems rhytbmic N01'A'r10N. s igns 1hat ind icate which con1bination oftime :u1<.l prol:uion to use (see MODC, ·r1M e. ANO

PftOL<l'ION). The predecessors ohtM&StCNATVRES. meter Recuri·ing patterns of strong and weak beats. divicliug m usica_l liine in10 regularly recur ring un it.s of equ:il duration. mcfric-al psa lm Melric, rhymed , and STROPHIC vernacula r Lranslation of a l'SALM. sung Lo a relalivcly sirnple M.tLOOY

1h:1t repeats for each strophe. me zzo c araUere (halian fo r "middle characler ..) l n oPttlA oítl1e late eighteenth centu ry, a term for characters wbo fa ll between ,he caregories o f serious and com ic.

minim ln Ans NOVA and NOTAl'ION. a NOn:

RtNAJSSANCE sys1ems

of rhyth_mic

lh.:i.t is cqu:i..1 to halí ora th i rd of :::i

StM J-

BREVt:.

minimaJ isrn Onc o f thc lead ing musical stylcs o f thc late rwcmieth cenmry. in wh ich materia is are reduced ro a minimum :md procedures s implif'ted so 1ha1 wh:u is going on in 1he music is immcdiately npp!1ren1. Ortcn c h:H.'lCleri7ed by n constam pulse :md mnny repe1itions sim pie ltHV1'H 1o1 IC. MP.LODJC, OJ' HAlU,í ONTC 1>:-m erns.

Minncliedc,· (Ccrman, ")ove songs") Songs of tbe MtNNF.STNGf.R.

M inncttinge1· (Gennan, .. ~ingcr of loYe .. , al~o p i.} A ))OCl-

composer of med ie\'al Germany who wrote MONOP HONJC songs. particularly about love. in Midd le High German. mtnor scale 01ATON 1C SCAJ.t': that begins with a w110L.t': S'rtP

minstre l (írorn Latin ,nirlister, ''serv:i.nt") Thi rteenthcentury crn-veling musician. sorne of whom wer~ also

employed at • court or city. miusirelsy Popular fonn or rnusical iheater in the U nited States d uring lhe naid-ni neteenth centUJ)'. i u •Nh icb

wbite perl'o rme rs blackeoecl thei r faces and il'll per· souated African Americaus in jokes. s kits. songs. and dances. minue t DANCE in moder ate tripie METER, tv.•o · measu re u nits, and UINAJIY FOHM. minuet and t·rio fo rm FonM tbat joins two OINAI\Y- PORM M.HfUE'rS to crcate an ABA patlern. where A is lhe 1nin ut:t

and B tl1e ·rs,o. mixcd media T re nd of the late twcnticth century rhat com· bincs two or more of the arts. includ ing music. to creatc a

new kin d o f PERFORMANCE ART or musical thearer.

mixed paralle l and oblique organun, Early for m of 1h3t comb1ncs p3rallcl mouon w f th obltquc mo ri on ( in which rhc ORCANAt. vorct tem:iins on 1he samc NOTE whilc 1he PR1NCtPAL vo1cr. moves) in ord ct to nvoid 1'R11'0NES. modal f..·1:-tk inguse o f a Monr.. Comp:areToN,u. modc (1) A sCALE or MHODY typc, idenlil'1ccl by lhe par· t icufar IXT IUlVALLIC re.lationships among thc NOTES in thc ORCANVM

modc. (2) ln part icttlar. one of tbe eight Oater twclve) scalc or melody types recognized by church muskions and 1heoris1s begin ning in the Middle Ages, disti nguishcd from one 3nothcl' by the ::n-r3ngcmcm or WHOLt TONRS 3nd SF.Ml'l'ONF,S 31'0tllld rhe PINAL, by che 'R.,\X-Ot rclMivc 10 1hc frnal, and by the position of the nsos or ftEClTINC TON&, (3) I\Hl'THMlC MOOf., See olso >!ODE, TIME, i\ -.;i, PR.01.ATION,

mode, tim e, and J>rolaiion (Latin mocfos. rem.p11.s. prola110) The lhree leveis of rhyihmic dhâsion in As~ NovA NOTATION, Mode is tbe Cli\!ision of LONCS iruo OlltVt:s: tin1e the diviS.iOn OÍ breves int0 St!M JBRJNES: àlld prob• Lion the d ivision of semibreves .into MINJMS. mode rnis m , mode rnis t General term fo r music. art. :md liier:iture from the late nineteenth century througb the

twemieth century whose crea1ors sought to offer some· tbing new and distincHve wh ile maintaining Strong links to t rad ition. i ntertwining im1ovation with emula· tion of past classics. Compare AVANT- GARDE. modificd s tropbic f'orm Variant o f STflOPHIC t·o•M in which th e music for 1hc fust sta nza is \•aricd fotr la.ter st:mz:is. or in which there is a c h:rnge of KY.Y, flHYTH M. char::1cter, or material. modu lat ion ln TONAL music, a gradu31 c h:mge from one KtYtO MlOthcr within 3 scction of :lo MOVtMtNT, 111011ody (1) An accompanicd solo song. (2) The musical Tr..x-rvnr. of õolo õinging .1cçompanicd by one o r mor e

instn1ments. mouoph ou íc Co nsis1i ng o f .,rn1.001c

Hne.

::1

si ng le unaccompan ied

A12

Glossary

monophony Music o r musical TEXTU RE consistingof unac·

companied ME1,oor. motet ( from French mor ...word'")

Pot.YPHONI C

voc.:11

ooM-

POSITrnN; 1he s peciflc mc an:ing ch:rnges over t ime . The

.:adcl 3 1c~ to {l n cxi sring OlSCANT cuusut.A, Thirtcc.n1h-ccnt11ry motcts reature one or more voices. ench with its own sacred or secu lar text in

longer NOTF.S ,han uns1ressed syllables (usually 1wice as long). fn soun7..AT10N. t he proccss of ch:m gi ng from o n e w-eXACHOB.D 10 ano1her.

111ut:.ltio n

c:1 rlies1 motcts

L1tin or French. nbove n T'f,NOR dr:twn from CJI ANT or

other ><e1.00Y. Most íourteemh- and some fifteenthcemury motets fean1re 1s01tnYTnt.t anel may include a CONTIIATP.NOR. Pro m 1he Mteemh cen1ury on. any polyphoJljc seuing of à Làtin text (otber than à MASS) could bec.alled l motel; from Lbe l:ue sixteenLh cennuy on. the te rm wasalso a pplied to saered compositions in Germàn

and )ater in other languages. rnotive Shott Mtt.00 1c or n n n11M 1c idea lhat recurs in the same or altered fo rm. moito

masa

POLYPHONIC MASS in

which lhe MOVEMtN1'S a re

linkcd primarily hy sbaringthc some opcning MOlWEOr PHRA.St:.

mo,•c m c nt Sclf- contained unit of mus ic. complete in ilsel f. Lhac can stand alone o r be Joined wlth o thers ln :i largcr work. Some rypes or c oMP01;1T 10N rypic:lll)' consisr of seveT3l movements (such as the four movements common in the SYMPHONY), mus ic vídeo Typc of short film popul>rized in thc early 1980s th::11 provicles a visual accomptmimc n t to a POI' SONG.

musica licta (L,rin, "íeigned music") ()) ln early mus ic. NOTts ou1side 1he s1and ard c•><OT, which excluded ali ílaued and s harped notes except 8>. (2). ln POl.YPHO,'Y of the fourteent b th.rough sixteentb eenturies. the practiee of raising or loweri ng by • seM1ro,:e the piteh of a written note, pa rticulorly a, a CADENCE. for tbe sake or s ,noother H ARMONY o r n101io n of t he p.1rts. mus ica mundana, mus ica hu ,naoa . mus ica instru111 e n tal is (Lüin . ··music o í 1he u niverse,'* '"human music,'* anel ··inslrnmental music'·) Three kinds of music iden-

tif,ed by Boetbius (ca. 480- ca. 524). respcctively the "music" or numerical relat io nshipsgovemingthemovement of stars, p la nets, a nd the seasons; tbe ··music·· tbat h:1rmon izes the hmnan body and sou l :md their parts: :i.ncl :1udible musie p roduced by voices or instname nts.

musical CeNRt or musical tbe3ter that reatures songs and numbc rs in stylcs dr;awn írom PO PU LAR MUSI C in tbc contcxt oí a s poken play with o comic o r ro mant ic

DANCE

plot. musical figure ln

A13

Glossary

mus ic. a M EL00 1c panern or coNTRA-PUN"TAl. effecc conve111 ionally employed co con vey 1hc me~rni ng of :i 1ClCI. nrnsi<:rue con cl'ê te (F'rench , .. concre1e mus ic .. ) Term BA-FIOQUE

coined by com posers work ir1g in Paris in 1he 1940s l'or nmsic composcd by assembling anel mnnipulating recordecl sounds. worki-1,g .. concretely .. with sound it~elf rather lhan w-ith nm~le,; NOT/\TION. mus iqu e mes11 rée (Prenc h , .;rneasured musi c") Lnte-

s i..<1ee111 h-century Freuch s tyle or 1ex1-se11ing. especially in c 11A«SONS, in which s tressed syllables are given

11ationalis111 ( 1) ln politics anel cultu re, an anempt 10 unH,v or represeni a particular group or people by creati ng a nat'iona l 'identity lhrough c h aracteris1ics such as corn mon language. shared c,dt1u e. historical traditions. and national institutio ns aud rituais. (2) Nineteenth- and twentieth-century t rend in music in wllich compose rs were eager to e mbrace elements in their music tha t claimed a o:ttional identity. neoclassicism Trend in music írom the 191 Os to the 1950s ân wl1ich com poscrs re ,•ivc d. imitateJ. or e voked t be styles. CENRES, a nd fOBMS oi' pre - ROMANn C music, espe-

cially those of tbc eigbtccmb ccntu.ry. n co• Romanticism A trc nd of t hc l:ttc twcmicth century in whic h composers adopced the familiar tonal idiom o f nineteenth -cenrury Rol.tANTTC music :lnd incorpor.ued its sou ncls ond gcsrurcs.

neotonnl Term for music since 1hc early 1900s 1hat es1nblishes• singlc pitch as a toMI center, but does nor íollow the traditional rules oíTONAt.tTV. n eumaHc ln CHANT, havl ng about one to seven NOTr.s (or one Nr,uMr.) sung io each syllnble of text. n eume A s ign used in NOTATION of c nANT to indicn1e ,.. ceru.,i n number of NOTfS and genera l MELOOIC Ji rec1i o11 (i n early íorms or notat ion) or particular pitebes (i n later forms). New Objectivity Term coined in the l 920s to describe • kind of nev., 1u!AuSM in mus ic, in reaction to the e mo-

tional intensity of lhe late ROMANTtcs and the CXPhts s10N1SM ofSchoenbergand Berg. Ncw Orlcon• jazz Leading slyle of JAZZ just aflcr \Vod d

notes inégalcs {French . "uncqua l n otes": p ronou ncecl

NUTS an -ay-CALL) Sevemeemh-cenrury convem ion or performing F'rench mus ic in whic h passages no ta ced in shorr. even duratio ns, such as a succession of eigluh no 1cs, :wc performecl by ohcrt)Oting longcr n o1es o n rhc

bc3t with shorter offbents to produce a lilting rh)•hm . Notre Dame 11ol)1>hony Style of POLYPHONVfrom the late rwelfth nnd t hi r1ee,n h centuries. associated wich 1he

Cnthedral of Notre Dame in Paris.

octatonjc scale {o r octatou ic colJecUoo) A

SCAL.t!

rb:u

ailt rnates WMOU: and HALt sn:rs. Offerto,y h em in tbe MASS PKOt>llR. sung while tbeCo.t.1MuN tO N

is prep.ired . compris ing a ntSPONO with out vt:nses.

Offiee (from Latin offic,um . .. obliga11on .. or .. cerernony-) A series of eight praye r services or lhe Kom,n church, celebrated daily at specií1ed times. especially in monastcries and convcnts: also. anv onc of thosc services. Old Roman cl1ant A rcpert~ry oí ecd csiastical CKAJ<T prc-

closcs on a p itch othe r lhan thc

FINAL.

a nel the sccond

(" closecl ") ends with a full CADENCE on the fmal. ope ra {1ra1ian, "work'') Or:un.1 with com inuous o r n e:lrly conti nuous music. sraged wh h scenery, cosnunes. :rnd

acrion. oper:i burfa (ltolia11. "comic ope ra") Eighteenth -century ceNRe of ltaliau eomico1•011A, sung throughout. opéra bo11ffe RoMA?-'TtC opera.1ic C-tNne in France that emphasiied t be $tn:Jrt. witt_y. and sati rical e le ments o f OPÉRA COM I QUC.

teenth century, ligbt Prench com ic

tha1

pieces of music shou ld be

OAC::ANIC.

duplum ln NoTnE DAt.fP. POI.YJ>HON"Y. an 011CA.NUM in two voices. orna..ment A bríef. conven1ion:i.) formula, suc h as a 1'RJLL or tu1·n. writte n o r 1M t'JtOv1s1;0. that adds expres.sio n o r chal'm to a Mt::L001c Une. o rname nta( i ou The addit ion of embell ishments lo a given MeLOor. e ithe r during performàr'lCC o r as part of t hc act organum

of COMl'OSl'rlON, oslinato (ltalian. "obstinatc,.) Short music.11 patte rn Lhat

whicb used

is rcpcatcd pe rsistcntly t brougbout a piccc o r section.

spoken dialogue iustcad oí atc1-rA·rtvts . (2) ln nine -

See B.ASSo OSTI NATO. Ol1"Crt See OPEN AND CLOSF.O f!ND I NOS. ou"crh1re (French, ··openi ng") ( 1) ÜHRTURF., especially

OPERA,

music tbot convcys to thc vicwcr a mood or other aspcct of a scene or charncter but is not heard by the characters

with a happy cnding. usually withom comic char~ctcrs

themselves. Compare n 1EGF.Trc Mus1c. notation Asys1em for writing do\'..-n music.11 sounds. o r the process oi' writ ing d own music. The principol noc:uion

opcrctta l\ inetccnth-century kind oi' light OP<RA witb spo-

and sccnc.s.

kcn dialogue. originat ing in 01•iRA Bourrt. opus (latin . ·work") \Vork or coll ection oí works in rhe sarne C"l!NRF.. issued as :l publicatio n . orntorio CtNRt or clram:itic music th:u originated in the sevcmcem h cen tury. combi ning n:1rr:i.1 ive, dialogue.

and commen1:i. 1y

t hrough AfUAS. REC11'ATIVP.S, CNSEM8l.llS ,

c ttonusrs. fl.nd iustn1me nt.il nmsic. like tin m\sta.ged

n ot e-agaiust - n ot e 011,tanum Style or OROANlJM ln "'hich ibc onGANAI. vo1cr: mo,•ea in J írce mixu.1r c o í colllrary.

on;h ~ttfra HN.s~Mtu,.r. who~e core con:iiõfa of :5u-i ng~ with

oblique. parallel. anel s imilar motion agai nst ihc CJIANT.

more ,han one player 011 a part. usually joined by wood-

usually a.b ovc t be chant and mostly with onc note fo r

wiuds. brass. aud percussion ins1 run1ems. 01·ches1ra.l co n certo O rchesLral ctNflt in severa ! t.tOVE-

cacb note oíthc cbant.

M8LOOY,

orgu.n ic Dcscrihcs 3 musical work in which all thc p3rts relate to cach oth er and lo the who)c Hkc thc parts of a single organism. derivcd from a commo n source.

011,rnnnm (La1in; prono11nccd OR -gu h- num) (1) One or severa] sryles of carly POLYPHONY írom thc nintb th rough thi rtcen th centtiries. involvi ng the addition of one or more voices to an existing cttANT. (2) A piece. whether 1t.tvnov1sr:o or written. in on e o í those styles. in '"hich one \'Oice isd rawn from a C HA NT. The plurnl iso,garta.

teenth-century France. ope r:i with spoken d ialogue. wbether co.m ic o r tragic. opera seria ( ltalian, Nserious oper:i .. ) E.igbteentb-cenfllt')' otNHE of ltalian o Pr.llA, o n a serious subje<:t bu1 norm:illy

tone.

wl1ich the o rgan would pla.y. i ncluding ORCAN VEUSES :md oth e r pieces. 01"~1 verse Sening for an orga n o f an existing M 1:1.ooY from t he Roma n Catholic uTuncv. organa.l voice (Latin. vo.r organali.s) ln an OIICANUM . the vo ice that is ad dcd ahove o r bclow thc original Cl:lAN1'

of Cntco1t1AN C HANT.

open nnd closed cndings (French, ouveri nnd cios) ln an tSTAMPIE, BALIADE. or otbcr medieval form. IWO di ffcrcnt cndings for a rcpcatcd scction. Thc first ("o pen")

the Ro.t.1ANnc pr.,uon. marlced by highly embellishecl

sys1ems or European music 1,se a s1,rr ofl ines and signs 1ha1 dcírne 1he pitch. duration. :rnd 01hcr quoli1ies of SO\Lnd, note ()) A musical TONE. (2) A symbol denoting • musical

F'rencb 8ALLtTS .1nd OPEl\A.

Ordina1:i• ( rrom Latin ordina,iu.m, ··usuai-) Texts of 1he M,.ss 1hal rema in the sa rne on m ost or :lll d:lys ,of the CHuncn CAl.l! NOAfl, although ihe t m1es maychange. organ mass Setting for organ of a li sections of thc MASS for

organicism Concept

opêra comique (Prench. "cornic opera··) ( 1) 1n the e igh -

tivcmood. nondicgct.ic mt1si c or 1,m tlerseoring l n film , b.1ckground

originaring in lhe late sevenreench century. lha,

emphasi1,ed the first VJOUN part and 1he R.Ass, avoiding tbe more CONTRAPUNTAI. TF,)."'J'URP, of 1h e SONATA. orches·1r:1J s uite L·ue -seventeerHh - century Ccrman SUITE for ORC1<eS1'RA pauerued after the groups of OANCts in

scrvccl in cleventh- and twelftb - ccnnary m:muscripts from l\ome represem lnga local u:idlr1on : :1 near rela11ve

\Var l. wh.ich ceuters o n g roup ' 'AfllA,. ION of a given t uoe. c it bcr JMPROV1St:o or in thc style of improvisation. nocturnc Typc of short P I A.NO pi ece popu la r during Mnoov, son or ous accotnpa11ime nts, a nda contempla -

MF+NTS,

OPtR,,. Usually on a religious or biblic.1I subject.

FntNCH OVJ?R.T URt.

with

(2)

SuJT E for oncHr.STRA,

bcginning

~n ()VtRTVRF,,

ove,·dotting Performingpracticc in Frcnch BAROQUF.lnusic in which a dotted NOTE is held longer thnn written. while ihe follo,vingshort note is shortencd. m•e1·ture ( 1) An

oncH tSTRAI.

piece introducing an

oP:P.RA

orher long work. (2) Ind ependem ORCHtSTRAI. WORK in one movemen1, usu:illy d escriptive.

p:irall el 01·g:un111, 1'ype of POLYI'HONY in whieh ao added voice moves in exact parallel to a CHANT, no1·mally :1. per fec1 firt h below it. Either voice may be doubled at the OClaVC.

J)à.n1phrase

Tecbnique i n which a CllANTO r otbe r Ml!LOOr is

reworkcd. oftcn by altering rhythms anel adding NOTES, and placcd in a POLYPHONJC setting.

A14

Glossary

pal'aphra.se m.a ss

PoLYl'HONIC MASS

in which each

MOVE·

is based on the same ).(ONOPHONIC MP.l.OD\". normally a CH ANT, which is PARAPHRAsr.o in most or aU voices ra1her ,h:m being used as a CANTUS F'ntMus in one voice. p:1rlor song Song íor home rnusic- m~king, sorner.irnes pcrformed in public conccrts as wcll. J)arody lllMS IMITATIOl'I MASS. parthook A manuscript or printed book comaining the music for one voice or instru ment:1 1pnrt ora Po1.YPH0N1c covPosn,os (mos, or1en. an ::inihology or pieces); 10 perform any piece. a co mplete se, of panbooks is t1eeded. so tha1 :,_IJ1be paris are represeuted. MENT

p a rtit:'J. o r pa rtik

BA.ROQUt le rm fo r a set ofVA.HIA'flONS on à

Ml!.LOO\' or llASS Une.

parlsong (1) A song for more than one voice. (2) ln the ni11eteenth century. a soug for cnonus. parallel in function and style to lhe L,to or l'AkLOR sor<c . pa$.SaCaglia BAnOQOE Cf:NRB

or VARlATIONS o ve r a

rep eated

BASS Hnc or HA.KM0NIC JiROCILESSJON in t ripie ME1'tli.. Passion A musical sctling o í o o c o f thc biblical accounts of Jesus· cruciftxion. tbe mostcommon type oí HtSTOKtA. pasLOraJ drama Play ln \•erse with tnctde m al mus ic a nd songs. no rmally set in ide aliied rural surrou nd ings, o ften in ancicnt rimes; a sou rcc for rhe e.u li esr orrRA

UBRE'M'OS.

parnnc ( pavan) Si,iccnth•ccnhary dance in slow duplc METER with tbrcc rcpcatcd sections (AABBCC). Oftcn followeel hy. GALl.lARD. p erl'ect (or major) cli-visi on l n medieval anel H ENAISSANCF. NOT'ATTON, :i divisio n or :i note value into 1hree ( ra1her th3.n cwo) of 1he nex1 s malle r u ni 1. See >.1oor.. TJMt. ANO PROL.A.1' 10N .

1>e..i·ectio11 () ) \Vhat we ali s1 rive for. (2) l n medieval systems oí ~OTA'l'.ION, a unit of cl ur~tion ecrual to three TtM POR.A. aki n toa Ml!AStmtoft luee beats. 1>erformauce ar! A type of ari 1h:11 f,rst Mine 10 prorninence in ,he 1960s. based on 1he idea iha1 perform ing a p rescr ibed action in ~ ptLblic place constilutes a work of art. period (l) ln music bistory. an era whose music is under• stood to have conuuo n attrilbutes of style. conventions. :tpproac.h, and functio n , in contrast to the previous :rnd

íollowing eras. (2) ln mus ical roRM, especially since the eighteenih centUlj'. a complete musical tbough1 concludcd by • CADENCE and nonnally conlai ningal lc•st two l' HRASt:S.

p eriodic Organizcd in d iscrcrc

PH KASES

or P ERt oos.

pe.-iodicity The quali ty of being •••1001c. especially when 1his is emphasized 1hrough frequem resring poims anel arricul.lr io ns bc11.vcen t>HRAs·es :ind rnnons. JlClit motel (Frcnch, '"linlc mo1et") French version of the SMALL SA.CR.ED CONCEft'l'O,

AlS

Glossary

íot one, [\\fO, or three voices 3nd

C0NTJNU0.

phrase A unit of Mr.1.ooY or of :rn enrire mt1$ical TrXTURr, ihat hõ'l~a dil)tinçt beginnin~ ,,nd e nding a nd i~ followecl

by a pause or other articulation bui does nol exp,·ess a complete musical 1hougln. S.ee Pttnoo (2). Ph1J·g ian cade nce CAOt":NCt i n wbi ch 1he bouon:1 voice

moves do,,n1 a S EMTTONt :ind uppe r voices m ove up :1 to fo rm a lií1h ;rnd oc1:ive over 1he cadem ial

WNOI,t TONF NOTF..

J> iauo or pianoforle A keyboarcl ins1 rurne n1 invcncccl in 1700 cbat uses a mecban ism in which tbe strings 3re s truck1 r3ther tbnn plucked as th e t1AnPS 1cuoRo was. and which allowed for c.-escendos. dimuendos, and other e ffec1s. (lÍ(le a nJ labor Two ins1rume 11ts played by one player. respectively a bigh whjsiJe l"u,gered wi1h one hand and a s ma ll drum beattn wilh a s1 ic k o r m:illet. pitch - class Any one of tbe twe lve NOTts of the c uuOMA'rIC SCALE, inc luding its ENIIAIU.tON JC equivale nl s. in .1ny oct:we. pitch -class sei (or set) A collection of PJTCH- CLASSts rhat prcst: rves its idenlity wht!Jl lr3nsposed. inverted. o r rcordcrcd and uscd M[LODI CALLY or H.ARMON JCALLY. pla~<al modc A Moor. (2) in a which the RANCP. normally cxtends from a fourih (or Ílfth) bclow thc F I NAL to a f1F1h or sixth a bove it. See also AUTH •; r,n1c MODt. plainchant. plain.song A unison unaccompanied so ng. parr1cul~rly :\ 1.íTUACI CAl, SOlilg 10 ~ l...'lrln I CX"I. J>lninsong mass A UASS in whích c;.1ch M 0vr.MtNT is b~sed on a CH ANTto thc s.::unc tcxc (the KvR1r. is b:.sed on a ch3n t Kyrie. the G1,on1A on • chant Glor ia. anrl so on). point of imitation Passage in ..1 POLYPHONIC work in whic h rwo or 1nore paris e n ter in IMITATTON. polouaise A statel)' Polish processio nal DANCE in tripie METER, ora s1ylized piece in 1he style or such a dance. ))OIJcho1-al Fo r more tb:i.n 011e c uorn. polychora.l motel Mo·rt'f for two o r more c boirs, polypho11y Music o r music:111·e:n'UfU? consist ing of two or more simult:i.neous tines of indepen<lent Mt:LOD\'. See a lso COVNTEJ\POlt-''r, poly•tylism Tcrm co iaed by AlfreJ Schnillke fo r a combination oí newc r anel olcle r musical stylcs c reatcd tbrougb Quo·rM10N or s1ylis1foaU11siotL. polytonal. poly!onaHty Tbc simultancous use of two or more Kt:.YS. cach in a d iffere n t layerof the music (such as Mt Lo ov and accom paniment). pop mus ie Term eoi ned in rhe 1950s for music rhar reílec1cd the ,.,stes and sryles popula r with the 1een and youngaduh market. popula,· music Music. primarily imcndcd as en1cr1ain · ment. that is sold in printecl or recordeei form. h is dis tin guished from rotK Mus1c by be ing \YTitte n down and 1nnrketed as íl r.ommodity . and from cussJCAI. Mus1c by being cen1ered on 1he performer anel the perforniance. allowinggretu l:ititude in re..--.rr:i nging1 he 1101:ned music. popld:tr so1:ig Songth:it is inte:nded prim:trily to emert3in a n áud ience. acco nuuod:11e :trn:lteur perfonuel'S, :rnd sell as many copies as possible. Comp"reARTSONC. portative organ Medieval or R tNAISSANCE organ sm.111 enough to be Mrried, pla)'ed byone hand while theother work<:d d)e bellows, posithe 011:,i-a.n Organ from tht: mcdicvaJ througb BAHOQUt PEtuoos 1ba1 was small cnough 10 bc moved, usually placcd on a tablc.

postminimalism Musical sty1e that uses tecbn iques a í MT N TMAl.lSM i n combinario n with tradi tion:il mechods. more varie d material. a nd greacer expressivit:y. postmod c.-nism Tre nd in t he late t\"entic1h cenmry 1h:tt

blu rs Ihc bou nda ries between high and popub r art , anel in which stylcs of ali cpochs and c11lt11res are equally .wailnhle for cr eni-ing music.

post- tonal General tern1 for music after 1900 thnt does not adhere to TONAI.t TY but inst end uses :my o f che n ew wnys 1ha1 composers l'ound to organize pitch , from ATONAUTY

q11adrup)u111 ( L1tin , '"cruadrupJe") ()) ln P()LYPHONY of the la1e 1welf1h 1hrough fourieemh cemuries. fouri h voice from 1h e bonom i n a four-vo icc TCXTUR'C, :i.ddcd 10 :.1 T ENOR. DUPLUM, and 'íRJPLUM .

(2) ln NOTR8 OAMfl POLVPI-Ifour vo ices. <ruotation Dircct borrowing of on e work in another. especfolly when the borrov,ed material is nol reworked using a stamlard music..'ll procedure (such ~s VARIA'rlOflS. PAl\A • PII RASC. or JMITATI0/1 MASS) bul is set off as a foreig n eleONY , àn ORCANUM )n

menl.

l O N€0TONALJTY.

prelt,tle Jntroduc tory piece for solo instnunelll. oh en in rhe style o f 311 IMPROVJSA'rlON, o r introductory MOVEM ~NT in a muJti.movemenl work sucb :is an OPERA o r surrt. preparetl t>iano An invemion of Jo hn Cage in which various

objects-such as pennies, bolts. scre,vs, or piecesof wood. rubber, plastic, or slit bamboo-are iL1se,1ed between the .strings ora l'tANO. resultlng in complex percussive sounds

wbcn lhe piano is played from tbc keyboard. prima donna (halían. " ftrst bcly"º) A soprano sin.,1Dg tbc le:id ing female ro le in :in OPERA. See also D I VA. prtmn pratica (lrallan. "íirst pracrlce") Claudto Mon· 1everd i"s term for the s tyle :mel pr:lctice of sixreemh centu ry POLYPH ONY, in contr~disrinction to the sr.<:ONDA PRATICA.

prime ln TWELve-·roN& music bascd on a. pa rticula.r RO·W, thc original for m of lhe row. tr.1nsposcd o r unt ransposcd . as opposed to the ( N'V[RSI ON. Rt:TROGKADt . or RF.TROGRADt INVf,RS(ON.

Jlr-imHivism Musical style rhac r epresen1s 1he primirive or

elemenial through Jlltlsa1io11 (r:11he1· 1han METF.R). s1a1ic repe1ition. unprep:ired :ind unresolve d 0 1SSONANC.t. dry TIMBRES, and other cechniques. 1>r)1tci1,al voice ( Latin. vox principalis) ln an ORCANUIM. 1be original CH ANT Mtr.0DY.

prog1-a111 Text to ãccomp~r,y an i,,st rumentãl work o r PRO · CkAM.rus,c. describing ihe sequence of evenis de1iic1ed in the music. pro,:,"J'am musi.c Instrumental music that teUs a story or íollows a narrati"e or o ther sequence oí events. oftcn sp e lled out in J n accompanying textcalle d a PROCR.A...M. prolation See MODt, 'rlM t . AND PIIOI..A.TJON.

Pro per ( from L11in proprit<m. - panicubr .. or ..appropri a1e'") TeX1s of 1he MASS that are assigned 10 a particular day in tbc C H URC H CALt:N OAJl,

psalm A pocm of praisc to God. onc of 150 in tbc Book of Psalms in 1he Hcbrew Scripturcs (thc Christian Old TesL1me111). Singingpsalms was a cem ral pan of]ewish. Chrisrian. Carholic. and Prorestnm worship. ps:1 lm tone A Mt:1.on 1c rornrnl.:a for singi ng PSAU.tS ri n 1hc 0Prtcl'. Thcre is o ne p s{llm t0ne fo r e:ich Mont:. psalmody The s inging of PSAl,MS. psalter A published collection of MtTRICAt PSAt.MS. psalte1y A plucked string ins1r11men1 whose s1rings are .ufaçhcd roa fr.1me o,·er a wooden ~ound1ng board, Pythagor ean iuloua1iou A sys1e m of tun ing NOTtS :i n the SCALP..

conunon in 1he MíddleAges. in wh icb ali pe rfec r

íourths and f1í1bs a re in períect tune.

1-ag

Instrumental work in RACTI MEstyle . usualJy in the roRM of a MAJIC U .

r a1,•tilne Musical st_yle 1h01 fearnres

SY/ICOPATEO

ab,tainst a rc~"u.Jar. marc hli.ke BASS, 11u1ge A span N0n:s. as in t he range o f a

rhythm

M EL00l' o r

or 3

MOOE,

r caJ is m Ninecc:cnth • ccntury movc mc nt in art. literaturc. and OPERA 1har sought 10 depic, 1he r ealiry of eve ryday life. including common people and ,hei r concerns . See ::ilso VF.RrSMO. re:\lization Performing (or cre:uing :1 pcrform:lblc edirio n of') musie whose N0TATI0N is incompletc. ~s in pl:iying ;.1 n.sso CONTINUO or completing • picce lcft unlinis hed by its composer. recapih1latio11 ln SONATA FORM , che third main section. which resta1es the rnnte rinl from lhe v.xros1r10N. 1101·mally ali in 1heTONJC. 1-ecilal Ten,i popubrized by Franz Lisz1 fo r bjs solo pi:1no performances and used today íor any preseotation briven by :l siugle pe1-former ora srnall group. reciratio n formula ln CHAN'r, asimpleoutline MELO0Yused for• variety of 1exts. reciCatiYc A passage o r section iri aa OPtL\A, OltATOktO. CA.N · TAL\. or otbcr vocal work in kECJ'rATJVt S'l'YLt.l recitaU,,c tttylc (írom ltaJfao srUe recitaiivo. "recitationnl style") A typc ofvocal singing tbat approacbcs spccch and follows 1he natural rhythms of thc text. recitativo ari oiio A passage or selection in :in OPERA or ot.ber vocal work in a style thac Jies som ewhere h e·tween RECITATIVP. STYl,E :rnd ARI A sryle. recit.ing tone The second rnost import:tnt NOTr.: in a MODt (af1cr tbc PINAt). often cmphASizcd in CHANT anól uscd for rcciti ngtcxi i n a PSAl,M TONr.. r ecorrl er End - blown wind i nstrument with a w histle momhpiece. usually niade of wood. refrain ln a song. a recu rring line (or li nes) or 1eX1. 11sually sei to :i. recurring;ur.a.oov, r cminís cencc motive ln an 0PEl\A, ::a M0TIVP., ·rH EMe, o r M~ ::LOOY tb:ll recurs in á lmer scene. ln o rder to rec:i.11 the even1s and feeli ngs with which it was f1rs1 associa1ed. Compare LE1T.YOT1v . Re 1111issa nee ( French. - , ebi r,h ..) PER 100 of art_ cul n tra l. and Ont6ic l,istory bctween 1he Mid<lle Age-1, ttnd tbe BAitOQUr. Pt:11100, ,narked by HUMAN'ISM. A rcvival of ancicnt cuhurc and idcas. and a ncw focus on lhe indi vidual. tbe world . aud thc scnscs.

A16

rcspond The fust part of a RP.S!P<)NSORlAL C HANT. appearing before :1 nd somerimes repea.ted afcer the PSAJ.M verse. responsorial Pcrtlining to a manner of performing cn,u~T in which a soloist a lternates wi1h a group .

uscd in 1h c Orr,cr.. Matins ineludcs nine GTCOI RcsponsoTics, and scvcrol otheTOffiee senóees inclucle • Short Responsory. ref'rans ition ln a SONATA FO RM". the pns.sage at i he e nd of the nRvtr..OPMP.NT that le ad s t o nnd emphasixes the noMINANT in p1·eparatio n for the r en1rn of the t ONTC at , he RECAPITUUTJON.

retrograde Backwa rd s iatemêot of a previously beard

passage, orTWfLVE-TONE ROW.

r e trograde inve1'Sio n Up side-dowa and backw:ird s tate-

ment of a MELOO'i o r,·w-t:LVl!-,'ONE HOW. re,~,e Type of musical 1hea1e1· that includes a variety of 0Al<CES. songs. comedy. and oiher acts. often united by a common tberae, rbytluu (l) Thc pattcro of music's rnovcment in lime. (2)

A particular pattcrn of shon and longdurations. rhytluu scclion Jn a JAZZ t:NSCMBLf.. thc group of instru me ms thac keeps the beai: a nd falls ln che backbrround. rhy t h m :1.nd blnes African Americ:m style of

POPO J.AR

Mus1c, originating in rhc 194 0s, rh,t feomred a vocalist or vocol quonct. PIANOor orgon. clcctric guitor. boss. a nel drums. and songs built o n TWELV&-BAR BLut:s or POPULA.R SONG formulas.

rhythmic mod cs System of sfa durational pa tterns (for example. mode 1. long-short) used in POLYl'HONY of the la1e twel f,h ond 1hi11eemh cenmries, used os the bosis or 1he rhy1hmic N0TATI0N of1he Noire Dome composers. decrcare ( ricer car) (ltalial'.1... to seek out'' or " to attempt") (] ) lu thc carly to mid -sixteenrh centuiy, a PI\ELUDt in lhe style or 3ll IMPROVISATl0N. (2) From the late s ixteenth century o n , an ins trume n tal piece LhtH

treats one or more sut1JCC'1'S in 1>,etTAi'ION. "íllll) ln a CONCERTO or CONCERTO G ROSSO, designates the Íllll o•c11esT11A. Also called ro·n·,. rite The set of pracrices that defmes a panicular Christian tr:1ditio n. including a CHURCIU CAU:.NDAU. a Lrruncr. a nd a ripie n o ( lta lia u,

rep e rtory of CllA.NT. ritornello (l) ln a fourteenth-centt.tr'}'

l'Ock anrl

roll (orl'ock) A musi cal siyle 1haremerged in the Uni1ed States in 1he micl - 1950s as a blend or black , nd

white I r3dil iO OS OÍ POPUI.Afl MUSIC,

pri n1a,rily RHVTHM ANO

POP MOSIC, a.nd T1N PAN ALUY. RonH,ntic Term 3pplie<l to music of 1he 11ineteeuth cen · rury. Romantic music had looser and more extended 8LUl?S. COUNTR\' MUSIC,

responso,·y Rr,sPONSOR TAt~ CFfAN'I'

Mt.LOOl',

FORMS, greater experime n tation with HARMONY an d ·rtn11t1t. richl_y ex--press ive ~nJ n,e mo raJ>le MEl,OD l &S. improve d musical inst n11úents. au interesl in musical NAT10NALISM , anda view of musicas a moral fo rce. in which tbere was :i link between the a rtists' inner lives aud the world around tbem. rondeau (pl. rondealL!l'.) ( 1) Frencb •·oaMe F1xewith asingle sta nza and the music:i.1 ronM ABaAabAB, wilh capital

leners indicating lines of n&Fl\AII< and lowerease leners indicating nc:w text set to music írom lhe: rc:frain. (2) FollM in sevcntccntb · and ,eightccnth~cc ntury instru· me nta l music in which a repc:itcd STRA I N ::ihcrna.tes with

othcr srrains. as in thc panern AABACA. rondcllus Technique i n mecliievaJ English POLYPHONY in wh ic h rwo or th ree PHRASES of music. ftrs1 he.ard si mui · 1::aneously ln d irfctem votcc.s. ::ire each sung 1n n.11·n by

cach or 1he voices. t•ou do Picce or MOvtMtNT in R()N.1)0 FO&M.

1·onclo f'orm MusicjJ F0nM in which the first or n»in section recuTs. usu,lly in 1he TONIC, between subsidiary sections or r Ptsoots. roof The lowes1 NOTt in a c nofln when it is arrn nged as a succession ol' rhirds. rol:.l FORM or medieval Eriglisb POLYl•HONY irl which two o r more voices sing t he same M ELOOr, enteri ng ;11 difíerent

times aud repeat ing the melody unlil ali s top together. SeeCANON.

ro unJe J 1,ina ,y form 8 1NA1\Y POflM' in wh ic h lhe beginning o r aU of 1hc f1rst section rctu.ras ln t heTON1C in the latlcr

pari or tbe sceond scetion. rnw lu l·WtL\'l3:·l'ONt MUStC. a.o ordcringo f aUtwdve PrJ'CHCLASSt:.S t hat is uscd to gcncr.atc th c musical contem. ruhato (from ltalian tempo ruba10. "stolcn 1ime") Tceh· n ique common in RoMANTllC music in which t he performc r holcls back o r hurrie.s t hc wrinen NOTE values.

the closing sectio n, in a d ifferent >,u:n:11 írom rhe preceding verses. (2) ln sixreenth· and sevencccntb·cenrury vocal

sackbui RtNAtSSANCE brjSS ins trumcnt. on early form of

music. instrume ntal introcluction or intc rludc bctwecn s ung s tantas. (3) ln an AR.J.A o r similar picce. an ãnstru · mental p.:tssage that rccurs s,cvcral times. like a REPRAIN.

sac,·ed conce11o ln the seven1een1h cenmry. a c oM 1>os1T10N o n a sacred Lext Cor on e or ,nore singers and insrn1men -

CP.RTO.

rhe

:l ÍOSt 1'10VUfP,~'7' of :l CON'-

recurring 1hem::iric m:neri al pb.yed

1he

bcginning by 1be foll ORCRtSTI\A and repeoted, usually in variecl form, throughout t he movement and at t he end . ri torn eilo form St:tnd;lrd FORM for fost MOVRMtNTS in CONcr.nTo.s oíihç. fir~t h,,lf or rhc e ighteenth een huy. ícani ring n ATTORNP.1.1.0 (4) fo r full oncn r.STll.A thai :ihe rnaces wiLh r.v1soots characteriied by virtuosic ,nmetial playecl by o ne o r more soloists.

B I NARY FOR..M

and in tripie

t.t L,EK.

o frcn emphasiz.in g thc

second beat: a stand ard MOVF.MP.h'T o f a su n r.. sa.xophonc Single·reed wi nd instrumcnt invented by Adolphe Sox in a bou, 184O. scale A series of 1hrce or 1noI·c dil'íeren 1pirchcs in .:is,ccnd ing OT dcsccnd ing ordcr and orT>ngcd in a specific pa1te rn. scat si ngi ng Techniq-ue in JAZ-7. in which the perfo rmer

s ings nonsense syllables to an

1MPROV1sr..n

or composecl

ME I.OOY.

scher,o ( ltalian. "joke..) Ajokingor porrieulorly rast :..ov•MtNT j n M t NUt:'r MOTJUO POllM.

score n olat ion A ty])e of NOTATION in \\1h ich the cliffereuL voices or parts are aligned vertieally 10 show bow tbey are eoordinared with each other. seco oda t>raliea or seoon d prac't ice Monteverdi· s term for a practice of COUNT.CkPO JNT and COMPOSITION that aJlows the mies of sixteenlh ·century couruerpoint ( the PRIMA •RAnCA) to bc brokcn iu ordcr to express the fecli.ngs of a LCxt. AJso called STIU: MODEHNO. scm.ibrc,·c ln mcdic, al and R.rNAI SSA.Nce systcms of rhyth · mie NOTATI ON. a No·n: chat is no nually equal to b:iJr ora 1

third of 11 BRtve. semiminim ln Ans NOVA :md Rr.NAISSAxcr..sysce m

of rhyth-

nüc S0TATIOS, 3 NOTE 1h31is equal l0 half or 3 MINIM. scmi .. o p cra Modern tcr m for ORAMA'rlC OPt!U.A, semi tone (or half step) The s mallcst INTEKVAL normally used in \Vestem music: balf of a TON< (2). scqu ence (from Larin sequentia. "somerhing 1hat fol lows") ( 1) A cntegory of L11in CHANT ,har follows 1he A u .tt..U1A in some MASSts. (2) Res1atement ora parrern. eilher MtLoorc o r HARM ON TC. on successjve or differem pitcb leveis. serenata (lrnlian, "serenade") A sem idTamatic pieee for seve ral singers •nd small oae ntSTRA, usually writt,en for a speci,J occasior1. aerial m mJi c l'i'1usic lhat uses t he TW'f.t,vf:-1'0NE MtTnoo;

used espeeially for musie thai enencls the same general approach to sta1ts in parameters orher thall pitch. series (1) A oow. (2) An ordering of specif,c durations. dynamic leveis. or other noapitch elements, used in SERIAL M USIC.

MADnlOAL,

Typically. it is played at thc beginning. as incerludes (often in mod ifiecl form). ,nd agoin at 1he encl, ,nd i1 Sl:ifCS lhe m 3 in T HP,:M-F.. (4)

A17

Glossary

thc tro mbone.

ral accompanime n1.

soisa A type of o,~ct music 1lw e,nerged in 1he 1960s combin iug c1eincn1s o f Cubau c.bnc<: s tyles with JAZZ. llOC1'. :tr1d Puerto Rican music. stunpling A process of c reat ing new COMJ•os 1T 1oi,;s by patching together snippe1s of previously recorded rnusic. Sa n et"u 6 (L,it;tin . " ll o ly,.) 0 11e or 1he f, ve majo , urn&ical

ite<ns in the MASS ÜR1>1NAIIY. based in part on lsa iab 6:3. •arabamlc ( 1) OriginaUy a qwick dance·song from Latin Ame rica. (2) ln Frcnch B AKOQut: mus ic. a s low DANCE in

Senrir.e A sett ing o f Anglíca.n service music. encompass ing specilic ponions of Matins, Holy Communíon. and Evensong. A Gre<It. Service is a MELISMA1' LC. CONTL\M •uNTAL sctti ng of tbcse tcxts: a Short Setvice scts the sarne tcxt ln SYL1A.BIC. C HOJlDA.LSty)c .

sct PITCH •CLASS SET. shapc· notc s ingi ng A rradition or group singingth31 arosc in nineleemh·cenrury A1nerica, narned af[er che XOTA1't ON used in song co11ections in \Vhich 1he sh3pe of 1he no1chcads ind ica1es rhc so1,wuT10N syllnblcs, allowing foT easy sigh1•Tcading in parts. sha"~" Doublc- reed instrumenr. similar to the oboe. uscd in t he m ediev,1I. B-r.NA15.S.ANCt:, ,1ncl 8AnQ9.ur: rrn100,.s.. si m p le h i nm-y form 8 1NARY FORM in which t he rwo secrions are roughly equal in length nnd rea ture musical material

1ha1 is dirl'erem or only loosely rela,ed.

si mple l'e eitatfre Siyle of Rr.e1TATIV1' scored for solo, voice and RAsso CONTINUO, used for sening dialogue or monologue in as spcechlike a foshion as possible, wi1 hot11 dr31na.1iiation. s infonia (1) Generie ten n uscd throughout tbe s-even reentb cen1t1ry foT on •hstract tNStMBU pieee, espeeially one 1h01 seTVCS os ,n inrrocluetion 10 , voca l work. (2) ha lia n OPERA ovtnTUnt i n che early eiglneent h ce11hll'y . (3) i::arlysYMPIIOS'Y,

Singsp icl (German , "s inging play'') German CF.r<RF. of OPERA. fea turing spoken dã:ilogue iuter spcrs:ed witb songs. cuoausts. anel instrumental music. sketc.h Ge neral lerm for a composiüoaal idea jot1ed down in a notebook, or an ea rly d ra ft of ::i work. s low- move m e nt SONATA fOnM

sonata form Classic -era va ri a n t of

tbat omits lhe o i.;vt:LOl'M.CN'f,

sma..11 sa cred conce rto Scventeenth -ce ntury Ct:MUB of sacred ,•oca) music l'caturing onc or more so loists

accomp:miecl by organ CONT I NUO (or modcst instnuncn· cal P.NSEM BLF.). socialis t realia m A doctrin c o f rhc Sovict Un ion. hegun tn rhe 1930s. 1n whtch nll the ar1s were recp,1tred 10 use a realis1ic approach (as opposed 10 an absiract or symbolic one) that portr>ycd socialism in a positive lighr. ln musie this meant use of s imple, aceessible Janguage. ceníered on Mf.l.OD\'. anel parriotic subjcct matter . solmization A merhod or assigning sylbbles to ST'EPS in a SCAI.E, 11sed to make it easier io identify ,ncl s i<1g the WllOL.P.TONtsanrl SF.MTTONTS

i n í1

MELOl)Y.

solo madrig-.,.1 ln 1he late s iXteemh and ea rly seven,eenth centud es. a 'rHROUCM-COM POSED setting of a nonstr ophic poem fo r solo voice witb :1ccomp:l.ni mt:nt. distingltished from an A IUA .:tnd from a MADilJCAL for severa! voices.

sonata (ltalion, ·sounded") ( 1) A piece 10 be ployed o n one or more instnunents. (2) BATIOQUt instrum.ental pieee wit h contr asting sections or M OVEM erns. often wilb I M , ~ ·rAT1v:e: cou:.'r tRJ>O IN'r. (3) Ct:NR.t! in severa! movements fo r o ne o r two solo instrwnents. sonata da camcra or chambcr son a ta BAROQue SONATA. usually a su1TEOÍ s-tylized DANCES. scored forone or more TRF.BLt

instrumenta and CONT I NUO.

sonata el a chi esa or chur eh son:itn BAROQUf! ins1nune n tal woTk intended for performance in church: usua lly in four MOVEMtNTs- s low-fas1 -slo1<- fas1- and scorcd for onc o r more -rttr.»Lr. insfrumcnts and CONTI NUO, sonata form F onM typically used in ftrst MOVEMEN'fSOÍ SONATAS. instrume ntal chamber works. a nd SYMPHONIES dnr-

ing che Cussrc anel 11oa,uNnc PER1oos. An expansfon or ROIJNO'P.1) RHMRY r oRM, i1 wasdescribed in 1he n inereer11h ceotu.ry :1S consisl ing of :1 rl l!XVOSITION. 0 1::VElOPM l':N'I', ;1nd Rt;CAPlTOLA't10N

based on à lim ited 11uni.be r

o f,·H t;M

cs.

sonat:o - ro ndo A FORM tha1 blends cha rac1eris1 ics OÍSOIIATA fORM

tmd RONDO l'OnM . One frequeut structure is ABA-

CABA. in which A ond Bcorrespond 10 1he flrst and second

TIH.MC.S

of SON'I\TA TOJ\M and O .ipp ea1·~ returns in rhe TO.NlC.

ÍlfSI ii 11

lhe

OOM INANT aud

song cyclc A group of songs pt rformed in successio n that tells or suggests a story.

A18

Glossary

soprano ( from suPER1us) {)) High femalc voice. (2) Pan for such :t voice in :m ENSEMBLf: wor k. soul The lc:1ding African American tuditio n of POPU I.AR Mus1c in 1he 1960s rhat combined elcmcms of RRYTHM ANO

sr,ur,s ;md gospcJ singing in songs on love, scx. and

01her secular subjccts. sound 111388 Tenn coined by Edgard \lartse for a body of sou nds charocterir.ed by a particular TIM BRP., register. RHYTHM. or Mtt.Ol)tc gesture. which m ny remain stn.ble or may be transformed as it reco rs. source mus ic See 01tct1·1c Mus,c. s 1,atia.l Pertai aing to a couception o f muslc as souncls rnoving through musical spa.ce, raLher 1han as tbe pre .. sen tatioa and \'AJ\L\'TION o Í 'l"H E Ml:!S or MO'l'J\11!S. spec iet The particular o rder ing o f w 110LJ! ·rONES and Sl!MI · TONt:S within a perfect fourth. f1fth. or octave. s pecln1.I music or spcct11.1 lis m Late- twentleth-century approach 10 composition 1ha1 focuses on perceptiot'l. acoustics. tone color . and t he propc::rties of sound . spi.rituaJ African Amcrican typc:: of rcligious song lhat origin:itcd among southcrn .shl\'cs :md was passcd d own 1brough oral rradhlon. wilh ,exts ohen based o n s10ries or images from rhe Bible. Sprechstimme (German , ·spe.aki ng voice") A vocal sryle developed by Arnold Schoenberg in whieh the per· formcr a pproximates lh e w1ritten pitchcs in thc gliding tones of specch. wltile following thc no!atcd rhyi bm. Stadtpfeifer (Cerman. "town p ipers") Professional town nmsicians who had the exclusive right 10 provide music:: within clly li mits. step IN1'tlWA1. be1ween l\,ro adjacent pilches in :i. 0I.-.TON1c, CHROMAT IC, OC'l'A'l'ONIC, OrWHOL.C- 'fONt SCALt; \VHOl.t STJ:'!P or HALP s1·1:1•.

slile o.ntico (italian, "old style ") Style used in music written after 1600, in imitation of the old CONTIIAPUNT•Lstyle of Paleslrina, used especially for church music. s tile co ncilalo ( lla lian, -e,ci1ed s tyle"') Style devised by Claudio Monteverdi to portray a nger and warlike actions. characterized by rapid rei teration oí a siugle NOH. wbether on quickly spoken syllables or in a measured string rremo lo. s li le mode rno ( ltal ian, -modern St)'le-) Seventeenthcenrury sryle that used RASSO CONTINUO and applied 1he roles of COUN-rtnro1NT frecly. Sce SECONDA PIIATICA. StolJcn Scc """ roRM. stop (l) Mccbanism on an organ to turn on or off tbc sounding of certain scts of pipcs. (2) Tbe particular sct of pipes conrrolled by such :, mechanis m. strain ln :-i MARCH or RAC. :1 PBR 1on, usu:-illy of sixteen or 1hir1y- t\110 mcas111·es. s h-eHa ln nine1cem h .. cemt1r) ' Jr::ilfa n oPtR.A, :1 í:\s1 seclion 1h01 concludes 1he FINALe :11 chc end of an ACT, :,k in 10 the CABALt'M'A at the end of an AltlA or tNSt;MBLe. s tretto ln a rucu•. overlapping entrances of 1he suni r.cr

sh'ophic Of :-i poem, consisting o f rwo or mo re s1an1.as th:u are equivalent in form :mel can e:1ch be sung to 1he s-3me MeLoov; of • vocol work, co;,sis1i11g of" s1rophic poem set lO thc sarne music for e:tch st;:ini:i.. stro 1>lúe var iatio n E:Lrly seven teenth- eeutury vocal Cl?NRC. a setting of a sraoPm c poem, in which the MtLOov o r 1he lirst sl:in?.a is v~ ried but the HAllMONtC plan rem~ins essentially 1he same. altho,,gh ihe du rat ion of harmonies may change to reílecl l hc accemuatiou and mean ing of the text. style luthé (French. "lute style") or style brisé (Frencb . -bro ken s tyle .. } Broke n or AttPt!CClATl!O ·r.exTuLu : in key board and LUTE mus ic fro m sevemee nth-century France. 'fhe 1echnique origi nated wir.h the lute, and the FICUl:\ATI ON was

i-ransferred lô rhe IIARPSICHOUO. .NOT t and cuoao a f1fth

tmh<lonainant ln 'rONAL music .. lhe bclow t he1'0N1c.

suhjcct TH t:M r.. uscd cspccially for thc main MELODYuscd in a ftl CF.RCARE. PUCUE. or othc r IMITATIVE work. 1:1u.hst.itute cl.a,ulnla ln NoTKt:. DAM t:. POLYPHONY. a new CLAUsu1.A (usually in 01scANT s,yle) desig11ed 10 replace the or1g1nal polyphon1c sentng of a parrtcular scgmcn, oro C RAN'T.

suite A sct of picccs tha1 are Jinked together into a sin gle work. Ouring the BABOQur. PEn100. a suite usually referred to a set of stylir.ed 1>ANCt pieces. superius (L1rin. "highes1") l,i f, fteenth- anel sbrteem hcentu ry P01.vv110NY, t he high est J>•rl (comJ>•re CANTOS). sus peusion D1ssoNA.NCt c1·eated when a NO'rt is susiai ned whUt ~,nother voice moves to fonn a disson;:ince. wiLh it; Lhe sustained voice descends :a S'rEP lo resolve the dis · son:ince. syUabic Hal'ing (or ten<ling to have) one N01·e sung to each syllable oftext. sy mphonic poem Te rm coint d by Fràn.i Lisz.t fo r a onemovemeol work of rnOCnAM MUSJC for orcbeslra that com•eys a poetic idea. story. i:;cene. o r succcssiou a í moods by prescming ·l'H t MES t h:1t are repeatcd. varied. or transfomu:d.

$J1llphonie con ce,1:ante A coNCF.RTo -like cr.NH r of rhe late eiglueenth and early ninc1eenrh cenruries for rwo or more solo instrumems :ind 0Rc1-1 r.sTRA. ch:i.raccer ized by its ligh1hcanedness ~ncl Mr.r..on ,c vnriery. syrnphony i...'lrgc work for oncnr.STIIA, usually in fou r MOVT.Mt!Nrs. swing A style oí JAZZ originating in the 1930s that was characterized by large rnsr.M BI.RS anel ha rcl - driving ja1.1. rh)~hms. syneopation Tempor;1ry disno!)tior1 of ><&Tr.R by beginning :1 long ao,·r. on an ofl'beat and sustai uing il through the beginningofthe next be:11. syntJ1esi.zer Electronic instrumeut tba1 generotesand pro-

cesses a wide voriety of sounds.

that cmcr more;. quiçkly aft-er o n c ,·m o fh cr th,1n in t hc

openi ng r.XPOs1noN. st ring quarte l ( 1) Standar<l cha mber

E~StM OLE

co.ns~s t-

ing oi' 1wo VlOLINS. viola. anti cello. (2) Multimovernent COMPOSITION for t his f.NSEMB'.LE,

Tablamres we re also u sed for keyboard inslruments until rhe seventeenth century. t.11hor

noN.

that falis b etwcen tbc CA~'TAB t 1.r. and thc CABAJ...tnTA.

tempus (L:trln ... lime " : pi. rempora) ln medieval syslem s or NOTATJON. the basic time unit. See :i lso >-1oo r., T n.t..:, ANO PftOl.ATTON.

tenor ( from Latin tenere. "to hold") (1) ln rotvPHONY of thc twclfth and tbirtccnth ccnhlrics. thc voice pari tha! has 1hc c.hant or othcr borrowcd M tLODY. o ftcn in longheld NOTl:S. (2) ln POLYPHO"Y of the fourteenth nr:,d nfreemh centuries. the fund:imenr:il voice 1hat toge1her with 1he CANTOS de1ermines 1he musi c3l structure. (3) ln vocal music from 1he six1eernh cemu ry on. pari for relotively high male voice. (4) Mole voice of a relat ively high range. t e rttary form A roRM in tbree main sections, in w hich the ft rst and thi rd are identical or closely related and the middle secti ou is co ,,1 ras1ing, crea tir1g an A BA

palte rn. letrachord (from Creek, ·rour strings") (1) ln Creek and medieval tbeory. a SCAü oí fo ur • 01·ts s panning n perfecr fourtb. (2) ln modem tbeory. as,T of four pi1cl1es or Pl1°Cll • CLA.SSES. (3) ln ,·wtLVC• TONI:. theory, Lhe ÍlíSl four. mjddle four, or last four notes in tbe Row. 1:ex-1 de pietion Using mus ical gesrures to rei nforce or sugges1 images in a 1c,n, sucb as ris ing on thc word '*3sccnd. ·· tcxt cxprcssion Conveying a r suggcsti ng t hro ugb musical means the e motion s cxprcssed in a text. kx1ure Thecombination of e1c me nts in a piece o r passage. such :is l h e n un1ber and r e1ationshi p of indepe·n dem pnrts (.is i n MONOPHONY, HT.TtROPHONY, PO I.VPHONY, or HOMOPHON"V) , groups (ns in POLYCROI\Al. MQStc). o r musi cal cvents (.is in rel;:itively clensc or 1rM1sp3ren1 sonori · ties). theme Musical snbject of a c0Mros1T1011 or section. or of a ~<:t

!ablalurc A systcn, of NOTATt01' used for LUTE or othcr pluckcd string instrumcnt tl,a1 tclJs thc player wbjcb strings to pluck anel whcrc lo p lacc lhe ímgers on lhe s trings. ratber Lhan ind icatjng whicb NOTES will resuh.

See P1PtANDTA1JOR.

tolea (l.11in, .. cuning-, pronou nccd TAH - lay- ah) ln an ISORHVTHMTC COMPOSTT TON, :m cxrcnded rhJ1 hmic p ~H 1e rn repcated onc or more times, usually in thc TFNOR. Compare co,.on. t.1pe loop ( 1) Segment of magnetic recording iape s pliced 10 forma loop that can nm cominuously through a tape recorder and 1hus play 1he recorded sounds reJ>ea1edly. (2) The continually repe:11 ingset of sounds 1ha1 results . temper~oue nt Any system of tuning NOTl!S in the SCALt iu wb ich püches 3.re ttdjusted lO ma.ke most o r a li I NTBHVALS so,md well, tbough J)érhaps not i11 perfect tune. t.empo ( ltalian. "time") Speed of performance. or relative pace of lhe music. tempo di meizo (11alian , ··rniddle 111oveme11t.. ) 1 n the operat icscene stm cture d e\'t loped by Cioacbino Ros.sinj in thc early uinetccntb ccntury. tbe middle section of an ARLA o r ENSt:MHLE. usually an i1 1tcrruptio n o ra TRANSJ -

ofvA nTAT I ON5,

the mati c h'ansforrualion A method devised by F'ranz Liszt to provide un iry, varjery. aud a uarrative-l ike logic to a COMPOS 1TlON by 1ransíorming the thema tic materia l i.nto new ·rutM l'.S ar olher elernenls. iu order lo reílecl t he

A 19

diverse moods needed ro porrray a PROCRAMMATIC sub· ject . theorbo l...'l ,·ge LUTE wi1h eK1 ra a.ss strings. used especially in the sevcn1eenth century for perfor rning 8-ASSO CONTINUO às accompanimenl to si ngers or instrumenl$, tlrnt'Ottgitbass BASSO CONTI NUO.

rh,-ough- comJ)osed Composed rhroughou1. as when each stanM o r o ihe r un il oí a poem isset io new music 1·.ither than in a STROP111c mauner to a si11gle Mt~LOOl'. t i e n to Spanish IMPROVLSA'fOkY-style i nst rumental piecc l h :11 fealures IMl'fATJON. aki 11 lô the sixteeoth• century PAJo,rrASIA,

tin1bre o r tone color Characteristic colar o r sound o f an insLrument o rvoice. time See MOOE. TLME. ANO PUOt..,\TION, thne 6Íh"t1atm·e Sigu or nume rical proportioa . sucb as ~. placed ot lhe beginning of a piece. seclion, or MllASURE to iodicate 1he Men:n. T i.n Pau AJJcy (1) )ocular name for à district in New York where numcrous publis bers spcciali:dng in POPULAR SONCS wcre locatcd from il1c 1880s tbrougb tbc L950s.

(2) S1y les o f Amerlcan POPULAR soNc from 1ba1 eraM toccatn (li,Jian , "couched") Piece for keyboard instrument or 1.u·rt. resembling a n 1MPROVI SA'rlON that tn3}' i n c lude 1t.11TAT1VE secrions o r ma.y sen1c a.s a PRtLUOE to an indcpcndent rucut. tonal Opcrating witbjn thcsyslcm o Í TONA.LITY. f.o ua.li ty Thc systcm. common si ncc the late scventecnth cennuy. by which a piece of mus ic is org:mized around a TON IC NOTF,, CHORO, and xr.v. 10 which :tll 1-he other 1\0(CS anel keys in 1he piece are subordinare. tone (1) Asound of defrn ite pitch. (2) See w»o1unP. tone cluste r Term coincd by Henry Cowcll fo r a c»ono of J)tATONIC or C HR.OMA1'f C seconds. tone colo r See TtMBnt. tou e p oem Sn-1P110N1C POEM, o r a sim ilar work for a medium other l hon o Rc n r,sTRA. toni c (1) lhe f1rst ar1d central NOTC of a MAJOR or M1r<on SCALt. (2) Tbe main Kf:YOÍ a piece or MOVEMi:NT, i ll which the piece or movement begi ns aud ends and to wbjcb ali othcr keys a re subord in:He. tonos (pi. torio,) Ancient Creek term used witb <lifferen1 meanings by \fa rious writers~ one me:ining is :i. particular se, of pitches within a certain t\ANC& or region of the "o ice. top ics l n mus ic fro m lhe CLA.ss1c Pt:RIOO on. tcrm for the diffcrcnt and contrastingstylcs that scn•cas subjccts for mus ical d iscoursc. total scriali sm The applíca1 ion of the principies of the TWF.1.vr- ToNv, MtT HO D 10 musical par:irneters o ther 1h:i11 p itch. including dur:uion. imensities. anel TlMRRES. See SF.RtAt, MUSl C.

trocrus. '"d r~\\fll out'·) Item in the M ASS PBOPBR that replaces 1he A1.1eLU1A on certain days in l.çm, who6c tcxt c,;ompr-i.$C~ ,1 ~er-iç.l) QÍ PM 1, M vr.n.sr...s. tragéclie e n nmsiq,1e (Fre nc h ... tragedy in music .. : l:iter t-.-agédie ly,·icrue. "ly,·ic iragedy") French seven1een1hand eiglueer11h-cer11ury forn1 of OPERA. pionee,·ed by Jean· Bap1iste Lully. 1ha1 combiLJed the Frer1ch elassic

T r.act (from L.1.tit,

A20

drama a nd

BAUET

traditions wi th music.

DAl'iCES.

a nd

specucles. tl"anscription Arr:rngernent of a p iece for an instrume nu l medi um di ífercm from ,h e origi na l, such as a rcduction

of M l

ORCH'F.S1'RAI~

score for P IA NO.

frans ieio n ( 1) ln the

EXPOSITl ON

:'t MOVP,MtNT

SONATA

F0RM. the passage between che ftrst ond second THBMF.S that effects the M00U1AT10N •o a new KEY, (2) More gener:illy, a passage between two MOVT.MENTS or sr.cr, oNs of awork. trans,•erse llute Flute b1own acrossa bole in the s ide oí the pipe and beld 10 one side of tbe player; used for rnedi ev:i.l, R.ENAISSA~' Cf:. and BA.KOQut:: fo rms of the llute to <l.ist..iJ1gttisb it from the ReCOllOtJt. whi<:h is blowll Ln o ne end and held in front. h-eble (french. ··tripie-) (1) A high voice ora pari wriuen for high voice. especially the highest part in tb.ree- part P0LYPH0!<Y OÍ the four\eertlh anel Í1ÍlôCnth CCn(UrÍôS, (2) Pertaiuiug to lhe highesl voice. lrc.hlc- domlnakd stylc Stylc common in lhe íourtccnlh anel f1 ftec nt h ccnturies. in which thc maín Mt:Loor is in tbe CANTUS, tbe upper voice car 11•jng the 1ext. supponed by:) slower- movingTP,:NOR :1nd CONT R.AT F.NOR. Treeento ( lt•lfan , shorr for mille rrecenro, ··one thousa nd thrcc hundred" : pronounced trch -CHEN - tob) The 1300s (lhe íourtccnth ccnhiry) . porticularly witb refcrcncc ta ltalian art. literaturc . a.nd mus ic o f tbc time. triad Ctt onn consisting of t.\'O s uccessive thirds (fo r instance. C-E- G). orany 11<w.RS10N of such a chord. h·ill H..1pid ohernarion be1ween :l NOTF. :md ano1her o R.-.u STJ;P or WHOU: STP.P 3bove. trio ()) Piece for three players or s ingcr9, (2) Tbe secoud of two :lltcroàting DANCES, :is jn tbe Classic-er:.1 M t NUE'r ANDTn10 ronM. (3) The second main section of a MA.R.CH. frio so nata Common instruim e ntal CtNnl! during the BAnOQUf PEIUOI). 3 SONATA fo r two TREIH.1! i nstru ,nenls

(usually VlOU N"S) abO\'Ca bASSO CON'l'tNUO, A perfonnance featured four or more playe rs if more Lhan one was used for t he continuo part.

triplemotet Thirteenth·century MOn::rin four voices. with a d iffere nt 1ext in each voice above

poe1-composer o f nonhern Pr:mce who wro1e

MONO ·

rKoN1c songs in Old French (longue d'o,I) in 1he twelí1h 01· 1hi n een1h cenrury. tuba (1) f n ancicnt Ro me. a long. straight trumpet. (2) Low brass i11s1rumen1 iiwer,ted ill1 the 1830s, used as the BASS oftbe brass sectio11 of Lhe 011c11ist R.A. t:utt.i (ltalian. "o)J"} ( 1) ln both lhe C0NCrRT0 and the CON CERTO cnosso. desi(;nales ihe fo ll o•c111lSTRA, Also calleJ RIPlfN0 (ltalian. "fuJr'). (2) lnstruction toª" f.NSf.MBLf. that ali should play. lwch'e •bar blues Standard formula for the swts. witb a 11AnMON1C vuocntss10N i n which the first four· measure

in thr cc voices. tritone INTt:1\\'AL s p anning threc W HOLE TONES o r s ix SEMJ1'0NES. s uch as F to B.

ll'obairitz (from Dcci1an rroba.r. · ,o compose , song") A fe rn:1le TROURAOOUR.

trope Addiiion 10 an exis1ing CHANT, cons is1 ing or ( 1) words anel "m,oov; (2) a Mr.USMA; or (3) words only, sei to ttn existing melisma or other melocly. h-oubadour (from Occitnn rrobor. -,o compose • song") A poct-"°mpo~cr o f ~out hcrn Pr.,n çç. who wrotc

11,10110-

Pll0NIC songs in Occita n (longue d 'oc) in the twelfth or 1h ir1eer11 h ceutury.

trou,·êre (from Old Frerich 1rover. "to compose a song") A

scning :l r h}'ln ed. rhythmic

poetn. ,;eJJe Medievo) bowcd string instnm1en1, carly form or 1he f\ddle and predecessor oí1he v101.1N ond v10L. vilmela Spon is h rela,ive of the LUT& with a n,1 back anel gu itar-shaped body.

vi ,•t uoso Pe r ío rmerwho s peci.aliies in o ne instru men 1 ~nd

dazzles.:.wdicnces wi1h his or hcr 1cchnieal prowess. ,•oice cxeh~nge l n POl.Yl)H ONY, 1echrliquc in wh ieh voices t rade segments of music, so tha.t 1hc same combinatio n

of lines is heard twice or more. but with clifferent Yoices singingeach li ne.

,ri llanc ico ( l'rorn Spanish villo rio. '' peasant'\ prono unced

scylized work for the PIANO in 1he s tyle of such a dance. whole step (or wholc tone) An 1w r t-:tlVAL equivale11l 110 two

systcmatic orde ring of Lhe h,•clvc notes oí tbe c tt ROMA'fJ C scalc into a ROW' t hat m::iy h,c ma n ipulatcd acco rdi ng to ccruin rulcs.

,iol (viola da g:un.ba) Bowed. írened string instrument popular from thc miJ- f,ítcenth to tbc carly cightcentb

whole -(one scale (or whole - !one colJcc!ion) A SCALe consisting of onJy WHOL.t sn:J>S.

cen turics. hcld bctwccn tbc lcgs. vio.lin Bowed. fre d css string instrumcm t11ncd in fl fths

wi.nd c nscntl,lc Largc ENStMB J.t oí winds. b rass. and percussion in stn1menrs. most ly with o n e p layer per pan. dedtc:i.red solely co serious music. rat he r ch:m 10 r_he mi>:

ul1r~\ modcrn1sm Curreu1 tn Amer1c:in mustc b e1wcen thc

Wo,·ld \173rs 1ha1 rocused o n de,,eloping new musical resources.

unmeasured prehule A French BAROQU< keyboard cr.NRE. i n a smTt. whose nonmet-ric feel ingof IMPRO\'ISATIO N. underscoring See NON01r.c; r;T 1c a.rus1c. usually the first

MOVf.MJHff

NOTATI ON gives .,

\'ariation The process of rewo rking a 1,tiven M.ELOOY, song. ·rtte1t,te. or otber musical jde.:1. o r lhe resulting varied J"OllMO fit.

va riations ("'ariatioui form) FonM that presents a n u nin -

lerrupted series of varionts (eacb called a VAR IA'riON) on à TH EM e;

t be Lhe me:: may be ;J. M CLO DY. 3 1:LASS Iine. a H A ICplan. ar other musical snbjcct. ,·audcviUc ln latc · n i nctecnth .. anel c arly · twcotieth · century Ame rica. a type o f v:iriety show including mus i• cal numbers. but wilhout 1he common cheme oí a aevur.. MONJ C

atic movemen 11h:11 p resen ts everydny p eople in fam ili:1.r

O RGANUM

Pôl,YPHONTC.

phrase srnrts on the ooMtNAl<T and remrns to the conic. twch•c - ton t: mcU10J A fo rm of Al'0NAu1·r based o n the

the seco nd p h r asc begins on and ends on the 1on ic, and lhe 1h ird

the TONJC,

situ~tions. often depic1ing sordid or bn1t~I even1s. (2) More broodly. 1erm used iu chc loce nine1een1b ond early

was !ater used fo r

is on

o f the l:1te twelf'rh , hrough founeenth ce nmri es, t hircl

voice from the bonom in a three- or four-voice T&X· oddcd to a TtNOR ond OlU PLUM , (2) ln Norn E DAME

MONOPI-ION"IC

keys rather ,han parallel wiih them as in larger harps ichords.

sacred works, especially ossociated witb Christmos or other import:mt holy days. ,•illanella Type or sixteenth-ce11t11ry ltalfon song. gener-

P llllASE

lhe suu 1>0M1NAN'I'

POLYPIIONY

1·uiu.

more srnnzas of poctry are each sung to the sa rne ·music

(the v•RS<) and e,ch is followed by ihe sarne REFRA I N. ,·ersns (brin. "verse") A type of l~uin sacred song. ,either

w~tlking hass BASS line in BAI\OQUt music-and latt r in JAtt-th•t moves steadily and continuously. waltz Type of couple OM/et in tripie MtTCL!, popular in che

,·erismo (lrnlfa n. ··re, lis m-) (1) Nineteenth-cennuy oper-

Lhe 1'ENOU.

triplum (from Latin iriplu.,. "tripie·) ( 1) ln

l-'O LYPHONY.

A21

Glossary

twcnticth cenrurics for OPt:1\AS that turned away fro m Ho m::rntic idealisrn and re l ian ce on conventions. See

also RF.AI.ISM. \'e ruacu lar musie Gener:il 1e rm e ncom passi ng POP\ll.A R MUSlC. FOI.X MUSrc. JA1.Z, :irtd 01her I r.ad i1ions ou,side Cf..ASSICAL mus ic.

"e rse ( 1) Liue of poet ry. (2) Siania of a""'"" or STR0f'l11C song. (3) Sentenceor • PSALM, (4) ln G11ecoR1AN CHAJ<'r, a settingo f a Psalm verseorsi milar text. suchas the verses rhat are p:11·t of rhe INTnon. CnAnUAJ,. :l.nd A1.1.P.: t.t11A. 'H::.•·&e an01e f11 Atnnr:r.1 i ,) which p,'l.Stiagca for i,olo voicc(b)

with accompanime111 ahcr:nate witb pass.ages fo r l'ull

c uorn dou.bled by instrumcnts. ,·cnc· rcí'rain f'orm A 1-"0 KM in vocal music in wh.icb two o r

vee-yan-SEE-co or vee-yon -TH Et::-co) 'J)'pe of POL>'1•ttoN1c song in Sponisb. witb se,.eral stanzas frameJ by a

RUI\AIN;

origina..lly secular, the

a lly for three voices, ina rust ic

t-' ORJ.1

HOMOPHONJC s-tyle.

(g·d'·a ' ·e'). virei oi French FORME PTXt in 1he p:inern A b ba A h ba A bba A, in which a nr. PRAIN (A) :t h e rnares with s tanz:ts with

late eigb teenth :ind nineLeenth centuries.

0 1·

a sbo rt,

SEM r roNES.

Of MARCltr.S and Olher fore rypically pl•yed by IIANll.S . word- painting

TtXTDtPICTrON".

the musico! F0RM bba. the 3 using the some music os the reírain.

virgiual (1) English namc for HAKPSICHOKD. uscd for all l)'J>CS until the seventeenth century. (2) Type of HARP· s1c tt0 Ro I hat is small e nough to place on a rable, wi1 h :1 single keyboa rd 3nd sn·ings runninga, righ, ongles to the

zarzuela Sponish Gt:NR E of mus ical theatcr. o light. mythological ploy in a pastoral setti ngrlm olte rnates bctween sungand s poken dialogue and various cypes of <NSF.Mfttt a nd solo song.

FOR FURTHER READING ABBREVIATIONS AIM COMI CEKM CHWMT CMM DdT DTB DTO

EM H EP JAMS JM

Mil

MQ MSD NC2

NO HM PAM PMFC PMM M

American lns1i1u1e of Musicology; lll1blica1ions include CEKM, CMM. and MSO . Por lists. see Ml4Sica Disciplillá ( 1988): 217-56. 1 Classicidellú Musica. ltaliaM. 36 vols. (Milan: lstiluto Ed i1orialc Italiano, 1918- 20: Societ~ AJ,on · ima Notari la Santa , 1919- 21). C<>rpu~ o/ Eorlr KeJtoord M..sic (AI M, 19 63-). 11,e Cambridge His1ory o/ Westem 11;,.sic 11,eory·. ed. Thomas Christensen (Cambridge: Cambridge Un ive1·sity Press, 2002), C<>rpusme11surobi/i.sm,.sicoc (AIM, 1948-). Denkmdler deut.scherTor1/nms1. 65 vols . (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hãrtel. 1892-193 1; repr. Wiesbaden. 19ó7-~ I) . Denkmãlcr der Tonkunst in Barem (Augsburg. 1900-38: new series. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hã n el. 1967-). Denkm1tlerder Tonkunst in. OesterTeich (Vienna: Artar ia, 1!194-1904; Leipzig, Bre itkopr & Hortel, 1905- 13: Víenna: Universal. 19 19-38: Craz: Akademísche Druck· und Verlaganmlt. 1966-). E:arlrilfosicHistory·. 1981-. R. Eitncr. cd .. Publil.ati-Onen a1lerer praktischerund theorelisclier Musikwerke. 1·om,g,weiae des XV. urtd XV/. Jahrhunderts. 29 vols. in 33 Jahrgãnge (Be rlin: Babn & Liepma1rnssoh.n: Leipzig: Brcitkop f & HMnel. 18?3- 1905: repr. 1967). Joumal ofrheAnierican Musicoloioica!Sociery. 1948- . Jouma./ o/Musicologr- 1982-. Musico B,ironnico (London: Staincr& Scll, 1951 - ) . 11,e Mtisical QuMerlr, 1915- . M..sicowgico.l Studicsand Docun,ents (AíM. 1951 - ). NewCrove Dicrio110ry·ofMusicond.lfosicia11s, 2nd ed,. ed. Stanley Sad ie (London: Macmillan, 2001). Online wit h u1>da1es as Grove Music On line. ed. Oeane Root. www.oxford musiconline.com. Crove Music Online also includes rhe content of The Crove D1ctro1101y o/ Amencon Mtisic. 2 nd ed . (20 13); 11,e Crove l)icti-011ary·o/Musicol lrostruments, 2 nd ed. (20 11,); 1'lie New Crave Diclionarro/Jan. 2nd ed. (2002); arrd 71,e NewCrove DictwMry·of Opera (1992), ali wi1h subsequent updates and revisio ns. NewO.,jord Histo?·o/Music(L.ondon; Oxford University Press. 1954-). Publikationen ãlrerer Musik (Léipzig: Breitkopf & Hartel, 1926-40). Polniltonic Musico/ the fourteen1h Ccnw,,· (Mouaco: Oiseau- Ly,·e, 1956-). Publicatíons of.lledieval Music. Manu~cripts (Brooklyn: l nstitute of Mediaeval Music. 1957-). Source Readm1,,; in Music Hístory·. rev. ed-, ed . Oliver Stnmk. gen. ed. Leo Tre1Ller (New York: Norton. 1998). Readings in SR are referred to by Lheir riumber in lhe entire collection and. when difíerent. thcir number iu tl1e individual paperback volumc.s published separatdy: vol. 1, Greek View o/Music, ed. ThomasJ. Mathic.scn: ,•oi. 2. Tiie Ea1trCl1ristum Periodand the La1in MiddleAges. ed. James McKinnon: vol. 3. The Renaí,sance. cd. Cary Tomlinson: vol. 4, The Baroque Era. cd. Margarc1 Murata: vol. 5. The Late E,b,htwuh Century·. ed. Wyc J:i.misou Allanbrook: vol. 6. The Nmeteenth Cenmry·. cd. Ruth Solie: vol. 7. The Twenrieth Cenmry·. ed. Roben P. Morbsm . Tims "SR 14 (2:6)" means number 14 in thesingle · volume hardback and number 6 in volum e 2 of the paperbacks.

The foUowing is nota comprehensive Hsting of resources a.vailable ou each topie but rather a collection of the most signiflcant or helpful recer1 1pu blicarions. which can serve as a s1ar1i11g1>oint. For rurther exploration. RII..M Abs11·acts of Music Literaru1·e (w,,,w.ril m.org). Music lndex (,....-w,'-'.ebscohost.corn/academichnusic- index). lntern::itional lndex to Music Periodicals (iimJ>.chadwyck.com). and Oxford Bibliographies Online ( i11 progress ai www.oxforclbibliog,·a phies.com) are highly recommended r esea rcb 1001s . available online through most librariesor by subscription. A23

A24

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

GENERAL The New Cro,,., DictionaryofMusic amt Mus,cians. 2nd ed. [NC2J. ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmilbn. 2001). is thc flrst source to consuh for :ilrnos1 an) 1 subject rehted ,o music. NC2 anicles 3rC liS1ed. below when they offer an cxceptional surveyor sum maryof a signif1cant topic: arti· cles on individ1rnl composers. theorists . pc rformers. other musici:ms. ins1nnnents. genres.. tenns. cities. and national rra<litions are not lis1ed separ3tely but ::ire nuthoritnth-e and highly 1·ecommended. The same con1ent. in some cases updJted. is av;:i.Hable from Grave Music 01'lline al w,vw. oxfo r<l rnusiconline.co m. lticbard Taruskin. 7'he Oxford Histo,yof JVesrem Music (New York: Oxford University Press. 2005) is a sL,-volume comprehensive survey. 71le New Oxford H1stor:rof Music [NOH M] (London: Oxford Unwersity Press.1954-) isa rnulti\'Olu.rne history by uumerous expe rcs. Wom1•r, <rnd Mus1(' Tbc role of women in music bas bccn undcrrcprcscotcd in s randard muslc htscory rex1s. Usefu) correctives are Women and Music, A llis1orr, 2nd ed .. ed . Karin Pendle (Blooming· ton: India no University Press, 2001), and Women Making Mu~ic: The WesremArr Tradirion. 1150-1950. cd. J•ne Bowers and Jud ith Tick (Urbana: Un ivc,sity of Illinois Prcss. 1986). For furthc r bihliography. scc Women in Mu.sic:A Research.and lnfarmalia1> Cuide. ed. Ka.rin Pc nd le (New York: Rou11edge. 2005). Pr imary source documents by and abou1women in music :ne collected in Wom,e.n in Music: An A,uhologrofSource Readil1gs from 1he MiddleAges 10 rlt.e Prese1>t. rev. ed.. cd. Carol Nculs -8,ues (Boston: No1·theasten1 University Pre.ss. 1996). \Vorks by womcn :i re co rlt~inccl iu lfistoricalA111holog)'ofMusicbrWome11, ecl . Ja mes R. Bris coe (Bloomi ngton: lndia11a University Press. 1987) and New Hisrorical Anrho!ogrof ,\Ju.sic b)' Womeri, ed . James R. Briscoe (Bloornington: Indiana University Press, 2004-), and in rhe series Women Cornposers: Music through the Ages. ed. Martha Furman Schleifer anel Sylvia Clickman (New York: G. K. Hall. 1996-).

Social and lntellec1u.al Hi.story ofMt1s1c Pioneering tre:uments of music in ilssocial and econom ic contexts are Henry Raynor's A Social Historr of Mustc: From the MiddleAges 10 Beell,oven (New York: Schocken. 19n) a11J Mll$icandSocietrsince 18/S(New York: Schocken. 1976). still stiomlat ingthough out of date. The essays in Musicand Patronage. ed. Paul A. Mcrkley (Farnha.m. UK: Ashgate. 2012). explo re thc cconomics aud d istrihurion oí music. On musicand aesthetics ia history. see Edwa rd A.

Lippman.A flisrorrofWestem MusicalAestherics (Lincoln: Univc rsity of Nebraska Press. 1992). On che history of music cduc~u ion ~nd n,usic in educ.:uion, sce Bern~rr lt-linbow and Gordon Cox. Music in Educa1ional 'íllouglu cmd Pmcticc; A Su.rvcJJrom 800 8. e.. 11CW c d' (\Voodbri<lgc; Boydell , 2006). l'ora history oíthe use of mus ic for healing. see che essays in Musicas M,edicine: 'l'he Hisrory·ofM1,sic 7'heropysinceA,uiq,,irr. ed. l'eregrine Horden (Aldershoi: Ashgace, 2000).

For Fu d her Readi ng

Music Theor')'

On 1he hisrory of music theory. .see Tiie Cambridge llis1or)' o/117esrem Music Theory·. ed. Thom•s Christensen (Ca mbridge: Cambridge Universi,y P'rcss. 2002) LCHWMT]. For bibliography, sce David Russell Williams 311d C. Ma1rhew Balcnsett'3. Music 111eoryfrom 8oethi11s to Zarlino: A Bi.bliog· raph,-and Cuide ( Hillsdale. NY: Pendragon Press. 2007). and David Damschroder and David Russell Will iams. \/usic

11,eory'from lMlino loSchenker: A 8ibliogrophrand Cuide (Sn,yvesam. NY: Pendragon, 1990). Musical Jns1ruments Por musical ins1ruments. see 17te NewCnwe Dicrionaryof M11sicol fns1rume,us, cd . S1anlcySadie (London: Maem illon, 1984; 2nd ed .. 2014): Donald Murroy C•mpbell , Clive Al,n Greated . and Arnold Myers. Musical lnstruments: flistory: 1eclmology a n.d Perfom, ance of lnstm men fs of Westem Music (Oxford : Oxford Universiry Press. 2004); anel Mary Rem· nam, Musical lnsm,me,us: An 1/h,strored flisroryfrom Antiq11i1J·to rhe Presen1. gen. ed. Reinhard C. Pattly (Portland. OR: A,·uadetts Press, 1989).

Peiformance and Pcifonnance Pra ciice On 1he history oíperformanee .1nd performers. see Colin Lawson and Robin Stowell . eds . . TheCambridge 1/istorrof Musical Perfom1a11ce (Cambridge: Cambridge Universily Press. 2012). On perfonnance practice, see Colin l~,wson and Robin Stowell , 7'he Historical Pe,fonnance o/.lfos,c: An l111roductio1t (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1999): Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sad ie, eds.. Perfomwnce Prac1ice, 2 vols. (New York: Norton, 1990); and Readings in the Hi.st()ry·o/Mu.sic in. Peiformance, 1rans. and ed. Carol MacClimock ( Bloominb'lon: Indiana Univers ity Pr·ess. 1919). On vocal performance p,·actice from the seveoteenth century to the prese nt. see Marlha Elliott. Singing i"StJ1• (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2006).

S"urce Reudings A rich. annotated corupendimn o f writings about music írom a.ncien1Greece to modem Ameri.ca is Oliver Su·lmk ·s Source Retul.ings in Mt1sic Histmy. rev. ed. (SR]. gen. cd. Leo Treitler (New York: Norton, 1998): it is a.Isa available in seven paperback volumes. each on a separate historical period. While Stnmk andTreitler print enti re textsor sections. smaller items and passages are collected iu M,,.ic in lhe Wesrern World: A lfistory· i,i Documeius. cd . Piero \Veiss anJ Richard Tamski n. 2nd cd. ( Belmonl. CA: TI1omson ScW rmcr. 2008). and Composers on Music: fi6<1tt Centuries ofWritings. 2nd ed .. ed. Josiah f'isk (Bos1on: r-lonhe,srern Unh•ers ity Press. 1997). A similar collectiorl fort he Unired StMes is M11sicin 1he UniredSrares:A D0C1Lme111ary·Componion, ed. Judith Tickwirh Paul Be,udoin (Oxford: Oxford Universi1y Prcss. 2008) . a sclcction of documents from thc sixtecnth c.enh1ry to thc cnd o f , hc twcntieth. Writings by music critics from the 1710s co the 1990s are ga,he red in The ,111entive Us1cner: 'l'hree Cenruries ofMusic Criricism. ed. Harry Haskell (Pl'i'llceron: Princeron Uni versity Pre.ss. 1996). Fbr writings on music and aesthetics,

see Musical Aesrlu,tics:A lfis1orica! Reader. 3 vols .. ed. E.dward A. Uppman (NewYork: Pendragon. 1986). and Co111emplat· ing Music: Source Reodiligs in theAes1helicsofMusic. 4 vols .. ed. Carl Dahlhaus and Ruch Katz (NcwYork: Pendragon. 1987- 93). On systemsand principies oí mus iccduca1io'l1 , sec Music Educarion: Soure-, Reodings fromAncient Creeee 10 7'odoJ; ed. Michael L. M>rk (New York: Routledge. 2002). Music. MJ~tidsm. artd Magic: A Sourcebook. ed. Joscel)" Godwin (London: Hourledge and Kegan Paul, 1986). offers mateTials on 1hese of1en overlooked sides of music.

PART 1: THE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL WORLDS An outstanding survey of medieval music o.ppears in 'f1te f:orly Mid-dlcAges 10 1300, ed. Richard Croeker and David Hiley (Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press. 1990). ar,d .\li,sic as Conceptartd. Proctice i11 rl,e Late MiddleAges. ed. Rein.hard Strohm and Bonnic J. Blackhurn (Oxford: Oxford Univcr· sity Press. 2001). wWch replacc oldcr volumes of NOB M. A new survey Is Margot f'assler, Mu.stc in rhe Medieval Wes, (New York: Non on. 2013). paired wirh her Anihologrfor Mu.Stc in rhe Medieval Wesr (New York: Non on . 2013). Orher survcys include Jeremy Yudkin. Music in Medi,-al Europe ( Uppcr Saddlc River. NJ: Prcnticc Hall.1989). whicb includcs ao integratcd antbology. and Richard H. llop pin . Medie1•al Music. paired witb hisAntholog;rofMedie,•a!Music ( NewYork: Non on. 1978). The social , nd ct,lrural come,,s for music for 1his period are trea1ed in Nancy Van Deusen. 71,e Cullural Col\le.ttofMedievalMusic (Santa Barbara. CA: Praeger, 2011). and in Antiquit)'Md the MiddleAges: F'romA1>cient Creece to 1he 151h Cel\lury·. ed. James McKi11non (London: Macm il lan. 1990). a collection of cbapters by various authorit ies. Philosophical and aesrhetic perspectives on musfo are rraced in Herben M. Schoeller. 77ie ldeo of Music: Ari lntroducnon 10 Musical Aesrherics .,, ;1,.,,q,u&r and rlte Middlc Ages ( Kalamazoo: Medieval lnstitute Publ ications. \Vestem Michigan Universily. 1988) . The Cambridge Companion10 Medieml Music, ed. Mark Everist (Cambridge: C:unbri<lge Unh•ersity Press. 2010). and/1 Companion.toMedieval and Renar..uance Mu..dc, ed. Tess Knighton anel David ~àllows ( Berkeley: Un iversity ofCalifornia Press. 1992). offer essays on musical cuhurc . aeslhctics. genrc. stylc. instrumcnts. performance practicc. anel othcr mattcrs. On the

tcach ingof music. sec RusscU E. Murray. Jr.. ct ai.. ,\lt,sic Education in the Middl,Ages and 1he Renaissance ( Blooming· ron: Indiana Univcrsi,y Press. 2010).

Performance Proctire On pcrfornrnnce issues, scell Performers Cuide ro Medi.e,•al ,\fosic, ed. Ross W. Oufftn ( Bloo mington: Indiana Univer· sity Prcss. 2000): Timothy J. McCec, The Sound o/Medieval

A25

versity ofToronto Prcss, 1985): ,nd Singing Early Musi e, The Pronunciation of European Languages in 1/,e Late MiddleAges and Ren.aissance. ed. Timothy McGee. wilh A. C. Higg ~nd David N'. Klausncr {Blooming,on: lncl iana Univcrsity Prcss, 1996), wh ieh includcs o CD.

Chaptcr 1 : Music in Antiquity The categori1.1tion in chapter I oí eviclence relating to music of the past into four main types (ins1 rumenrs :ind 01her physical remains, images. wl'lci ngs. nnd nmsic i1sel0 is based on 1he frrst chap,er oíThomas J. Ma1 hi esen's Apollo's 11-re (cired below).

M,mc bcfore H1stonca/ Records Essays speculatingon music's origins are collec1ed in

11,e Origins of,11,mc, ed. Nils L. Wall in. Bjõrn Merket. ;ind Steven Brown (Camb,·idge, MA: M1·r. 2000). The prehis1ory of Europe«u1 music is surnrnariied in EIJen Hickmann, " Europe. pre· and proto-1,istoric,- iu NC2. Pictures of instnunenls uoearthed from preb.istoric through Wstoric times are collcctcd iu Anncmics Tamhocr. Ausgegrahene 1-lange: Archaologtsclu, ,lfosfklnsrmmeme au.s allcn Epoclien (Oldenburg: lsensee, 1999). On the earli· est bone flutes, see Nicholas J. Conard, Maria Malin,, and Susanne C. Munzcl. "New Flutes Document the Earliest Musical Tradition in Southwestcrn Germany.- Nature 460 (6August 2009): 737- 40.

Mesopota1ma See Anne Oraffkorn Kilmer. "Mesopomnia." in r-lG2. On Enheduanna, see William W. Mallo andJ.J. A. van Oijk, Enl1eduamw.: The faalra1io11oflnonna (Ncw Havcn: Yale Uni versity Prcss, 1968). On Sabylonian notation, scc M. L. West, "Thc Babylonian Musical Notation and the lfo.r rian Melodie Texts," Musicand lettcrs 125 (1993-94): 161-79. For other ancient culltares. see NG2 anicles on "Anatolii' anel "Egyp1."

Creecc and Rome Th.e 1:nost comprehensive survey of Creek music. its history. instruments. practice, and tbeo,y is Thomas J. Mathiesen,Apollo'$ Lrre: Creek Mu.sic and Afosic 'ílle<llJ' in Anriquitrond rlie for!)' MiddleAges (Lincoln: Univers ity of Nebraska Press, 1999). See also h.is "Greece. I," in NG:2; bis "Greek Music Theory:· in CH \VMT. 109-35: Stefan Hagel. Ancienf Cree/; Music: A New Technical History· (Cambridge: Cambridge Uuiversity Press. 2010): Sheramy D. Bund rick. Music and /mage in Classico.!Ar/,ens (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2005): Music and the Muses: 71ieCttl1Ure of Mou.sikéin the ClassicalA1lienian C,1y. cd. Pcnclopc MLtrray and Peter Wilson (Oxford: Oxford Universi,y Press. 2004): \Varreu D. Anderson. ,\fa•icand Musician.s in Ancient Cre,ce (lthaca, NY: Com eti University Press, 1994); and M. L. West.Ancienr Creek Music (Oxford: Cbrendon. 1992). For a discussion of cthos. sce Warren D. Andcrson. Erhosand

Song: Omomc:nt-ation ond Vocal S9.Zc According to thc Tn:oti,-sc:,1

Education, in Grt:ck Mtt.fi-c (C,,m bridge. MA: l larvard Uni -

(Oxford: Clarendon. 1998): Perfom,ance Practice: Music Before/600. ed. Howard Mayer llrown and Sranley Sad ie (London: Macm illan. 1989): 'J'i mo1hy J. McCee. Medievo! and Renai.ssa,,ce MtLSic: A l'etformetS Cuide ('l'o ro,110: Uni-

versity Press. 1966). or Warren D. Anderson and Thomas J. Mathiesen. "E1hos ." in NG2. Surveys 1ha1cover bo1 h Greek :1nd Rom:m music include John C. Landels, Music in Ancie,11 Creece and Rome

A26

Fo r l'urfh e r Headin g

For Fu d her Readi ng

(london: Routledge. 1999). and Gio,·anni Comorti. Music in Creek and RomanCulmre. trans. Rosaria V. Munson (Baltimore: Johns llopkins Universiry Press. 1989). See also ··Romc." in l'{C2, :md Timothy J. Moore, Music ht Ronton Comedr(Cambridgc: Cambtidgc Univcrsi1y Prcss, 2012) . Transcriptions of 1he ex,ant Crcek melodies and fragments aregiven in Egert Põhlm:inn anel Martin L. West. Docume111s ofAncie111 Grcek Music: 'file E::rtant Melodiesand Pragments (Oxford: Clarendon , 2001}. Most oi' 1he Creek writings reíened to in this chapter a re available i11 English transla1 ion. SR includes excerpts from Plàto's Republic and Titncteus aud Aristode's Poetics (SR 1-3) along with theoretical writings by Cleonides. Aris! icles Quiutilia nus. aud G:iudentius (SR 4-6); the latter three list the note names in the Creek sys tem. the las! two descrlbe Greek notation, ond Caudentius includes the story of Pythagoras·s discovery of the ratios unclerlying lhe octave. f, fth. and fottrth. A largc portion of Crcck and Latiu litcrnturc iscou· taincd in tbc Locb Classical Library. with n:U1slatioas on íacingpages with the origi nais. Thc views oí Plato and

and Culmre (Sterl ing lkiglus. MI: llormonie Park Prcss.

Arlsco1le describecl he re are summarized fro m Pl:no's

hnponanr collectio n of patris1ic and paga n source readlngs on music in early Christian worship and society. see Music in l::arlrChristian Urerarure, ed. James\V/. McKinnon (Cam-

Repu/Jlic 3, 4, and 10; his Lows 2, 3, and 7; and Aris1ode's Polilics 8 and Poetics 1. Writings specinc to music are goth crcd in Greek Musical Writings. 2 vols .. ed . Andrew Buker (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 1984- 89), with uscful cxpbnatory notes: volume 1 contains writi ngs by poets. clramatists. and philosophers. and ,•olume 2 has

complete English 1rttnslnrions of Ariscoxenus, Nicomaclms. Prolemy. and Aristides Quimili(ln\1s :rnd excerpts írom Pia to, Aris101le. and otherwri1e rs. 'fhe following transbtions o:f in<lividu:il treâtises are also available: Aristoxeuus, Tl,e Harmonics ofAristoxeni,s, ed. and trans. Henry S. Macran (Oxford: Clarendon, 1902); '/'he E:uclidian Divísion oftl,e Cano», ed. and trans. André Barbera (Li ucoln: Universiry of Nebraska Press. 1991); Sextus Empiricus.Ag<ww theMtJ,Sicia,ns. ed. and trans. Denise Davidson Greaves ( Uncoln: UuiversiLy of Ncbraska Press. 1986); Aris!ides Quiutilianus. On Music in ThreeBooks. ir:tns. Thomas ). !Mathiesen (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 1983); Nicomachus of' Cerasa, '17le Manual oJ'Hdm1onicsofNicomach,c<the l'J1htlf,"'"ª"· trans. and commenrary hy ~·tora R. Levin (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes, 1994): and Claudius Ptolemy. Ha.rmonics. trans. and com· menlary by Jon Solomon (lcidcn : Brill, 2000).

2006), is a good survey from anciem times to 1he presem. mosdy concerned with liturgicaB music. On the connections bctween Jewish music :rnd 1he music of 1he e3rlyChris1i3n Church, sec Smilh, Mu.sic in. Ancien•Judoism ond EorirChristianitr: James \V. McKin non. The Temple. theCh.,rch Parhers 1md E:arlJ· Western Chrmt ( Brookfield. VI': Ashgute. 1998): and Peter Jeffery, Re-Envisioning Past Musical Cr,lrures: E:thnomusicologi· it> rhe StudrofCregorion Chanr (Chicago: UniversityofChicago P,·ess. 1992). See also Eric Werner's sem inal srudy. 1he Sacred Bridge: TJ,e Iriierdependence of Music and Lirurgy i11 Spwgogue ond Clwrc/1 du,i"g tlie: fim Millennfom, 2 vols. (Loudon: D. Dobson; New York: Cohunbia University Press. 1959-84),

Early-Cliristian Mu,1ic See Smi1b. Mit,Sic inAncient)i,dais""a,ul for!)' Cltrisrianitr: Christopher Page. 17,e Christian West and Its Singers (Ncw Haven: Yale University Press. 2010); and James \V/. Mc Kin· 0011. "Christian Churcb, mus ic oítbc carly."' in NC2. For an

bridge: Cambridge University l"ress. 1987). flor an ovcrview of monastic Iifc. sec J:uncs C, King and Wcrner Voglcr. TheCulture oftheAbberofSt. Gall (Shlttga rt: Belscr. 1991). Excerpts from the writings ofSt. Basil. St. John Chrysos1om, S1. Jerome. and S1. Aogusrine are in SR 9-13 (2:1-5).

Byzantine Chant Sec Constantinc Cavornos. BJ~O!rttine Chont (Bclmo111, MA: lns1iwtc fo,· Byzo11ti11c and Modlcru Creek Stud ics, 1998), nnd Dimitri E. Conomos, BJ-.antine lfymnogropl1rand Byuinline Chan r (Brookline, MA: Hell enicCollege Press. 1984). Giulio Cattin . Musicofrhe MicldleAges I. trans. Steven Botterill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1984). focuses on Byiantine anel Lali n chant.

Dialects of Western Chant The standard workon \Vestem dialeets of chant. including Cregorian ehanl, is David Hiley. Wesiern l~ainchant (Oxford: Clorenclon. 1993). For a study in depth of one of the chant dialects. see Thomas F. Kelly. 'lhe Beneven1an Gl,anl (C•mbridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). The nucicnt Callicau rite is descrihcd by a contempor31)' jn SR 18(2:10).

A27

lsidorc:: o í Sevme·s coinment aboul uotal ion is from bis Eiymologies. Book 3. exccrpted in SR 16 (2:8). Near ·

Musica enchiriodis and Scolica enchiriarlis. trans. with imro. and notes by Raymoncl Erickson. ed. Claude V. Palisca (Ncw Ha,•cn: Yale Universiry Press. 1995) : cxcerp, from thc íormcr i,1 SR 24 (2:16). Tc.N l.S of origil'lal sources of most theoretical lrea1 ises ir1 Latin , both mam,script and printcd, con be accessed on line through the Thesaunis Musicannn Latiuannn at www. chmtl.indiana .edu/lml. On medieval theory, see Calvin M. Bower. "The 1'rans111ission oi' Ancielll Music Theory irno the Middle Ages"; Jan Herlinger. " Medieval Canonics"; and David E. Cohen, • Notes. Scales. and Modes in lhe Earlier Middle Ages:· in CHWMT. pp. 136-67. 168-92, and 307-63 resp~ctively. See •lso Charles M. Atkinson. 1'he Cntical Nexus: Tone-Syst-em, .\1ode. aridNotat<on in t:ar!)' Medieval Mu,ic (Oxford : O,dord University Press. 2009). and Thomas]. Matliiesen.Ap,ollo's LJTe, chapter 7, "The Tradition in the MiddleAges: Fo, an overview of medieval Lheories of mode. sce Harold S. Po,\'ers and F'rnns Wicring. "Mode, §II: Medieval Modal Thcory." in NG2.

coutcmporary accounts oí melodies being corruptcd ia uansmission from Rome to f rankisb lands are in SR

Chapler 3: tloman Lilurgy aml Chanl

( Princelon: Princctoo University Prcss, 1998): Petcr Jef• fery. Re-fnvisioning Pas1 MusicalCu/mr,s; Kenne1h J. levy. "Cregorfan Chant and ,he Romans," JAMS 56 (2003) : 5-41; James Crier. "Adémarde Chabanncs, Carolingian Musical P,·ac1ices, o11d Noio Rom-0na," JAMS 56 (2003): 43- 98: James \V. McKinnon, "The Emergenee ofCregorian Chant in the Carolingi•n Ero :· in An liquil)' and rhe Middle Ages. 88-119: and the paJ>ers collected in Oral and Written 1'ra11$mission III Clwnt, ed. Thomas Forres, Kelly (fornham. UK: Ashgare, 2009). A11na Maria Busse Berger, Medi<?<>ol Music ánd tlie Art of Memory· (Berkeley: University or C:,J; fornia Press. 2005), argues that memory played a much larger role ; n tbe e rea.tio o a.nd tr:insmjssion o f c b:.tut and other types of medieval music than has been realized, even af!e r I he inven1ion o f notat ion.

Notation

21- 22 (2:13- l<J,). James Grier has argued that Acruita· ni:Jn monk Aclémar de Chabannes invenred not:nion in

beightcd ueumcs in the early eleventh ccnnuy; see bis book on Adémar. listcd bclow undcr cbaptcr 3. Cuido oí Arczzo descrihes his ncw notatioa in lhe: Prologue lo bis Antipboncr. in SR 27 (2:19). and points out its bcncfits in Epi,,,tleo1tan Unknown Chant. in SI\ 28 (2:20). which also imroduces his solmi1.a1ion syll ables. For an oven 1iew of not.:1tion. see .. Not:nion" in NC2. Cons1an1in F'loros. /n1roduction 10 Eorly Med.iecol Nototion (\Varren, Ml: Harmonie Pa,·k Press, 2005), traces the his· tory of neumotic notation . Foesimiles or many ofthc corliest manuscripts of ploinchant are published in Paléographie m11.sicole: les principav:, man u•crir-s de eh (lltt Crigoritn. Ambros1e11. Mozorobe. Ca!hcon (Solesmes : hnprimerie St-Piene;'l'ournai: Desclée. Leíebu re. 1889-). twoseries. Color reproduclions íron1"arious manuscripls appear inSchri/ibild derein,1im111ib''"' Mcisik. Musikgescbichte in Bilderu 3/4, ed. Bruno S!ãblein (Leipzig: Deutscber Verlag für Musik. 1975).

L,turg,· An eigbth·cenntlj' form of the Mass limrgy. Ordo ronianu. XVII. appcars in SR 19 (2:11}. and thc dcscription of thc Office in The Rule ofSt. Benedicl is ia SR 17 (2:9). Ou lituxgy. sec John lfarpcr. Tlie Fom1s and Orders ofWestem liturgr from the Tenrh ro ihe Eiglueen1h Centwy (Oxford: Claren· cl on. 1991); and Cheslyn Jones. Geoft'rey Wainwrigh1, and EdwardYarnold , SJ, TheS1udrofLitW'J!)', 2nd ed. (Kew York: Oxfo rd Universiry Prcss. 1992). On the ps;ilms. see Tlie Place of1lte Psolms in the Tntellecuwl Cultt<fe in tlie Middle Ages, cd. Nancy van Deusen (Albony: Stote Uni.versity o f New York. 1999). On ,he Ofnce, see the valuable ess.1y$ garhered in 7lie DivineOJficc in rlte L4ti1t Middfo Ages: Methodolog:ro nd, Soiirce Swdies. Regional Oecelopme111s. Hag,ographJ', ed. Margot E. l'assler and Rebecca A. Bahter (Oxl'ord : Oxford University Press. 2000). Grcgonan Cltant 'lne Liber li.sua/is with lntroduc1io11 and Rubrics in Enb1ish (Tournai: Desclêe. 1934, rev. 1961) is the practical re fe rence forchant use in the modern Catholic limrgy. lt presems an idealited version that •ttempts to account for diverse sources and changes O\'Cr thc centuries. The chants of the Mass in plninsong norntion with foesimilcs of original neumcs abovc and hclow are in Craduale triple.x (Solesmcs: Abbaye Sain1-Pierre ele Solesmes, 1979). On the workol' the Benedictine monks of Solesmes ín researching and ecl iting chanr. see Karherine Bergeron. Decadenr ónchan,men,s: The Reviva! ofGregorion Gha111or Solesmes (Berkeley: University ofCnlifornia Press.1998). Thc S!ándard work on chant is David Jlilcy. Wesrem

Judaism On ancient Jewish music. see John Arthur Smith. Music inAncienr Jndaism and forlrCJ1ristia11i1J' ( Farnham, UK: Ashg3te, 2011): Theodore W. Burgh, Listtning,o rheArrlj'ac1s: Mu~ic Culrure in Ancient Palesrine ( Ncw York: T & T Clark

An eighth-cenrury description of the Roman liturgy is in SR 19 (2:11). On the or:11cransmission :md wrinen codification of Crcgorinn Cham, scc Page. The Chri$tian West and lts Singers: Lco Trei1lcr. With 14liceandPen: Comingto Know Medieval

TTteo")· Sever;,! of the !realises mentioned in this chapter have been lranslated inlo English; Martianus Capclla. De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. trans. with coin.mcata.ry in \'tfilliam HarrisScahl ct ai.. Mart,anus Capei/a and rhe Seven Liberal Arts (New York: Columhia University Press. 1971). On music in the tTivium and quodrivium. see TheSeven LiberalArts in rhe MiddleAges, ed. David L. \Vagncr(Bloom ington: Indiana Universiiy Press. 1983). Bocthius. Fundamentais o[Music (De instiru1io11e musica

Jntcn1.itio n.1l. 2006}; ;md Jonchim Bnuo, 'ºJcwi.:sb Mu.5ic ,

Son.gond Uow lt Wa.s Madc (Oxford: Oxford Un ivc r~ity Pre:,;s.

libri quin.que). tran~. with intr,o. ;md notc4\ by Calvin M.

TYaincl1ani . H'1ç.y·.c, Greprian. Chcmt {Ncw York: Co1mbridgc

§11: Ancicm lsrael/ Palestine." in NG2. A classicwork on Jewish mnsic is A. Z. ldelsohn.Jewish i\lu,,ic in lts flisrorical De,,elopme,u (New York, 1929; re1ir. NewYork: Oover, 1992). Emanuel llubin and John H. Ba1·on. Musicin}ewish Hístory·

2003). with accompanyingCD; James W. McKinnon , '/Ire Advem Projeci: 1ne ú,.ter-Seoentlt-Cenn,ry·Creorio1tofthe Ramon M= l'roper (Berkeley: Univers ity oíCali fornia Press. 2000); Kenneth Levy. Gregori1111 Cham aod rlte Coro!ingion.s

Bower. ed . Claude V. Pai isca (New Haven : Yale University l'ress. 1989): excerpts in S11 14 (2:6). See also 1he usefn l collec1ion of essays comained i n Boeih iua and 1/oe Libero/ Arts. ed. Michael Masi ( Berne: Paul L.rnge. 1981).

Unviersity Press. 2009) traces 1he hisrory oíG1·egori011 cham from its 01·igins 1hrough irs modern 1·evivals anel places ir in 1he con1exLoi' church services. liturgy, nnd tbe cbui·ch calendar. A useíul sho,1erguide is Richard r...

Chapter ~: The Christian Church in lhe Firsl Millennium

The Creation ofCregorian Cha,11

A28

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

For Fu d her Readi ng

Crocker. An fntroducrion to Grei,'Orian Chani ( New lhven: Yale University Press. 2000). with accompanyingCD with numer011s examples. Threc 1re:uises relev:mt to cl-l:nu, includingCuido or Arcizos Microlog..s, are crans'3rccl by Warren B,bb in lfuclxild, C1,ido and John on Musi-<>, ccl. Claude V. Palisc• (New Haven: Y, le University Press. 1978).

and 71ie 'Ordo vinunm,' o/Hildegard o/8inge11: CriticaJ Srudies. ed. Audrey Ekdahl Davidson (Kabmazoo: Medieval lns1in11e Public.11ions. \Vescern Michigan University. 1992). Por Hildeg,rd's music. secSr mphonio: A Criticai Edirim1 of ,11e "Sp>1pho11ia armoniecelestium tevela,io,wm,··2nd ed .. with intro .. trans .. n.nd commentt1.1y by 8:trbnr~ Newnio..n (lchaca. l'IY: Corncll Univcrsity f>ress. 1998).

Creat111gCl10111s for Ne:w Feasts

Mu.src in Co11.,ents See Anne Bagnall Yardley, Perj'onning l'ictJ': Musico/ C.lwre in.Medieval I::nglis/1 Nunneries (New York: Palgrave Macm il lan, 2006).

f'ora íascina1ingstudy ora mon k who crea1ed 1he lirurgy and chants for a new reas1 i,1 1029, seejames Grier. 71,e M11sica.l World o/ a Mtdie11ol Mo,1k: AdémordeClw,ban,tes in ôlevc,uh-Ce11ru1rAquitoille (Ca mbridge: Cambridge Univers ily Press. 2006). The adaptation of chan1s for a new Orfice írom existingcbants is described by Thomas J. Mathiesen, ··--rhe Offi ce of the New Feas1 or CorpusChl'isli' in 1he Regime11Alli111arum at Brigham Young Universi1y:· JM 2 (Winter 1983): 13-44, Other examples a:re analyzed and discussed in Susan Boyn1on. Shaping a Mona~tic /dentit,-: Litu'!O·and lfistor,rat the lmpenalAbbe,rofFarfa. 1000- l/25 (lthac.,. NY: Cornell University Press. 2006) . a"n d Margot E. rasslcr. The Vtri,'ln ofChames: Making IU.1ory·,hrough Lf111'8J·and1heAns (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2010).

Trape Scc Alcjandro Enrique Planchart, "Tropc (i):· in NC2. and llilcy. Wlestem Plainchant. Two complete troped mosses from clevcnth -ccntury France. includ ingthe Mass for Chrism1as Day. appear in Festive Troped .\fossesfrom the l:leven1/1 Celllury: Chris1masand l'a,<1erinAq11itai11e. ed. Cha.-lone Roederer (Madison. \'UI: A-R Edi1ions, 1989).

Sequence See Margot Fassler, Corhie Sor>g: Victorine Sequences and Augwti11ian Refom, ir> 1'welfth-Celltu,,- Paris, 2nd ecl. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 20 11 ), and llichard 1... Crocker, 71,e &>rir Medieval Seq,,ence (Berkeley: University or Califo rnia Press, 1977).

Lirurgicol Dramu Major studies include William L. Smoldon, 7'he Music ofthe Medieval Church Dramas, ed. Cymhia Bourgeoull (London and New York: Oxford University Press. 1980). and Susan fulnkin , TheMusicofthe Medieval Luurg,cal Drama m france and England, 2 vols. (New York: Garland. 1989), who collates music for most orLhe dranaas.

Tfüdegord of Bingen A lcHer from J-Jildegard appcars: in SR 23 (2:15). Studies oí her and her music include Fiona Maddocks. flildegardof Bmgen: 11ie Woman o/Iler Age ( NewYork: Doubleday. 2001): Sabina Flanagan , lfildegord of Birtgen, 1098- 1179: A Visionary· Life. 2nd ed. (London: Romlcdgc. 1998); and Voiceofthe Living Light: Hildegard o/Bingen and f/er World. cd . Borbora

Cbapler 4: Soug and Dance Music lo

1300

Song John Haines. ,\feáieval Song m Romance làllg«ages (Cambridge: Cambridi:e Unjversily P'ress, 2010), s urveys songs u, L~tin and Romance languages from about 500 to 1200. An excellcnt study oi' monopbonic seuings oí various kinds oí 1cxts. botb sacrcd and secular. is Job.a Stevens. Words and Mustc tn rhc MtddleAges: Song. Nornutve. Danceand Drama.

1050-1350 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986). On secula rmonophony, sec Ma:rgare1 L. Switten, The Medieval LJTiC (Somb Hadley. MA: Moun1 Holyoke College. 1987- ) and accompanyingcassellcs, ThcCD-ROM :mel CD set directed by Switten. Teaching Mcdieeal LJricwith Modem 1echnologr: New Windows on lhe Mediel'al IVorld (South ll adley. MA: Moum Holyoke College. 2001). includes manuscript facsimiles. tr:mscriptions, ,ens. 1ransl:11ions. commemary, and performances of L;nin songs, troubadour and trouvére songs. anel 1he Cantigas de Santa Maria. David Wulstan :trgues for a rhythmic iu1erpre1atioll or all medieval song in The Emperor's Old Clothes: The l!hJ111m o/ MediaevalSo11g (Ottawa: lnstitute of Mediaeval Music, 2001). For a colleciion oi' essay$ devoted 10 women and song in medi eval society. see Med,evol WomansS011g: CrossCtLlt1LralApproacl1es. ed. Anne L KJi nckand Arrn Mane l\asmussen (Philadelphia; Univ ersity oi' Pcnnsylvania Press. 2002).

trouvercs. two cxcellcm sruclics are Christopher Pagc.

Voices and lnsrrumellls of the Middle Ages: lnsrnrmental PracticeandSongs in France. ll00-1300 (Berkeley: University of C•li fornia Press, 1986), and llendrik van der Wcrr, 11,e Cl1anso11s ofrhe Tro1,badors ond Tro1,véres: A Swdr of1he Melodies ond Their Relation ro 1/ie Poems (Utrech1: A. Oosthoek. 1972), from which the 1ranslation of Bernart de Vent• rlorn·s Can veila la,.,eta mo,•eron p. 75 is taken. Christopher Page. 7'/ie Owl and the Nightingale: Musical li/e and ldeas in fronce ll00-1300 (t.ondon: Oe111. 1989) is a valu~ble co n1ribut ion ,o 1be social history of music in France in the twelfth aud tllirteent..b eenturies. See also Page, "Cottrt a11d City in France, 1100-1300," it1 Antiq11i1r and theMiddleAges, e<l. James W. McKinnon, 197-217. On court life and manners, see C. Ste()hen Jaeger. 1ne Oniins of Courtliness: Civilizi,,g 1rendf and tltc fom101,o,1 o/Courtlr ldeals, 939-1210 (Pbiladelphia: Uni"ersity or Pen11syh•ania Press, 1985). Judith A. Perail\O, Civing Voice 10 Love:

SongandSelf· E:rpressionfro"' 1he Trattbadours to Cuillaurne de Machaut ( Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 2011). examines thc relationship of music. poctry. and sclf.. expresslon ln f'rench and Occltan songs írom the l\'1eU-th

1hro11gh the íoun eemh centuries. John llaines, Eig/11 Cenruries o}Trou/J<ldours ar>d Trott"êres: Tlie Changi.ng lden1it)' oj'Medieval Music (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsiry Prcss. 2004), examines changing historical perspcctivcs on lhe troubadoursancl trouveres. Por bibliography. sce Ma,garel L. Switten, Musicand Poetry·in the MiddleAges: ACuide t<J Research 011 Frenei, and Occitan Sor,g. 1100-1400 (New York: Garland, 1995) . The standard work on the music, histo ry, and cultural context of 1he trouba<lours is Elizabe1h Auhrey. 7lte Music o/the Troubadours (Bloomi ngton: Indiana University f>ress, 1996). Tbeirvidas (life stories) are translated by Marg-arita Egan, '/1,c Vidas a/ tlte 'frcnibado11rs (New York and London, 1984): ,mos. describing particular songs. are translated by Will iam E:. Burgwinkle, Rawso,id 1l·o11.badourSo,1gs (N'ew York: Carland, 1992). An editfon of troubadour songs is 111e f:trartt TroJLbadour Melodies: Transcriptions and üsmp; for Peifonners and Schola.rs. ed. Hend rik van der Werí. texts ed. Cera ld A. llond (llochester, 1\'Y: Amhor, 1984,). Troubadour

J..aunSong

and trouvêre songs appear in Son.gs ofthe Troubadoursan.d

Bryan GiUingham reassesses th-e ro les and origi.ns oí Latin

Trom-ires: An Antholog,- o/ Poems OJtd Melodies, ed. Samuel N. Rosenberg. Marga.rei L. Swiuen. and Gcrard Le Vot (Ncw York: Carland. 1998). On the trobnjritz. sec Songs ofth-e Wamell 1'roubado11rs. ed. Matilda Tomaiyn Bruckncr. Lau rie Shepard. nnd Sarah White (Ncw York: Carland . 1995). On the trouvêre SOllf,'S. see Mary J. O' Ne ill. Counlr Lo11e Songs o/Medieval Fran.ce: 1i·ansmission and Sri • in the Trouvére Repenoil'e (Oxford: Oxford University P,·ess. 2006). Trouvére songs , re in '1l-otwêre Lrncs with Melodies: Compleie Comporo1ive E:dition. ed. Hans Tischler, CMM 107 (supplemcnt. Ott,wa: lnstitute of Mediaevol Music, 2006). ond Tro11veres-Melodies, ecl. llendrik van der\Verf, in Monu -

secular monophonic song in 'fheSocial Background 10 L<1tm Medieval Sec«l<1rSong (Ottawa: l11stitute or Mediaeval Music, 1998). For a critica! evalua1ior1or 1he music, see hisA Criticai SrudrofSecular Medieval Latin Song (Oltawa: lnstitule of Mcdfaeval Music. 1995). Almost thc entirc rcpcrtoirc appears inSecularM,dieval l.ntinSong:AnAntlwlogy. cd. Cillingham (Ott.awa: lnstirme of Mediaeval Music, 1993). On the origin of the term conducrus. see Cillingham. "A New Etiology and Etymology íor ,he Conductus:· MQ 75 (Spring 1991): 59- 73.

New, nan (Berkeley; Univcr,.\ity o f C.,lifornia Prc,53. 1??8).

France

On 1he Ordo virtut111n. see Margot Fassler. "Music for1 he Love l'east: Hildegard oí llingen anel ,he SongofSongs: in Wome11 's Voices across i\ftosical Wo,lds. ed. Jane A. Berns,ein (Boston: Nor1heas1ern University Press. 2004), 92-1 17;

Por jongleurs. minslrcls. anel rnusic of medieva I Prench ci1ies. see Gretchen Peters, 71te Musical Sor,nds o/Medieval French Ciries: Players, Pacrons. a1>d Politics (Cambridge: C,mbridge University Press, 2012). Un troub,dou rs anel

A29

Shira 1. Schwam -Baird. music ed. Mihon G. Schenemrnnn , Jr. (NewYo rk: Carland , 1994). ror1 he women 1To11véres, seeSongs o/tl1e lll!>men 7l·ouvéres, ed. Eglal Doss · Quinby et ai. (J\ew Haven: Yale University Press. 2001). Domrn M:tyer-M:trtin aud Dorothy Keyser, 11wnaiic Cato!ogue of'l'roubadour 011d 'lrou.;re Melodies (Hillsdale, l'fY: Pendragon Press, 2011). contains incipits for ali extan, 1l'Oubadour ,mel trouvê re melodies. each cross- referenced to appearaaces in otl1e r ruanuscripts of t.he same ,_ uelody and related ones. Paul Bracken. "Musical lns1rumen1s and the Perfonuance of Medjeval Song.'' The Consort 61 (StLmmer 20 11): 3-22. eadorses the conclusions oí Christopher Page (see above) that troubadour and trouvêre songs were

usu,lly performed unaccompanied and orgues that lhey were never Jccompanied by wind instruments. percussion. orgroups of instru.mcnt.s, Cha.nsonnicrs i.n l'acsiruile incluclc Le Cha.nson.nierde litrsenal. cd. Pierre Auhry(Paris: P. Ceu,hner. 1909). fac similc and partia( transcription: Le Chanson.nierCangé. 2 vols .. ed. Jean Beck (Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl-

vania Press, 1927; vol. 2 has cranscriptions); l.e Mcmuscrit du Rol, 2 ,•ois., cd. Jean Bcck (Phlladclphta : Untverstiy oí Pennsylvania Press, 1938); anel l.eChonsom1iercülrras, ed.Alfred Je,nroy (Paris, 1925: rcpr. Ncw York: Johnson, 1968).

England On English song. see E. J. Dobson and l'rank L. lforrison. Medieval EnglishSong, (London: Faber & Faber. 1979). and Frank L. l larrison. Musicin Medieval8ri1ain (Buren. Netherl, nds: Knur. 1980) .

Gcnnany Por the Minnesinger, see James V, McMahon, The Musico/ Earlr Mim<esang(Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1990), ltaly On halian songand ns relalion to the crad il ion of the 1ro11badours. see F. Alberto Gallo, M11sic i,1the Castle: 1rattbadours. Books, and Orators in ltalia11 Cottrts ofrh.e 771irtee111li. foJLneen th. anel Fifteenth Cenruries, trans. A.una Herklot. (CWcago: Univers ity of Chicago Press. 1996). On 1he lauda in general, see Blake Wi lson. ··t.auda.- in NC2. For 1he lauda repenory. see The Earliest Laude: The Cor1on-0 Hymnal. cd , Hans Tischlcr (Ottawa: lnstitute oí Mediacval Music, 2002). and The flonmce Lnudario: An Editioll o/ florence . Biblioteca narionale ce111role. Banco rari 18. music cd. Blnkc Wilson. tcxts ed. and trans. Nello Barbicri (Madison. "\VI: A-R Editions.1995). On ,hc medieval Florentine buda rra dition. see Blake \Vilson. Musicand Merrhanrs: The úwdes, Companies o/ Rep11blira11 Plorence (Oxford: Oxford Univers iiy Press. 1992). On 1hc Vcnetian ir.,dition in the Middlc Ages and later, sce jona1han Clixon, flonoringCodond rhe City: Music at the V.metia» CMfraiemities, 1260-1807 (O,for<l:

m e ní,1 mu~le,,1e m ed ii açvi, IJ-12 ( KaMel. B:trenreite r.

Oxford Un ivcr.sity Prc:,,:,,, 2003). Othe r rc:;gional traditfon3

1977-79). Forworks of Adam de la Halle, see 77,e lJTicsand Melodies o/Ada111 de lo Halle. ed. and 1rans. Debo,·ah H\lbbard Nelson, rnusic ed. Hendrik van der \Verí (New York: Garland, 1985). and l.ejeude Robin et Marion. ed. and tra.ns.

are examined byCyrilla Barr. The Monophonic I.auda and tite Lar Religio11s Con/raremiries of'lusca11ro11d Umbria in 1'1e Lote MiddleAges (Kalama,oo: Medieval l11sti1u1e Publi ca1ions, Wes1ern Michigan Universi1y, 1988).

A30

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiu g

Spo111

Medieval Music and the Art of Memor:r (see ahove under

Forthe cantigas. see Joseph F. O'Calbghan. AlfonsoX and the Contigos de Santa Mo rio: A Poeric Bi.ogrophr (Leiden and Boston: Brill. 1998). The music is ed ited in Alfonso X El Sabio, Canligt1SdeS<>n1ó Aforú1: Nu-ell{J ironscripción inregral ele si, mrísi<ea seg,Jn lo métrico latino. cd. Roberto PJ, ( Madrid: Música Did~ctica. 2001). the texts in Afonso X. O Sábio. ContigosdeSanta Morio. ed. \V.1lrer Mettmann (Edicións Xerais de Galicia. 198 1), and rransla,ions in Songs o/HolyMoryo/AlfonsoX, 77,e Wis,e. irans. Ka,hleen Kulp-Hill (Tern pe: Arizona Cenrer for Med ieval and Reoaissance Studies. 2000). An ol<lered ition with complete facsimile is Higinfo Anglcs, la nuísiéa de tas ca111igas de Santa Maria dei Rey Alfonso el Sabio, 3 1•ols. in 4 (Barcelona: Biblfoteca Central, Sección de Musica. 191-3-64). On Muslim and Jewish soug, especiaJly in Spain . seeArnnon Shiloah. -Muslim and Jewish Musical Traditions ofthe Middle Ages,· inMusic os Co11cep1 ond Prac1ice ;,. rhe la1eMiddleAges. ed . Reiuhard Strohm and Bonnie J. Blackburn. 1-30.

chap1er2).

Tns1n,men1s ónd Dance On lnd ivtdual lnsrrumems. seeA Peiformer's Cutde. 10 Medieval Music. ed. Ross W. Dufli n ( Bloomington: Indiana Unive rs ity Press. 2000). On the music, see Howa rd Mayer Brown and Kcith Polk. "Lnstruntcntal Music. e. 1300c. 1520:· and Walter Sal mcn. ""Dances nnd Dance Music. e. 1300--c. 1530." in Musicas Concept and Practice in the /.a.te MiddleAges. ed . Strohm and Blackburn. 97- 161 and 162-90. For transcriptíons of ali rhe extant dances, alo ng wíth a usefol commemary. see 1'imo1 hy McGee. Medieval /r,srrumen1al Dances (Bloomington: Indiana Universiry Press. 1989).

Chaptcr 5: Polyphony rhrough lhe Thineenth Century Generol 'l'he E:arlr MiddleAges 10 1300. ed. Richard L. Crocke r and David Hiley. conrni ns excellent surveys of ea rly polyphony by Sarah Fuller. Notre Dame po lypbony by Janet Knapp, and f rench and English thirtee nth • century polypbony by Crocker. F. Alberto Gillo, Musico/lhe MiddleAges li. trans. Sceven Bonerill (Cambridge: C:imbridge University Press. 1985). focuses on polyphony in the Latiu West. See

also Sarah fuller. '"Orgti.num -disco11tus-co,uropuncrus in the MiddleAges:· in CHWMT. 477-502: and -organum:· "Discant.'" ··cood ucrus." and ""Motel.§ ]: MiddlcAgcs" in NG2. A view of rhe social roles for polyphonic music is offered in Marion S. Cushee. "The Polyphon ic Music of the Medieval Monastery. Cathedral and University;· i n A1uiqui1rand ihe MiddleAges. eti. James W. MeKinnon. 143- 69. ln Discarding lmages: Rejlec1ions on ,lfosic ond Culrure in Medievo! ltance (Oxford: Cbrendon. 1993). Chri:)tophcr Pagc c hilJJcngc:::) cQ nve ntl onal vicw:) o f the

thirtee nlh century as rat-ionillis·tic. construcrive. :md asce1ic. and pleads ÍOI' a more inruit ive unclers1i:1nd ing of its human qual i1 ies. On oral corrapos ition and memoriz.a1ion of medieval polyphony. see Anna Maria Busse Berger,

EurllOrgr,num For 3 rr:111sk11ion of Musico ert-chiriadi.s :uid Scolico e11cbi-

ri<lclis, sce obovc undcr chaptcr 2: for Cuido of Arczzo's Micrologus. see undcr cbapter 3. Tbe major study i n English ofthe WinchesterTroper, which includes transcriptions of some of the music, is Alejandro Planchan. 1"hel/eper1o?·of'l'ropes oi lVinches1er. 2 vols . ( Princeton: Prínceton Universi1y Press. 1977). for a facsim ile anel background.

see n,e WincltesterTroper. facsimile ediciOLl and introduetiou by Susan Rankin (Londou: Staiuer and Bel!. 2007). For free organmn. seeAd 0'1/anum ràciendum & Irem de 0'1/ano. ed. and trans. Jay A. Huff ( Brooklyn: lnstitute or Medíaeval Music. l969).

Aquitanian Paln>honl See Sarah F,~ler, ·sr. Martial . §ill: Polyphony.· in NC2. Cow Cali:i:1inus de laCa1edralde Santiago de Composrela (n.p.: Kaydeda Ediciones. 1993) providcs a colorfacsinülc or rhe enri re codex. Theodore K"rp. The PolJphon._rofS,. Martial and Sannago de Compos1e/a. 2 vols. (Oxford: Cbrendon, 1992), argues for a rhyth m ic transcription ohhis t·epenory and provides an edition. but his principies have not bcen widely acccptcd. Editions without rbythms are Hcndrik van der Wcrf. The Oldesl fu1anl Part Music and 1/ie Origino/Westem PolJPhon.y. 2 vols. (Rochcster. NY: Author. 1993). and Brya n Gillingham.Sainr Morria/ Polyphony (Henryville. PA: lnstinne of Mediaeval Music. 1984).

Notre Dame Pol~phon.r Craig\Vrigh1 reviews lhe bisto1y of music ~, Notre 03Jne during thc MiddleAges anel eorly Rcnaissance with fascin,ting detail inM1tsiéond Ceremonrot Noire Dame of Paris: 500-1500 (Camhridge: Cambridge University Pt·ess. 1989). On the ques1ion of authorship ofthe Notre Dame organa and ihe relalionsh ip oí externpo raneous si nging to composition . see Edward H. Roesner. "Who 'Made" the Magnus liber"? :· EM H 20 (2001): 227-66. and Busse Berger. Mcduwal Musicand 1heAr1 o/Memo?·· A contemporary

The standard indcx of the Notre Dame repcnory is

Pricdrich Ludwig. Repenorium 011sanomm recenrioris e, moterornm vetusrissuni stili (Brooklyn: lnstitute of Mediaev.:il Music, 1964-78). A more up - to-date catalogue in English is Hcnd rik van der Werf, lnregrnted Direcro?·oJOrgonr,, C1011s11loe, on<I MoretHfthe Thirretnth Centil?" (Rochcsccr. NY: Au1ho r. 1989). See also Bryan Gilli ngham. lndices to 1he Notre-Dame Pascimiles (Ottawa: lnsrinate of Med iae.val Music. 1994). The three major so1irces of Notre Dame polypho ny are the manuscripls \Volíenbilttel. Helmstedt 628 (fonne,ly 677). called \Vl: Wolfenbü1tel. Helmstedt 109? 0206). called W2: and Plo rence, Biblioteca Med icea-Laurenziana. pluteo 29.1, ealled F. AJJ :tre published in facsimile: WI iu An OldS1. Andreios Music Book. ed. J. H. Baxter (London: St. Andrews University Publications, 1931). or D,e mi11eral1e,tiéhe Musik-Handscl,rift IJi'I. ed. Mar tin Staehelin (Wiesbaden. 1995). wi1b introduc1ion in Englishand Germctn: W2 in Wolfenbíiirel/099. ed. Luther A. Ditrmer. PMMM 2 (1960): and F in Firenze. Biblioteca Mediceo •l..aurenziana. plut;,o29.J. 2 vols .. cd. Dirttner. PMMM 10- ll (1966-67). The organa and clausulae are rr:mscribed ln Le Magnu.s

liberorgani de No1re-D<11nede Paris. 7vols .• gen. ed. Edward H. Roesncr (Mon•co: Oiscau - Lyre, 1993-2009). with an inrroductory note on performance in vol. 1. Hans Tischler. TTie Parisian Two •Part Orgona: The Complete Compara tive Edi· lion. 2 vols. (New York. 1988). transcribes thc repertoire in the rhythmic modes rhroughout.

For:m oveMewof Norre Dame notation and its rhyth mic inrerpre1a1io11, see llryan Gilli ngham, Modal RhJ1hm (Ottawa: 1nstit111e or Med iaeval Music, 1986). See also Edward H. Roesner. "Rhyttunic modes": David Hiley and Thomas B. Payne, "Not:ttion, 11'": :1ml Margaret Bent, • Notation. ZIJ"': in NG2. Relevant rheorists include Ano nymous IV. De mens1tris el disca,uu. 1rans. Jeremy Yud kin. MSD 4 1 (NeuhausenSllutga,1: AIM/ Hllossler, 1985). and Joannes de Carla,id ia. Concer-ning Mtásured MtLsic (De me11su.rt1bili musica), i rans. Stanley H. Birnbatun (Color adoSprings: Colorado College Music Press. 1978). Ao excerpt from tbe latter is in SR 30 (2:22).

treatise Lhat descríbes how to extemporize two-part organa

i n Notre Dame style is described by Srephen lmmel, -The Vatican Organum Trea,ise Re-examined:· EM H 20 (200 1): 121-72. and lhe treatise itself appears in lrvingCodt and Benito Rivera. "Thc Vatican Orgamun Treàtisc-A Colour Rcproductiou. Tra.nscription. a.nd Translmion." in Gordon Atho!Anderson. in Memoriam. cd. lrvingGod t and Hans Tischler , vol. 2 (Ottawa: lns1ir11te of Med iaeva l Music. 1984). 264-365. On 1he performance of Notre Dame polyphony. see Edward 1-1. Roesner. "The Performance of Pnrisi•n Org311um: liarlyMt1.Sie 7(Ap.-il 1979): 174- 89: RebcecaA. Balticr. '"Thc Gcography ofthe Liturgy at Notre Dame of Paris:· in PioinsongintheAge o/ Pol)phony. ed. Thoma.s Porrç~t Kelly (Cambridge~ Cambridge Univer~ity Press. 1992). 45-64: ancl Balt1.er. "'How Longwas Norre[)ame Organum Períom1ed?'" in Berond the Moon: F"estscrift L..iherDitinter. ed. Bryan Cillingham and Paul Me.-k.ley (O113wa: lns1 itu1eoíMed iaeval Music, 1990).118-43.

Conduclus See Roben Falck. 77ae Notre Dame Conducius: A Stuáyof thc Reperlory (Henryville. PA: Institui e of Mediaeval Music. L98 l). :1nd Christopber Page. Láli,. Poet,,· ánd Conducrus RhJ1hn, in Medie.al France (London: Royal MusicalAsso ciatioo . 1997). Ed itions of concluctus includc 71te Earliest PolJplion,cArr MtLsic: The 1.;o Two-Part Conductus in the Notre Dame .\/cinuscripts. ed. Ha ns Tischler (Ouawa: ínsrinne of Medfaeval Music. 2005): 71,e Cond1tc111s Colleciion ofMS Woljenbnrre! 1099. 3 vols., ed . Elhel Thurston (Madiso11 , \Vl: A-R Ed itions. 1980); •nd Notre· Dameoncl Rela.red C-onductus: Optriiomnia. 10 vols .. ccl. Gordon Andcrson (llcnryvillc. PA: ln~titutc ofMed iaev.11 Mu~ic. 1?7?- ).

A31

isa fascinalingcollcction of cssays on mo[ets of di ffercnt eras. Enga1,~ngsrud ics ofthc motet include llendrikvan der Werf. lfidden Beautrin Moretsofrhe EarlyThineerul, Ceruury (Tucson: Author, 1998); Sylvia lluot,Allegoricol Ployin 1he Old Prench Mo1e1: 1"heSocred orid tlie Profr,ne in 1l1ir1eenrl1Centu?·Pol)ph-onr (St•nford: S10.n ford Univcrsity Prcss. 1997): and M•rk Evcrist. French Mows in 1he'/'hirteenth Centu,y: Music, Poerr,; and Genre (Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press. 1994). Christopher Page. Discarding lmogcs. includes chapters on venues íor períorming motets anel on ,he rise ormo1eis in 1he ven1acula.r. Hans Tischler. The r,,1d fvolutior1 of1l1e forliest Motets (lo circo 1270). 3 l'Ols. ( Henryville. PA: lnstitule of Mediaeval Music, 1985), isa comp3niou to hjsed ition :rnd inclu<les a comprehensive catalo!,'lte. The most complete edit ion o r early motets. which

s,,,fe

presents each rnotet in several ve rsions from ,•;rrious manuscripts. is 77,e Earliest. Moiet-s (to circa 1270): A C,,n,plete Compararii,, Edilion. 3 vols .. eu. Hans Tischler (Ncw Havcn: Yale Unjvcrsity Press. 1982). Ed itions of part icula r manuscripts includc 71,e 1..atin C-Omposirions of F"ascicules VII and VT/1 of,he Norre Dame Manu.scrtpt Wolfenb11uel llelmsred11099 (1206), 2 vols., ed. Gordon Anderson (Brooklyn: lns1irute of Medi•ev.l Music, 1968): The MonrptllierCodex. Reccnt Rescarches in the Music of thc MiddleAgcs and Ea rly Rcnaiss,ncc 2- 8. cd. Hans Tiscb· ler (Madison. WI: A- R Ecl itions. 1978- 85): Composit,ons oft.he 8amberg ManuscriJ>I. CM M 75. ed. Gordon Anderson (Neu hausen-Srmtgan: H~ nssler. 1977): anel lligi ni Angles. E'I oode:rmusical de las /foelgos. 3 vols. (Barcelona : Institu i d'esn,dis catab ns, Biblioteca de Coralunya. 1931). Motets wi1h 1exrs by a thi ,1centh- ce111ury chanccllor of Notre Dame Carhecl r:~ . wbo was one oí1he leading poets of Paris. are in Philip tbe Cbaucellor, Motetsand Pros11/0$. ed. Thomas B. Payne (Middleton. Wl: A-R Ed itions, 20ll).

Notation Por details of the noralion of cwelfl h- and ih irteenthcentury polypl,onic music. consttlt Carl Parrish. 77re No101ion ofMedieval Music (New Yor k: Noriou. l978). aml WiUi Apel.1"heN01ation ofPolJplaonicMusic, 5th ed . (Cambridge. MA: Medieval Academy or A.tnerica, l961). An excerpt f rorn f'raneo ofColOb"''"Arscon111s mensurabilis is inSR31 (2:23).

Eriglisl, Pol:nJltony Pcter M. Lefferts. "Mcdie,•al England. 950-1450: in

Anriquitrand1heMiddleAges. cd. McKinuon.170- 96. offcrs ao ovcrvicw and contexts for EugUsh polyphon ic and monophon ic music. Sec also Lcffcrts. Th, Moter in Engia.nd in 1he Fourreen1h Centwy (Ann Arbo r: UMI Research Press. 1996). Shai B11rstyn , "Cerald of \V.1 les ond rhe Swner Cunon:· JM 2 (1983): 135- 50. argues fo.- folk pol}1>ho 11y as o.n iníluence on English music nnd ag:i.inst :t ftrm division bctwecn improvisation and eomposition. Survivingwork:, are collcctcd in Engl~l1 Mu.1ic;ofthc

11,ineenth ondEarlrf'ourtwitl, Cenmnes. ed. Ernest H. SnndMotel

/Jcaring rhe More, of che Middle Ages ond Renaissancc, ecl. Dolores Pesce (New York: O,ford Universi,y P,-ess. 1997),

ers, PMFC 14- (1979). The Wo,·cester r,·agmenrs are edited in PMMM 5 and in 1nc IVorusrerfl-ogm.ents:A Cr,1alogi,eRai-so11nê a,utTranscr-ipli<>n. ed. Luther A. Diumer, MSO2 (1957).

A32

For l'urlh e r He adiu g

Chapler 6 : New Developmenls in lhe F'our1ccnth Ccntu1y General Polyphonic Music of 1he founee nth Century [ PM FC] (Mo naco: Oiseou-Lyre, 1956-91) is,comprehensive editíon of founeenth-centul)' music from France. ltaly. and England: vol. 1: Roman de Fauvel , Vilry. and Frencb Mass Ordinary cyclcs: 2- 3: Machaut: 4: Landini: 5: motcls of Frcnch provenance: 6- 11: lral irn secular music: 12- 13: Jt..1lian sacrcd and ceremonfal music: 14: English music

ofrhe rhirtee111h anel founee111h ccnruries: 15: English motets: 16- 17: English Mass. Olnce. and ceremonial music: 18-22: F,·ench sccubr music: 23: French sacred rnusic; 24: Cico,1ia.

On rhythmic nomion from tbe thirteenth through ftf1eenth centuries. see Anna Maria Busse llerger, "The Evolution oí Rhythmic Notation.'' in CHWMT. 628-56. On 1heo1y in general, seeJan Herlinger, "Musie Theory of 1he Four1eenth and E..1rly Fi l'teenrh Cenl\lries,.. in Musicas

Concept on.d Prt,ctice in 1/ie Late MiddleAges. ed. Reinhard Sl roh m anel Bon nie J, Blackburn (Oxford; Oxford Univer· sity Press. 2001). 244-300. Roma,1 de Fauvel See the focsim ile in FrançoisAvril, Nancy Regaldo. and Edwa rd H. Hoesner. /,e Romo,1d,3 fou,•el 11,nd Oll1cr IVorks: facsimilewi1li /,urod,,c1ory·f:ssar (NewYol'k: Broude. 1986). and the edition in Lepremierer leseconilwrede Fmwet. ed. Pa11l Helmer (Ottawa: lnstitute o[ Mediaeval Music, 1997). A diversc coUcction of essays dcvotcd to Fauvel ís faJLvel Srudies:Allegory: Chroni.cle. Music. and lmage in Paris, Bi bliorh r!que na rionale de Frrmce, MS franca is 146, ed. Morgaret Bent , nd Andrew \Vathey (Oxford: Clarendon. 1998). Seealso Emm, Dillon, M~dieva.l Music-Mokíngo.nd the Roman de Fauvel (Cambridge: C:tmbridgc Univcrsi1:y Press. 2002). Ars nova and Vitry· See 1he rreatise anributed 10 Phi lippe de Virry known 38 Arsnova, ecl. Gilbert Reaney. And ré Gilles, and Jean Mail lard. Corpus scriptol'um ele mus·ic• 8 (AlM, 1964). rrons. Leon Plnnr ing• i11Jo1mwl oJMusic'T'heory·S (1961): 204-23. Excerpts from Jeht1n de Murs's Notitia ortis musicae are in Sll 34 (2:26). anel Jacques de Liêge's criti(flle íromSpeculum mus,ooe is in SR35 (i:27). Oro Vitry as cornposer. see Daniel Leech-Wilkinsoro, Composi1io110l 'feclu1iques in 1/te four-Pon lsorl1J1hmicMotc1s of Pl,ilippe de Vi1ry· and His Con 1,n,poraries, 2 ,•ois. (New York: Garland, 1989). On isorbyt-bm anel memOI)', see Busse Berger, Medieml Musican.d1/ieAn oj'.\lemorr. Mo1ets attributed to Viuyappear ín PME'C I and 5 (see above) and ín Philippe de Vitry. Complete Works. ed . Leo Schrade, wíth new introduction and notes by Edward H. Roesner (Monaco: Oi•c•u Lyrc. 1984), Mocliout Avaluablc ncw study is Elizabctl1 Eva Leacb. Guillaumede Machaut: &cretary: Poet ..\fusician (lthaca. NY: Cornell Uni ·

For Fu d her Readi ng

versiiy Press. 2011).A Companic,n to Guil/a,ume de Macha ui. ed. Deboroh McCrady and Jennifer Bain (Boston: Brill . 2012) . and Machauts Mu.s,c: New lnterprerarions. ed. Elizoberh Eva Leach (New York: Boydell , 2003). offer numerous useful essays. Anne \Valtc1·s Robertson, Guillaumede Mocha111 in l!einw Conttxl and MMning in lfis Musical Works ( New York: Cambridge Universi ty Press. 2002) illumi · nales his music by placing it in context and establishes a date and purpose for Machaur·s mass. On the mass. see Daniel Leeeh-Wilkinson, Mocluw1's Mass: An l,11roducrion (Oxford: Cla,·endon. 1990), which includes an edi1ion or 1he mass. Law1·enee Eaq>. Guillaumede Maclw111: A Cuide ro Research (New York: Garland . 19'95) p..ovides a comprehensive biograpby. bibliograpby. and diseograpby. ànd is the best source for Maehaut research. The standard Machaut edition is by Leo Schr•de in PMFC2-3. A newer. partial edition isGuillaumedeMachau.1 1300-1377: Oe11vrescomple1es. ed . Sylveue Leguy (Paris: Le Droicl Chemin de Musique. 1977- ). An edition of ibe mass is in CMM 2. and otberfourrccnth-ccntury Mass music in Francc appcarsiu CM M 13 (Mass oíTournai) and CMM 29. Machaut's 1..e/ugemem du rD)"d• 11ehatgne and Remede de fortune, ed . and trans. James 1. \Vimsatt and William W. Kibler. music ed. Rebecca A. Ba ltzer (A,hens and London: University oíCcorgia Prcss. 1988). illustratc how Frencb secular song functioned in court culture. Scc also Mach -

aut's Le livre dou voirdit. ed. Daniel Lcech·\Vilkinson. trans. R. Barton Palmer (New York: Garlond . 1998).

Other Fre11ch Composers andArsSubrihor Edirions oí , he music appear in PM FC 18-24 (see above) anel in CMM 36- 37 (Coclcx Reina), 39 (Ma nuscripts of Cha ntilly. MuséeCondé, and Modena) , and 53 (Prenclt Sec11lt1rCompositio11s ofthe Po11rt-een1h Cenw,,·, 3 vols .. cd. \VilliApel). Trecento Agood account of lhe music.,I scene is Mrehael Long. "Treceu10 ltaly." inA11tiq1<itr and the Midd!eAges. ed. James IV. McKinnon (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: P..eutice HaU .199]). 241-68. On Landini, see Michael Long. "Francesco Landini and the Florentine Cultural Elite,- EM H 3 (1983) : 83- 99. Eleonora Beck, Sin1;ingin the Ga.rden: Mu.,icand Cuiture ,n 1he Tuscan 1recento (Innsbruck: S11tdien: Lucca: LIM. 1998). placcs music in thc context of socicty. art. and lilcrature. 1J1cluding Boccaccio's Decameron. Se"eral important articles

Ciunti Barbero, 1992). 0 1heredirionsofTrecemo music appear in PMFC 6-13 anel in CMM 8, MusicofF01,r1eenll,umtu?·f1alJ: ed. Kino Pi rrotta . On ltalian theorists. see Prosdocimo de' Beldomandi. Conrrapuricws (Co11n1erpoint), 11·ans. Jan Herl inger (Lin coln: Universiiy of Nebraska Press , 1984); Prosdocimo de' Beldomátldí's Musico. Plon(l or1d Musica Speculatwo. ecl . Jan Herl inger (Urbana: Universiry of Ill inois Press. 200i): anti He rl inger. 7'helucidariur11 ofMarcl,euoof Padua (Chicago: University oíCbicago Press. 1985). The lta.lian notat ional system is describecl by Marcbetto of Padua in SR33 (2:25).

A33

Rise of furopean Music, 1380-150/1 (Cambridge: Cam b,·iclge Universiry P..ess. 1993). A,1 excellent l'eeen t collection of essays. foropeátl Music, 1520- 1640, ed. James Haar (\Voodb ridge, UK: Boydell, 2006). offers many ne,v insights. Thesocial, cult\ltal. and bistorlcal contexts for music are treated in 'fhc

Renoissa.nce: Froni tlte 14'70s 10 lhe E:,1d of tlie 16th Ce11t14ry·. ed. lain Fenlon (London: Macmillan . 1989). On performance practice, seeA Pe,former·s Cuide to Reri-0.issance Music. ed. JeffreyT. Kite· PoweU. 2nd ed. (Bloorningtou: Indiana University Press. 2007) . See alsoA Companion 10 Medieval and Renafssance Music. ed. Knighton and 1-àUows.

Performa 11 ce

and McGee, Mediernland Renaissance Music: A Pe,former·s Cuide.

On cbangíng ,•iews reb,:irding perfo rmance of fo1trteen1hce nlul'y music. see Daniel Leecb -Wi llúnson. The Modcrn fnven1ionofMed.evàl Mu~ic: Scholàrsl,ip. ldeologJ·. Pe,for· monce (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002).

Chaptcq: Musicand the Renaissancc

Countering the consensus that all voices in chansons were

sung. Petcr Urquh•rt and lleathcr De Savage art,'Ue tba, at leas-t some ch:mson contratenors werc conccived ío r plucked sIr 1ng 1nstn.1menrs ln 1he1r .. EVldence Comr:i ry 10 1hea coppell-0 Hypo1 hesis for 1he 15th-Cenniry Chanson .eortyMusic 39 (2011): 359- 78.

lnstrumenral Mu.sic Timothy McGee's Medie,•al lnstnm1cntal Dances (above under chapter 4) includes da nces from lhe fourteenth cennuy. Keyboard music from 1he l1ober1sbridge Co ei ex (8rirish Líbrary. MS Adcl . 28550) anel other ma nuscripts appears in Keyboard Music 0/1l,e Po1meen1I, ond Fifteenrlt Cen111ries. ed. Willi Apel. CEKM 1. Keyboarcl music from the faenza Codex (faenzà. Biblioteca comunale, MS 117). ed. and trans. Oragan Plamenac. CM M 57. appears i n facsimile in MSO JO. Afo.si ca Piela See Karol Berger. Musica Ficra: 11,eories ofAccidental lnflec· ;,ons in Vocal PolJphonrfrom March,110 da Padova 10 Giosepo Zar/iru, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1987) . and Margaret Bent, "'Musica recta and

musica facta,- Mu.sica

Di.<ciplina 26 (1972): 73-100. For an aesthericassessmeni or chromaricism and nela in the Middle Ages, see Thomas Brothcrs. Chromatic Beautr in the late Medievo!Chonson: An lnlerpret.ation ofManuscriplAccidentals (Camb ridge: Camb ridge Univcrs ity Prcss. 1997).

'17,e /len11issr111ceand Music A classfo t.hou.gb contro\'crsia1 essay on thc rclation of music to tbc Renaissance is Edwa rd E. Lowinsl-y... Music

in the C1Ll turc of the Rena.issancc.- Joumal ofth• flis1oryof ldeas 15 ( 1954): 509-SS. ln Lo\\1nsky. Mu.src ln rhe Culrure oftl1e flenaissance and Other EssoJ~. ed . BonnieJ. Blackburn (Chic•go: Universiiy ofCh ic~go Press, 1989), 19-39. On the mcaningof "Rcnaissancc" in music studies. scc J:,mes Haa r. "The Co nceptoí the Renaisso nce.'' in Europea-n Mu.,ic. 1$20- 1640 (cited abovc). and Jessic Ann Owens. '"Music Hisroriography and the Oeftnition oí'Henaissa nce."' Notes 47 (Oecember 1990) : 305-30. See also the relevam chap1ers in A1'3s. Renoi.ssonce Music. and Pe,·kius. Mtt.sic in tlle

Age of1he Renaiswnce. Hwnanism On humanism, see Ann E. Moyer. Musica scientia: Musico/. Scholar'$hip i11 lhe l1<11io11 Renaissa11ce (hhaca. NY: Cor-nell Un iversity Press. 19n): Claude V. Pai isca, Hurna,,ism i,1 /rn!io,, Rcnaisso11ce Musico/ Though1 (New Haven: Yale Universi ty Press . 1985): aud Palisca, "Huma,,ism and Music.'' in N bcrt Rab i!. Jr.. Renai.ssance H11niani.<m: Foundaiions. Forms. and Legacy. vai. 3: /Jumani.smand rhe Disciplines (Philadelphía: University of Pennsylva nia Press. 1988), 450-85. Paliscú Music and ldeM in the Su:reenthand Seven1een1h Cenwries (Urbana: University of Ill inois Prcss. 2006) discusscs humanisrn and severa! othcr topics covcred in this chapter. i nc luding composi · tio nal practice. tuning. thcory. ancl thc re lation oíwords :md music.

by Nino Pirrotta on thc unwrit1cn tradition arccollccted in his.Husicand Culrure in fralrfrom the MiddleAges tolhe Baroque:A Collecrionoff:;sap (Cam bridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1984,). Editions include 77,e Musie ofjacopo da 801-0gna, ed . IV. Thomas Marrocco (Berkeley: Uni,•crsil)•ofCali fornfa Prcss, 1954). and Fourtee111h -Cen.1ury· i!<>liari Úl.cée, 2nd rev. ed .. idem. (Combridge. MA: MedievalAc.1clemyofAmeric.,.

sance (New York: Norton, 2013), paired witb hisAntholoB:r for Musici,uhe Renaissance (New York: Norton. 2013); N lan \V. Atlas. Rcnaissance Music (New York: Norton, 1998)

l?Gl). Thc :st.,ndard Lmd ini cclii ion i~ hy LcoSchrade in

and hidArttJiolog:rof Rt:rtãi-.,aorice Mu-$ic (Ncw York: Norton.

Modç.rn. J:.'1,,n:,pç. c d. Juan Jo.sé C,urcr(,~ l.6pcz:, Oe rn~,rdo

1998): Leeman Perlúns. Mu.sic in lheAgeoftlie Renaissance ( Ncw York: Norton.1998): Howard M. Brow·n and Lotúsc Stcin. Musicin tlie Renai.sance. 2nd cd. (Upper Saddle River. NJ: Prenticc füll. 1999): and Reinhard Strobm. The

Jose Garcia Garcia. anel Tess Knígh ion. ira ros. Yolanda Acker (Rochester. t-.'Y: Boydell and Bl'twer. 2005).

PMrc 4. For the Squarcialupi Codex. see the ed ition by Johannes Wolf. OcrSq11arcialupiCode:r (1,ipps1adt: Kistner & Siegel. 1955). anel 1he facsimile í·n li codiceSquorcialupi: Ms. Mediceo Palari,w 87. /Jiblioteco la1tre11zia.r,adi H,~nze (rlorence:

PART li : THE RENAISSANCE

Pa1roriage

Excellent surveys or music in the frfteenth and s ixteeratb

The role of p:1 1ronagc is cx.:unincd in Mu.sicin Medie~1al

centuri~s inc)ucle Richard F're~dman. Music in ihe Renais-

a11d F:arlr Modem Europe: Pat,·onage. So,.rces. and Texl.S, ed. lain Fenlon (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni versi1y Press, 1981). On co11rt chapeis. sce The l!or ol Chapei in the Timeofthe Hobsburgs: Music 11,nd Co11r1 Ceremony in Earlr

Se\,eral Sludies examine musical acti\ i1ies in Lhe context 1

of Renaissance C1tlt11re and soeiety anel the relalionsbip

A34

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r Headiu g

bcrween patron3ge and musical production in spccifac

geographic locations. includi ng Reinhard Strohm. Music in Lote Medieml Bruges. rev. ed . (Orlord : Clarendon, 1990); Paul A. Me rkley and Lo,.. L. M. Merkle_y, Music and Parronage i» rhe Sfo1"U1 Courr (Turnhour: Brepols, 1999); Frank A. o·Acconc, The Civic Muse: Music ond ,\fosicions in Si ena d"ringthe Middle Ages and rhe Renaissance (Chi cago: UniversityofChicago Press. 1997) : Chris topher A. Reynolds. Papal Patronogcond the .lfosic ofS,. Peicr's. 1380-1513 (Be rkeley: University of Cal ifornb Press, 1995); Lew is Lockwood. Music in Rena i-ssa,ice ferrara. 1400-1505: 11,e Creorio,i of a Musi<:al Ccow in rlte /talion Re,wissance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universi1y Press, 1987); Albn Alias. Musicar rheAragonese Cou.rr o/Naples (Camb ridge: Cambridge University Press. 1985): William Prize r. ·Music and Ceremo nial in the Low Countries: Philip the Fai r and the Orde r o[ the Colden Fleece:· EM H S (1985): 113-35: laill F'eulon. ,\fosic PatrMoge inSixree,11/1-Cenrur;r ,lforitua. 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge Universi1y Press. 1980 and 198,i): aad Oa,•id Pricc. Pa1rons and .\1usiciaris of 1he English Renaissarice (Cambrôdge: Ca mbridge Univer· slry Press. 1981). Pamela F. Starr. "Musical Enrrep reneurs hip in 15rh-Cemury Enrope:· forly Music 32 (Febni,ry 2004): 119-33, compares rhrce c>reer 1»rhs open to musicfans, as performcr, clcric. ond composcr: thc sketcb of Johanncs Cordicr's ca recr in the sidcbar o n page 153 is from this articlc .

Composittonal Practice On v3rio\1s :1spec1s or composition :md performance. see rhe collecred essays and inrroducrion in Marg>rer Bem. Co1u1terpoin1, Composirion. ond Musica ficta (New York: Rontledge. 2002). On 1echniqt1es or mus ic compositiou as both a mental practice anel physical act, see Jessie Ann OweDs, Composers at IVork: The Craft ofMusical Composition. 14-50-1600 (New Yo,-k: Oxfo,·d University Press, 1997): a nd Bonnie J. Blackbur11, "On Compositi onal Process in che PHteenih Ceolury,• JAMS 40 (1987): 210-8,k An important recons ideration of íifteenth-century compositional process írom a performative pt'-rspective

is Rob C. Wegman , "From Maker to Composer: lmpro· vis:i.tion and Mus ical Autho rsh:ip iJJ Lhe Low Countries.

14,50-1500,- JAMS 49 (hll 1996): 409-79. Wegman·s The Crisi$ of Music in Early Modem Europe, 147{>-1530 (New York: Routledge, 2005) examines debates eonceming polypbony.

Tuningand Temperomenf Scc Jan Herlfogcr. "Medieval c,.nonics." and Rudolr Rasch. '·Tuningancl Temperameni:' in CH\VMT. 168-92 and 193-222: Mark Lindley. "Tuning·· anel "Temperament." in NC2; and J. Murray 8.rbour, T1mi11gond Temperameni: A Historic<1I Survey (Ncw York: Da Ca1>0, 1972). An cntert>ining book by Ross W. Duffin , 1/ow Equal Temperament Ruined lfonnony(ond Wny You Sltould Carr:) (New York~ Norton, 2007), expbins temperamenl and argues agai ns1 using

ecp.aal 1emperamenr ror compositions before 1he rwenrieth cemury.

Word s o nó Afaste Por rheories oítext unclerlay :lS ,discussecl in contemporary

rreatiscs. see Don Harrãn, Word-Tone Relariorl$ in Musi-eal 11iouglu fromAntiquiry to rheSevenreenth Ceriwry•, MSD 40 (AlM, 1986).

71,eoryand Theonsts Por a brief survey of llenaissance theory. see Claude V. Paiisca, "Theory. theoris1$." sections 8-9. in NC2. On mode. see Crisrle Collins Judd , "l{enaissance Modal Theory: Theoretic.11, Composirional. and Edi1orial Perspec1ives," in CH\VMT, 364-406; Ha.rr-y S. Powers and Pm,s Wiering, "Mode." chapter Ili, in NC2; and Ben ,hard Meier, 1'heMod,sofClassical Voca!Po!J1>hony, trans. EIJen S. Beebe (N'ew York: Broude, 1988). On counterpoim. see Peter Schuberr, ··counterpoint l'edagogy in 1he Renaissance:· in CH\VMT, 503-33. See also Oamschroder and \Villiarns. Music1'heoryfrom Z<lrlino 10Scltenker: A Bibli.-Ographrand Cuide. Several or Lhe Lreatises mc11c ioned or quoted jn lhis chaptcr ba\'t beco Lranslatcd in to English: JohannesTlncco rls. Ltberdeaneconrrapuncrt. crans.

AlbenSeay as TheAnofCounrerpoint, MSD 5 (A IM, 1961). Excerpts in SR 67 (3:32). Cioseffo Znrlino, Le istituti<mi hamtoniche, pan 3, in The Art ofCounferpoint, rrans, Guy A- Marco and Claude V, Palisca (New Ha,•en: Y:uc University Press. 1968: Ncw Yo rk: Nolion. 1976: Da Capo. 1983): pan4. in OntheModes. irans. Vered Cohen. ed. Claude V. Polisca (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press. 1983); excerp1s in S" 37 (3 :2) and S" 71 (3:36). Pierro Aaron, Toscouello in. mu.sico, tr::i ns. Peter Bergq11isr (Colorado Springs: Colorado College Music Press, 1970), Treorise on rl,e /l'ar,.,•e and Rteób~• itiort ofAli 1/ie Tonesof Pig11re.dSong. Excerpts in SR69 (3:34). Bartolomé Ramis de Pareia. Musico pro.ci-ica. traus. Clement A. Miller (AI M, 1993). Excerpts in SR 68 (3:33) . Fr'::inchino Caffu_rio. '11teor,co musice. erans. "'ilh introduclion and notes by \Valter K. K,·eyszig as The Theo?· o/Music. ed, Claude \1, Pai isca (New Ha"en: Yale University Press, 1993): De Ham,onia r11usicorun, instrumenro mm opus. traas. ClementA. Miller, MSD 33 (Stuugart: AIM/H:1.nssler, 1977); Practica musicae, rrans. Miller. MSD 20 (AIM , 1968), also trans. lrwin Youngin The Practica musicae ofFranchinus Cafurius ( Madison: University of \Viscoasin Press, 1969), Heinrieh Clarcan.Dodekach,ordon. trans. Miller. MSO 6 (AIM. 1965). Excerprs in SR 70 (3:35).

Mu.sic Pnnr,ng F'or an overview from the origins of music printing to 1he

presem. see Sr.1nley Boonnon. EleanorSclfridge-Fielcl. and Oonald W. Krummel, "Prin1ing and publishingof musie,'· in l'IG2. Sce •lso H•ns Lcnnebcrg, On rh e Publishingand DisseminationofMusic, 1500- 1850 (Iiillsdalc. NY:

Printin.gand Pub!isl,ing. ed. Donald \17. Krummel anel Stanley Sadie(NewYork: Non on. 1990) . A derailed srucly of halian primers is offered by lain Fenlon , Music. Prinr and Culrure in EcrlySixreen rh -Cenn,?' ltaly (Lonclon: British library, 1995). for regional s1ud · ies of ltalian publishing. sec Jane A. Bernsrci n, Print C1tlf,.rear,d Music in Su:teen1/i-Cenrwy lllnice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001): idem .. Music Printing in Sixteenrh-Cent"ry' Venice: 1neScotto Press.1539-1572 (New York: Oxford Un iversiry Press, 1998); Richard J. Agee. 'llte Cardano Music l'rinring fit-ms, 1569-1611 (Roeheste r: University of Rochester. 1998): Mary S, Lew is, A,uo,,io Car• dar10. Venetia11 Musie Printer. 1538- 1S69: A Descriptive 8,bliog· raplr,-and Hisrorical Srudr, 3 vols. (New York: Garland , 1988-2005): and Tim Carter, .\1usic. Parronc,geand Prinring in Late Rcna,.ssance Hom,ce (AJdershot: Ashgate, 2000). Petrucci·s í1rst tbree song collectionsare avaiJable in facsirnile: Harmo11ice Musices Odltecaro,1A. 3rd ed. (1504·: repr. New York: Broude, 1973); Canti B num•rociriquantc, (1502: rcpr. New York: Broude. 1975): aad Carui Cnun>ero cinquanra (1504: repr. Ncw York: Broude. 1978). Thc f1 rs t two also are av::i ll:tble ln transcrlprton: 1-famiontce

Musices OdliecoronA, ed. llelen llewin with li1erary rexts ed. by Isabel Pope (Cambridge. MA: Mediev.l Aeademy or Amcrica , 1946): and Canti Bnumero cinquan1a, ed, Hes,in, Monumcnts of Renaissancc Music 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Prcss. 1967). Stanley Boorman. 011avi,mo Petrucci: Catalogue Rc,i.,onné (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 2006), offers a caralogue ar Pem1cci's publications wit h a grea1 deal oí usel'ul informa,ion. AccoLUus or rhe e;1rlies1 music prirners in Fr;1nce are

in Daniel Heartz, PierreAnaingna,u. Royal Prinw o/Music (Berkeley: Univers i1y of California Press. 1969). Essays on music printing in the Low Countriesare collected in Mttsic f'ragmentsand Manuscnpts in tlie Low Cowuries: Alta cape/la: ,lfosic Pri,11ir1gi,,Ar>1werp and l:it"ope m tlte 16th Ce,,t,uy. etl. Eugeen Schreur·sand Henri Va nhulst (Leuven: Alam ire. 1997), On Englaud. sce Jercmy L. Smith. Thomas Easr and Music Publisl,ing in Renaissance England (New York: Oxford Universiry Press, 2003) .

Chapter 8: England and Burgundy in thc Pil'teenth Cenlury English Music Por a concise survey of Ounslable's music, see Margar,et Bcnl. Dunstaple (Londou: Oxfo rd Univcrsity Prcss, 1980). For soci:u roles oí music. sce Pctcr M. Lefferts. "Med ieval Engbnd. 950-1450." and Prank L. lfarrison. Musicin Medieval Britain. lisred above under chapter 4,. Editions or English music of 1he fourteemh and frftecnth ccnruries includc John Dunstable. Complete Worl.os, cd. Manfrcd F. Bukofzcr. rcv. cd, by Margaret Bent, Jan

A35

Maq,,are, Bem. ia CMM 46: Mediaeval Carols. ed. John E. Stevens. in MB 4: The Eron Cl,oir Book. ed . Harrison. in MB 10- 12: and F'ifreenrh-Centi,ry• Liti,rgu;al ,\fosic. ed . Andrew Hughcs, Margarct Bem, ond Carcrh Curtis, in Ecrlyfüglish C/11,rcli Music, vols. 8, 22, 34, and 42 (London: S1aincr & Bcll. 1968- 2001).

Burgc,ndr Craig \Vright. Musicar the Court of Burgcmdr, 1364-1419 (Henryville, PA: lnstiture or Medfaeval Music, 1979). On chorai performance in rir,eernh -cennr ry Burgundy, see David fallows. "Specif,c lnformation on rhe Ensembles for Composed Polypbouy.1400-1474," inSrudiesin tlte Peiformanceo/LateMediacval Music. ed. Stanley Boorm.an (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 109-60. See also Strohm. Mus,c in Lote Medie,'al Bruges. On the Bu rgundian ehanson during thfa period, see Walter H, Kemp, Burgwt.dián Couri Soug i,1 tlte Time o/ Bincl,ois: TheAnon,>mous Chansons ofEI Escorial. MS V.f/1.24 (Oxford : Oxford Unjvcrsity Prcss. 1990) . Criticai essays on Binchois appcar in 8irtcltoisSrudies. ed. And rew !U rkman and Dennls Sla\'ln (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2000). Binchois's chansons are transcribed in DieChonsonsvon Cilles 8inchois (/400- 1460). ed. Wolígang Rebm (Mainz: B. Schott.1957), For his sacred works, scc TheSacrodMusicofCilles Binchois, ccl, Philip Kaye (Oxford: Oxford Uni,•ersity Press. 1992). DuFar M11ch new in fonna1ion on Du l'ay. inclucling his bin hdare. appeared in Alejandro Enrique Planchan. "Guil laume Ou Fay's Bene~ees and His Rclarionship ro 1he Coun or Burgw1dy," EMH 8 (1988): 11 7- 71. Sec also his article ou Ou F•y in NC2; David Fallows, D11for (New York: Yintage, 1987); ond Julie E. Cumming, ·n,e Moier in tlteAgeofDu For (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press. 1999). On Ou F'a{s composic iona l rechn iques. see Ke,'i n N. MoU, Cow1-

terpo11u and Composuional Prouss III ihe 'finte o/ Oufay: Perspecrives /rom Gemurn Musioolog,-(New York: Carland, 1997), On his altention to text-setting. see Graeme M. Boone, Pattcrns in Piar: A Model for 1cxt-Settingin t /ie EartrCha.nsons

o/CuilummeDufa)' (Lincol n: Unive rs ity of N'ebraska Press, 1999), and Don Michael Handel, ·oufay the Reader:· i n Mus1cand Longuage (New York: Broude.1983) , 38-78. Ou Fay"s works appear in bisOpert1,omnia, ed , Heiorich Bcssclcr. in CMM 1. vol. 6 (Cbansons): rcv. cd. by Oa,•id Fallows (1995) . Works by Ou Fay and bis contcmporarics are pre· served in a large number of manuscripts. mostly of ltalian

origi n. Severa! of the mos• imporiam ones are availab le in facs imi1e anel modern cdirions. A manuscript copied in nol'thern lrnly in nbout 1460 1hat com:rins 325 wol'ks

dating from abom 1400 to 1440 is Oxford, Bodltian Library', MS. Canon. Misc. 2/J, ed. with intro, and inventory by D~vid

Pcndr.1gon. 2003); Mu~i, an.d th t; Ct,ltu.n:4 ofPrint, ecl . K-<ltc

Be 11 l. and Bri;in Trowcll. in MB 8 (1?70); Leonel f'owcr.

F.lllow~ (Chic.,go. Unive r~ityofChicaso Pn:;.3õ, 1??5). ·rhe

van Orden (New York: Garland, 2000): 71,e Dissemination oj' Music: Srudies in 11,e Histo,;of Mu~ic l'ublisliing. ecl. Hans Lenneberg (N.p.: Gordon and ~reach. 1994); anel lfosk

C-Omplete 1Vork$. cd. Charles Hamm, in CMM 50: Wolte·r i>rye. Collec1ed Works. ed. SyMn \V. Kenney. in CMM 19: '111eOld Hall Manuscrip1. 4 vols .. ed. Andrew Hughes and

Trent Godices are seven volumes now ln ihe li bmry of the Na.1ion:il Museum i n I he Cas1ello dei Buonconsiglio in Trerl1, co nrnining more 1han 1,600 cornposi1 ions w--rine n

A36

Fo r l'u rfh e r Re ad iu g

bctwecu 1400 and 1475; a facsimüc appears in Codex Tndentinus87- 93 (Rome; Bibliopola. 1969- 70). and por· tions are tra nscribed io DTO. vols. 14./15. 22. 38. 53. 61. and 76. Canons from tbe Trent Codices. ed. Richard Loyan. appear in CMM 38. TheChanso1m ier EI J,.~corial, which cont1ins pieces :1urihmed 10 Dunst:1ble. Ou F.1,Y, Binchois,

and othcrs. appears in <tll cdition by Martha K. Hancn. The Chansonnier EI Escorial. 3 vols. (Hcnryvillc. PA: lnslitutc of Mediaeval Music. 1983). Pol)'pli onrc ·\lass Comr:l ry ro e::irlier scholarship~ Andrew Kirkman argues lhat 1he recognition of lhe m:iss cycle :1s :1 genre ca,ne only arou nd 1450: see "The lnvcmion of rhe Cyclic Mass," JAMS 54 (Spring2001): 1-47, a nd 7lre Culri.ra.l lUeofthe farlr PolJphonic Mass: Medieval Co11rex1 ro Modem Reviva! (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). The 1n::ijor work on cantus-ftnnus use in masses and other liturgical works is Edgar H. Sparks. Cá11tus 1-ímws in Moss arrd More,. 1420-1520 (Berkeley: Un iversity of Califo rnia Press. 1963). On Missa Caput. seeAi1ne Walters Robcrtson. "The Savior. Lhe \Voman. and Lhe Hcad or che Dragou in

the Caput Masses aod Motet," JAMS 59 (Fali 2006): 537-630. lo "'Tbe Mao witb the Pale race. the Sliroud, •nd Du Fay"si\liuc,Se lafaceaypale.• JM 27 (fall 2010): 377-'1·34. Robertson argues that Ou Fay"s mass was com· posccl to commemoratt: t.ht: Holy Shroud. aow know-n as the Shroud ofTurin. Ma.ny carly mas ses appear ia thc Trellt Cod ices (see above). Sec also Monumenra polJphoniae liturgicae. ccl . Laurence Feinínger (11ome: 1947- 74). Scnes 1. Ordi nary ofthe Mass (vol. 1comains cen carly masses on L'hom.me anné), and Series li, Proper ofthe Mass (scholarly editions prcscrvíng ali feanares of rhe original manuscrip1s).

Chnpter 9 : Fr,rnco· Flernish Cornposers. 1450-t520

Od·egliem A valuable collec1 ion of essays. mosrly in English. is in Johonnes Ockeghem, ed. Philippe Vendrix (Paris: Kliucks· icck. 1998). On Ockeghcm·s m•ss music and music.il borrowing. see Fabrice f itch.Joha11,1es Ockegl,em: Mosses and Models (Paris: H. Champion. 1997). Ockeghem's m:isses arei n)ohamies Ockeghem: Mosses and Mass Scctions. ed. Jaap van Benthem (Ut recht.1994·-) and in)ol1a,1r1esOckegl1enr: Collec1ed Works, vols. l anJ 2. 2nd ed .. ed . Dragan Plameuac (NewYork:Ainerican Musicological Society. 1959-66). For lús otber works. sec Collected Worl.-s. vol. 3: Mote1s and Chansons. ed. Richard Wexler aod Dragou Plamenae (Pb ibdelphía: Aruerícan Musicological Society. 1992). For a bibliography, see Martin Picker,Johannes Ocl:egliem arid Jacob Obrecht: A C11ide 10 Research (New York: Carland, 1988). Rus,10;-.-~ Antoine BusnoJ~: Method. Meaning. and,Conte.rl in loJe Medieval Music. ed. Paula Higgíns (Oxford: Clarendon. 1999}. is an excellent eolleetíon of cssays. The incomplcte

For Fu d her Readi ng

Collecred Works has ooly tbc Lalin· tcxtcd works. cd. Richard Tarnskin (New York: Broude. 1990).

Obrec/11 The major sn,dy is l\ob C. Wegma n. Bom for the Muses: 77,.e Li/e and Ma.<.<es o/Jacob Obrech, (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994) . Obrechfs works are published in New Obrech1 Edition. ed. Chris Maas el ai. (Utrecht. 1983-99): Werken. 8 vols.. cd . Johanncs \Volí (Arustcrdam: C. Alsbacb: Leipzig: Brcitkapí & li:l rtel. 1912- 21: rcpr. 1968): and Opera Omnia. 5 vols.. ed. Marcus van Crevel (Amsterdam: C. Alsbach. 1953- ). Por a bibliography, see nnder Ockeghem.

Isaac Scc Blakc Wilson. "Hcimich lsa:icAmong 1he Florentincs:· JM 23 (\'(/inter 2006): 97- 152. On lsaac's Cl1oralia Constan· rinrM anel other scttings of thc Proper. sec thc cssays in /Jeinrich Isaac and Polyphonrfor the Proper o/1he Ma.ss 111 thc Lote M,ddlcAges a11d1/1c Renaissaricc. ed. David 811m and Stefan Casch (Turnhout: Brepols. 2011). a11d David Burn. "What Did Isaac Write for Constance'? ." JM 20 (Wioter 2003): 45-72. lsaac's complete works are published in /Jenrici Isaac Opera omnia, 7vols .. ed. Edward f\ . Lerner, CMM 65 (1974-84) . See also Chorahs Constantinus. Books 1•nd li. in DTO. vols.10 and 32: Book 111. ed. Louise Cuyler (Am, Arbor: University of Miclúgan Press. 1950); fke Pol1pho11ic Masses. ed. Cuyler (Ann Arbor: University or Micbjgau Presa. 1956): and Messm. ed. Marti n Staehclin. Musikaliscbe Dcnkmalcr. 7- 8 (Mainz: B. Scbotl. 1971- 73) . Por a bibliography. see Marti n Picker. Flenricus Isaac: A Crude ro Researc/1 (New York: Carlancl. 1991).

Rodín shows the conkxt for Josquin's music in the reper ..

t0ire ancl eeremony of the chapei. Outsta nchngcollccríons of arricles on Jos<[Uin nppear in The/osquin CompaniO"-, ed. Richard Shcrr (Oxford: Oxford Universiry Press. 2000) and injosquin des Pre:. Proceedingsoftl,e l,uemorional/osquin Pestival-Conference. New York, 1971, ed. Edword E. Lowinsky and Bonnie J. Blackburn (London: Oxford Uni,•crs ity Prcss. 1976). On the date of Josqui n's mote,. see Joshua Rifkin, " Munich, Milan. and a Mariat1Motet: Dating Josquin'sA<-e Morio ... vi')foserena," JAMS 56 (Summer 2003): 239-351. At1drew Kj rk.mar1, "From Hmnanism 10 ê11lighterunent:

Reinvenling Josquia ." JM 17 (1999): 441-58. examines cbangiug perspectives on Josquin's reputation from early in his li!etime tltrouglt tlte uiueteeatlt ceo tury. On the mode rn construction of Josquin"s reputation as a genius. see Paula Higgi 11s... The Apotheosis of Josq uiu des Pre2 and Other Mytbologies of Musical Cenius:· JAMS 57 (Fali 2004): 443-510. Josquiu's works ai·e pubUshed inNewjosquin Edition. cd. Willem Eldcrs etal. (Utrccbt: Verccni1,'Íngvoor Ncderlandsc Muziekgeschiedcnis. 1987- ). in progrcss. and Werken. 13 vols.. ed. ;\lben Smljers et ai. (Amsterdam: Vereenlgtng voorNedcrlandse Muziekgeschiedenis, 1921-69).

Mass,,~ on Burro,11ed Material F'or an ovcrvicw of musical borrowing in thc Renaissa:nce, i nclud ing masscs o n borrowcd mate rial from cantus · fi r mus 111:iss to paraphrasc and imita.tion mass. scc J. Pcter

Burkholcler. "Borrowing." chapters 5- 7. in NG2.

Chapter 10; Sacred Music in Lhe Era of t he Reformation

Jnsr1urn David Fallows.Josquin (Turnhour: Brepols. 2009). offers • m•gistcrial biogrophy •nd srudy ofrhe music. \Vill em Eldcrs. Josquin des Prez and lfis Musical Legacr: An lnrroduc· lo?·Cuide (Lcuven: Leuvcn University Prcss. 2013). covcrs sources. authors hip. and reeeption alongwith biography and discussion or each work. Several excellent ari icles on Josqu i11 appea r in Uno gentile e1 subtile in.genio: Srudies in Renoisso,tce Mu.sic in Honourof Bo,mieJ. 8lackbum, ed. M. Jcu nifer Bloxam and Cio ia F·ilocamo Cl ai. (Tu.-nhout: Brepols. 2009), including Herbert Kell man. "Dacl oncl Grond,d Were Cops: Josquin·s Ancemy" (pp. 183-200). which provides new ínformatio11 on Josqui n's birthpbce, fami ly. anel trai ningasa choirbo_y. Recenr archival discoveries ha,•e considerably ahered lhe chronicle oí Josqui,t"s life. ittcludiug those reporteei io Paul A. Merkley. "Josqui n at ferrara." JM 18 (2001): 544-83; Paul A. Merklcy ancl Lora L. M. Merkley. Music and Patronage in theSforza Court (Turnhout: Brepols. 1999): and Pamela F. Starr. "Josquio. !fome, anda Case of Mistaken ldentiry:· J M 15 (1997): 4,3-65. ]esse Rodin. '" \Vhen in Rome . . :: What Josqui n Lcru-ned in tbe Sistine Chapei:· JAMS 61 (Summcr 2008):

Lutheran M11s1c The basíc work on Lutheran church music is f'riedrich lllume. Proiesrant C/>11rch ilfusic (New York: Norton, 19'24). llecent smclies include Robin A. Leaver. Luther's l.it11rgi · col Mus,c: Princ,plesand lmplieat1011s (Crand Rapids. M 1: Will iam B. Eerdmans. 2007). and Joseph Herl. Worship Wa,~ in Earl,- fothemnism: Clroir, Congregation. and 11, ree ee,,. 1uries o/Conflic1 (Oxford: Oxford Uujvers.ity Press. 2004). Rebecca Wagner Oerlinger, Musicas Propaganda in rhe Cennan Refom,ation (AJclershot: Ashgate.2001), examjnes the role of music in the Lmheran Cermany. and Christo· pher Boyd Brown. Singing lheCospel: l11themn HJ7nnS and 1heS11ccessoftheReformation (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 2005). shows bow hymn s iaging became part of cvcryday liíc. Por printed sourecs and translaúons of individual chorales. consult Dictionarrof H1mnology. 2 vols .. ed. Johu Julian (Crond Rapids. M1: Kregel. 1985). Luther's Deudsche Messe (1526) is publis hecl in facsimile by B~ren reiter (Kassel, 1934). Joh•nn Walter's ce,~1Uche gesangk Buchle)', of 1524 is pttblishcd in EP. vol. 7 (YeM 6), nnd his complete works inSamtliche Werke. cd . Otto

307 72. lra.<:<:o t.hc ioJlucncc on Joaquin from h.i& <:ol

Sc.hrõdç r (K,,~6el; Dsrcnrç itcr, 1?53-73). Geo rg Rhau·$

leagues in thc papal chapei in Romc. uotably Ma.rbrianus de Orto. and i nJosquin's Rome: f{earing and Composing in rhe Si-srine Cl,apel (New York: Oxford Universi>y Press. 2012).

1544 collection NewedeudschegeistlicheCesenge CXX/1/ is in DdT. vol. 34. Lu, her's foreword 10 , he WirrembergGesa»gbud1 is ín SH55 (3:20).

A37

Met rico! Psa lms On metrical psalms. see \ValdoSelden Pratt. The Afllsi.c ofrhe Prendi Psal1erof 1562 (New York: Columbia Universíl)' Press. 1939). and Robin A. Leavcr. Coostl)' Psalmesand Spiritu.all Songes: énglish or,d Dutcl, Metrical Psalms from Coverdale to Utenhove. 153S- IS66 (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 1991). A facsimile reprint oí the Bay Psalm Book has been pub· lished by the University of Chic., go Press. 1956. See also ,\/i,sic 0/11,e 8CtyPsalm Book: 9111 ed. (1698). ed. Hiclmd G. Appel (Brooklyn: lns1iru1e J'orSrudies in American Music. 1975). l'olyphonic psalm settings by Claude Goud irnel an<l Claude Le Jeune are io theiI collected works: for Coud imel, Oeuvres oomplêtes, ed. Pierre Pidoux et ai., Ces:untausgabeu 3 (Brooklyn: Lnstitute of Mediev:ll Music. 1967-83). and Maitrcs musiciens ele la Kena,ssancefron· çoise. ed. Henry E><pert. 2. 4. and 6: for Le Jeu11e. Mailres n11,siciens dela Renai=rice fmnçáise. ed. Experl. 11. 2 1. 22. and 23. For psalm settings by Jacobus Clemens. see below: for Jan Pietcrszoou Swcclinck. sec cbaptcr 15. Ch11rch Mus,c in En 61cmd See Peter Le Muray. Musfc and ,he l!ejorma,!onln E:ngland. 1549- 1660, corr. ed . (New York: Cambridge University Presa, 1978). and Hugh Benham,/ohn Tavemer: His Lífe and Music (Aldcrshot: Ashgatc. 2003). A number of important :trticlcs on music and choirs in thc English churcb are

gathc red in Rogcr Bowers. English Clturch PolJphon,-: Sing· ers and Sources fron, lhe 14th la lhe 17th CenhJ?' (Aldcrshot: Ashgare l'l'ess. 1999). A relevam anrhology is 7'he Treasu?· offnglish Church ,\fosic li. 1545- 1650. corr. ed .. ecl. Perer Le Hu ray (Cambridge: Cambridge Unh•ersiry Press.1982). Po,· cdi1ions ofthe music. see 1hc series Early English Chtu·ch Music (London: Srnirrer and Bell , 1963- ), including f,ve volumes of musíc byTaverner. ed. Hugh Ben h•m (1973- 89). and two of music by Tallis, ed. Leonord Elliuwood (1971).

BJrd Maior books 011 Byrd rnclude John Harley. 77te Wor/d of William 8J1-d: M11sicia11s. Merchants a,u/ Magnares (Burl iug· 10n. vr, Ashgate. 2010): Philip Breu. Willia,n Brrd and Flis Conremporories: Essa;rsanda Monograph , ed. Joseph Kerman and Davitt Moroney (UniversityoíCa)jfornfa Press. 2006); John Harley. IVi!liarn BynJ's Modal l'ractice (Aldershot: Ashgate. 2005): John Harley. IVil/iam Byrd: Cenr/emon o/ rhe Chapei Ro1-o.l (Aldershot: Scolar. 1997): Joseph Kerman. 11w Massesa"á Mateis o/WiJliam Brrd (Berkeley: Uoiver· sity of Califom ia Press. 1980): and Oliver W. Neighbour. The Conson andKerboard Music ofWilliam B)nl (Berkeley: Universíry ofCali fornía Press. 1978). See also 8Jnl Sn,dies. ed. Ala n Brown and Richard Turbet (Cambridge: Cam · bridge University Press. 1992). On Byrd , Cat holicism. anel English politics, sce Kerry McCarthy. Limrgyand Conrem pl<ttion in Bird's Cradualio (New York: Routlcdge. 2007); Joseph Kerm•n. "Music anel Politics: The Case of \Vílli3m Byrd (1540- 1623)," l'rocccding• ofll1<American 1'1, ilo,ophiu,I Society 144 (Fall 2000): 275-87; and Craig Monson. "Byrd. ,he Carholics. and the Moret: The Hearing Reopened:· in Heacir1g11te More,. ed. Pesce. 348-74,. Po,·a bibliography.

A38

For Fu d her Readi ng

For l'urfh e r Re adiug

sce Richard Turbe i. William 8)Td, A Guide,a Research. 2nd ed . (NewYork: Romledge. 2005). Byrdºs works ore in The BJrd Edition. gen. ed. Phil ip Brctt (Londo n: Sra iner & Bell , 1'976-2004). The dedicario ns íor his Groduolio are in SR 63 (3 :28).

11,e Singing of rhe New World: lndigenous Voice ín the Era of European Conro.c1 (C,1mbriclge: Cambridge Universir:y Press.

Thc Gencration of 1520-1550 01' Willoert, see David M. Kiclger, Adrian Willaert: A Cuide toReswrch (New York: Routledge. 2005). Willaert·sworks

A varicd collection of cssays on music in ftftccnth· :md sixteenth-cennuy Cermany is Music in tlw Gemrnn Renaissance: Sourçes. St)k• and Conterts. ed. John Kmetz (Cam bridge: Cambridge Un iversity Press.1994) . On a Catho li c pries1's campaign 10 win back 1hose who had converted ro Pl'otestantisn1 by issui r1g a. collect iou of hynrns ~nd psalms in Genn:tn thát expressed Ca1holic doctrine in tbegenres ofveruacularsong introduced by Lutherans and Calvin ists, see Richard D, Wetzel and Erik:i Heitnwyer,Johonn Le1w,1rit's '"Gmtlirhe Liederund Psolmcn, .. 1567: Hy1m1odyof 1l1tCotmtcr-Reforinatio,, .,, CMnan.y(Mad isoo, NJ: Fairleigh Dickfoso n University Press, 2013), Hassle r's works are iri Sánuliehe Werl.-e. ed, Russe ll Crosby (Wiesbaden: Breiikopf & Hãrtd. 1961-). Haodl's ar-e inaC<>llected &li1i<>n. ed. Dragotio Cvetko (Ljubljana. 1966- ). and in DTO. vols. 12.14. 30. 40. 48. 5U2. 76. 94, 95.116. a nd 119.

2007). Accoums o f Aztecand In ca mus ic are i n SR 77- 78 (3:42- 43).

ltalran Frottola

Gcrmanyand Easlcrn Europc

ore in CM M 3, ed . Hermann Zenck. WalterCersrenberg. a nd Bernhard Meier; Combe rr's in C MM 6, ed . Joseph SchmidrCõrg: and Cleme11s's i11 CMM 4. ed. K. Ph . Be,·11 el Kempers.

Catholic Music ,n ltalr On the Council of'l're nt, see CraigA. Monson, "The CouncílofTrent Revisited;· JAMSSS (Spring 2002): 1-37. O n ltalfon c hurch music, see Jerome Roche, North lto.lia,i Cl11<rcl1M11sic in ,1,eAgtofMon1<verdi (Oxford : Clarendon , 1984) , Thougb uow somewhat daled , a classic siudy in Counter-Rcformll ion ltaly remains Lew is Lockwood.

71,e Counter-Rejom1a1ion.aru/.1he Mosses ofVincenzo Rujfo (\llenna: Universal. 1970).

Pop c. Sce olso Madrigales espanoles ineditos dei sigloXV1. cd. Miguel Quero! Cova leia (Barcelona: Instituto Espailol de Musicologia. 1981).

See William Priaer, Courtlr Pastimes: The Frorrol~ ofMarcheuo Cora (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. 1981) . anel " lsabella d ' Esre a nel Lucretia Borgia as Patrons of Mus ic: The Frortola a t Mann ,a and !'errara." JAMS 38 ( 1985): 1-33. Por a reassessmen, and cririque of rhe modern use of rhe

terrn/rouoLa. as well as of 1he various genres under which d1e tenu is now subsume<l. see Nino Pirrotta. "Before the Madrigal,'" J M 12 (Summer 1994): 237-52. Examples oi' tbe frottola and related forms a re in Alfred Einslein·s 7'he Jralian Madrigal ( Princeton: Princeton University l'ress. 191,9), vol. 3. nos. 1-14. See a lso Rudolí Schwarú ed itio n of Pel rucci's forsl and fourth books of frouole in PAM 8, aod Fro11ole nell'ediúoneprincipedi O, Peimcci. cd. Ra l'facllo Monterosso (Crcrnona: Atheuac:llln Crcmonensc.1 954).

ltalian Madngal The de fini tive study o n lt::i lian madrigals isAlfred Einstein,

Palesfrina

La.ssus

Th, ltaltan Madngal ( Prince ron: Prínceton University

Thc clossic work o n Palestrina ;s Knud Jeppescri"s The SrJl• of Palestrina and the Dissortance. 2 nd cd,, trans, Edward J. De nt (Londo n: Oxfo rd Unjvc rsity Prcss, 1946) , which offcrs detailcd analysis of Palcstrina's music. For a bibliogr aphy. see Claro Marvin. Giovanni Pierluigi da l'ales1ri110: A Gu i4e 10 Hesearch (New York: Rourledge. 2002). On rh e imira,ion mosses, see Quenrin W. Quereau, "Aspects oíPalest rina's Pa rody Procedu re," JM 1 (1982): 198- 216. Lewis Lockwood's edi 1io n or thc Pope Marcellus Moss, Norton Criticai Scores (New York: Norton, 1975), includes s1udies on 1he work and tbe legend surrounding it . Palest rina's d ed icat ion lo hisSecond Book of Masses is in SR 60 (3:25). His wo rks a r·e i n Ciovonm l'ierluigi do Palesmna: Leopcrecomplete. ed . Raífaele Casimi n e i al, ( Rome: Fratelli Scale ra, 1939-87).

Forª" overview, sce ] crome Roche, Lassus, Oxford Smdies ofComposcrs (Loodon: Oxford Univc rsity Prcss, 1982),A detailed study o f ltis Magnif1cot.s is Da vid Crook. Orlando di ( Princeton: Pr inceton Universi,y Press. 1994) . See also rhe useful collection o i' essays in Oriimdo di Lasso Sn,dies. ed . Pe1er Be rgquisr (Cambridge: C;ambriclge University Press, 1999). For b ibliography. see James Erb, O,fondo di Ú:ISSO: A Cuide to Researcl, ( Kcw Yo rk: Ca,-lând, 1990). His comple1e works are available in two ed itions: S/Jmtliche Werke, ed , PranzX. lfoberl and Ado lfSandberger (Leipiig: Breitkopf & Hãrtel, 1894-1927: re pr. 1974,). andSómdichc Werke, new series, ed. Siegfried Hermel ink et ai. (Kassel: ll~rem eiter, 1956-). The moteis are ed ired by l'eter Be rgcru,s, in 71ie CompleteM01,1s ( Mad isoi, , Wl:A-R Editions, 1995-).

Press, 194·9: reprinted wi1h additions, 1971). Ashorre r survey isJeromc Roche, The Madrigal. 2nd ed, (New York: Oxford Unjversity Prcss. 1990) . Majo r studics of lhe madrigal s ince Einstein'• work include Mortha fcldman. Cit;rCulrure and 1/ie Madrigal in Venice <Berkeley: Universir:y oíCa lil'ornia Press, 1995); bin Fenlon anel James Haar. 'rlie Ttolian Madrigal in tlie EorlySixreenth Cenru')' (Cambridge: Cambridge Un ivcrsiry Prcss, 1988); Haar. Essars 011 lrolian Poe1ry·a11dMusic in the Renaissàllce, 1350- 1600 (Be rkeley: University o f Californfa Press , 1986); a nd Amhony Newcomb, 1'he Modriga1 at Ferrara. 1579- 1597 (Princeton: Pr inceton Unive rsi ty Press. 1980). Anthony M. Cummi ngs,

Spain and lhe New World

Jcw1sh Afaste

See Kerurntb Kreitn e r, 1iteChurch l/us,coffifteenth-Century· Spain (Wooclb ridge. UK: Boydell. 2004), and Ro be nStevenson, Spanísh Cathcdral Ml<S<c ir, 1he Coldcn Age ( Be rkeley: Un iversity o l' California Press, 1'961) . On t he t ransatlantic uaturc oí the \Vestern trndition since the sixtecuth century. involving rhcAmcricas as wcll as Europc. sec ] . Peter Burkholdcr. ··Music of thcAmcricas :md Historíc.11 Narrativcs." American Mu.sic 27 (Winter 2009 ) : 399- 4 23. ror m ode rn eclitions o f Spa nish music of the six-

See Edwi o Seroussí. Eliyabu Schleifer e t a i. , "Jewish Music. §111: Limrg ica l and para linirb"Ícal." in NC2; Rubin a nd Baron, ,\/usicmjewish Hlstory·and Culrurc: Hanoch Avenary.

1een1h cenmry. see 1he series Monumenios de lo musica espo,10/a, gen . ed. Hig in i Angles (1 941- ); rhc musicor Moralcs is in vols, 11, 13, 15. 17. 20, 21, 24 , anel 34 ; t h<tt oi' Gucrrero in vols, 16 and 19. cd , Miguel Querol Gavaldá: and th,1t ofVic::toria in vol$. 25, 2G. 30. anel 3 1. Viçtoriil'~ works are also i n his Opera onmía. ed. Fel ipe Pe cl rell (Leipzig: 8reirko11r & Hariel, 1902-13; ,·epr·. 1965). On music o f rhe Aztecs, Incas. anel othe r nariveArne rican societies in Lhe sixteen1h cennu-y, see CaryTomlinson,

Lasso·s fmitation Magnificais for Counter•Rejom,ation Mun.ich

11>eAsl,ker,azi Tradition ofBiblicci! Cl,an1 between 1500and 1900: Doc11me11tafionand ,\fosical Analysis (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Uni"crsiry. 1918), ond ldclsolm .Jewisl, Music in fts flistorical Development.

Chaprer , 1: Mad riga l and Secular Song in the Sixteenth Cenlury .Spnin On tbe importance and longevi cy o f the villancico in both fipo1in a nd thc Amc rici.l.). ~cc P.:n.tl R. Laird. TowQrd a Hi~toryaftheSpanis/1 Villancico (Wa rre n. MI: lformonie Park. 1991). See rhe edirion hy Jesus Bal y Gay or d1e Cancio ne ro de Upsala ( Mexico: EI Colegio de México. 194,4), wirh o bistorical essay on rhe polyphon ic villancico by Isabe l

'n1e Maeceno,Sond1T1e Madngalisr: l'oirons, P<ltronage, a11d 1heOrig111s of1he ltali<mMadrigal ( Pbil adelphia: Ameriea11 Philosophical Society, 2004). examines 1he ínstítution s unde r whicb eárly mad rigals d eveloped . Studies oo indi· vidual mad rigal composers include James Haár, "Tow::ird o Cbronology of tbe Madrigals of Arcade1t,· JM5 ( 1987), 28-54; He n ry W. K,urmann, 1'he Life and IVorl.·sofNico/a Vicen tino, 15/l~a.1576, MSO 11 (A IM, 1966): Tho masin l..iMay. -Madalena Casulana:· in Cen.der. Se,.uolity, on<l Earl')· i\lV,Sic. ed . Todd M. Borgcrding (New York: Routlcdge, 2002): De nis Arnold. Maren,io ( Lo odon: Oxford Uoivcrs ity Press. 1965): James Chater. L.uca Marenzio andthe ltali.an MadrigaJ. 1577- 1593 (Ann Arbor: UM I Research Prcss. 198 1) : Marco Bizzarin i. Luca Marenzio: The Careerofa A.fosi-

cian beiween rhe Renaissonce and tlie Co1m1cr-Refon11ari,m, rrans. Ja mes Chatcr (Aldershor: Ashgn1e, 2003): Clen:n E. Watki ns, The Cesuoldo Hex: Music, My1h, and Memory· (Kew York: Norton, 2010): and Watkins, Ge..ualdo: The Man and TIi$ Mu.:si-c. 2nd ed. (Oxford: CJ.1rcndon. l??l ) . The hvo met:lphorical meanings of death ln Florenti ne madrig:11s like Arcadeh's are d iscussed in S1efono La Via, "Eros a11d '11wnatos: A F'icinian and Laurentian Readingol' Verdelol's 'Si lie1a e gra,a morte,"' forlr Music His to"}· 21 (2002):

A39

75-116. For a hermeneuric approach to severa( i mporia nt madrigal composers a nel rheirwork. see Susan McClary.

Modal S1,b1ectivi1ies:Self-Pashioningin the ltali<m Madngal (Berkeley: University oíCalifornia Press, 2004) . The m;.1J-rigalsof most composers mentio1led here3re i n the ircollected works: Vcrdelot ín CMM 28, ed, Ann e~farie Bragard, a nel in Philippe Verde lo1, Madrigolsfor Four ond fíve Voices, ed. Jessie Ann Owe ns (New Yo rk: Carla ncl. 1989); Arcadelt in CM M 3 1, ecl. Albert Seay: Willae rt in CMM 3, ed. Hermann Zenck, WalterCersrenberg, a nel Bern hard Meier: Rore in CMM 14, ed, Bernhard Meier: Vicentino in CMM 26. ed . HeruyW. Kaufmann: Casulana in I madrigali d.i Maddalena Cosulana. ed. Beatrice PescereUj (rlore nce: L. S. Oiscbki, 1979): \Vert in CM M 24. e<l. Ca.r o l MacCLí.otoek and Meh'Ín Be rnstein: and Cesualdo in Sámtlíche IVerke. ed, Clenn E. Watkins and Wilhelm Weismann (Hamhu•i;: Ugrino. 1957- 67). Marenziosmadrigalsar eavai lablc im three editions: CMM 72. ed . Bernl,ard Meie r and Roland Jackson: PAM 4. 6. ed. Einstein: a nd 77ie Secular Works. cd. Stcvcn Lcdbctter a nd Patricia Myers (Ncw York: Broudc . 1977- ). Modem a mhologies of ltalian madrib'llls include The OxfordBookoj'Jcatlon Madnga!s. ed. R. Alec Harman (Lc,n don: OJ<íord Univer sity Press, 1983). Nicol!I Vicen1ino's 1re:nise l'antico m11Sico ridotto olla moderna prattico is avoil ablc i n an anno1ated t ronslat,on os Ancient MusicAdapted !o Modem Proclice, trans . wi th n ot es by Maria Rika Mon iates. ed. Claude V. Palisco (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1996). 'l\,o sonnets hyGaspara S1am pa are rranslated in SR49 (3: 14). a nel Madda lena Casula na's p re íace 10 her l', rst book or n ,adriga ls is in SR50(3:15).

France On thesixteenth- cenn,ry French chanson , sce Kate van Orclen, Music, Di$cipli,.e, andAnns i,1 Earlr Modem fhrnce (Chicago: Universi ty of Chicago Press, 2005): L1"o·ence Bernstei n , "The ' Parisian Chanson': Pl'o blemsof' Style and Term inology," JAMS3 1 (1978): 193-240:ancl Berns1eir1 , "No1es 011 the Origin of 1he Parisian Chanson: JM 1 (1982): 275-326 , OnAttainguant. see Daniel Heartz. Pierre A1taingnan1, /!oral />rinterofM11sic (Berkeley: Uni.,ersity ar Californfa Press, 1969) . On 1..issos chansons and their· ploce in Procestan1 France, see Richard Freedman. 'J'he Cha.ruon,ç

o/Orlando di Lasso and their /Jrof.es,am Listeners: MV,Sic, Píet)', and Prinf in Sixteenth-Centu1r France (Rochesler: Unive rsity of Rochestcr. 200 1). Modcrn cditio ns includc thc series Thc SixtccnthCcnm ry Chanson. ed . Jane A . Bernstein (Ncw York: Corland, 1987- 95). wit h c hanson s by Lassus i n vols. 11- 14: Serm isy's works in CMM 52, ed. Caston Allaire and lsabelle Ca,.eaux; Janequin , Cha,.sons po1Jphoniques: oeuvres complétes, cd . A. Till rnan Merrill anel François Lesurc (Monaeo: Oist.1u· Lyrc, 1965- 71); and Le Jcune, Airs, cd . D. P. Walker (AIM, Miscclla n ea 1) . For cxamples ofthe Fre nc.h ç han3,on fro m thc fir~l half of the ~ixteenth c;.cn tury, seeAntl,ologie de la clianson porisicnne XVI' siécle. ed. Prançois Lesure (Monaco: Oiseau - Lyre, 1953), and Chonsonlllbumsof Morgueriie ofAusn-ia. ed. Manin Pic ker (Berkeley: Unh•e rsiryof California l'ress. 1965).

ª"

A40

For l'urfh e r He adiug

Cerman_r Cerman Lieder ofthe first h, lf o f the sixteenth cenmry are in EP. Years 1- 4. 7-8. 33; late s ixtcenth -cenn,ry Licder ,rc in EP. Ycars 23 (Rcgnart) and 25 (Eccard).

Fngland For English scc,~ar music bcforc the madrigal. sce tbe rele,•ant chapters in David Wulsian. T1tdor Music (London: J. M. Dent. 1985). An English manuscript containing secul.r music from the time of Henry VI11 is edited by John Stevens in Mll 18: also fl-om 1his period is 1he forlrfodor So,,gs and Con,ls. MB 36. ed. John S1ever,s. On the English mad rigal. see Joseph Kerma.n. 77,e f.'liw.bctl,an Madrigal (New York: Americau Musicological Society, 1962) . On the balle11, Lionel Pik,e, Pills 1o Pu",;e Mclancholr: '1'1,e Evolurron of rlte fngll$/t &>1/.ett (Aldershot: Ashg:ite, 2004). On Weelkes, see David B,·own , 'lltomos IVeelkes (Londo n: faber & Faber.1969), Jeremy L. Smith. "Music aud Late Elizabeibau Polilics: The ldentities ofOriana aml Diana:· JAMS 58 (fall 2005): 507-58. ovenurncd Lhe lo"b'Slandingvicw Lh3t Morlcy's The Triumphs ofOriana w,s lnrended for Eli1_aberb 1. On Dowland anel rbe solo song. see Diana Poulron.John Dowland: Ili$ Lifeond IVori<s (Berkeley: Universiryof California Press. 1972). ,nd lon Spink. Eng!ish Song: Dowland 10 Purcell (Londo11: Batsford. 1974: rev. ed .. 1986). Morlcy'sA Plaine and Ea.sêe fntroduclionto Practicall Musicke (1597) bas bccn publishcd in a modem cdition by R. Alce Harman (London: Dcnt. 1952: 2nd cd .. Ncw York: Norton, 1973). with excerpts in SR 75 (3:40). A good moclern samplingof English madrigals is The (}.rford Book of~•glish Madrigals, ed. Philip ledger (Lo,1don: Oxford Universiry Press.1979). More complete coll cc1 ions are tbose of ,nadrig:i.1 s in Tite fr4Jlish Madrigol Scl,ool. 36 vols.. ed. Edmund H. Fellowes (London: Stainer & Bell. 1913-24). and of lute sonll$ in 77ie foglish School of iutenisr Song IVrirers. 16 vols .. ed . Fellowes (London: Win throp Rogers. 1920-32): second series. 16 vols. (1925-27). See alsoAlltson Hall. E. H. Pellov;es. An lndex10 tht foghsh Madrigalists and 11,e foglisl, Sc/100/ of L11enisr So,,g IVrirers (Bos100: Music Llbrary Association. 1984). Tbe sollb'S that wcre used ín Shakespeare·s plays are in Ross \V. Duff1n ,

Shakespeare's Songbook (New York: Norlon, 2004), wiLh a recording.

ChJplc r 12.: Thc füse of loslrumenlal Music lnstnm1en1s

Many Rcnaissa ncc ins tnLmcnts. Lhci r pl:iyi.ng tcch niqucs. and rcpc rtoires u c covered in individual chaptcrs of A

For Fu d her Readi ng

(On lnstrumcnls), is available i·n rwo translations. by David 2. Crookes (Oxford: Cbre ndon.1986) and by Harold Blumenfeld (New York: B3renreirer, 1962; repr. New Yo,·k: Da Capo. 1980) . Sylves1ro Canassi's manual on recordcr playir1g Mel orna ,ne11rn1ion, Operr., intirt,!ora Pontegara, is availablc in foesimilc (Milan: Bollcnino bibliogrM,co musicalc. 1934) and in 1ranslation by Dorothy Swainson (Berlin -Licht.erfelde: R. Líenau. 1959) . Cnnassi's manual on playing che viol and the lure. Rego/a n,beriina. is also avai lable in facsimile (Bologna: Forni , 1970) anel in 1ransla1 ion by Daphne and Steve n Silves1er (Berlin-Lichter· felde: R. Llenau. 1972).

lnstmrnental Mus,c in General OnSusato and inslnamenrnl mu.sic, see the t:-Ssays in

11Clman Susato and tlte Afos,c of llts fone: Prmt Cullure. Comp-0sirional ·1eclm1q11e a11d /nsrrurr,er>tal ,lfos,c m tlte Renai.ssance. ed. Keirh Polk (Hillsdale. l\'Y: Pendragon. 2005). On musical culture and perfo rmance ia JiíteenLh-century Ccrmauy. sec KciLh Polk. Cermon /nstmmenwl Musicoftlie Late MiddleAges: Pla)"erS. Parrons. and Performance Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge Unlvers lcy Press. 1992). On muslc at the court o f Maximilfan. see Louise Cuyler, 'lhe Emperor

Marim,lian and Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1973) . On tbe violin and violin bands in Tudor and Stuan England. scc Pclcr Holman. The Violin ai tlie Eng/is/, Court. 1540- 1690 (Oxford: Oxfo rd Univers ity Prcss. 1993). For a listing of s ixtccncb •ce ntury prints. sce Howard M. Brown . lnsrmmenral ,\fosic Printed before 1600 (Cam· bridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1965).

Lure and Vrhuela Mi,s,c lute rnusic publishecl by Auaing-nan1 appears i11 Prelt,tles, ChoMoM o,,d Do,,ces for Lure Published in Paris 1529- 30, ed. Daniel Hearti (Neuilly-sur-Seine: Société de Musique d'Auirefois. 1964). Examples of lr• lian l111e mus icare found in 111eL11tcMus1cofProncesco Ca11ow1 dt> Mila-rio. ed. Art hur J. Ness (Cambr·idge. MA: Harvard Umversi,y Press. 1970). Luys de Na1,·áeis Los seplibrosdel Delphin is transcribed in Monumen1os de b Música Espaftob 3 (Bar· ceio na: Consejo Superior de Liwesligaciones Cienlif1cas. 1945) . Luis Milan·s Libro de musica d,, vihuela de mano inriiulada El Maestro. ed. leo Schr,de. is in l'AM, Ye>r2, pan 1(repr. Hildesheím: Olms. 1967). For performance practice. see Pe,fomtance on Lute. Cuiatar. and Vih11ela: Hi<torica! Pracrice and Modem fnterpre lation. cd. Victor Anand Coelho (Cambridge: Cambridge Unh•crsity Prcss. 1997).

Keyboard Music

Pe,fomwr:~ Cuide 10 RenaissanceMusic. ed . Kite- Powell. On the lure. see DouglasAhon Smirh.A Hi,;rorrofrhe Lurefrom Anriquilrro rhe Renaissance (Lexfogron , \IA: Lure Socie<y of Amcrica. 2002). Sebastian Virdung·s Music,igetutscht has bccn pub-

ined in Ke1voard Music before 1700, 2nd ed. , ed. Alexandcr Silbiger (Ncw York: Rourlcdge. 2004). A classicsurvcy is \Villi Apcl. The His1oryofKe)'board Music101700. trans. Hans

li~hed in f,,c.t\im ilc (Ka-,~el: B::tre nreite r, 1?70} o1nd in

T i:scblcr ( Bloom ington.; lndi:ana U1fr~·cr3ity Prc.1,1. 1972 ) ,

translation by Bech Bullard (Cambridge anel New York: Cambridge Universiry Press. 1993). Michael Praetorius's S)lllagma rru,sicun, has appeared in facsimile (Kassel: 83renreiter. 1958-59). and voltune 2, De organographia

Regional repenoires and performance practices are exam-

Organ pieces based on cantus fi rmi are conta.ined in

De1<T Livresd'orgue pamschc, PierreAuaingnon,. ed. Yvonne l\okse1h (Paris: E. Droi. 1925). ~nd in '/11e Mulliner Book (see below). 'lhnscrip,ions of vocal pieces for organ

are fou nd in Die iralienisclieO'llelmusik amAnfangdes C,nquecenra. ecl. Knucl Jeppesen (Copenhagen: E. Mun ks · gaarcl , 1943: 2nd ed .. 1960). Organ works by Cirol:nno C:w:11.ioni appc:n in his Orgelwerke, cd . Oscar Mischi~ti (Mai ni: B. Schott's Sohnc. 1961). Thosc of Claudio Mendo appcar in his complete works in progress. CM M 51: his toccatas. ed. Sand ro Dalla Libera (Mi lan: Hicordí. 1959): his ricercares. ed. John Morehe n (Madison . WI: A-11 Editions. 2000). oncl ed. Andrea Marcon and Armin Caus (Zhnmern ob Rortweil: Edi,ion Gaus. 1995); hiscanio11as. ed. Walter C,uu>iogham and Charles McDennou (Madisou. \VI: A· R Edilioos.1992). and ed. Pierre Pido,c, (Kassel: 8:1.ren reiter. 1954): and bis org;1n m:tsses. ed. Robert Judd in CEKM 47 (1991). aml ed. Hudolf Walter. 4 vols. {Vienna: Ooblinge r. 1992-95).

E11gli$h lris1mmenral Music On English Renaissance keyboard mus ic. see John CaldwcU . Tudor KeJ-boardMusic. c.1520-1580 (London: S1aioerand Bell.1995): CaldwcU. Eng/is/, KerboardMusic beforell1<Nin.ereenr/1Century· (l\'ew York: Pracgcr. 1979): and Vf rg1 nla Brookes. llrtrtsh Ke1-board Mu.,tcrn e. /660: Som-ces and 77iematic /nde.T (London: Oxford Univers ity Press. 1996). Parrhenia. thc fi rst príntcd collcction ofvirginal music. bas appcarcd in a focsimilc cdilion by Otto Erich Oeutsch (London: Chiswick. 1942) andina modem cd i· tion by Kurt Stone (New York: Broudc. 1951). The earliest manuscript. collecrion of sixtee mh -cenmry English keyboard music was '/'/te Mulliner Book (ca. 1540-85). ed. Deni s Si-evens. MB 1. The rnosc co mprehensive is The Pi&zwilliom Vi'l,>irtal Book (1609- 19), copied by Francis Tregían, which contains nea rly three hundred works. inchtding transcriptions of maclrigals, coutrapu11Lal fantasias . dances. preludes. descriptíve pieces, and many sets of variatio ns: 2 vols .. ed. J, A. Fu ller Maitla nd and W, Ba,·clay Squire (New York: Dover. 1963). Oihe,· inanusc ripi collectlons in mode rn edi1lons inclucle ·n,e Dublin Virginal Ma,11r.scrip1 (ca. 1570). ed. Joho M. Ward (Wellesley. 1954) . aud Byrd's Mr La.dreNeve/ls Booke, ed. ~Jilda Andrews (New York: Dove r. 1969). Edilions of works b'Touped by composer include Byrd. M B27 and 28, and Fortr-fwe Piectsfor Keytioard. Insm,ments, ecl. S1ephen D. Tuttle (Paris: Oiseau-Lyre.1939): Buli . MB 14and 19: Tomkins. MB 5: Gibbons. MB 20. and Complete Ke,-bt>ard Works. 5 vols.. ed . Margaret Cl}orn (London: Staincr & Bcll. 1922- 25): and Cilcs Parnaby. MB 24.

Ven,ce lain Fenlon. 77ie Ceremoníal City: Hi,;rorr. Memor:rand MJth in Renaissance Venice (New llaven: Yale Universi,y Press. 2008). offers a general culmrol hiscory of Vcnice. includ ing mt,sic. On 1nusie in Venicc. see Jon~th~n Glh:on.

flonoringCodand rhe City: Music atthe V.merian Confratemi1260- 1806 (Oxford: Oxford Univeroity Preoo. 2003). and 1-1. C. Robbins L, ndon and John Julius Norwich, ri.ve Cenwries ofMusicin Venice (New York: Schirme,·. 1991}. On cori spez,a<i. see james H. Moore. '"fhe Vespn, delle Cinque Laudare anel the Role ofSolmi spezw.ti at S1. Mark's." JAMS tico

A41

34 (1981): 249- 78; ,nd. on rhe relarionship between 1he archirecrure and rhe musical sryle, David 8ryon1. "The ·Cori Speuati' ofSt. Mark's: My,h anel Rcaliry," EMH l (1981): 165- 86. On musical culture in Venice. scc laii> Fen)o,,, .. Mttgnif1ce,1ce !I.S Civic lrn3gc: Music3 nd Geremo·

nial Space in Early Modern Venice:· in Music and Cullure in Late Renaissance /1olJ' (Oxford: Oxfo rd Universi1y Press. 2002). 1-23. On the polychoral rradilion before Gabrieli. especially 1he mass b_y St riggio anel motet by Tallis. see Davi11 Moroney. "Alesund ro Striggio's Mass in forty and Six:ty Parts." )AMS 60 (Spring2007): 1-70. On Cabrieli, see Denis Arnold, GiovanniGabrieli and lhe Musico/ rhe Ven~tian Hígh Renaissance (Lon<lon: Oxfo rd Univers ity Press. 1979): idem .. Giovanni Cabneli (London: Oxford University Press. 1974): a,·,d Richard Cbarteris. Cio,•anni CabrieU: A Thematic Catalogtre of His Music (S1uyvcsan1. NY: Pend ragon. 1996). Ou Cabrielú instrumental music. scc Elcanor Sclfridgc· Ficl<l . ~nerian

lnstmnienral Musicfrom Cabnel, to Vivaldi. 3rd cd. (Ncw York: Dover. 1994). Cabricli's complete works are in CMM 12. ed. Denis Arnold and Richard Chanerts. Composlt lons by Andrea and Giova nni Cabrieli are publishcd in rhe first two volumes of lstiturioni e monumentidell'orremusicole iraliana. (Milan: Ricordi.1931-41),

PART Ili : THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY Excell em surveys of Baroque music inclucl e \Vendy Heller. Music in rlre 8aroque (New York: Norton , 2013): John Wal1cr Hill. Baro11ue Music: Music in Western liun,pe, 1580- 1750 (New York: Norton. 2005); Ceo rge J. Buclow. A Hisro,y of Baroque Music (Bloomi ngto n: Indiana University Press. 2004); David Schule11berg,Alllsicof1/1e.8aroqtte. 2nd ed . (New York: Oxford U11iversi1y Press, 2008). anel Claude V. Pai isca. 8aroqut .\fosic. 3 rd ed. {Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prenlice Hall. 1991). A11tholog1es includ e Hel le r.Anrl,ologJ-for .lfosic ir1the Boraque (New York: Norton. 2013). Hill. Antholog,·ofBaroqu.e Music (New York: Norton. 2005}. and Scbu lenbe rg. Music ofthe 8aroque:Jl11An1/rologr ofScores. 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford Univers ity Press. 2008). More focused surveys ore The Cambridge Hisrorrof Seventeenrh-Cen1ur,· Music. ed. Tím Carter and John Butt (Camb ridge: Cambridge Universily Press. 2005): Tim Ca rtcr. Music in Late Renaissance and for!y Baroq!le ltalr (London: Batsford. 1992) : and Lorcnzo Bianconi . .\Jus«: in theSeverueenth Century·. trans. David Brya.nl (Ca mbridge: Cambridge Universi<y Press. 1982). Essays on s ignif1canr ,opies are in Palisca, ,\lusicond ldeos in rhe Si.xceenrh crnd Seventeenrh Cenruries: furopeon Music. 1520- 1640; and Tite World of 8an,que Music: New Perspecti<>es, cd. George B. S1auffer (Bloom ington: lndi,na Universi1y Press. 2006). The sociol and culn,rol contex1s for music of the Bo rocpie per-iod ,u e treated ln 'f'h~ Ca.rli- JJaroq11c f.'m.: From ,hc l.,a,tc 16th

Cenrur,·10 rhe 1660s. ed . Curtis Price (Basingstoke: Macmil lan, 1993). anel 'J'he l,01e 8aroqt,e t:ro: f 'n,m rlte 1680s to 1?40, ed. George). Buelow (BasirJgstoke: Macrn illan, 1993). For a bibliogr;iphy on the period. see John Baron.

A42

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

8aroque Music: A Research and Tnfonna1ion Cuide (Ncw York: G,rlancl. 1993). ancl Julie Anne Saclie. Gompanion 10 Baroque Music (London: Dent. 1990). On pcrfornrnnce practice. seeA Perfomiers Cuide to S,iventee,uh-Cenw,,- Music. cd . Stew,rt Carrer (New York: Schirmcr. 1997).

Chaptcr 13: New Stylcs in 1he Seventeenth Century Baroqtie as Term On the term baroque. see Claude V. PaJisca. "Baroc1ue:· in NG2. The early uses ofthe word baroq"e for musiccan be foun<l in "Lettre de M •• • à Mlle ... sur l'origine de la musique." MercuredeFrance. May 1734. 868-70. and Noel Antoine Pluche. SpectackM la ,.a,urc. vol. 7 (P•ris: Ve1ove Estienne. 1746). and fo r architect ure in Charles de Brosses. L'ltalie lira cent /Ut$ Leuros écriles d"/,alie d qr,elques Olltis en 1739 ei 1740. ed. M. R. Colo,nb. vol. 2 (Paris: Alpbonse Levavasseur. 1836). 117- 18.

º"

Ltslcners and Aud,cnccc

Andrew DelrAntonio·s Lis1enin~a..<Sp1ri1ua/ Practice ,n Earty Modem ltalJ' (Berkeley: University of Californfo Press. 201 1) is a fascinating study of tbe new empbasis on listening to music in lhe early scvcllleenlb century. .i re llection of the ncw intcrcs1 in clraJnatization io lhe music its<:lf.

The Second Pract,ce On Monteverdi and ,he second pr,c1ice. see Massimo Ossi. Divining 1he Oracle: Mon reverdi's seconda prauica (Chicago: Un ivcrs ily of Chicago Prcss. 2003). Artusrs auack on Monteve rdi is excerp1ed in SR 8-2 (3:2). anel Ciulio Ces,ire Monteverdi's re))ly is in SR 83 (4:3).

Basso Conténno F. T. Arnold, 11,cArt ofAccompat1i111cntjro111 a '11wro,,gl,-8ass as Practiud ,n the XVI/ti, and XVl/lt/1 Ce,uur,es. 2 vols. (New

York: Dover. 1965). is 1he basic work on basso continuo. wilh copious quotalions and examples írom the sources. Avery useful introducúon. botb scbolarly and practical, is Peter r. Willi311ls, figurod BassAccompanimenl. 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Universiry Press. 1970) . A recent srudy focused on ltalian keyboard continuo practice is Ciulia Nuti. 77,e Pe,formonceofltalian Ba"o Gonlinuo: S111• in Ke1-boarc!Accompanimenl in Ih e Se,•enleenth and Ei1,111een1h Cen!uries (Aldcrshot: Ashgate. 2007) . For comempo rary advicc. see AgostinoAgaz,.ari's brief trcarisc Of Pla)ing upona 8a,s wilh All lnsrrume111S and ofTh.eir Use in a Consort. in SR 102 (4:22).

7i,11,pem111en1s

For Fu d her Readi ng

of the tr:id ition of pe rformi ng mus ic f'rom before the late

eighreenth cenrury. in Tiie Eartr Music Revi.,al: A Flisiorr (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988). Fora di,•erse range ofviews, scc Laurence Dreyfus. "Early Music Dcfended ::ig::iins1 lts Ocvocecs: A Theory of Historic:;il Perfor1n::i nce in rhcTwcnticth Ccnrury:· MQ 69 (Stunmcr 1983): 297- 322: Authenticitr in Early Music: A Srmposium. ed. Nicho las Kenyon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988): Joseph Kerman. L.111rence Oreyfus, Joshua Kosman. John Rockwell. E.llen Hosand, Richard 'raruskin. anel Nicho1as McGegan, "Tbe Ea rly Music Deba1e: Ancien1s. Moderns. Pos1mod· erns." JM 10 (\ViJt1er 1992): 113- 30: Richard Tàrnskir1, Tru:t andAc1: Essa)~ on Music and Perfon11a11ce (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1995): and Bruce Hayues, 77ref.ndof Earlr Music: A I'e,former History·· of Music for the 21st Century· (Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press. 2007). The rnost thorough primary source for perfonnance practice issues it1 J3te-sixteenth- and

early -sevcntcenth-century music is Michael Praetorius.

Syn1a~'ll1a Musicum Ili. cd. aacl tra,,s. Jeffcry T. Küc· Powcll (Oxfo rd: Oxford Univcrsiiy Press. 2004). wbich , lso :iddresses 1enn1nology and theorencaJ issues. An tmportam source for performance prac1ice for singers :1round

1600 is Ciulio Cacci nfs prefoce to Lenuo"e musiche (1602). available in translation in thc modem cd ition by H. Wiley Hitchcock (see ch,ptcr 14 below) and cxccrptcd in SR 100 (4:20). An anonymous treatise. TheC/,aragus. or. Some Obser· vation~ for Staging Dramatic Jflir*s Wel/ (1630). is exccrptecl in SR 103 (4:23). Piet ro della V.,lle offerscontemporary 1estlmony on petform:rnce praclkes. including improvised embell ishment. in hisOJ1he MusicofOurTime. excerptecl in SR 84 (4:4). On ornamentâlion, see Fred:erick Neumauu, Ontamenrarion i11 Baroqueand Posl-Boroque Music, u;il/1 Special fotphasis 011 J. S. Bach. 3rd ed. (Princeton: Pl'inceton University Press. 1983).

From Modal lO Tonal Music See Harold S. Powers anel Prans Wiering. "Mode. §1ll. 5: Trausi1ioo 10 Major and Miuor Keys." in NG2. and Grego1y Ban1ett, "Tonal Orga11iza1ion ini Seventeentb · Century MusicTheory:· in CHWMT (Cambridge: Co.mbridge University Press. 2002), 407-55.

Chapter 14: The Invention of Opera Foreronncrso[Operc, On the 1589 Florcm in e intcrmcdi. sec Nim Treadwell. Musicand Wonderat the Mediei Coun: The 1589 lnterludes J'or La Pelwgrina (Bloamingtan: Ind iana University Press, 2008). and James M. Saslow. Tiie Mediei Wedding of 1589: f1orentine Fesrivocl as Theatmm Mundi (New 1-laven : Y:.lle

Sce undcr chaptcr 7. above.

University Press. 1996). Thc mt1sic ap1>c>rs ii, LesJltes du mariage de Ferdinand de Midicis de Chrntine de Lorraine.

Peiformanre Practic·e

Plon:nce, 1S8?. vo1. ·1: M11siqu.e d.e~ intem1id.c,5 de "la A::ller-

On historic,lly informed performance. see John Butt. Playin.g witl, His101y: 'fhe flisroricol Approoch 10 ,\li,sical Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 2002). Harry Haskell rraces rhe history oi" 1he concept, anel

rina." ed. D. P. Wa.lker (Paris: Éditions du Cenrrc national de la recherche scientifr<[Ue. 1963). Andrea Gabrieli's choruses for 1he 1585 produc1ion orSophocles' Oedipus Rex in Vicem.;i are published in Leo

.e,

5<:hrade. /.a reprisentario11 d'Edipo Tirnnno ou Teatro Olimpico Mcenza, 1585) (Paris: CNRS. 1960).

Tlie Flonmlwe Ccunera!n Por 3 dcscrip1ion of Lhe Floren1inc C3n1erat::i by Ciov3nn i de' Bordi"s son. see SR 81 (4:l). 5cc The Florentine Cam erota: Documental)·Studies and Transla!ions. ed. Claude V. Palisc., (New lbven: Yale llniversity Press. 1989): Girolamo Mei, Le1tersonAncient and .\1odem M11,sirto Vincen,o Galileiond Giovanni 801-di. 2nd ed .. ed. Paiisca (Sn111gar1: Hanssler/AJM.1977): a11d Vincenio Galilei. Dialogueor1 Ancie,,1 a,,d Modem Afosic. trans. wi1b notes by Palisca (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2003).

A43

Faber.1981) coversopera from rhe beginningto Lully. On Pcri. see Tim Carter.Jacopo Peri. 1561- 16.'3:l: flis Lifeand lll'or*s. 2vols. (Ncw York: c,,.Jand, 1989). Peri'sEuridice isaw1i1::ible io ::i. modem períorm ingcdirio,i by Howard Maye,· Brown (Madison. \VT: A-R Edilions, 1981) Md in two faesimile editions (New York: Broude. 1973: l'lorence: Edi7.ioni Musica li OTOS.1970). Modem editions of Caccini 's f11riclie<J inch,cle a criticai edition by Angele>Coan (l'lorence: Editioni Musicali OTOS. 1980) anel a facsim ile (Bologna: Porni. 1976). Peri's prerace is tra11slated in Si\ 107 (4:27). Caccini's inSR 99 (4:19). Emílio de· Cavalieri's Rap· prose,ualione diAnima e, di Corpo is available in an editioo by Eike Funck (\Volfe,Jiüuel: Mõseler, 1979) and in facsimile (Bologna: forni, 1967and 2000).

Monody Ciulio Caccini"s m.onodies appear in Le ru,cwe mtA.siche, ecl. H.

Claudio .\fonteve,·di

Wiley Hi1cbcock (Madison. WI: A-R E;(litions. 1970). 1>reface excerp1ed inSR IOO (4:20),artd inNM11t11,U$ic/1eenuov<o maniera discrive,-k. ed. Hjtchcock (Madisou. Wl:A-R E<Utions. 1978). ln tbeseeditions. 1-litcheockprovidesa realiza -

On Monteverdi. see Mauro Calcagno. fr-0111 Madr-igat,o Opera: MoriteverdisSwgingoftl,e&lf(Berkeley: Un iversity ofCaJifornia Press. 2012); Paolo fabbri. Monteverdi, trans. Tim Corter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Prcss.1994): Silkc Leopold . .lfonreverdi: Musicin Transition (Oxford: Cla rendon. 1991): Denis Arnold. Monteverdi. Srd ed .. rev. Tim Caner (London: J. M. Dem, 1990): Cary Tomlinson. Mon1e..erdiand rhe End ofrht Renai$sance (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1987): and The Cambridge Companion to .\fontel'erdi. ed. John Whenham and Richard Wistreicb (Cambridge: Cambridge Unjvcrsity Prcss. 2007) . See also Ossi. Divining the Ora ele. on the seconda prattic:i: on the thentric::il works. Tim Carrer, Monte'1erdi's M1,sical 1nea1re (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press. 2002). Mon&everdi: O,feo, ecl. John Whenham (Ca m.bridge: Cam bridge Universit_y Press. 1986). and Ellcn Rosancl . .\fo,ueverdi's Lasr Operas: A Venetia,, T,·ilogr (Berkeley: Uuiversity of California Press, 2007): on the Vespers. Jeffrey C. Kt1rtiman. 77re Monteverdi Vespersof 16/Q: MU$it. Conte.ri, Pe,forn,~nce (Ox ford: Oxford Universi&y Press. 1999); a nel on the Venetlan period. Denis Ste\'ens. Mo,uevetd, w Jle,uce (Madison . NJ: Fairle,gh Oick inson Universiry Press, 2001). The premiere of Oifeo is described in Thomas Forrest Kelly. firsr Nights: Five Musi,:a,l Premieros (New Haven: Yale Ua.iver• sity Press, 2000) , 2-59. AJan Curtis, ··La Poppeaimpa$1ic· ciata or. Who Wrote tbe Musie to L·incoronazione (1643)? ;· JAMS 1,2 (Spring 1989): 23-54. argues that lhe rale af Onone. the finale. and some other music in Poppea seem to

tion oí thc basso conLinuo. bul in bis rcccat second ed iLion

aí le nuovem1<stche (Mtddle1on. Wl:A·I\ Edtrlons. 2009) he leaves it unrealiz.ecl . which has become :1 more comn1on editorial practice. The monodies ofJaeo po Peri :ire in Le"-arie

niusiche and OlherSongs. ed. Tim Caner (Madison. Wl: A-R Edfüons. 1986). Other monody public•tionsarc ovailablc in facsimilc. such as those in ltalian Secular Song. 1606- 1636. 7 vais.. cd. Gary Tomlinson (NewYork: Garland. 1986). Opera A rich sourceof information, interpret:i.tion, :md bibliog-

raphy in thc ent irc field of opera is thc Ne,v Crave Dicoona,:,· ofOpero.. 4 vols. (fllcw York: Graves Dic1ion3 rics of Music. 1992); individual articles online os port ofCrovc Music Online nt ww·w,oxfordmusiconline .com. Chronologico.l sul'veys include Carolyn Abbate and Roger Parker. A ffisro,,· ofOpera (New York: Norton. 2012); James Paraki l,s. Tltc Story· of Opera (New York: Norton . 2012): Oonalcl J. C rout and Hern1i ne Weigel Will iams.A Shor, History·ofOper(I. •!-ih ed. (New York: Colmubia Univer;;ity Press. 2003): and Je:u, Grw1dy Fane Ui. Opera for E,,uyone: A His1oric. Social,Anistic. Uma,:,; andMusica!Srudy(Lanham. MD: 5<:a.recrow, 2004). F'or the social and econom ic history aí opera, see Daniel

Snowman. 1neCilded Stage: TheSoc1al HistorrofOpcra (London: Atlantic. 2009) . On society and politics io relation to opera. sec OperaandSocie1yin ltalyand Fraricefron,Monteverdi to Bourdieu. ed. Victoria Jobnson. Jane F. Fulcher. and Thomas Enman. Cambridge Sntclics in Opera (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007). and John Bokm•. Opera and Politics: From Monieverdi to flenze (New Haven: Yale Universiiy Press. 1997). On ltolion opera, seeThe His10,yof lialia11 Opero. 6 vols.. ed. Lorcmo Bianconi and Ciorgio Pestelli (Chi cago: Un iversiry ofChicago Prcss. 1998-). F'oq>rimarysourcc read ings. scc Opero: A 1/i,mirrin Documents. cd. Picro Weiss (Ncw York: Oxford Univcroi,y Preoo. 2002). A uoeful bil,li ography is Guy A. Marco·s Opera: A llcsearch ond, l11fon11o1ion C.,ide. 2nd ed. (New York: Garbnd, 2001). On earlyopeca. see F'rederick \V. Sternfeld. "11,e Binh ofOpero (Oxford: Clare ndon. 1993). 1\oberi 001\ington. n~RiseofOpera (London: Paber&

have bcen rewrittcn or completed byone or mo re youuger composc rs. Montevc rdi'scorrcs pondcnce is compilcd in

The Leners of Claudio Monteverdi. rev. ed .. rrnns. with in1ro. by Denis Stevens (Oxford: Clarenclon: Ncw York: Oxford Universiiy Press. 1995). For Mome,•erdi's descriprion of rhe srile concira10. see SR 109 (4:29). Momeverdi's comple,e wo-.-ks ::ippe~r in nJ rrele opere. 16 vols., cd. Cian Pranccsco Malipiero (Asolo: C. F. ~fali· piero. 1926- 42; rc,r. 3nd rcpr. Vienn::i.: Universal Editfon , 1967- 68). More rccent editionsoírhe operas ore those of L'O,feao by Bin,lldo Alc~~;rndrini (K,lMcl: B.'irenreiter, 2012) anel by Denis Stevens (London: Novello. 1967; r-ev. ed. Gregg lmernat ional. 1972. wi,h i111ro. byStevens); or li ritomo d'Ulisscin pa,ria by Ri na Ido Alessa nd ri n i (Kassel: B~renreiter. 2007) and by Alan Ctu-tis (London: Novel lo,

A44

For Fu d her Readi ng

For l'urih e r Re ading

2002): a nd of L'incoronazionedi Poppea by Ab ll Curtis (londo n: t'iovello. 1989). Two n ew criticai edi rions ore in progrcss. ecl. Andrea Bornstcin (Bologna: Ui Orpheus. 1998-) anel ed. Raffoello Monter osso (Cremona: Fondazionc Cbuclio Mo rn everd i, 1970- ).

The Spread oj'lralian Opera Frnncesca C:.iccini's la liberazionedi Ruggiero is av:ailah1e in an edition by Dori s Silbert (Nonhampton , MA: Smith College. 1945) •nel in facsimile (Florence: Stud io per lldizion i Scehe. 1998). 0 11 e3rly o pe ra in Rome. see Margare1 Mur;ua. Opero.sfor lhe Papal Coi,rt. )631-1668 (Ann Arbor: UM I Research Press. 1981). Stefano L:tndi'sSant'AlesJio is available in facsirnjle ( 8ologna: Forn;, 1970). Por a comprehensive bistory o f Ven etian opera, see Ellen Rosand , Operai,, Se,•entee,,t/1-Cefllw;r Ven,ce: 11,e Crealion of a Cenre (Berkeley: Unive rsity o r Califomia Press . 1991). On fem:Je roles in Veneti.an operas. sec Wcndy Helle r, Emblems of E::loqu.ence: Opera and Wome,i's Voices in Sei•enreenrh · Cen.rur:r Venice ( Berkeley: University o f Calí · íomla Press. 2003). On rhe singer Anna Renzl. see lletb L. Clixon, ·· Priv:11e Uves of Public \'(fomen: Prim:1 do nn:1s in Mid - Sevenreent h -Century Veniee," \lusicand Lerrers 76 (November 1995): 509-3 1. A sample con1rac1 for Renzi 10 pcrfonn for a scason 3t a Vcnctian ope ra housc is in SR 89 (4:9). On o pera s ingcrs. boll, d ivas and castratos. scc also the books by Richard Somerset·\Vard a nd Roger Freitas underchapter 18 below. Beth L. Glixon and Jonathan E. Glixon, lni•enring1/1e Business of Opera: The lmpresario and Ris World inSeoe111een1h -Cenrtt1)' Venice (Oxford: Oxford Univers ity Press, 2006). diseuss 1he busincssmcn who rnade public o pe ra viable in Vet>ice. l'rancesco Cavalli's Cio,one ( Prologue and Ac1 1only) is in EP, vol. 12, and modemized performingversions by Raymond Leppard (London: Paber Music: NewYork: Scb irmer) are availa ble for L<i CC1listo ( 1975). Egisro ( 1977). and Onn,ndo (1969). Antonio Cesti's Oro,uea. ed. William C. Holmes. is in the Wellesley Edit ion. no. 11 (Wellesley Col lege. 1973). an dina revised version by Alejandro Enrique Plaacbart (San1a Ba rbara: Marisol Press, 1996). /lpomo d'oro, is ed. Cui d o Adler in DTO. 3/2 and 4,/2 ( 1896: repr. 1959), and in an edition o r Acts.3 ond 5 by Carl B. Schmidt (Mad ison. Wl: A·R Editions. 1982). f'acsimiles o f ltal-

ian operas from tbe mid-sevenleenLh cenlury. including Cavalli and Cesli. are found in ltalian Opera . 1640- 1770. gcn . ed . Howa rd Maycr Brown (Ncw York: Garland. 1977- 84) .

311- 35: idem., " Mo reon the Life a nel Death o f Barba ra Stro1.Zi. MQ 83 (Spring 1999): 134-41; a nd Ellen Rosa nd . "The Voice o r Borbar, Strozzi," i n IJ7omen Mol·ing Music: WesrernArr Tradirion. 1150- 1950. ed. Ja ne Bowers a nel Judit h 'l'iek (U,·b a11a: Univers ity of lll inois Press. 1986), 168- 90. r.,csimiles of e,1nra1,s by Carissimi , Cesti, S1roz1.i , a nel othe rs appe•r in The ltalian.Con.rarain rheSe;•enreenth Cenrury·. gen . ed . Carolyn Giantmco (New York: G,rland. 1986).

n,e

Carholic Gwrch Music On ltalian c h urch music, see Je1·ome Roche. Norih lrali-0>1 Clmrch Musi.c i,1 rheAgeofMo,,teverdi (Oxford: Cbrendo n , 1984). Gabriel i's mo1e1s are i11 his Opemomnia, ed. Arnold and Rich:trd Charteris, CMM 12. Orazio Benevol i's polychoral works are in Horalii Be,ievolí Opera Omnia (Rome and Trent: Societas Universal is Sanctae Ceciliae, l966-73). A modern edítion or l..odovico Viadan a's Cerito eoneerri ecclesiostici is in his Opere. se r. 1. vol. 1 (Kassel: Bã renreiter. 1964). A translat io n oíViadma's preface appears in SR 101 (4:21). On Lucrczia Vizzan:i and music at thc coavcnt of Santa CrlStlna della fondazza tn Dologna. see Cra.l gA. Monson. Disembodied Voices: Music an.d Cu.lrure m an Ear!:,- Modem lraJian Con,•enr ( Berkeley: Unive rsity of Cali fornia Press. 1995) and Divas ín rhe Coneenr: Nuns. Music. and Defiance in Se,·enleenlh •Cenru,,- /tal,- (Chicago: Uni,•ersity of Chicago Prcss. 2012). On thc convcnt of Santa Radcgonela in Milan. sec Roberi L. Keadric k. Celestial Sirens: Nuns and 11ieir Mnsic in furlyModem ,\lilan (Oxford : Oxford Uníversity Press. 1996). anel Chiara Margarita Cozzolani, Mo1e1, . ed . Roben 1.. Kendrick ( Madison: A- R Eclirions, 1998). Por a bro3dcr ::iccoum ornuns in conven1s rcsis1ing m::ile aurhor~ ity in musical ::i nd o,her (o::uters, see Cr:i.igA. Mo,1son.

Ntms Beh,..,ing Badly: TalesofMU,SiC, Magic.Arr, andArso,.in 1'1e Co1we111s of ltoly (Chicago: University of Chicago Prt11s. 20 10).

Orarono An excellenl comprehensive sr11dy is Howard E. Srnithe r. A Hisroryof1he Ora1orio. 4 vols . (Chapei Hill: Universiryof North Carolina Press.1977-2000). Giacomo Carissirni's

Jeph reis available in editions by Ade lchi Amisano (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1977) and by Gotlfried Wolters (WoU'e nbüue l: Mõseler. 1969); mosr o f his other o ratorios are available in editions by Lino Biancbi (Rome: lstiluto Italiano per la Storiadella Musica.1951-). Lurheran Giurch Musir

Chapter 15: Music for Chamber and Chmch Voml Chamber Music

J·lcrl. Worship Wars in Earlr Luiheranisni. covers thc seven · ceenth anel e ighteemh cenmries as well .as the s ix-teenth. Johann Hermann Schein's Ope!/<1 nova is in vols. 4-5 ofthe new complete edirion, NeueAusgabe samrlicller IVerke. ed.

On the chacoM . whic h becam c t he chaconn e. sce the book by Richard Hudson below. under "lnstnunental Music."

Adam Adrio a nel Siegmund Hc hns ( Kassel: B~rc nreitcr. 1963- ) .

in the Early Seventeenth Century

On lhe cantata in Ro mc. :i.cc John Walter Hill . Romcm

Monodr. Canrara. and Opernfrom lheCirclesAround Cardinal

Hemric/1 Schurz

Monralro. 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1997). On Barbara Sarozzi. see Be,h L,. C lixon . "New Lighr on t he Lil'e a nd Careerof Barbara Strozzi," MQ 8 1 (S11m n1er 1997):

Por a b íograp hy, see Basil Sma ll man , Schau (Oxford: ÜYíorel Universi ,y Press. 2000) . Schtlri descr ibes his career in SR 86 (4:6). o ne or several letters he wrote asking

to reti re. Al len Ske i's fleinrich Schüti: A Cuide to Research (New York: Garland . 1981) is h e lpful reference rool. Schotú complete works are in his S11mrlicher 1111,rke. 18 vols .. cd . Philipp Spitta and Arno ld Sche ring(Leipzig: Brc irkopf & llã1·1cl, 1885- 1927), using origin;il c lcfs, and NeueAu-sgabe somrlicher Werke (Kasscl: Bãrcnreitcr, 1955- ), which tr>nsposes m, ny works. Con sult also ffeinrich Srhfit::

A Bi.bliogrophyof1he Collccted IVork-sand Peifom1ing 1:ditions. comp. D. Douglas MillerandAnne L. llighsm ith ( New Yo rk: Greenwood . 1986). On musical figu res. see Dietrich Bartel. Musica

poe1ica: Musical-Rlaetoric«I Figures i1' CerrrtM Ba roque Music (Lincoln: University of 'ebraska Press, 1997). Ch risroph J3eruhard's wriLings are tr:aaslated by Walte r Hilse in "The Treatises oíCbristoph Bernhard." 'fhe Music Fomm 3 (1973) : 3 1-17\1.

]ewish Musi(· On Rossi. see Don Harrân. Salomo,1e Rossi: Jeu:ish Musi· cian in Late Renaissance ManlUa (Oxford: Oxford Uni"c:rsity Press. 1999). Rossi 's complc1e works. ed . Ha.rrán, are in CMM 100 (1995). See also Se roussi. Scllleifer et ai.. "Jewisb Music, §111: Linr rgica l and parafüurgical." in NG2; llubin and Baron, Mu.1icinjewish Hisioryand Culrure; ,\venary, ·1n,

Ashkenazi Tradirion ofBíblica! Chanr berween 1500 and 1900: and IJelsohn.Jewish .lfusicin /ts Histori-cal D..·,lopmenl. Instrumental M11s1c Surveys o f particular rep e rtoires include Andrew Oell'Amonio. SJnt(lX. Form and Cenre iri Sonoras and Comonos 1621- 1635 (Luce,1: Libreria mus icole italia n,. 1997); Kerboord .\lt,sic 8efore 1700. ed. Alexander Silbig:er: \Villi Apel , 7lte Flistory·ofKeyboordMusicro 1700: Will i:11n S. Newman , The Sonata in. rhe Baroque Era. 4th ecl. (NewVork: Norton. 1983); a nd David D. Boyden. 7'heifüror)'o/Vio-lir> PlaJillgfrorr, 11s Origins to 1761 (Londo n: Oxford University Press. 1965). Rebecca Cyp ess. '" Espri mere la voce h ,unana': Connect ions beiween Vocal a nd lnsinunen tal Music by l1al ian Composers of t he Early Se"enteenth Century," JM 27 (Mar ch 20 10): 181-223. documeuts ways ü1 \\1hich performersaud composers of insLrumental music sh:tre<l elements with lhe modero the:itricaJ s tyle aí vocal music . For harpsicho rd pe rform:ince practice, see Yonit Lea Kosovske. Hi$toricol Horpsichord 1echnique (Bloominl:,1011: lndia11a University Press. 2011).Modern ed itions of printed and manuscript keyboard collections can be found ia t bc series /?ih Century· Keyboard Music (Ncw York: Garland . 1987- 89). On Girolamo Frescobaldi. see Frederick Hammo n<I. Cirolarno Frescobaldi (C.1mbridge. MA: Harvord Un iversity Press. 1983). anel FrescobaldiSwdies. ecl. Alex,nderSilbiger ( Ourham. 11/C: Du ke University Press. 1987). Frescobaldi's music is availahle in his Operecompleie (Milon: Editioni Suvini Zerhoni. 1975- ). Johann Jacob Frobcrger'$ harp.:sic hord work.:s appc .ir

i n Oerwrescomplctes pourclavecin. ed. lloward Schotl. ILe pupiire 57-58 (Pa,·is : He ugel, 1979-2000). His harpsi-

chord and organ ,..•orks are appeal'ingin a nen' criticai edit io n , ed. Siegbe rt Ra.mpe (Kassel: Bll renrei,er.1993-) .

A45

On Jan Piererszoon Sweelinck. see Pieter Dirksen. The Keyooani ,\fosic ofjan Pietemoon Sweelinck: lrsStJ1e, Signifi· canceo1td lnflt,ence (Utrechr: Ko ninklijke Vcrenigingvoor Nederlandse Muziekgeschie,len is. 1997), andAfan Cu rtis ,

Sweelir,ck's Keyboord Music: A Siudr ofEnb'1.ish Eleme,,ts i11 Seve111eerh-Cenrury· Dutcli Composition. 3rd ed. (Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1987). His keyboard works ore in hisCompleie Keyhoord lflorks. ed. Horald Vogel anel Pieter Dirksen, 4 vols. (Wiesbaden: Breitkopí & Hãrtel. 2005-). a nd hís Opero.omn,o, vol.1: '/1,e lr>strrrnwuol IJ7orks. 2nd rev. ed .. ed . Gustav Leonhardt et al. (Amsterdam: Vereenigingvoor Nederla ndse Muziekgeschiede1ús.1974). Samuel Scbeid t's 1à.bulaiu.ro nova is ª"ailable iJl an eclition by Harald Vogel (Wiesbad en: Breitkopf & Hartel. 1994-). Bi•b~º Marini'ssonatas for strings appear in Marini. String Sonara• from Opu; 1ond Opu; 8. ed. n ,omas D. Dunn (Madison . \VI: A· R Etlitions. 198 l). His cornplete Op. 8 h as been cditcd by Maura Zoni (Milan: Edizioni Su,'ini Ze rboni. 2004). Thomas Schmid1 •Bes1c. TheSonata (Cambridge: Cam· bridge University Press. 201 1) . t races thc history of works called '·sonata." showi ng 1he changes in me:rnings of tl1a1 1erm. On rhe h1StO')' o f rhe c haconne :md passacaglta. ln borh ins1rumen1::il :md vocal music, sec Rich::rrd Hudson, The folia, the Sorabond. 1he Possacaglia. ond rh.e Chocor>ne. 4 vols .. MSD 35 (Ncuhausen· Stuttgart: ll1tnsslcr. l 982). and Alexanclcr Sil bigcr. "Passacaglia anel Ciaccona: Genre Pai r i ng and Am biguity írorn Prescobaldi to Cou pe rin." Journal ofSeven rccnth-Ccntt•ry Music 2.1 ( 1996). at www .sscm-jscm.o rg/ v2nol .h, mi. Schein's Ba,lclteuo musi,eale is in vol. 9 or che nev, c-om· plete edition (see above) .

Chap ter 16 : France, England. Spain. and the

New World in the Sevemeenth Cemury Frencli Opera and Ballet On Louis XIV, Lully, and French opera, see Georgia Cowa ,·1, 77,e Tnumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV o,id rhe Politics oJSpec1ocle (Chicago: Unive rsity o f Chicago Press. 2008): Caroline \li'ood. Musica11d Drarrta ir1 the 1ragédie en

musique. 1673-1715: Jean 8ap1is1e Lullrll/ld /:/is Suecessors ( New York: Garl:md , 1996); lullrS1udies, ed. John ttajdu Heyer (Cambridge: Cam bridge University l'ress, 2000); and French Baroque Opera: A Reader. ed. Caroli ne Wood and Graham Sadler (Aldershol: Asbgale. 2000). Vincenl Ciroud. Frenei, Opera: A Short History (New Haven : Yale Univc rsity Press. 20IO). s urvcys Frcnch op era from Lully to thc presem. On ricita,ifsimple and récita.ti[ m.esuré. scc Cha rles Dill. "Eightcemh• Cenmry Modcls o f l're,ich Recitative." Joumal o/rhe Royal ,\lusica!Associarion 12 0 (1995): 232- 50. Two c lossic trernnems of French music of,his period in i1s poli1ical and soci:11co1uex1are Rob· ert M. lshcrsvood, Mu.sic i11 theSen·ice of rhe King: Fron.ce ir, rhe Se,·enreen.th Century· ( h h aea. NY: Corncll Univers ity rreo;o;. 1?73}. and Jam co; J\. A nt ho ny . Fn:ncl1 Baroq11e Mu~ ic from Beaujoyeufa· ro Rameau. rev. ed . (Portla nd. OR: Amad eus. 1997). See a lso frcnclt Musical Thought, 1600-1800. ed. Georgia Cowan . (Ann Arbor: UM1 Resea rch Press. 1989). On baile,. see '111e Com bridge Comp0r1ion 10 Baller,

A46

For l'urfh e r Headiug

cd. Marion Kant (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 2007). Most of Lully's works are eollecied in Oeu.vres complêres, 10 vols .. ed. Henry Pruniéres (Paris: Édi1ions de La Revue musieale, 1930- 39; repr. NewYork: Broudc, 1966- 74). A ncw complete cdi1ion is in prog,-ess -,;,h Jérõmc de la Gorce and Herbert Schneider as editors in chicf (Hildesheim: G. Olms. 2001- ). Por a thematicc.talogue. see Herberi Schneider, Ommologisdies-tliematisches Kotalog samrlicher Werke von)ean-8aprisre lullr('l\ 111.ing: Hans Schneider. 1981). Vocal scores of operas by Lully anel other eomposers, mostly Freneb, of tbe seveuteeutb and eighu:e111h ceDturies :i.re in the series Les Cltefs d'oeuvres classiquesdel'opérafrançais. 40 vols. (Paris: T. Michaelis, ca.1880; repr. New York: Broude, 1972). On rhythm in French Baroqu e music. see Stephen E. Heíl ing, Rhy1/rn1icAlteralion ir,Sevcnleer,tl,- and Eiglt1cenll1 Ce,1111ry· Music: Notes inigales Md Overdouing (New York: Schirmer. 1993). For• contemporary french view oí ballet. sccSR 110 (4:30).

Othcr Frcnch Vocal Muác On Charpentier. see ~I. Wiley ~litchcock, Marc-Anroine Charpeniier (Oxford : Oxford Universíty Press, 1990), and Hitchcock·s catalogue. Lesoeuvres de Marc-Antoine Chorpenlier (Paris: Picard. 1982). Cbarpcnticrs cantatas and oratorios apptar in his Oeuvres. 15 vols. (incomplete) . cd. Guy l..1mbcrt (Paris. 1948- 53). and Oeuvres Completes (Paris: Minkoff. 1990- ).

Frencll Lwe and Keyboard Music See David Ledbener.1-forpsichordond. Lute .\fasic i,i 17th· Ce11u.ry· Frartce (llloomiugto": Indiana University Press, 1987). Thc huc music of Denis Gaulticr is in Oeuvres de Denis Gaultier. ed. Moniqttc l\ollin and François -Pierre Goy (Paris: CN flS. 1996). •nd La.rhé1oriqtte des díettx is published in focsimile ~r1d tr.lnscription, ed. François

Lesure (Ceneva: Minkofl'. 1991) and ed. David J. Bueh (Madison. \VI : A-R Editions. 1989). On Elisabeth-Claude Jaequet de la Guerre, see Editb Borroff.An /nt,ocluc1ion to E:lisabcrh-Claude)a"'!,t.etde laGuerre, Musicologieal Studies 12 (Brooklyn: lns1itu1e oí Mediaeval Music, 1966). He,· Piéccs de c/avecin are edi,ed by Carol Henry Bates (Paris: Heugel, 1986) and also appear in volume l of7h e CoUectcd Worl<s, 6 vols .. ed . 1fary Cyr (New York: Broude. 2005-). Selected claveciu pieccs aml the cantata S-emelé .ire in Historical AnrlwlogrofMusic byWomen . cd. James R. Briscoc (Bloom ington: India na University Prcss. 1987). 57- 76.

Enghsh Suige Music See Eric W. White.A His1oryo/Ellgl.i.sh Opera (London: Faber& Fabe r, 1983). anel Barbara Ravclhoíer, 71,e E:arlJ' Swarr Mosque: Danoo, Casrume. and M1<Sic (Oxford : Oxford U1tivcrsity Prcss. 2006). E.x-ccrpt:s Írom incidental mmsic ror Eng1i:sh play.1 ilnd

masques 0616- 1641) are in la musique de scênedela troupe de Shakespeare. 71,e King's Men, sou.sle regnede)acqttes 1. 2nd rev. ed. , ed. John P. Cuus (Pa ris: CN HS. 1911). Three

For Fu d her Readi ng

m3sques with music by \Villiam Lawes are in Trois masques à lo.co11rdeC11arles 111 dilngleterre, ed. Murray Lefkowitt

(Paris: CNRS. 1970) . Anthony Lewis has cd itecl John Blow·s Venl<S and Adonis (Monaco: Oiseau -Lyre. 1949).

Henry Purcell The bcst rccen1 biograpby is Pc1er J-lolman. flenry· PurceU (Oxford: Oxford University Pres.s. 1994). His works are carnlogued in Pranklin B. Zimmerman. Tlenry· Purccll. An Anal)'tical Caial-0gtte of llis M1Lsic (New York: St. Manin's. 1963). On OidoondAeneos. see Ell en T. Harris. Hen,,· P11rcell's 'W4oandAerieas-(Oxford: Cla,·e11don. 1987). anel Purooll. Dido and Aeneas, Norton Criticai Scores. ed. Curtis Price (New York: Norton, 1986). A complete edition . oow 11nuergoing revision, is 1he Worlc$of Hen,,·PurceU. 32 vols. (London: Novello, 1878-1965: rev. 1957-). Orl11•r Er1gli~I, Music See Tl,e Blackv:ell History· of M11sic in B,itain. vol. 3: The Seventeenth Century·. ed. lao Spink (Oxford: Blackwell. 1992). On soag. sce lan Spink. Engtislt Song: Dowland to Ptm:.,/1. re \'. ed. (NewYork: Taplinge r. 1986). Agood selection aí

catches may be found in '/'lte Cauh Club: orMerry·Companions, 1733, facs., ed. Joel Newman (New York: Da Capo, 1965). or 1762. íacs .. consisting ofpicccs by Purcell. Blow. ct ai. (Farnborough. UK: Grcgg lntcmational. 1969). On Angl ican cburch music. sec Peler Le Huray. Music anàlhe Reformation in En.gland. 1549- 1660. and Christopher Dearnley. l::nglish Church Music. 1650-1750 (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1970). John lllow·s Corona,ion Amhems >re in MB 7. Anthologies of English church music are The Trensi,,,· of füglish Clwrch Music TI. 1545-1650. ed. Peicr Lc Huray anel Ch,·istophcr Dearnlcy. anel 11,e 1l·e,w,ry·offoglish Clwrc/1 Music 111.1650- 1760 (London : Blandford. 1965). On English chambcr music. see Ernst 11. Meyer, Earlr English Cha111ber M1t~icfro111 the MiddleAgcs to P11rcell. 2nd ed., with Diana Poulton (London: Lawrence & Wishnri. 1982). John Jenki nss consort mus,c is in MB 26 anel 39. and othervolum.es conlain consort aud viol music by Olher Englisb composers ofthis period. See the excerpt from Christopher Simpson·s 77,e Oioision-Vio/ in SH 104 (4:24) for instruclions to viol plnyers o n improvisinga.bove a ground bass. The nmes from John Playf'ord ·s 71te English Dancing Mcwer areediied by Jeremy Borlow in 17<eComple1eCoun1,yDánce Tu,wsfrom PlaJford's Oancing Ma.sier. 1651-oo. 1728 (London: Fabcr. 1985). and focsimilcs oí ih e ftrst cdition have bccn edited by Marg:,re, Ocan•Smitb (l,mdon: Schotl. 1957). The mus ical scene in Englarad is welJ obser\led in the writings of wrirer and am:neu r n1usician Roger Non h, collecicd in Roger Nonh on Music. ed. John Wilson (London: Novello, 1959). with exccrpts in SR 94, 9S, ond 98 (4:14.15, nnd 18). Sparn and rh, New World

On Spanish music. sec Louise K. Stein. Songs o/ Mortais. Dialogues ofrlte Gods: M11sic and '/'lieorre in SevemeenrhCenn,,,· Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1993).

and Maurice Esses. Danceand lnstrome,ual Diferencias

inSpam Ouring rhe 17th and Early 18th Cenruries (Stuyvesam, NY: Penclragon, 1992). On music in the New\Vorld , seeMusics ofla1i11A111erico. cd. Robin Moore and Wah,cr Aaron Cbrk (Ncw Yol'k: Norion, 2012); Musi.cond Urban. Socieryin Colonial LotinAmericCl, cd. Ceoffrcy Baker anel Tess Knighton (Ca mbridge: Cambridge University Press. 20 11): Victor Anancl Coelho. "Music in New\Vorlds." in 7'he Cambridge llislory·ofSeventccnt/1Century· Music, ed. Carter a.nd Bun; Robe11 Stevenson, Chrisnnas Musicfrom &roque México (Berkeley: University of California P,·ess. 1974): and Ste,•enson. Music in Me:-cico: A His1oricalSwver (New York: Crowell, 1971). Orew Edwar d Oavies. "Vilbncieos from Mex ico City íot· the Virgin of Guadalupe." for/y Musit 39 (May 2011): 229-14, shows how a Mexican reperto:ry of ,cillancicos blends local elernents with elements from Spanish trad ition. Editioris include Tomás de Torrejón .r Velaseo. Lá ptÍrpuradtla rosa. series A. vol. 25: Musica Hispana. ed. Louise K. Sicin (Madrid: Instituto Complu,cnsc de Cicncias Musicales. 1999). and Juan dcA.raujo.Antologfo. Colecclón de Música ColoniaJ Americana 7. ed. Cam 1en C:irci:) Mut"1oi (Buenos Aires: lns tirutio <le lnvesrigaciõn

Musicologica Carlos Vcga, 199l).

Chapter 17' 1ta ly and Cermany in

the Late Seventeenth Century Jraltan Opera l''or l13lian opera in ,he second halí of ,he sevemeemh cenn,ry, consul, 71,e flistory•ofllalian Opera. ed. Bianconi and Pcs>ell i: A RislO']'ofOpero . cd. S1anley Sad ie; Cro,u and\Villiam ,A Slwrt Hisrory·ofOpera; Oon ington, 71te RiseofOpera; and 1\osand. Operciin Sevenrcent/1-Cenmry' 14lnice. all listed above underchapter 14. See also Eleanor Sei íridge-rield , A New Cl,ronolog,·of Venetio,i Opero. 01,d. Refoted Gen.res. 1660-1760 (Staníor·d: Stanford Universily l'ress. 2007). anel Steíanie Tcharos. Opera's Orb,t: Musical Dmmá a rui tlie l11flcier1ce of Opem in Arcadian Rome (Ca m bridge: Cambridge U1tiversity Press. 2011). fora con· teruporary repor! on opera in Veitice. see SI\ 91 (4: 11). On cbangiug p::tuerns of o pera p:itronage in Lrnly during this period. see Valerfo De Lucca. -Litlcasta and the Emergence

of Collective Patronage in Mid- Sevemeemh-Century Rome,- JM 28 (March 20 11 ): 195- 230. On Alessandro Scarlatti and bis music. sce Roberto Pag-ano. At..sorn!ro and Oomenico Scarlatri: Two Lives in One. ,rans. Frcderick Hammond (llillsdalc. NY: Pendragon Prcss. 2006): Oonald J. Grom.Alessandro Scarlatti: An lntrod11clion ro flis Opems (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1979) : nnd Carole l"ranklin \lidali .Alesscmdroand Oome»ico Scarlarri: A Guidew Reseoreh (New York: Garland, 1993). Nine of'Alessandro Searlatti's operas bave bccn cdi1cd in The Operas ofAlessandro Scarlatti. gen. ed. Oonold ]. Grout (C,,mbridge. MA. 11 ,,rv,,rd Un;ver•ity Pre.., 1?74 - 85). F'.,csimiles oí severa! late-seventeent h-cenmry operas are in /ra/ian Opera . 1640-1770. gen. ed. Howard M. Brown (New Yo,·k: Ga rland . 1977-84).

A47

Itolion Conta lo ond Sereno lo See the recent collection of essays.Aspecrs oftheSecnlar Ca,uruain LoreBaroqtte /rol)', eel. Michael Talbo, (Farnham. UK:Ashga1e. 2009), whieh wucheson cm11aias in seve,·al ha li an ci> ics, includ ingcamaras by Scarlat<i and Sirad ella. Editions of severa! Scarlatti cantatas appear in Alessandro Scarlatti. 1'hree Cantara.sfor 1/4,ice and Cellowith Kt:J~oard. ed. Peter Poster. Nona Pyron. ond Timothy Hoberts (F'u llerton, CA: Grancino. 1982). and in COMI , vol. 30. facsimi les oi' ca ntata m:inuscr-ipts and prims by Scarla11 i :mel others are i11 'l'he lro/ia,iCtullalá ill tl,e Seventeentli Ceritttry·. ge 11. ed . Carolyn Giautureo (New York: Garland, 1986). On Stradella, see CarolyD Gianturco.AlessandroS1radel/a. /639- 1682: His Life and Music (Oxford: Clareudon. 1994), and Carolyn Gianturcoand Eleanor McCrickard.Alessaridro Strodclú, (1639-168Z): A 71,e,nc>r,c Catalogue of HIS Compos,.hons (Stuy,•esant, NY: Pendragon, 1991). ltalwn Sncred Mu.sic Motets by Scarlaui are collectcd iu AlessanclroScarlaui. GoncertiSacri. cd. Luca Dclla Libera (Middlcton. WJ: A· R Eclictons . 2009) . Facsimiles o( solo mo1e1s ::ire inSolo

Moreis frorn 1he Secen,eenth Century; ed . Anne Schnoebelen (New York: G.trland, 1987); mote1s by Mauri?.io Ca1.zati are in volumes 6 and 7. Editions oí sclccted sacred works are in Sevenleenrh •Centur:r lralian SacredMusic. gcn. cd. Annc Sclrnocbelen (Ncw York: Ga rland. 1995- ): vols. 1- 10 c:on · tain music for tbe Mass. vols. 11- 20 music for Vcspers and Compline. Facsimiles of lrnlian orat0rios are found in The llalian Orororio: 1650- 1800. ed. Joyce Johnson and Howard Smi,her (New York: Carla nd , 1986).

ltalwn lnslrumental ,\fasrc Seifridgc-Pield. Venetion lns1rnmen1al ,\fusicfrom Gabrieli to Vivaldi, noied above underchapter 12. considers 1he history of instl'umental genres in .,ddition 10 music performance in Venice. Also relevant are 8oyclen, '/1,e flistory·ofViolin PlaJ,ngfrom 11s Ong,ns ,o 1761. noled unde,. chapte r 14: Newman. 771eSonatai11 tl1e&rroque I::ra. whieh is tbe best comprehensive study of the genre: and Peter Allsop, 7hc /talian "1'rio· Sonata fronilts Origin• u_ntil Corem (Oxford: Clorendon, 1992). Instrumenta) ensem.ble works by \la rious ltalian composers can be found inAnthologroflnstntmental Musicfrom the End ofrlieSiateentl, to the End oftheSevenleenth Century·. ed. J. W. von Wasielewski (NcwYork: Da Capo.1 974). Examplcs of 1he trio sonata beforc Corclli includc Giovanni Legrcnzi'sSonatas. Op. 2. Op.10. ed. Stcpben Bonta (C.:m1· bridge. MA: Harvard Universiry Press. 1984. 1992) . See also the amhologies n,e lralion Trio S-0nota and The Tno Sonar a 011,side ilalr. bo,h ed. Erich Schenk (Cologne: Arno Volk, 19S5. 1970). ond TheSoloSon()la, ed. Frani Ciegling (Colognc: A. Volk, 1960). Arcangelo Corei/,

See Peter Allsop. ArcongeloCorel!i: New Orpheu,sofOurTimes (O,ford: Oxford Univers ity Press.1999). There are rwo editions of Corelli's comple,e works: llisroriscli-kritische

A48

For l'urfh e r He adiug

Cesamrausb'llbedermusikaJi$chen Weri<e. gen. cd. lbns Oesch (Cologne: A. Volk. 1976-}. ,nd Oeuvres. ed. JosephJoachim and Fricdrich Chrysander (London: Augener. 1888-91: repr. 1952; soloand rrio sonltas repr. New York: Dovcr.1992). Thc Concerto On thc birtb and dcvelopmcnt of tbc orchcstra. see John Spitzcr and Neal Zaslaw. 'l'he Birth ofil,eOrchestra: flistorrof an lnstitution. 1650- /815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2004}. and idem .• "Orchesrra," in NG2. For a derniled sn,dy of , he conce,10. see Arthur Hutc hings. 77,e Baroque Concerto. rev. ed . (New York: Scribner, 19?9}. The bistory of 1he genre through the presem is covered in 71,e Cambridge Companion to r/ie Concerto, e<l. Simon P. Keeíe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). fo r bibliography. see Stepban D. Li ndeman. 71,e Conccrlo: A Rescarcl, and hiformation Cuide (New York: Rourledge, 2006}. Therearese,·eral editions of ,concertos by Ciuseppe Torelli. including üp. 6. ed. John C, Seuss (Mid<lletoti. Wl: A-R Editions. 2002}: Op. 8. cd. Maxwell Sobd (ludianapolis: Concerto. 1999}: individual concertos from Opp. 5 and 8. ed. Walter Kolneder (\/ienno: Dobltnger.1979-87) ,nd llans Bergmann (Vienna: Dohlinger. :2009): and two munpet concenos. ed. Mathias Siedel (H.:imburg: H. Sikorski . 1971}. Tomaso Albinoni's concertos from Op, 2 are edited by Fabrizio Ammctto and Cioi:i Filocamo (Bologna: UT Orpbcus, 2003}: Op. 10 by Ma,m•ell Sobel Clnd i,napolis: Concerto. 1999): :md other conccrtos by Walter Kolncdcr (Adliswil Zurich: Kunzelmaun, 1980- }.

Cennan Opera and Song Sever~) Reinhard Keiser operas cxist in n1oclcrn editions. aucJ othc rs ~n c availablc in íacsion iJc i11 Handel Sources: Mc11erial for the St1tdr of lf~ndels Jlorrowing. cd. John H.

Roberts (NewYork: Garland, 1986- ). Adam Krieger"sNeue Arien are in DcJT. vol. 19.

D,eiericlt B"xteltudc An exernplary study or Bux:tehude and his erw ironmerll is

Kerala Snyder. Dietericlt B,u:1elu1.de: 0'l,"anist in liibeck. rev, ed, (Rochester: Univers ity of Roches1er Press, 2007). Tbe eigh1-volume collected e<litioo Dierrich Bu.rtehudes Werke (Hamburg: Ugrino. 1925-37; repr. New York: Broude, 1977-} contains only vocal works. A new edition is underway. Dietrich Buxtebude, ·n,e Collected Works (New York: Broude. 1987-). Thereare severa( edfüons ofthcorgan music. inclu<lingNeueAu-Sgabe sd-11ul-ic/u,r Freifü Orgelwerke, cd. Christopb Albrccbt (Kasscl: llãrcoscitcr. l994- 98}: S/Jmtliche Orgelwerke. ed. ((laus Beckmann (\Viesbadcn: Bre· ickopf & Hártel. 1971-72: rev. ed .. 1995-97); anel Sanuliche Orgelwerke. ed. Josef Hedar (Cop,enhagen: Hansen. 1952}. Por a 1hem,iic c,ralogue. see Ccorg Karsudt, lliemotisch s;rstemalisch'-' Veneich,iis d<?r niusiJ:<tlischen IVerke von Dietrich Bu.-rtehude: Bu.,1ehude-Werl:e-J-l,rztidmis (\Viesb3den: Brcitko11f & l-l~rtcl. 1?74: r<:v.ccl.. 1985).

Cemtan OrganMusic A useful carologue listingorgan l)reludes anel composers has been compiled by J. E. ~::.dson. OJl,"011 Preludes: An

For Fu d her Readi ng

lndex to Composirions on flpnn Tunes. Chorales. Ploinsong Melodies. Cregonan Tunes. and Carols. 2 vols. (Metucben. NJ: Scarecrow. 1970) . Edi1ions include Ceorg Bohm. Sllmtliche Werkefvr Kl,ivierlCemba.lo and Sllmtliche Orgelwerk~. ed. l-.1aus Bcckmonn (\Vicsbadcn: Brcitkopf & lf~ rtcl. 1985-86): Johann Pachclbcl. Complete Worksfor k't)'-bo<>rd lnstrunwus. ed. Michael Belotti. 10 vols. (Colfox. NC: Way11e Leupold Ecl itions. 1999-}; andJohann Pachelbel. Orgclwerke, ed. Tr,ugott Pedrke (Frankfurt: Li1olff; New York, C. I'. J>e,ers, 1972-73}.

Joel Les1er. Composirional 11teory· in 1/,e EiJ,mtemth Centu.ry (Cambridge. MA: llarvard University Press.1992). offers :m ovcrvicwof eighteemh~ccnrury theoretical treatises. The assocfation or p:1nicular keys wi ch specific meanings is srucliecl in Rita Stcblin, A lfistO')'O[ Ker Clwmcteristics in tl,e E.'igh teenlh ond forl,-Nineteen1h Centuries, 2nd cd. (Roch cstcr, NY: University ofnochesrer Press. 2002). For perform, nce practice. see Peter l..e Huray.A1tthe11ticitri11 Performance: figh teenth-Cenlll?·CaseStudies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990}.

OtherCemian lns1rumenral Mt!stc

Chapler 18: The Early Eighteenth Ccntu ry in ltaJy and France

Harpsichord suites by Jobann P:tchelbel a,·e in DTB. Vol. 2/i. Georg Muffat"sflorilegium appears in DTO, vols. 2 and 4. Exeerpts from the prefaces, with m:my gt1ides to performance practice. are in SR 106 (-1-:26). Concertosand other instrumental ensemble pieces by Muffot , ,.e in OTO. vols. 1. 23, and 89, Johann Jakob Wallbcr"s Se/uni are publisbc<l in Das Erbc dcutschcr Musik. series 1, vol. 17. Hcinrich Bibtr"sMJ~t"'}· Sonatas are availablc in editions by Ernst Kuhitscbe.k wiLh M,rfanne Ronez(Vienna: Doblirager. 2000). and byWilliam P. Tortolano (Chicago: CIA, 1993). A facsimile ofTJ,e manuscripi appears in Biber. Mysterien-Sonazen ("Rosenkran,Sona1en"): &,-erischeS1<ia1sbib1iorhek MunchenMus. Ms, 4123. ed, Ernst Kubitscbck (B,d Rcichcnhall: Comes. 1990}, Johann Kulmau. The Co!leeted Worksfor Keyboard. cd. C. David Harris (New York: Broude. 2003) .

Music in Italr On musical life in Naples in the eigbteentb cenn>ry. see: Ca,olyn Cianturco. ··Naples: A Ciiy of Entertainment,- ãn 'lhe LMe &iroq,re l::ra: 1-'rom rltt 16808101740. ed. Buelow. On the liisto,yoí the castrati. see ·castrato:· in NG2. On singers. see thc comments by Picrfrancesco Tosi in SR 85 (4:5). Ricb:ird Somersct•Ward.Angeb andMonst;,rs: Ma/eand Pemale Sopranos ln ,he S,o,,· ofOpem. 1600-1900 {New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). rreats bo1 h casrrati and divas. and Roger Freitas. Porrrait ofa Casrraro: Potirics, Parronage, and Music i-n rhe Life ofAno Melani (Rochestcr. l\'Y: University of Rochcstcr Press. 2009) , traces tbc earccr of thc most famous castra to of the seventecnth ccntury. who was also :i diplomat anel spy. For a contemporary view of Lhe Venctian

ospedali. see SF\ 87 (4:7).

PART IV: THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A new survcy is John Ricc. Musici111/Je figltteen1/1 Cenw,, ·

(NewYork: Norton. 2013}. paire.d with hisAnrhotog;rfor i\fosic in rhe Eighreen rh-Centu?· (New York: Norton, 2013), See also 77,e Cttnibridge 1/i.sto?·ofêighteentlt-Centu?·Music. ed. Simon Jl. Keefe (Cambridge: Cambridge Universily l'ress. 2009), anel David Wyn Jones. Musu: 111 f.'1g/J1ee111/1Cenr11rplusrria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996}. for overviews of Baroq ue music, see under Part Ili above. fo r surveys of tbe Classic period , see tmcler cbapter 20 below. On eighteenth-centuiry opera. see Charles Dill. Opera Remade. /700-1750 (Fa rnh,m. UK: Ashg,te. 2010). and the sources listed below under chapter 21. For social and cultural conlexts. see Mu-sic in liighleenrl, Centur:r Life: Cities. Couns. Clmrc!tes. cd. Mara Parker (J\Jm Arbor. MI: Stcglcin. 2006) : Richard D. Lcppcrt. Musicand lmage: Dom.estíci1,-. ldeolog,-. and Socio-Cultural Fonnation in Eighteenrh-Cenn,,,·Englnnd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988}: the anlcles in The La,e 8oroque Era: fromthe 16$0s 10 1?40. ed. George J. Buelow (Basingstoke: Macmillan.1993): and rhe source readi ngs in Musicand Culture in êigh teenth-Ce,,11,,,· Europe: A S011rce Book. cd. Enrico F'ubin i and Bonnic J, Bl:1ckburn , trans. \Volfgang

A49

F. Perers. 1982) . Por an eighteenth -ce nm ry view of t he Vivaldi concerto. see rhe excerpr from Joha nn Joach im Quamzs êsso.ron "Merhod for Playing zhe Transverse Flure in SR 125 (5:4). Vivald i's ir1s1run.1er1tal works ~ppear in Le opere di, Antonio Vivaldi-. ed. Gian Francesco Malipiero et ai. (M ilan: Ricordi. 1947-72}and are ca1alogued in Antonio ~~1nna, Opere strumenrolediA111011io Vi,•oldi (1678-1?41) (Milan: Ricordi. 1986). A newscholarly edition. which includes vocal works. is in preparat ion by 1he ls1icu10 haliano Antonio Vivaldi. ed. Paul Evereu and Michael Talbot (Milau: Ricordi. 1982-). Tbere are severa! tbematic ca.1,logues; tbe most defmitive is Peter Ryom.Antonio Vivaldi: Thcmalisch-systemntisches Veneichnis sciner Werke (\Viesbacl en: Breitkopf & Htlrte l. 2007).

On lhe Baroque viol in bow. see Robert E. Seletsky. "'New Ligh t on the Old Bow:· forl)" ,\lt,sic 32 (May 2004): 286-301 anel (Auh'llSt 2004}: 4 15-26. Musw ,n France

On Frcncb Baroquc music. sccAnthony. French Baroque ,\1ustc from Beauforeulx ro Rameau. and frenei, Baroque Opera: A Reader, ed . Wood and Sadler. A use fui resource is Bruce Custafson and David Fuller,A CotalogueofFrench Harp sichord Music. 1699-1780 (Oxford: Clarendon. 1990}, For comparisons aí Frcnch a.ncl ltalian muslc from arouncl 1700.

scc SR 111- 112 (4:31- 32}. A complete ed ition of four books of sonatas for violin and basso continuo by Jean -Marie Ledair. ed. RoheTt E. Presron. are in Hecent Hese:1rches in rhe Music of the

Antonio Vii•a/di The bes, rccenr study ofVivaldi is Michael Talbot, Vivaldi (New Yor-k: Oxfor•d University Press, 2000). A nother good biography is Karl Hellcr.Antonio Viv<tldi: The Red Priestof 1/4,nice, trans, David Marinellí (Portl,nd.O R:Amadeus, 1997}. Patrick Barbier. Vivaldi"s Venice (London, Souvenir. 2003), anel H, C. Robbi ns La ndon, Vivaldi: Voiceofilie 80-roq~ (Lo ndon: Thames & Hudson . 1993}. place Viv.ald i iu bis Venetian context. Michael Talbot. Venetia11 ,lfosic in 1l,eAgeofVivaldi (Aldersbot: Ashgate. 1999), l nd Elea,ior Selfiidge· Field , Venetian /nstnm,ental Music from Gabrieli 10 Vivaldt, link VivalcU to tbe Venetian musical 1r:1d.ition . For a bibliography, see Michael Ta lbot. Antonio Vivaldi: A Cuidezo Rescarch (New York: Garland. 1988). Paul Eve retl. Vivaldi: Tlic fourSeasoM and Otlier Concertos. Op. 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge Unjvcrsity Prcss. 1996). offc rs a guidc 10 Vivaldi's rnost íamous concertos. Simo n McVcigh anel Jchoasb Hirshbc rg exa mi ne 1hc orígi ns . dcvclo pme m . :md l:ucr influcncc oí

Vivaldi's concerto proeedures in The /ralian Solo Cortceno. 1700- 1760: Rherorical S1ra1egies and S1,-le /listo?· (Roc hesrer, NY: Boyclell. 2004}. On the ope ras . see Reinhard Strohm . The OptrllS ofAnronio Vivaldi (Florencc: Leo S. Olschki. 2008) , and on the C3ntatas. sec Miehlcl 'f3Jbot .

Ba roque Era. 4-5 and 10-11 (New Haven . CT anel ~bd ison. \Vl : A-R Editio ns. 1969- 95}.

François Coupenn Por a broader view of Couperin's life and work. see David Tunley, Prançois Couperin and t!te "Pe,fee1ionofMu.sic·· (Aldershor: M hgate. 2004): Wil frid Mellers. H-anço"8 Coc,perm and tlie 1-'renclt Class,cal 'rrad,tion (London: l':1ber. 1987}: anel David Tllnley. Couptrin (London : BBC. 1982}. Couperi,l's u·eatise ou playing the harpsichorJ . LiL1 de roucherleclavecin (1716), is in Englisb Lranslation by Margery H:<lford (New York: AHred . 1974). François Couperin"s works 1re in bisOeuvres complltes.

12 vols .. ed. Maurice Cauchie (Paris: Oiseau-Lyre. 1932-33}. and a 11ew criticai edition by Kenneth Cilbe rl and And rl:Scb.aeffncr (Mo naco: Oiscau-Lyrc. 1980-}. For Couperin's Piéces de clm•ecin. consuH thc ncw editiou by Davfü Moroncy (Mo naco: Oiscau· Lyrc. 2004}. For a thcmatic ca talog. scc Mauricc Caucbic. Themarit lndexofthe Works of Pmnr;ois Couperfn (Monaco: L_yrebird. 1949: repr. NewYork:AMS. 1976}.

Jeon -Ph,ltppc Romeou Por Ramcau as thcorist. scc Thomas Chrisrensen. Rameau

Prie3 ct ,11. (Chic.1go: Uni,•er~ity Qf Chic;:ago Prc;~õ. 1??4).

7hc Cham.bcr Cantatas ofAntonio Vivaldi (\Voodbridgc:

an.d M".sical Thought in, thc EnliõRtcnmcni (C,1mbridgc:.

On ,he business aspects of co mposi, ion. see Frederic M. Sche re,·, Qu0-rter Notes ar,d Bon.k Notes: 77ie fconomics of Mt,sic Composirio,1 in the E'igl11ee11tlt and Nineteenrh Cenruries (Princeton: Princeton Univer·si•y Press, 2004}.

Boydell. 2006}. A helpful collec1ion ol' p,·imary sou rces isA111011io Vivaldi: Documcrusof His Lifeand Works. ed. Walter Kolneder, trans. Kurc Michael is (New York: Heinrichshofen/C.

Cambridge University Press. 1993). and Joel Lester. " Hameau and Eighteenrh -Centmy HarmonicTheory," in CHWM T. On l\ameau and his operas. see Charles Wil liam Dill . Monstrous Opera: Romeau Md 1'1e Tmgic'l'radúion

ASO

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r Headiu g

(Princcton: Princctoa Universi,y Prcss. 1998).A useful bibliography is Donald Foster.Jean -Philippe Ranieau: A Cuide ro Research (Kew York: Carb nd, 1989). R;nneau·s writings on theory can be found in TheC-Oniplere Theorerical, Wrilingsoffeon-Philippe Rameau, 6 vais., ed. En.;n Jacobi (AlM, Series Mise. 3), anel in Treorise on flormany. trans. with intro. and notes by Philip Cossett (New York: Dover. 1911). An excerpt from 7'reotiseon. //am1onyis also found in SR 115 ( 4:35). Rameau's musical works can be found ln Oeuvres completes. 18 vols. in 20; incotllplete. ed. Cam ille Saint· Saens ( Paris: A. Dllràlld et íris, 1895-1924; repr. New York. 1968). A new edition. Opera om11ia, ed. Sylvie Bouissou, is iu prog:ress (Paris: G. Bill:mdot, 1996-). The thematic catalob'UC of h is works is Sylvie Bouissou and Denis Herlin.

Jea,1-Plulippe Rame0,u: Cat0,log«e 1hémotiqucdesoc«vres mU,Sicaks (Paris: CNRS. 2003-7).

Ch:1pter 19: German Composers in lhe Late Barnque Ceorg Ph,lipp Tclcmann Telem3nn's description o f h.is stylistic developmem is írom a 1729 letter to Johann \Valther, t ransl31ed in Steven Zohn, "Telemann. Ceorg Philipp. §5 lnfluence and reputation:· in NG2. Stc Richard Petzoldl. Geurg Philipp Telemann. trans. lforace Fítzpalrick (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 1914). for a biograpby. On l he mus ic. scc Stcvcn Zobn. Mu~ic for Mixed Ta,stc: StJ1e. wnre. ond Meoning in, Telemann's lnsm,menrol Works (Oxford: Oxford Universi ry Press. 2008). On Telemann's activitíes as a music publisher. sccStcven Zohn, "Telemann in t he Marketphcc: The Composer as Sclf- Publishet·," JAMS 58 (Stunmer 2005): 275- 356. Telemami's works oppear in Ceorg Philipp 1elcmonn, Musikalische IVerke. ed. Gesellschoft für Musikforsch11ng ( Kassel: Barenreiter, 1950-). Two partia! but co mplem entary rhematic calalogs exist, fo r fostrumenral works, see Marti n Rubn.ke. Ceorg Pl,ilipp Ttlemann. Tliem.a.tisch· SJ-Sfem;,iisches J/4,rzeiclmis seine,. Werke: lristrumerita.lwerke (Kassel: Barenreiter. 1984); fo r vocal works, see Werner Metlke, 1'hema,isch.es Verzeichnis der Vokalwcrke von Ceorg Philipp Telemann. 2 nd ed. ( ~'rankíur1: Klostermann, 1988).

Johann S;bastia,i Bac/1 The rnost aulhoritativc Bach biograpby is Cbristoph \Voll'f. Johann Sebastian Ba.ch: The Leorn.ed Musician (Kcw York: Norto n. 2000) . A more rcccnl biograpby. offcring ncw inccrprctations. is Petcr \Vill ioms.}. S. Bach: A Life in MrLSic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012). Shoner biographics includc Malcolm 80yd, Bac/1. 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford Unívcrsiry Press, 2000), and Pctcr F. Williams. The Lifeo/Bach (Cambrid ge, Com bridge Univcrsity Press. 2004). An invilluablc doc;umcntary ;mthology it'i Thc Nr:.w Bocl& Reader. ed. 1-lans David anel Arthur Mendel. rev. and enlarged by Chrisroph Wolff (New York: No rton, 1998); i1 comai ns in English ,ranslaEl on import::nu sources from which our knowledge o i' B.ach's life and reputotion

is drnw11. as well as essays on B3ch's music anel public reception . A useful and comprehensive reference book, containíng over 900 enrries by forty cormiburo rs, is}. S. Bach, cd . Malcom Boyd (Oxfo,·cl: Oxford Univcrs ity Prcss. 1999). 011 Bach and his fam ily, see Christoph \Volff et ai .. "Bach," in NG2. See Daniel R. Melamcd and Michael Morissen.A11 ln1roduction10 Bach Studies (New York: 0Kford Unive rsiiy Press. 1998) . for a rich guide ro 1he tools of Bach research. Other books on Bach anel his music, Richa,xl D. P. Jones. 'IT1e Crearive Developrnenr ofjol,ann.Sebastian &eh, 2 vols (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2007-13): Russell Stinson.J. S. Baclwt His Ro,-al lnstrument: Essars on His Organ fr/o,-ks (New York: Norton, 20 12); David Scbulenberg, 'lhe Ke:rboard Musico/]. S. Bach. ld ed. (New York: l\outledge. 2006); Joseph Kennan. 11,eA,-tof fub'ue: Bach Fugues for Keyb<>a,tl. 1715-1750 ( Berkeley: Universify of California Press. 2005): Peter F. Williams. 71,eOrgan.MU,Sicof}. S. Bach. 2nd cd. (Ncw York: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 2003): David Lcdbetter. Bach'• Well•Tempered Clavier: The 48 Preludesand Fugues (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2002): Meredlrh llnle and Naia lte Jenne. Dance and rl&e ,\frr.sicof}. S. Bocl&. e•'])a nded ed. (Bloom íngton: Indiana Univer siry Press. 2001): Russell Srinson,J. S. &ch's Greot Eighteen Orga.n Chorales (New York: Oxford University Press. 2001) anel Bach: The Orgelbachlei11 (New York: Oxford Universiiy Press. 1999): L,urence Dreyfus. Bach and tl1e Pattemsoffnrenrion (Cambridge. MA: llan•ard University Press. 1996); Christoph Wolff, Soch: lissayson His Lifcond Mu.sic (Cambridge, MA: Ha,·v>rd University Pt·ess. 19\11); and Ro bert L. Marshall , 771eMusico/Johanr1Sebas1iM 81u,h, 11,e Sources, the s,,-le. the S,gnificMce (New York: Scbírmer , 1989). On 1he ímpact of Bach's keyboard music, see Matthe-. Oirs,. Enga.ging Boch: 11,e Ke_rb<>a.rd Legoc;xfro», Morpurgto Mer1delssolu1 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universi1y Press. 2012). and Russell Stinson . 'nte Reception o[ Bach's Orgtu\ lflo,-ks from Meodtlssol,n to Brahm.s (Oxford: Oxford Uni\•ersity Press. 2006). On Bach'sspccif1catio ns for pcrforming forces in Leipzig. see his "Shon but Most Necessary Draft for a \Vell·Appointed Church Music,- in SR 88 (3:8). Two oíth e c:mrntas are nva ila.ble with notes and commencary: Co.n1ara. No. 4, Chri.st l<>gin Todesbon.den, ed. Gerh,rd Her,; (New York: Nonon. 1967). ond Cantar.a.No. 140. Wachetauf. ed. Gerharcl Herz (Ncw York: Norton.1 972) . wbich containsa ta blc sbowi nga. rcvised c hro no l.ogy of Bac h's vocal music. Analytical discussions can be founcl in Eric Chafe.Analp· ing Ba.ch Coniaia.s (NewYork: Oxford Universiiy Press. 2000). and in Alfrecl Dn rr. 71te Contatas o/]. S. Bach, rev. nnd trans. Richard D. P. Joncs (O, fo rd: Oxfo,·d University Press, 2005). For a s tudy of BacOi's com posirio n:i.l me1hods. see Robe rt L. Marshnll , 'n1eComposi1ional Processo/

]. S. Bach, A Study o/ 1heA«1ograpl1 Score.s 0/11,e Vocal Worlts ( Princeton: Princeton University Pre,is. 1972). 0 ,;1nie l n. Mel1tmecl, l/eorin;; 8och'$ /h.s.sion.s (New York. Oxford Universily Press. 2005). examines i he Passions from sc,•eral perspecti\•es and argues that thc Sr. Matthetv Pa.ssio,1 was a wo rk for eight soloists rather than double cborus. John 81111 . Bacl,s Dialogue wi!li Modemi1,-: Perspec·

1ives on the Passions (Combridgc: Ca mbridge University Press. 2010). ano lyzes the Passions in relation to mod ern and earlier modes of rhought. On ,hcology nnd Bach's music. see Michael Marissen. Lurhero.n ism, Anri-Judaism, ond Boch's S1. Jolm Possio11 (Ncw York: O<ford Univcrsi1y Press, 1998) ond 'n,eSocial ond Reli~<•s Designsof]. S. Ba.ch's BrnndenhurgConcertos ( Princeton: Princeton Uni versity Press, 1995). For the Mass i n B Minor. see George B. Stuaffer. Bach: 'nie Mo,ss ü1 B Mrnor (New lhven: Ynle University Press. 2004) . The íirst cri ticai ed ition of Bach's complete works was bis Werke. 61 vols .. in 47 Jahrg:t.nge (Leipzig: Bach-Gesell· schaft, 1851 -99:supp.1926; repr.Aun Arbor, Ml :J. \V, Edwards, 1947: i11 minfa!lire íonnat, 1969). Anewer editíon of the complete works is Ne«eAusgafle slimtlicherWerk-e (Kassel: Bih'enreiter. 1954-2007). Facsimiles of his manuscripts are available in foksin,ik·Reihe 80,chsclier Werke und SchriftsW.cke (Leipzig: Oeurscber Verlag filr Musi.k, 1955-). Tbc standard thcmalic catalogue is Thema.tisch ·srs • iematisches Verzeichnis der musikali.schen lferh von Joliann Sebastian Bach (BWV). 2nd rcv. and expandcd ed .. cd . WolígangSehmleder (Wlesbaden: Oreltkopf & l lanel. 1990). with references 10 rhe Bach Cesellschafr edi tion and ro othcr stand:nd modcrn editions. An .!lbridged version

isBoch-Werke-Veneichnis, Nach t!ervon lVolfga.ngSchniie· dervo,-gele1,~en.2. Auagabe. cd. Alfrcd Dürr and Yoshitake Kobayashi wilh Kirslcn Bcisswenger (\Viesbadcn: Brc it· kopf & H~rtel. 1998). See also Hons·Joachim Schulzc and Chris ro ph Wolff, Bach Compendium: AnolJtisch -

bibliograpl1isc/1es Repenorium der fr/erl:e]ohonn Sebos1ia11 Bachs (Leipzigand Dresden: Perers.1985-). for source, bibliograpbic. and analytieol information o u Boch's eotire out put, supplement ing tbe BWV. And ré Papillon. !rtdex

o/Chorak Melodies inthe Works offoharin Sebastia11 &eh (Soint-Nicolas. Québec: Les Pr·esses de l' Université Lavai. 2006). is usel'ul iu compa ring works that use the same cborale melody. For the Voyager recordings, see voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ spacccraft/music. htrnl.

George Frrdcnc Ha11del Kecommended books lnclude Do nald Burrows. Handel, 2nd ed. (New Yo rk: O,ford University l'ress. 2012); H. C. Ro bbins Lando n. Handc/.and H,s IVorld (Londo n: IVeidenfeld & Nicolson. 1984·: repr. London: Flamingo. 1992): and 'nte C0,mbridge Companionto Handel. cd. Burrows (Cam· bridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 1991).Anncttc Land · grafa nd David Vickcrs. The Cambridge lfan.del Enc;rclopedia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2009). is a gu ide to people. places, and terms ossociated with Handel. On Mandel's operas, see \Vinron Dean and J. Merrill Knapp . Handels Operas, 1704- 1726. rev. cd. (Oxford, Clarendon. 1995); \Vinto n DMn. Tlandel's Operas. 1726-1741 (\Voodbridge: Boydell. 2006): Rei nhard Strohm . Essars on Handel an.d /to!ion Opera (Cn rnbrldgc; C.i.mbridgc Universi,y Press. 1985). which i ncludes sh1clies o n A. Scarla 11 i anel Vivald i; and Ellen T. Hal'ris, ffondel ar11l 1/,e l'astoral 'fradilion (Londo1i: Oxford Unive rsity Press. 1980). Handel usually had particular si ngers in mind

A51

when composing his o peras. :md 1heir im pact on his music ís described in C. Steven L,Rue. flondetand lfis Si11gers: 11,e Creorion ofihe RoyolAcademr Operas, 1720- 1728 (New York: Oxford Universi ty Prcss.1995). On thc rivalry be1wec,, singers Francesca Cuzio,1i .:,nd f'j_usti nj, Bordot1 i, sce Suurnne Aspden. 1he RivalSiren,: Perfon»once and ldentityon lla.ridcl'sOperotirStage (Cambridge: Ca mbridge Universiry Pr·ess. 2013). The lo ngchapter, "Or igi n of the ltalian 01>e ra in England and lts Progr essThere dur· ing the Presem Cenmry:· in Cha rles Burney's Cerieral flistorrof,\·/U,SiC ( pp. 651-904 in 1he modem ed ition -cited below under chapter 20). includes a detailed account of Handel's operas ia London and many observations on

the music. Por a contem porary reactioJJ to Knndel's first London opera, see Joseph Addison·s cornmeots i n SR ll3 (3:33). km \Voodf,eld. Operaaná D,-amo ir1 f:igh1ee,i1/, . Genftuy London (Cambridge: Cambridge Uojversity Prcss. 2001). prcscnts t be broader comcxt for ltalin11 o pera in London. For thc ora.torios and masques. scc David Ross Hurlcy.

f/ondel's Muse: Panern.<o/Creaiion in HisOm1orios and M«srcal Dramas. 1743-17$1 (Oxrorct: O,-ford Un1verstiy Prcss. 2001); Rut h Sm ith, llonde!'s Oro1oriosa11d Eig/1 · 1een1h-Cen1t•rrThouglu (Cambridge, Cambridge Universiry Prcss. 1995): and \Vinton Dcnn. Handel'.! DramaticOratorios and Masques (Oxford: Clarenrlon.1990). The premicrc of Messiah is descri bed in Thomas Porrest Kelly, Firs1 Nights: fioc Musical Prcmieres (New Haven: Yn le University Press. 2000) . 60- 107. Hande l's music for his royal patrons is discussed i11 Donald Burrows, lfaridel arid tlte Eng/is/, Ch.a.pel Roral (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). and Christopher Hogwood . Handel: Warer Music o,ut ,1/u,Sic for the Royal 1-i,-eworks (Cambridge: Cambridge Un iversity Press. 2005). The111es of S>ll\e·sex desire among Handel's patro ns, and in the texts of his cantatas. are ex plored by Ellen T. Harris, flan.del os Orplieus: Voice on1! Desire in.1l,e Clwr'6ber Cantatas (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 200 1). Sce also Gary C. Thomas. " ·W,s George Fridcric llandel Gay? ' : On Closet Questions and Cultural Politics:· i n Queeringthe Pitclt: Tlie New Gay ond Lesbian Musicol Og)', 2 nd ed .. ed. Philip Bret,, Eli7.oberh IVood , , nd Gal')' C. Thomas (NcwYork: Rourledge, 2006). 15.5-203, ond 3 eounrer- orgument by Tbomas McCeary, " Mandei and Homoscxu.:1.lity: Bur)ington H ouse 3nd Cannons Rcvis-

itcd." Jo«mal o/the Roral Afa.,icAssociation 136 (2011) : 33- 71. A useful bihliographic guide is Mary Ann Parker. G. P. fl01td.et: A Guide ro Reseorc/1 , 2 nd ed. (New York Rou,ledge. 2005). The firs, cri1ícal ed ition was Ceo rg Fried rieb H~udel. Werke. cd. Friedrieh Chrysander (Leipzig: Breitko pf & Hllrtel. 1858-1903: repr. Ridgewood. NJ: Gregg lntemational. 1965-66). A new ecl ition is in J)rogress: ffal/isâ,e lh'indcl-,h,.sgobe. cd. M,1x Schncider ;ind H\ldol f Steglich (Kassel: Bil ren reiter. 1955-). Por a eoinplele listingoí Handcl's com posi1ious, sce A. Craig Bcll. C/ironolobfical· T/,ematic Catalogue. 2nd ed. (Darley: Crian· Aig. 1972): sec also the tbematiccatalogue by Bernd Baseh in 1heH1i11de/·

A52

Fo r l'urfh e r He .adiug

ilandbuch. vols. 1- 3 (Kasscl: B~renrei,er. 1978-86}. Hanclel"s musical manuscripts are c:italogued by Burrows and Marcha J. Ronish. A Catalogueofllandel's MusicalA11rogmphs (Oxford: Clarendon. 1994).

Chaptel' 20: Musical ·rasre and Style in the En lightenment Music ofihe Classic Penod An excellen1sun•ey is Philip C. Downs. Classical Afosic: '11,e I::ro ofHaJ-dn. Moulfl, and Bee1l,oven (New York: Norton. 1992). accompanied by hisA,uJ,ologyo[ClassioolMusic (New York: Norton , 1992}. See a.lso Reinbard G. Pauly. Musicin rlte Cl,i,ssic Period. 4th ed. (UpperSa.,ldJe River, NJ: Prentice H.aLI . 2000). and Ciorgio Pestelli. 11teAi;eofMo,an and Beelhovcn. trans. EricCl'oss (Cambridge: Ca.mbridge University P,·e:;s. 1984}. Forchronology, see Charles). Hall. Chronol.óg,-of Westem Classiool Mu,sic. vol. 1: 17SJ-1900 (New York: Rou1ledge. 2002}. Por rcadings o o thc gcn<:ral cult11raJ scene ia va rious counrric.s and citics. consult The Classical Era: From. 1he.

1740s 10 ,he End of,he /81h Cenmry·. ecl . Neal Zaslaw (E'.nglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Mali , 1'989) . Writings by critics •nd on aes1heries ne eolleetcd i n M1tsic nnd Autherics in the Eighteenth and forly ·Nineteenth Centurie5. ed. Pctcr lc Hur>y and James Day (C:ambridge: Cambridge University P,css. 1981). On thc Enlightcnment. sec Cyn1hfa Verba. Music and 1/ie Prench Enligh tenmen t: Re-constn,ction ofa Dialog,re. 1750- 1?6+ (O,-ford: Clarendon.1 993). lmportan 1sources oi' iníormation abou1eiglueemh~ cemury musical life are Charles Burney's 1wo travei books, Tl,e Prese,u S1a1e of Music in France ond ltaly (London . 1771: facs. repr. New York: Broude. 1969) and 71,e Ptese,u Srateof Music in Cennanr, 711e Nerherlonds. at>d the United Ptovi1>ccs. 2 vols. (London. 1773: facs. repr. New York: Bl'oude. 1969). An edition or 1he former appeared unde,· rhe til leMusic, Mena11d. Manners i,1 Pronce <ltld lrnJr, 1770. ed. H. Edmund Poole (London: l'olio Society. 1969). and an excerpl appea rs in SR 144 (5:23). Percy Scholes edited bo1h books under 1be 1i1le Dr. Bumc,-'s Musical Tours in. Europe (London: Oxford University Press, 1959). On performing practice, see Clive Brown. Clossicaland

Roman tic Pe,j'orming Prnc1ict 1750-1900 (Oxford : Oxford University Press. 1999). P11blic Con(·erts Rich studies of coucert Iife are C-Oncert Li.fe in Eigh1een1hCen1wy 8ri1ain. cd. Susan \Vollcllhcrgand Simon McVcigh (Burlington. Vf:Asbgate. 2004): Simon McVcigh. Concert Life in Londonfrom Mozart 101/a,·dn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1993); anel Mary Sue Morrow. Conceri Life in lla)'d.n·s Vlenna: Aspects of a Developit•g Musical and Social lnstitulion. (StuyveMnt, l\'Y: Pendragon Prcss, 1989}. Fo r attitudcs of listcners. see Matthcw Riley.

For Fu d her Readi ng

Pa1ronage of Concert Music in Charlesion. South Carolina. 1766- 1820 (Columbia: University of Somh Caroli na Press. 2007). Onc aspect or conccrc -givi ng, cspccially in London. was 1he pcríorm::ince of music from rhc p::ist, which cvenru::iH_y lcd 10 1hc creation of a rcpcrtoire or musical classics. F'or the eorly s tagcs of this development, see William Weber, 11,e 1/ise of,\fosicol Classics in Eighteenth-Cenh,,,· fnglond: A S111drin Canon. RiwaJ. and ldeologr (Oxford: Clarendon . 1992}.

H1$IOries ofMu$,c Tbe íirst general bistories of music appeared ia the last quar1er of the eigbieentb ceutury. reílecting cootemporary v-iews of music and offering primary source materinl for the music ofthe time. AUnreavailab le m modern repl'lnts or editions: Charles Burney,A C~n,eral Hisro,,·ofMu.sic. 2 vols. (Loudon.1776-89}. modem edition with criticai and historical notes by Frank Mercer (Loo<lon: C. T. Foulis. 1935: rcpr. Ncw York: Dover. 1957): Sirjohn Hawldns. AGeneral Histo,yofthe Science and Pracliceo[Music. 5 vols. (Loodon. 1776: repr. NewYork: Oover. 1963. and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011): Johann Nicolaus Forkel, AIJgemeineCesch1chreder.ll1Mik [A General Hisroryof MusicJ. 2 vols. (Leipzig. 1788- 1,801: repr. Graz: Aka.de miscbc Druck- ,md Vcrlagsanstah. 1967). Part of Forkcl's introduc1ion is translatcd it1 SR 146 (5:25).

,ll!tsical Tasre and StJ1e On 1enns for style. see Daniel Heam. anel Bruce Alan Brown. "Cbss ical," ·Empfmdsamkeit," .and "Galam ." in NG2. s.v. On 1he galo111 sryle, sce Dan iel H!cam, Musicin Ettropeo11 CopitoIs: Tlie Cola,11 s,,-ie, 1720-l'lSO (New Yo,-k: Norton, 2003), and the thcoretical approacb in Robert Cjerdingen, Mt1,1Jic in rhc Calant Strle (Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2007). A stimu lating sümrHary of rllusica l language and scyle in ihe Classic period . baseei on lhe iheorists oít he time, is Leo nard G. Ratner. Classic .lfosic: Exprcssion. form. and Siri• (New York: Scb.irmer. 1980}. On phrase s tructure in the Classic periocl, see Stephaaie Vial. 'rheArt o[Musical Phrasing in rhe Eighrecnth Cen tu,y: Pu ncruaung lhe Classical "Penod" (Rochester. NY: Univers ity of Rochester, 2008}. Excerpts írom individual treatises are translated in SR 122- 132 (5:1- 11}. Tbe portions oi' He inrich Cbristoph Koch·s Versucl1 einer Anleil-ungzur Composition on melodie composition are trnns latc<l as Inrroductory Essayon

Composition: The Mechanical Rules of Melody. Seclions 3 ond 4. irans. with an imro. by Nancy Kovaleff Baker (New Haven: Yale University Pl'ess. 1983), wi1h excerp1s in SI\ 124-(S:3). D:rn iel \Vebb's commcnts o,,. emotions nre in his

Obserootions on the Corre,pontlence be~wee11 Poetiyand M11,1Jic (London:J. Dodsley. 1769: repr. NcwYork: Carland . 1970) .

Mu:iical Li:5tcningin tlu: German Enltshtc:nmcnt: Attcntion.

47. l·br m ore. on cxprc~3ion and imlfatfon in mu3iç, .scc;. rhc

WonderandAstonishment (Aldershot: Ashga te. 2004). On the S1. Cecília Sociery in Charles,on, see l'licholas M. Builer. Voraries ofApollo: '/'he.S1. CeciliaSocieirond 1he

excerpts fram writings by Jeau-Jacques Rousseau, Johann )akob Engel, and Michel- Paul -Guy de Chabanon in SR 138. 139. and 141 (5:17. 18, and 20).

Chapler 2 1: Opera and Vocal Music in

Lhe Early Classic Pcriod Opcr·a On thc \la rieties o f o pera in 1he l3ter eigbteenth centu:ry.

see Daniel Heam, Fron1 Carrick to Cluck: E«ayson Oper11 in 1heAgeo[Enlightenment. ed. John Rice (Hillsdale. NY: Pendragon. 2004}. Sec olso lhe volumes by Abbote and Parkcr. Parnkilas. Croul aod Williams. Fancfü. Bianconi and Pestelli (cds.}. \Vciss. and Marco lis1ed aho,•e und cr chapter 14. l\ecen, books on specift c aspects of eighteemhcenniry opera include Stefano Cascelvecchi. Sentinienrol Opera: Quesrions ofGenre i.n rheAgeofBoi,rgeoi.s Drama (Cambridge: Cambridge Unive1·s iry Prcss, 2013): David Cha rl ton. Opera i11 tlteAge of Ro"sseo 11: Mu.sic, Co,ifrontàtion. Realism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012): Picrpaolo Polzoneui. /1alia11 Opero m tlt.eAge ofrheAmericcm Revolurion (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 2011}: Jl1c Cambridge C<Jrnp-0 nion to J:,'iglueen th -Century·Opera, ed. Amhony R. DelDonna and Pierpaolo Pol>,onetti (Cambridge: Can,bridge Un iversi1y Press. 2009}; and David J, Buch. Magic f-?u.tes and t.'nchmued fbres&s: 111eSupernarural

in fighteenth·Cenwrp\fosical 71tcater(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008}. ltCtlian ComicÜJJt'm On Vinci. sce Kurt Svcn Marksrrom. The Opera$ ofLeonardo Vinci. Napokiano (Hillsdale, NY: Penclragon. 2007). A useful resource on Pergolesi is Marvin E. Paymer with Herminc \V. Williams. Ciova11ni Bonista Pergolui.: A Cui.de ro Reseorch (l'lew York: Carland, 1989). Pcrgolcsi'scollecrcd works are in Opera omnia. cd. F'ranccsco Caffa.rclli (Romc: Cli Amici dclla Musica da Comera. 1939- 42: repr. 1943). Voc.11works have accomp:mhnents in piano score with

instrumenrnl cues. The edition contains m:my works that ::ire not by Pergolesi ar,cl omit.s n nu1nber of auihentic works. See Marvin E. Paymer.A '/11ema1ic Catalog,,e of1lltOpera Omnia. wi1/t anAppendi:i: Us1ingOn,itwd Composilions (New York: Pendragon, 1977). A few volumes of a new edilion have appeared: Complete Works. geu. ed. B:my S. Brook, f'rancesco Degrada. and Helmut Hucke (New York: Pendragon: Milan: C. Ricordi. 1986-). lialian conuc operas by olher composers are publisbed in COM 1. vols, 13 (Caluppí) a11d 20 (Paisiello}. Opera Seno Martha Fclrlm.111, Opera 011d SovereigntJ>'l'ransforming MJ1hs in liignteen1h-Cen11,.,· /1alr(Chicago: University of Ch icago Press. 2007}. ])laces opera seria in its social and politic:1J conrexr as che genre shi fted from :isserting ,o questioning the ideais of absolutist m ie. lmponant s tudies of lhe llalian opern of this period include Reinhard Strohm. J)rarnnl(l per musica: /wlw.,1Opero Seria of1he J::igh1een1l1 Ce,uu.,· (New Havei,; Yale University Press. 1997}. and Eric \Veimer. Opera seria and the EvoluU011 ofClassical S1rle, 175S-117Z (AnuArbor: UM I Rese:ircb, 1984). Burney's commen1s on Hasse • re írom 71te l're$entState oj'Musicm CermanJ; 2nd ed .. vol. 1(London. li"i5). 236-39.

A53

An embellished version of the soprano line for Digli ch'io s011 fedele. improvised by or composed for Faustino Bordoni. is publishccl in Hcll mmh Christian \Volff, Original Vocal lmprovisarions from tlte 16th- 18tlt Ceruwies (Colognc: Am o Volk Verlag Hans Cerig, 1972), 143- 68. TI,e versioo sungby Porporino and transcribed by Frederick lhe GreM is 1here as well. anel a facsimile of the origin"1 manuscript ís in J'rieclrich 11.Aus:ienmg:urArie Digtic/i'ioso11fedeleausder OperCleofidevon)olt(UlnAdolfHassc. ed. Wolfga ngColdhan (Wiesbaclen: Breitkopr & H~riel. 1991). A large numJ,er oi' operas J'i-0111 1his period are pub lished in facsimiJes of manuscript copies in the series

ltalw11 Opera /640-1770. ed. with intros. by Howard Mnyer Brown (New York: Gorhod, 1977-83). Amo ng the composers are). C. Bach. Caluppi. Cluck. Graun. Hasse. )ommell i. Pergolesi. Piccinni. Traelta. Vinci. and 111any othe rs. There are also companfon "ºlumes oflibreltos. lralian.Opera, Libreuos. /640- 1770. with intros. by Howard Maycr Brown (Ncw York: Carland . 1978- 84). French. Engl,sh, and Cerman Opera On 1be opéra comlque, see Robert lgnadus Le!elller, Opero-Comique: ASourcebook (Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cam bridge Scholars Publishing, 2010}; The Opêra-conii.qtte in the Eighteenth andNineteenrh Ceniuries. ed. Lorenzo Fr.3ssà (T11rnboui. Bclgium : Brcpols.2011): and David Charl· 1on. Crétr;rond the Crowlh of Opérn•comiqtte (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986). The Belgian govern rnem sponso red 1he edirion of Grétry's operas, Coller.rion r.omplêiedesoeuvres de Crê,,,· (Leipzig: Brei,kopf & H~rtel. 1884-1936; repr. New York, 1970-). Gré1ry's daughler Lucile Crétry anel other Fre,1ch woinen wrote operas: sce Jacqueline u:1i1e1· and Robert Adelson. Won,e,1 Wrili11g Opero: Crea,ivitraiitl Co11tro,·ersJ· in 1/ieAge of,he French Rcvoltttion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). l'o r Jean-Jacques Rousseau's comparison of f rench anel lialian opera. see lhe exceqlt from Letteto,1 f'rer1clt ,lfas,c in SR 133 (5:12). On ballacl opera. see Roger Fiske. English 11teatreMu,sic intlie Eigh1ce,11h Cen1u,,· (Oxford: Oxford University P,·ess. 1986). See the foscimiles of lexts and music in The Ballad Opera. 28 vols., ed. Walcer H. Rubsamen (New York: Ca rland, 1974}. On Cerman opera, see )ohn Hamilton Warrack. Cer· man Opera: Froni the Beginnings 10 Wagner (Cam bridge: Cambridge Uni\•crsily Press. 2001}. and Thom•s Bal1man. Nort/1Cem,an Opera. in the Age of Goethe (Cambridge: Cam bridge Univcrsity Prcss. 1985). FacsimilcsofCcrman and Austrian operas ore fou nd in Cerrnon Opera, l?i0- 1800. ed . Bauman (New York: Corbnd. 1985-86). Composers include Hill er. Senda. Reichard ,. Zums1eeg. Sossrnayr. Sal ieri, and others. Modern edil ions or Cem,an Sings pi ele includc, l'rom Vicnna. Die 8erghoppen (Thc Mincrs) by lgnaz Umlauf (DTO 36) anel Der Dorjbarbier (Tho Villngo Bnrbor) by Johann $ohonk (OTO 48), and.

from Norl h Germa ny, DerJo.lirmorkt (The Pair} by Georg Be nd a (OdT 6•i). See also 1he songs from Viennese Si ngspiele ir, DTO 64.

A54

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

Opera Reforni An excerpt from Francesco Algaroni ,An Essaron the Opera. is in SR 134 (5:1 3). Niccoló Jommelli's Fe10,ue is publishcd in DdT 32-33, and selectio ns from Tommaso Trac11ú operas are in 0TB 14/ 1 ond 17. On Christoph Willib,ld Gluck, sec Patrícia Howard . Gluck: A11 Eig/11eenth-Cenn1.ry· Porrmit in Letters and Documents (Oxford: Clnrendon. 1995). On Gluck's operas. see Bruce Alan Brown , Gl,,ck,md rhe frenei, '11,corre in Viermo (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991). C. llí'. vo11 Gluch: O,fco, comp. Pat rícia Howard (Ca1nbridge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 1981), is a bandbook on Oifeo ed. Eurídice, Gluck art icula1es thc principies of his reform in 1be dcdication to hisAJceste in SR 136 (5 :15). A useful bibliogr:tphy is Patrícia Howard. Chrntoph lflillibrild Gluck: A Cuide to l!eseoreh, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2003). A,1 edition of tlte complete works. ed. Rudoll' Cerber et ai.. is in progress (Kassel: B~1·enreiter, 1951- ). and Alfrcd Wotquenne's tbematic catalo.,f\1e was publisbcd in f rcnch and German (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hartcl. 1904: repr. Jiildcshcim : Cco rgOlms. l96i). Songand Church ,\fus,c An excell ent source ou Lhe eighteenth-century Cerm:i.n Lied ís The Cambndge Compan,on ro 1h, Lied. p•rt 2, ed.

James Parso ns (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004). Tbe second part of vol. l of M,., Fricdlãnder's Das deutsche u.,d i,n 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttga rt: J. C. Cotta. 1902) contains 236 songs. mostly from cigbtccnth•ccnh,ry collections. See also DTO 54 and 79 and DdT35- 36 and 57. Por British song. see 71ie 8/ackwell Hisrory·ofMusic in Britain. vol. 4, The Eiglueemh Cenrury·. ed . H. Díack Johns ioncand Rogcr Piskc (O,ford: Blackwcll.1990). For Pergolcsi, seeabove. Vic 11,1cse cl,urch musicof thc late eightecnth ccntury is in DTO 62 and 83. Hasse's oratorio ui Conversione diS. Agosrino is in OdT 20, and Jommelli's l'ossíone diGesu Cristo in CDM1 15. Pot William Bi ll ings, see David P. Mcl(ay and Hicharcl Crawford. IIVil/io111 BiJli11gsof8ostori: E,glueent/1-Certtw:r Composer (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1975). and Co1alogof1heMusical WorksofWiUiam Billings. comp. Karl Kroeger (New York: Grcenwood. 1991). His musicappears in 11,e Complete IVorks ofWillimn Billings. ed. Kroeger a.nd Hans l\'atha.n ( Boston: American Musicological Society anel

Coloniol Society of Massachusetts, l9i7-90).

For Fu d her Readi ng

Clarendon, 1998): S,ewart Pollens. The Earlr Pianoforte (Cambridge: C.,mbridge Univers i,y Press. 1995); anel R. E. M. Harcling. 11,e Piano-farte: lts HistO')' ro the Creat Exh ibition of18Sl, 2ndcd. (Old \Voking, England: Grcsham, 1978; repr. London: Heckscher, 1989) . Ocrck Ca rcw, The Med>ani cal Muse: The Piôno, Piani.sm and Piano Mu#c, e. 1760-18$0 (Aldershot: Ashgatc. 2007). is a history of the instrumcnt and music for it. An excellent social historyof the piano is in James Parakilas et ai. . Piano R<>les: 'lhree /Jundred Yeors of Lifewíth the Piano ( New Haven: Yale University l'ress. 1999). The classic by Arthllr Loesser, Me11. lli'omen. a11d Pio11os (New York: Siinon & Sch\lster, 1954; repr. New York: Oover, 1990), is also still valuable. Two useful guides to music for the piano (and otber keyboard instrumems) are Stewart Go rdon.A History·of Kt)'board Lireratu re: .\fos,cfor the /\ano 011d lts Forertmners (New York: Sch irmer, 1996). anel John Gillespie. Fwe Cellluries of Kqboard M11,sic: A,. Hisrorica!SurveyofMILSic for Harpsichord and Piano (New York Dovcr. l 972). Sclectcd cssays by various cxpcn s o n eightecnth .. ccntury kcyboard iosLrumcots. co mposc.rs. and nnusic ca.n be found in ftghieenih-Cenn,ry· Keyboan:IMuslc. 2nd ed .. ed. Roben L. Marshall ( New York: Rou tledge, 2003). For issues of performance. see S.indr, P. Rosenblum, Peiformance Proctices inClassic Piano Music (Bloomington: Indiana U11ivcrsity Prcss. 1988). For a bibliography. sec Robert Palmicri. Piano fnfomiation Cuide: An Aíd to Research (Ncw York: Ca rland. 1989). For :rn overview oíchamber music from 1he Henaissance 10 ,he presem era. see M.irk A. Radice. Cliamber ,lfosic: An fssential lfis1ory· (Ann Arbor: Universicy of Michigan Press, 2012). A helpful guide to lite,·awre 011 cha m.ber music is John H. Barou, ChamberAfosic: A Researcl, and lrifonnation Cuide. 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge , 2002). On 1he s tri ngcriartet. see Rob in S1owell. 71le Cam/Jridge Comp<>rllOll lO theSm11gQu<1rtet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Mara Parker, 'I'l!e S1ringQw>rre1. 1750-1797: Four 'ljpes o/Musical Co,1versati.Oll (Alde rshot: Ashgate. 2002): Paul Griffuhs. 11ieS1ringQuar1ct (Ncw York: Thames & Hudson, 1983); and Mar" t>arkcr, String Qu.artets: A Rcsearch and lnformllfion Cuide (New York: Routledge. 2005). There is s1ill relatively little wrinen on tbe hisrory of ,yind cnscmbles and music íor thcm. See David \Vhit -

Chapter 22 : Instrumental Music: Sonata, Symphony, and Concerto lnstn1men1s and Ensembles For the history ofrhe piano. see "Pianofone. §1: History of 1he insmnnem." in NC2; Piano: An Encrclopedia. 2nd ed .. cd. Robert and Mnrgn re1 \V. Pahn ieri (New York: Roudedgc, 2003); Edwin M. Good. Girôffes, 8/ack Dmgons, and Otlter Pion<>s: A Technologica! lfistory'[rom Crist{)fori 10 the Modem

wcll. The History·and Litemture ofthe Wína Band and Wina Ensemble. 11 vais. (Northrirlge. CA: \Vinds.1982- 84): Wind Ensemble Sourcebook and Biographícal Cuide. cd. Marshal l S1oneham. Jon A. Cillaspic. anrl David Lindsey (\'ílestport. CT: Creenwood, 1997): and Barloera Secris,-Schmedes. Wi11d Chomber Musu,for Two toSi:J'leen Winds: AnAnnotated Cuide (La nham, MO: Scn reci·ow, 2002), See also "Band " nnd " Hnrmoniernusik ," in NG2~

On the orchestro. see S1>itzcr>nd Zaslaw. The Birth of

Conccrt Grand. '2nd ed. (Sianíord: St.,nford Univcr3ity

lhe º"'hc6tm.: Jf~torxofon, fn6tiiHtion., 16SO- J81S, idc.m .,

Press, 2001): Michael Cole. The Pia.11ofoncin the Clossica! ôra (O~ford: Clarendon, 1998): Richard Maunder, Ke,~ board bwnw,enrs i11 liigltteenrh -C,,u,,ry· Vienna (Oxford:

"Orchestra," in NG2; and The Cambndge Compo11íon 10 the Orcl,estra . ed. Colin L.,wson (Can1brídge: Ca mbridge University P,·ess, 2003).

Cenres and Forms For tbe symphony. see below. On the sonat.:1 anel sonata form . see \llilliam S. Newman. '/1,eS-Ona10 i11 1/,e Clossic Era, 3rd ed. (New York: No,·1011. 1983), anel Charles Rosen, Sonoro Fonns, rev. cd . (Ncw York: l\orton, 1988). A major new study of sonota form is James A. HeJ>okoski and Wúrc11 Oarcy. ElemenrsofSonatll 11,eory·: Nornis. TJpes. a11d Ocfonnations i11 the /,atc-Eigli1eenth Cenwry· (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2006). which explores 1he no1·ms anel possibilities írom which com1>osers drew and orfers new ways to analyze what happens in ind ividull pieces. For classical form in generll. see Wil· lfam E. Caplin. Cla.ssicaLFonn:A '/lteory·of Fonnal Functions for 1he lnwumental Music of Hardn. Mozart. and Beetho.,en (New York: O,ford Univers ity Press. 1998). Mark Evan Bonds. Wordless l!l,ctoric: Musical Fom, ,rnd tire Me1aphorof 1/ieOrolion (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1991). s hows how theorists from the 1720s to the 1830s used mctaphors [rom grammar and rbctoric to dcscribe form in instnm1cnta.J works. To contr.1st cightcenth · and nine tcenth• cenrury v:iews ofson:na form . see che excerpts from lfelnrlc h Chrlstoph

Koch·s lnrroductory· fssaron Composilion (1782-93) and from Adolf Bcrnhard Marx's The Theory·of Musical Composi lion (1868) in SR 126 (5:5) and 164 (6:17) rcspcctivcJy_ Sce also Scott Bumham. "Forro," in CllWMT. 880- 906.

Domen,coScarlatft Sn,dies include Robe no Paga no. Alessandro and Domenico Scarlani: 1'wo Uves i11 One. 1rans. Prederick Hammond (Hillsdale, NY: Pendr.gon Press. 2006); Malcolm Boy<I. Dome11ioo Scorfolti-,\fosterofMusic (New York: Sch irmcr. 1986): an<l Ralph Ki,·kpat rick's classic Dome,1ic0Scarlalti (Princeton : Princeton University Prcss. 1953: nc,o ed ., l983). l\ecent research is collectecl in Domcníco $cariam Adve11111res: eSSOJ~ Com.memorore the 2SOlh A,uuversary· ofhis Oea1h . ed. Massimiliano Sala and \V. Dea n Su1cli ffe (Bologna: Ut Orpheus. 2008). On the sonatas, see \VI. Oean Sutcliffe, The Keyboard Sonarns of Dome11ico Scarlaui alld Eib~ueentlt · Century· Musical Sirle (Cambridge: Cambridge Uuiversity Press. 2003). For a bi.bliogr,phy. sce Carol<: F. VidolJ,Alessandro and Domenico Smrlatti: A Cuide to Re.«arch (New York: Carland, 1993) . For a them>tíccatalogue, see DomenicoScorlatti Thematic lndexAccording to Rolph Kirkpatrick and fmilia fodini. ed . Laurclte Coldberg and Patricc Matbews with William Glennon (Berkeley: MusicSourccs. l 999).

'º

'fwo c riticai cd itions of Ülc sonatas are available:

Sonares. ed. Kcnneth Cílbert (Paris: Heugel. 1971-84) . and Sonoieperclal'ícembolo, ed. Em íl ia Fadini (Milan : R.icordi , 1978- ). Facsimiles of 1he sonatas in monuscript ore in S-011atepereembalo (Florcnce: Srudio per Edi1,ioni Sccltc. 1985- 1992), a»d Complete Keyboard Works, ed. Ralph Kirkpatrick (New York: Johnson Re1>rint. 1972).

Carl Phrhpp Emanuel Bach See Hans -CumerOnenberg.C. J'. E. Bach . trans. Ph ili p J. \V/hinnore (Oxford: Oxford Universi<y Press, 1987); David

ASS

Schulenberg. The Instrumental Mu.sicofC. P. E. Bach (Ann Arbor: UMI l\esearch.1984): and C. P. ô. Bacl, Srm:!íes. ed. Annette Ríchards (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers il)• Prcss. 2006). Bach's corrcspondcncc has becn published irl 11,e Leuers ofC. P. E:. Bach. cd. anel u·ans. Stephen Lewis Clork (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press, 1997). For a bibliography. see Doris Bosworth Powers, Carl Philipp Ema.nuel Bach: A Guide10 Research (New York: llomledge. 2002). A complete edition is in progress: Carl PhiliJ>p Emanuel Bach, 'flieComplcrc Works, general editors Da,·rell M. Berg, Ulricb Leisinger. and l'eter Wollny (Los Altos. CA: Packard füunanities lnstitute, 2005- ). A,1 earl ier planued edition, Carl Philipp E:manuel Bach t::diti-0n. gen. ed. Rachel W. \Vadc, coord. ed. E. Eugene Helm (New York: O,ford Univers ity Press. 19~9-), was never completed. Collected IIVorksforS-Olo Keyboard. 6 vols., ed. Darrell Berg(New York: Carland . 1985). is a facsimile edi tion of eighteer,ll,-century prints and manuscripts. Tbe current thematic catalogue is E. Eugcue Hclm. Th ema tic Cu talo1;ue of tlte Works ofCarl Philípp Emanuel Bach (Ncw liavcn: Yale Univcrsity Prcss.1 989): an oldcr ,hemactc catalogue IS b y Alfred Wotquenne (Letp1.tgand New York: Brei1kopf & lbnel, 1905; rcpr. Wiesbadcn, 1964), and both numbering systcms are s till 11scd. C. P. E. Boch·s treatisc Versuch u/Jerdiew11hreArt. dos Clavierzu spielen was first publishcd in 1753 (Part ]) and 1762 (Pari 2) and is availahle in a facsimile cdition by L. Hoffma nn -Erbrccht (Leipzig: Breitkopf & llttriel. 1957): , he translarion hy William J. Mitchell as Ess<l)' 011 rhe 7h,e An of l'laJfag Kerboord /nsrrumenrs (New York: No rton. 1949) combines the origi nal and revised editions or che eigh · teen1b century. Excerpt in SR 129 (5:8). Srnphony The most comprehensive sn,dy of the symphony before Haydn anel Mo1,art is '11,tSJ•»pho11ic Rcperioíre. vol. 1: 'f'he Eiglucenlh-Centnry·Srmphony. ed. Mary Sue Morrow and Bathia Ch11rgi n, fo11nding editor A. Pete r Brown (Bloomington: lnd ia,,a University Press, 2012), which gathers togetber illuuünating and pathbreakiugwork on early symphonists. Preston Stcdman, 77ieSrmphony(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1979: 2nd e<l. 1992), 3Jld Louise Cuyler, 'f'he SJ"'tphonr (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovicb, 1973: 2nd ed. Warren, MI : Harmonie Park, 1995). offer general histories of the symphony. For a bibliog,aphy, see Presron Stedman. The SymphonJ: A Research a11d lnforniation Cuide (New York: Garland. 1990) . A comprcbensive collcction of approximatcly 600 symphonics in full scorc beb'l.ln undcr the editorship of Barry S. Brook. The SJm· phonr 1720-1840 (New York: C.irlanrl . 1979-85). consists of si, series. each corresponding 10 a geographical region. On S:umnan ini, sce che essays in Ciovonni &:trri..sra Sammortinion-d. His Mt,sicol Environmen r, ed. Annt1 C~uore1ti (Turnh<mt: Brcpols. 2004). Some ofSammartini's symphonlc., ilJ>pe,uln Thc:Spupltoniao/G. 8. Sammcartini, Yol. 1, ed .

Bathia Churgin (Cambridge. MA: Ha rvard University Press. 1968). His worksare catalogued in Newell Jenkins and Ba1hia Churgin. Themaric Caralogue ofthe llí'orks of Giovanni

A56

For l'urth e r He adiu g

Barrista Sammartini: Orchesrral and Vocal Music (Cambridge. MA: llan•ard Uníversiiy Press. 1976). Concerning the s31mphony in Mannheim in gener:;.1 and Johann St.1tn i11, in particular. consult Eugene K. Wolf, 11,e Spnphonies ofJoha,m Srom.ir~: A S111dy in ihe Pom1aiion ofrheQassicSt)ie (U1reeh1/An1w•erp: Bohn, Schclrema & Holkema: The Hague: M. Nijhoff. 1981). wh ich inclu<les a ,hematic c.,talogue of the orchestra l works. Wolf's Ma,mscriptsfromMannheim. ca. 1130-1?78: A Sn.dxin the MclhodolOlfJ'OfM1,sical Source Reseorc/1. in collaboration with Jean K. Wolí and Pa,LI Corneilson (Frankfur1: Pete,· ung. 2002). uses sympboujes and other mus ic from Maunheim as case Sludies in musicological research 011 sou_rces. Symphonies by Mannheim composers are found in DTB, vais. 3/1, 7/2, and 8/2: :treprinl of the music in 2 volumes is emitled Ma11Ttl1e,m SJ-mphon,m. ed. Hugo Hiemann (New York: Broude. 1956). Symphonies byViennesecomposersare in DTO. vols. 31and 39; Nor1h German syrnphonies. DdT. "ois. 51-52: sympbouics by C. P. E. Bach. Das Erbc dcutscbcr Musik. series 1. vol. 18. lnstrumcm:tl works of Micbacl llaydn in DTO. vol. 29: ofC,rl D;ttcrs von Dittersdorf. ín DTO. vol.81. On Joseph Bologne. Chevalier de Saim -Ceorges. see Gabriel Banal, The Chevalier de Soin.r-Ceorges: Vinuoso ofrhe Sword and 1he Bow (Hillsdale. NY: Pendragon. 2006). a11d Abin Guédé. MonsieurdeSainl•Ceorge: Virt,wso, Swords · man. Revolutionary: a Legendary li/e Redi,sco,·ered. trans. Gilda M. Roberts (New York: Picador. 2003).

Joha1111 Chrisna11 Bacl1 See Hein1, C!lrtner,Joh.ann Chris1ion 8(lch: Mozo.rt's Priend and Menror, irans. l\cinhard C. Pauly (Portland. OR: Amadeus, 1994) . On the keyboa rd concertos, seeJane R. Stevens, The Bac/1 l'omilyond rhe Keyboard Concerto: 71ie Evo· !11rio11 ofo Cenre (\Varren, M 1: llom,onie Park, 2001). The Collectcd lflórks of}ohnrrn Cl1rist1(1.n Bach, 1735-1782. 48 vols .. gen . ecl. Ernest Warbur1on (Ne,vYork: Garlancl, 1984-99). is a facsimile edition lbat includes a '11,emotic Catalogue and volume of Sources & Documents. The symphon ies are also in Das Erbe deutscher Musik. series l, vols. 3 and 30.

Chapter 23: Classic Music in the Late Eighteenth Ccntury Hay-d11. Moza rl. art ri Otliers Daniel Heartt. Hard,.. Mowrt. a11d t,/ie VienneseSclwol. 1740- 1780 (New York: Norton. 1995). scts thcirwork in thc coatcxt o f' c ightccntb .. ccntury Vicnnesc culturc

and socicty. Hcartz's Mozan. fla)'dn ond forl.r Beethoven. 1781- 1802 (New York: Norton, 2009) shows links among ali rhree composers. Charles Rosen. 71ie Qassicol S1rle: llardn. Mozari. Beethoven, expandcd ed. (NewYork: Korion, 1997), seeks to dehnc the distinctive rraits of thesc thrce composers' music. On rheir symphonies, sec A. Percr Brown. Thc SJmphonic Rcpertoirc, vol. 2:

ThG Fi.r,1t Golden Agt of the

V.cnneseS)'nphonJ< llayd.n. Mozart. Beethoven. and Schubert (Blooming,on: Ind iana University P,·ess. 2002). James H. Currie offers rad ical new in1erpre1.1 1ions of' their muslC

For Fu d her Readi ng

in M11sicand rhe Poliricsof Negation (Bloomingron: Indiana Universiiy Press. 2012).

Joseph HaJ71n Por Joseph Haydn"s li fc ~nd works, see David Wyn Joncs, The Life of Hardn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2009): James Webster and Ceorg Feder, The New Gro,•e Hardn (New York: Palgrav-e/Grove. 2002); llardn. ed. David \Vyn Jones (O,<ford: OxfoTd University Press. 2002); Hosemary Hughes, Ho,-dn, 6th ed. (London: Dem. 1989): H. C. Robbins wndon and David Wyn Jones. HaJ-d.n: His Life and Music (Bloomingrou: Indiana University Press. l988); and Karl Ceiringer. Hayd11: A Creotive life in Music. 3rd ed. (New York: Norton. 1982). See:tlso H. C. Kobbins L..indon. Haydn:A Documental)' Studr (New York: Kizzolí. 1981). and Landori's compendi"m Ha,-d1': Chrorucle and Works. 5 vols. (Bloomin1,<ton: Indiana Universiry Press. 1976-80). TheCambridge Companion to Hardn. ed. Caryl Clark (Cambridge: Cambridge Uuiversity Prcss. 2005). is a hclpful guidc. for lloydn's mcrhods of composition. scc James Web· s<e r. 1/ay·dn's "farewe/1" SJmpltony and rhe ldea o/Classtca.1 Strte: '/'hrough -Composinonand 0dic lnregrntion in f/i,s lns1romen1al Music (Cambridge: Com bridge University Press. 1991). Thc central role of varia1ion is explored in Elai nc R. Sisman. Haydr> and.1/1,eClassical Variation (Cam· bridge. MA, Harvard University Prcss. 1993). For a scrious consideration of Hayd nºs proverbial humor. see Gretchen A. Wheelock. lla)·dn's lngenious }estingwilh Arr: Con<erts ofMtMical lfü and H1,mor (New York: Schirmer. 1992). Recem collections ofprovocat ive essays inclucle Eng(lgúlg Ha,·d,r: Cul111re, Con,e.tt, and Crilicism. ecl. Mary Hu ,uer anel Richard Wi\l (Cambridge: Camb ridge Uuiversity Press, 2012); llardn ond His lfforld. ed. Elaine R. Sisman (Prineeton: Princeton University Pres-s.1997); and H"ydn S1udfos. ed. W. Oean Sutcliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry l'ress. 1998). Recent srudies of Hayd,i"s symphonies include Brown, 11,e Pirst Co/lhn Age of1he Viennese SJmphonr (see above): Richard \Vill. 71,e C/iamcrerisric SJmphonr in iheAge of na,-dnand Bee1/wven (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcr· sity Press. 2002); Bernard Harríson. Ha)'dn: The ··raris' SJnrphonies (Cambridge: Carnbridge University Press, 1998) : Etban Haimo. Haydn'sSJmphonic forms: E:ssoys in Composiliono!Logic (Oxford: Cbrendon. 1995): and David P. Schrocder. Haydn and lhe Enlightenment: The LateSpn· phoní,is and Their Audience (Oxford: Clarendon. 1990: rcpr. 1997) . on ,be socia l and intell ecmal background ofthe Paris and London symphonies. Melanie Lowe. Plea.su.reand Meaning in 1he Qassical Sympho11r (Bloomi ngron: Indiana Universil)' Press. 2007). eonsiclers aspects ofmean · ing in the late symphonies of Haydn and Mo2ar1. Ha)'Ch SJn1pl1onyNo. /03in E-jlai, Norton Criticai Scores. ed. Karl Geiringer(New York: Norton. 1974), includes a score wíth

Em ily Oolan. 'fhe Orchesiral Revolution: Hordn and rlte Teclmiq11esofTimbre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Prcss. 2013). rraecs a growing mcmion ro tone calor and orchestrn1ion in H3ydn's works wich orchcstra. reílcc1ing eh;nging ;cstheties of tbe time. On thequarters, see Floyd Grave anel Margaret Grave, 11ie SrrfogQu.artetsofJosepl, HaJ-dn (Oxfo,·d: Oxford University Press. 2006): Will iam Drabk in./1 Readers c,.;;1e10 fl(lJtlri"s EorlySrr,ngQ11arte1s (\Vestpo,1, CT: Creeuwood. 2000): and Rosemary H.ughes, Hardn SiringQ,umeis. 5,b ed. (SeatLle; Uuiversity of'\Vasbint,'lon Press. 1975). On performance issues. see lfans KeUer. 1he Crear flardn Quarieis: 1heir Jnrerpr,to.tion (London: Oent. 1993). On H.aydn·s keyboard works, seeA. Peter Brown.Joseph Hoydns Keyboard .\fosic: Sources and StJie (Bloom ington: Indiana Univcrsity Press. 1986); Wszló Som foi .'lhe Ke,rboard Sonatas of}oseph f/aydn: lnstruntenls arid Peifom,once Pracriee. CenresandS9tes. trans. by thc author wirh Charlotte Grccnspan (Chicago: Universiry of Chicago Prcss. 1995): and Bernard lhrrison. ffaJ-dn's KeJ-board Music:Stndies in Pe,fomU).nce Proctice (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1997). On 1he m:.lsses. sec Rober1 \V1llt:1m Dcm.arec. Jr.• and

Dorr V. Moses, 711e ,\fosses ofJosepl, Ho,-dn: flisrory, SIJie. PerJom,once (Rochestcr Hills, MI: Classical lleritage. 2008). An illuminatingstudy nf a Haydn chorai work in perfor mance is A. Peter Brown. Pcrfom1irig Haydn's "17,e Cmr>tion": fleoonsrmcting rltt forl.iest Renditio11s (Bloom ington: Ind iana Universiiy Press. 1986). F'or more on 'l'he Creoiion. see Nicolas 'íemperly. Ha,-dn: '/1,eCreorion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991). a.ncl Bruce C. Maclnryr.:, HaJÚ1t: The Creation (New York Schirmer. 1998). Source m:1terial is io 11teCollecied Correspl>ndencean.d

London Notebooks ofJoseph Hardn. ed. H. C. Kobins L:mdon (Lonclon and New York: Barrie & Rockliff. 1959). f'or a bibli ogrnphy. see Floyd K. Crave witb Mari,<aret e. Cr3\'C. fr<m, Joseph H"ydn: A Cuide to Research (Ncw York: Garianel , l 990). The deímitive edition of Haydnºs works. publishecl by tbc Joseph Haydn lnsti1u1c of Cologne. is Joseph lfaJ-drt: Werke. ed. Jens Pctcr Larsen et al. (Munich: G. Hcnlc. 1958-). The rhematiccatalogue isAnthonyvan Hoboken. Joseph lloydn: 11,ematisch -bibliographísches Werkvenei.chni.•. 3 ,•ois. (Main1,: B. Scho,t's Sohne, 1957- 78). Sec Steph.en C. Bry.,n, and C•ry W. Chapman,A Melodie lnd<ttio H<iydns Instrumental Music (New York: Pendragon. 1982). ro iden· tify ,he titles of works for which only the melody is known and to locate them in lloboken's thematic catalogue.

A57

C.unbridge Universiry Press, 1998). a goocl briefbiography; Maynard Solomon, Mozori: A li/e (New York: HarperCollins. 1995), a psychological tr'earmcnr: and Wolfgang Hildesheimer, Mowrt. rrans. Morion P:tber (New York: Farr,r, Straus. Giroux, 1981). a st imulat ing psychological portrait. Useful fo,· presenting Ol'iginal so11rces are Ot to Erich Oeutsch, Mozart." Docu.mentar,-Biograpl,J\ 2nd ed., 1ra ns. Eric Blorn el ai. (Stanford: Stanford Ut1iversity Press. 1965). anda supplernent. New Mow,rr Docuntenrs: A Supplemenr 10 O. E. Deu1seh's Documen1a9· Bfogropl•r- compiled by Cliff Eisen (Staaford: Stanford University Press. 1991). Useful for the life and works are 17rc Cambridge Mozart Encyclopedia. ed . CliJf Eisen :md Simon P. Keefe (Cam· bridge: Cambridge Universit:y Press. 2006); 'llte Cambridge Componion to Mozor1. ed. Simon P. Kccfc (New York: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2003) : The Mozart Compendium: A C"ide to Mozart 's Life and Mru;ic. cd. Landon (Ncw York: Schírmer. 1990): and The Complear Morart: A Cuide to rhe Musical Worksof WolfgangAmadeus Mozart. ed. Neal Zaslaw with William Cowdery (NcwYork: Norton. 1990) . On ,he Mo1,an family. see Ruth Hall iwell. The .\lowrt Pom1t,-: l'ourL1ves1n aSoctol Conren (Oxford : Clarend on, 1998), and David P. Sch roe der. Mozarr i11 ReWJII: Stra1egies of Resistance, Mischief. ond Deception (New Haven: Ya le University Press. 1999). on Mo,art"s relationship to his fo rher. for the correspondence. see Mozarr·s Letters. Morans Life: Sclected 1.ctrers. ed. anel tra ns. Robert Spaet hling ( New Yo,·k: Norton. 2000); A. Hyat I King ar,d Man ica Carola1>. Lwers ofMozariand Hís Pamilt, 3rd cd .. ed. and trans. Em ily Anderson (London; Mocmillan. 1985): and the excerplS from Mozart's le11ers in SR 140 (5:19).An onlinedatabase of Mozart letters is underway: Cliff Eiseo etal.. /n Mozarr's IVords. hnp://letters.mozariways.com (HKI Online. 2011). Leopold Moza r1·s , realise Crundliclie Vio/inschule (1756) has been published as A Trea1ise 0111/re Fundamenre>I Principies of Violin PlaJing. 2nd ed .. trans. Editba Knocker (Lonclon anel Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 1951): an cxccrpt Ln a differcnt translation appears in SR 130 (5:9). John Jenki ns. Mozartand ih.e English Connecti.on (lonclon: CygnusArts. 1998). gives an accounr of Mo1.an's ftrst vis itto London in 1764-65 anel iLS historical s igniflca,,ce. On rhc Vienna years, see Christoph \Volff. Alowrr a1 the Carewo,-10 lfis Foriune: Servingthe Emperor. 1788- 1791 ( New

IVolfgang Amadeus Mozarr There have been many biographies of Mozart. A classic. translatecl from rhe Cerman anel rhoroughly annorated wirh referenccs to recen , rese:trch. is Herm~nn Abcn. W. Al. Mo,ar1, 1rans. Stewart Spencer, ed. Cliff Eisen (New H'aven: Ynle University Press, 2007). l\ecent biographies include Stanley $adie. Mozart: The forl,-Ye,,rs, 1756-1781 (New )(ork:

York: Norton. 2012): Volkmar Braunbehrcns. Mo,artin Viermo, 1781- 1791. trans. Timothy Bell (New York: Grove \Veidenfeld. 1990): H. C. llobbins L, ndon. Mowrtand Vie,rna (NewYork: Schirmer.1991): idem .. Mozor1. 'llte Cold<iu Years, 1781-1791 (London: Thwres & Hudson. 1989); idenr .. Mowrr's wst Year (Lonclon: Th3mes & Hudson. 1988; repr. 1999): ,u,d idem .. Mown and the Masons: New liglu 011 rhe Lodge. "Crowned Hopi' (Ne,vYo,·k: Tbames & Hudson. 1983; repr. 1991). l'or bibliographies and ,·esearth gtrides, see '11re Mo,ori Repe,·to,,·: A Cuide for Mtt.Siciaiis. Progrommers. Md Reswrcl,-

nume rou~ c~MY~ rcl.ucd to thç picçc. Do11;1 ld P. Tovçy'~

No1·ton, 2006). 1'obe1i \V/, GuimM), Moze&rt. ,t Ci.1lWrQL Diog-

e,o, c J , Ncal 2..tslawaud Fioua Mo,g,m rciu (ldiaca. NY.

classic anal)1ical prograrn noles for severa! of Haydn's sy111phon ies are included i11 his fsSOJ'S irt Musica!Anol,-sis. vol. 1(London; Oxfo rd Universj1y Press, 1935: repr. 1972).

ropl>}' (New York: Harcouri Brace.1999); PeierGay. Mozari (New York: Li pper/Viking. 1999). by a ,·enowned culmr·al historia,,; John Rossclli . The Life o/ Mozarr (C;mbridge:

CorncU Univcrsity Press.199l). aad Baird Hastings. IVolfgangAmadeus Mozart: A Cuide to Research (Ncw York: Carland. 1989).

ASS

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

'fhe notion o f "topics" in Classic• e ra music was intro·

toiion.ofCl-<t.5$ic Music ( Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity Press. 1991} anel Musicas Di.1co11 rse: ScmiolicAdvenr,,res in flomantic ,\/usic (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009), Hobert S. Hatten . fnterprering Musical Gesn,res. 1opics. an.d Tropes: Mozart, Beerltoven. Sclwberr (Bloomington: Indiana Univers iry Press. 2004); anel Ray mond Monelle. 11,eSense

(o,;·ord: Ciarendon. 1988); Car o lyn Cia nturco, Momrt's farlrOperas (London: 8atsíord. 1981); Julian Ruslnon, W. A. Moz11rr: -Don Ciova,m(' (Cam.bridge: Cambridge Uuivc rsity Press. 1981), a useful han<lbook; and Peicr Carnmond, 71,e ,\fllgic FlHle: A C-uide to ihe Opera (Loodon: Breslich & Foss. 1979). Jessic.a Waldoff, l!ecognilion Írl Mozarfs Operas (New York: Oxfo rd Universíty Press. 201 1), offers a fresh perspeclive º" M ozart's oper as as drama. Johr, A. Rice, Mozori 011 rhe Stage (Cam bridge; Cambridge Unive rsity Press. 2009), recoun1s how Moza rt's o peras 1 \\ ere cre:ued and staged. from conunission through

o/ Music: Sert1ioiic EssO.J'S (Prince ton;

collaborations witb librettists ::ind s ingers to s taging.

duced by Leonard C. Ratner. '·Topics: in Clanic Mus,c: F.'xpression. Fonn. and.SrJ1e (New York: Schinner. 1980), 9-30. Ther e is, growi ng litcrarv re on topic d1cory, includ ing V. Kof, Agawu , Playi11gwirl, Signs: A Semioiic fnrerpre ·

Princetoo Uu iversity Press. 2000) and The Musict,1 Topic: H..,u, Milita,,·. ond Pastoral (Bloomington: Indiana Uni,•ers ity Press, 2006). Cuides to 1he instrument:tl works include Simon P. Keefe. Mozarfs Vêen,,ese lnstn11ne,ual M"s,c: A SrudrofS1,us1ic Re-ln.-en1ion (Woodbridge: Boyde ll , 2007): \Vil.liarn l{jnder man . Mo,arr'si'ian,a Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2006): John Irving. Un.dersranding Moutrr 's Piano Sonaras (Aldershot: Ashgatc. 2010): idem .. Mozarr's Piano Sonatas: Conrexts. Sourr:es. StJÍ• (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 1997): Idem .. Mozan: The "ttardn··Quaners (Cnrn bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); A. Hyan King, Mozan Chamber Music (Seattle: Unh•crsity of Washington Prcss. 1969: rcpr. London: Aricl. 1986): and ErikSmith. Mozart Serenade.,. Di,-ertimenti and. Dances (London: BBC. 1982). On t he concertos. see Simon P. Keefe. "'We hardly knew whacweshould pay anention co first': Mozart 1he f>erformer-Compose-r at \Vol'k on 1he Viennese Piano Concertos," Jourru,I ofrl, e Roytil MusicolAssocwri.m 134 (2009): 185-242; Jo hn l rving. Mo,art's Piano Concertos (Aldersh ot: Ashgate, 2003): Simo n P. Keefe. Mouirr's Pi11ru1

Concertos: Dramatic Dialogue in theAge of Enligli1enmen1 ( Rochester, i\lY: Boydell. 200 l); Mozar(s Piano Concmos: k<I. Conte.<!. /nrerpretatiOII. ed. Neal Zaslaw (Ann Arbor; Uni"ers iiy o r Michigan l'ress, 1996); A. Hyari Kjng, Mouw Srríngand Wind Conc,mos (London: BBC.1978); and Mozarr. Piano Concerto in C nrnjor. K. 503. Norton Criticai Scores. ed. Joseph Ker man (New York: Norton. 1970). On 1he S}onphonies, see A. Pele r Brown. 'lhe First Colden Age of Ih.e VienneS< SJmphonr (above), a nd Neal Zaslaw, Mozart SJmphonies: Con rexi, Petform.anc, Practice. Receprion (Oxford: Cluendon. 1989). Smdies of individual symphonics includc Elaine Sismou. Mozart: 11,e ·Jupiter" SJmpltony. No. 4-1in C Major. K. 551 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 1993) . which npplies Ratner's thcory of topics. and Mozart. SJ11tphonrin C Minor. K. 550. Nonon Criticai Scores. ecl. Narhan Broder (New York: 1'!orton, 1967). For rhe o peras, sec Julian Rushto n, 77,e New Crave Cuide lO Mozarr ond //is Operos (Oxford: Oxfor d Univcrsiry Press. 2007): Mary Hunter. Mo:ari's Operas: A Companion (Ncw l laven: Yale University Press. 2008) and The Culture ofOper() Buffa in Mo,ari's Vie,ma ( Princeton: Princeron Univcr~iry f''rc63. 1?9?), Nicho l~,~ T'i ll , Mozart and th~ /:inlightenmen r: 'f'ruth , Virrtte, ond BcaUIJ'in Mozorl's Operas (New York: Norton, 1993); Danàel Heartz, Mown's Operas. ed . Thornas Bauman ( Berkeley; Un iversity o r Califor n ia Press.1990): Andrew Steptoe. The Mozart-Da Ponre Operas

pe rfo rmance, and reception. \Y/y e J. AJlaubrook, Rh)1ltmic Cesrure in Mozart: Le noz,e d, Figaro and Don C,ovanni (Chi cago: Chicago University Press. 1983). a pplies Ratners t beory o f to pies to the first two Da Ponte ope ras. Two stud ic.s on Lhe symbo1ism in Th,e Magic Flute in conncc .. rion with Vicnncse Precmasonry and Ma.sonic rituais are

Mathcus Franciscus Maria von dcn 8erk. The MaJ,'ÍC Flutel Zauberfl~te: An Alcliemira! ,Hlegorr ( Bos ton: Brill. 2004). an d Michael Besack. lli11icla Craft?: W. , L Mo,ari and rhe Mogicflure (Oakla nd: Regem, 200 1). M~ry Ou Mon, , 77le Mozart-Do Ponre Operas: AnAnnorored. Bibliograph)' (Wesl· port, CT: Grec nwood, 2000), is a good rcsearch guid c o n t he subject. On Da Pon te. see l\odney Bolt. 1ne Librettist ofVenice: 7110 Remarkable Life of Loren:o Da Ponte. Mo,ari's Poer. Casonova·s frientl. ll!ld llolian Opero·s lm presano in Americo (New York: Bloomsbury. 2006). For 1he Requiem. see Si mor> P. Keefe. Mowrr°s Requ.iem: Receprion. Work. Completion (Cambr idge: C:>m bridge Ui,i vcrsity Press. 20 12).

On performance pr:ietice. see Perspeciiveson Mozart Performance. ed. R. urry lodd o,nd Peter Williams (Cambridge: Camb ridge Un iversity l"ress. 199 1). ancl Frederick Neuma nn, Omamentatio,i árid Jn1pro11i-soti.or1 iri Mo:z.crt (Pr inceton: Princcton University Prcss. 1986). Mark Everis1. Mozarr's GhoslS: Ha,mting the Ha/Js of Mu.sical Culrure (Ncw York: Oxford Un ivcrsily Prcss. 20 13) . explores Mozart'• rcception and cndu ring leb"'cy. The standard collected edirion is che NeueAusgabe samtliclier Werke (Kassel: B~renrei1er. 1955-). An o lder cdirion of his works is Woljgang Amadeus Mozarr ·s Werke (Leipzig: Breitkopf & H<1n el, 1876- 1907; re pr. Ann Arbor: Edwards.1951- 56: repr. in miniatureformat NcwYork: Kalmus. 1969). The standard the matic catalogue is ludwig Kõchel. Chronologisch -1/tema.tioches V.,rieichnis (leipzig. 1862): 6th ed .. ecl. l'ram. Giegling. AlexanderWeinmann. and Cerd Si evers (Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & H~rtel. 1964). A good catalogue in Ei,gl ish is U lrich Konrad, Mo.ar,.

Cá1alo1JUe of His Wo,·ks: Compositions. Fragme,us. Sketclies. Arrongemenrs. Man uscript Copies. 'f'e:rr. 1rans. J. Brrtdfor d Robinson (Kassel: Bãrenreiter. 2006).

PART V, THE NINETEENTH CENTURY A new 1rearmenr thar pinces music in ics social í'lncl economk conte:<ts is \V::i her F'risch, Music in 1he Ninereenth Cenn,r:,· (New York: i'/onon. 20 12) , paired wirh hisA,u /10I-

ogrfor Music in rlte Nineteenih C,ntwy ( New York: No rton. 2012). Leon Plantinga. Romantic Mu.sic (NewYork: i'lonon . 1984), offers a comprehens ive survey, accomp, nied by

hisAnrholog:rofRomanric M11sic (NewYork: Norron. l9S4). Oriefer surveys incl ude Jon \V. l'inson , Nineieenrh -Cenl!ir:,• Mt,sic: 11,e Wesiem Clossicol Traditi~n (Uppcr Sadelle Ri ver, NJ: !'Tentice Hall. 2002): Rey M. Lan gyear . Ninetee111hCenti,r:,· Romonticismin M11~ic. 3 rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs. NJ : Prentice Hall.1988); anel Arnold Whirtall, Romontic Music: A Concise Hisror:,Jrom Schubert roSibelius (New York: Thames & Hudson, 1987). Carl Da.hlhaus. Níne1een rh Cen111r:,· Music. traus. J. Bradfor d Robiusou ( Berkeley; University oíCal ifo rnia Press. 1989). considers not ouly tbe rnus ic but criticism. ltistol'iography. :tnd soeio)og-i cal issues. Topical chapte rs by vnrious experts appear in H1eCambrtdge H,s1or:,·ofNin.e1een1li-Ce,uur:,· Mus,c. ed. Jim Samson (Cambr idge; Cambridge Un i\'ersily Press. 2001), and NOHM. vol. 9: Romaniícism (/830-1890). ed. Cerald Abraham (Oxford: Oxford University Prcss. 1990) . Fo,· cbronology. sce Charles J. Hall. ChronoloJD·ofW.stem Classiool Music. vol. 1: 1751- 1900 (i'lcw York: Roucledgc. 2002). for excelle m ess.1ys on the pollllcal. social. and

hístorical backgrounci of music centers in Europe and the Amcricas, see The Eariy- Roman1ic Era: Between Revolution.s. 1789 and 1848. cd. Alcxandcr Ringer (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prcnticc Hall.1991) . nnd 77ie Lale Roman.tic Erafrom rhe Mi4-19tli Centui;rto Worid Warl. cd.Jim Snmson (Englc wood Cli ffs. NJ: Prentice Hall. 1991). On lhe business nspects of composition , see l"rederic M. Scherer. Quoner/'lores ond 8onk Noies: '11te Economics ofMusic Composiiion in <he figlueen1l111nd Nineiee,uh Cenwries ( Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 2004). for rnusic in relntion to Ge .. man Cllhure and in tcllectual history. see Michael Steinberg, Lisiening 10 fle.,son: Culiure, S11bjecri,•ilr. ond Nin.e1ecrl1lt-C~11rur:,· Music (Pri nceton: Princeton Universiiy Press. 2004), anel Da,·id C ram it . Oulli,•111ing Music: ·11teAspira1w,s. ln reruts, o,td, Lim,rs ofGem,ort Musica!C.,llure. 1770-1848 (Berkeley: Uni"ersity or Cali íornia Press. 2002). On I be United Srates. sec Nicholas E. Tawa. High-Mindedand Low-Down: Mu.sic in.1/ielives ofAmericans. 1800-1861 ( Boston: Nonheastem Universiiy Press, 2000). A source book for the musical vocabu.lal'}' ofthe pe riod

is Leonard C. Ratner, Romannc Muõic: Soun.d and Syn1ar (New York: Schirmer. 1992). One thrcad of musical style. l he Hllngarion o r Cypsy style. is cxplored by Jonathon Bcllman. The S1yle Hongrois in 1/te Music of Westem Europe (Boston: Northeastern Un iversiry Prcss. 1993). On music rheory oí rhe 1ime. see ,l fosic 'l'heoryin 1/ieAge of Romonlicism. ed. lan Ben1 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers i,y Prcss. 1996), anel David \V. Bernstein , "Nine1cenrh Cenn1ry Hormonic Theory: Thc Ausiro-Cerman Legacy,in CH\VMT, 778- 8 11 . Christopher Alan Reynolds. M<>tives for Allusion: Conicxt and. Conten.t in Ni,,eteenth-Cenrur:, · Music (Cambridge. MA: Harvar d University Press. 2003), providcô a theoretic,tl írolme-work for mu~ical .,llu~io11~ i n nineteenih-cen tury music, when one piece cruo,es or

echoes ano1her. On perfo rmi ng p ractice. see Cli"e Brown . Classicol and Romanric Peiformirlg Pracrice 1750-1900. under Pan IV above.

A59

An essenrial stylistic fean1re of nineteen1h -cenn1ry music is rhe vari:i1ion in rempo known :i.srubaio; 3 hislOryof its d evel opmem is Richard Hudson.Siolen Time: 11,e Hisl(Jr:,·of Tempo Ruba10 (Oxford: Clarendon. 1994) .

Chapter ~4: Revo lution on<I Change French Re,·oluuon On music in 1he Revolutionary era. see L:1urn Mnson. Singing rlte 1-'rench Revolt,1ion: Popula r Ci,lru.re an-d Poli riu. 1787-1799 ( lthaca. NY: Cornell University Press. 1996); Musicortd tlle Fre,,cl, Rev0l111ion, ed. Malcolm Boyd (Ca1nbridge; Cambridge U11ivers ity Press. 1992); and Jean Mo ngréd ien, french Musicfron, the Enligl,wnmenl ro Romanticisn>: 1789-1830 (Portland. OK: Am:ideus. 1996).

Ludwig van Beethoven Of the numerous Beethoven ~ioi;raphies. 1he best recent oncs are Lewis Lockwood. Bwhoven: 71., Music and tlte Li/e (New York: Norton. 2003): Barry Coopcr. B,ethoven (Oxford; Oxford Uni"crsity Prcss. 2000): David Wyn Joncs. 77ie LljeofBeerhovcn ( New York: Combrtdge Unlvers lty Press. 1998), a shon bioguphy; and Mayn,rd Solo mon, Bee1/toven. 2 nd rev. ed. (NewYork: Schirmer, 1998), which has many origi t»I intcrpretations. William Kinderman. Beethove-n (Berkeley: Uni"crs ity ofCalifornia Press.1995). trcals lhe mus icnl works in a b iograph ical conl ext. Tin DcNor a. Beethoven and lhe Constn,ction ofGenius: Mu,i<aL Politics i.n Vienna.1792-1803 ( Berkeley: Universi,y ofCnlifornia Press. 1995), foc11ses on Beerhoven's crucial li rst d ec., de in Vienna. A 11seíul guide 10 8eerhoven's liíe, backgrouncl. inílucnce.s. and musie isThe Beeihove,i C.Ompe,idium: ACuide ro 8t$tho,•en's Life arld ,\fosic. etl. Barr-y Cooper (London: Thames an<l Hudson, 1991). A clMsic biography is AJexande r Wheelock Thayer, Life of8ee1hoven. rev. and ed. Ell iou Forbes ( Princeton: P rin ce,0 11 Universily l'ress. 196•~). Beethovefl: The f'ors1 8iogropl1r, 1827. is a recent edi1 ion o f lhe fust Beelbo"en biograp hy. by Joba.nnAloys Schlosser. trans. Reinhard C. Pa1tly. e<l . Barry Cooper (Portland. OR: Amadeus. 1996). Ahho ugh tbe truthfulnes.s o f Schlosser"s account is questionable . i1 provides a. contemporary view of Beethoven as pe rson and

anist. The sarne ca n be said íor Amon Schind ler. Beethoven as I Knew Him. ed. Dona/d W. MacArdle. trans . Cynlhfa S. Jolly (Ncw York: Norlon. 1972: rcpr. Mincola. NY: Dove r. 1996). See also Beelho,·en: lmpressions by llis Contempc, raries. cd. Oscar C. Sonncck (New York: C. Schirmer. 1926: re pr. Ncw York: Dover. 1967). Russell Martin. Beerhoven's

flair: An E:xrraordinar:,· Historical OdJ~serand a Musical M1-s1er:,·Soli,ed (l..ondon: Bloomsbury. 2000) . conclud-e s aírcnesting a lock orBeer hoven's hairiha a he died from le:><l poisoning. Hclpful cssays on Beethoven a ppear in 71,e Cambridge Companion 10 8,.et/10,•en. cd. Clcnn Stanley (Cambridge: Cambridge- Unive-r~ity f're~~. 2000}, B~çthovçn rmd Jli.."i

World, ed. Scou G. Burnham a nd Michael P. S1einberg (Princeto n; Pr ir,ce1o r1 Unive rs i1y Press, 2000); and Maynnrd Solomo n. Bceil10ven F.ssaJ~ (Ca111bridge. MA: Har vard University Press, 1988).

A60

For l'urth e r He adiug

Daniel Hcarn. Mozan. lfardn and Eai-lr Beethoven. 1781- 1802. and Charles Rosen . Tlie Classical Sirle: Hardn. Mozart. Beethoven. discuss Beethoven's music in relation to chat or Haydn and Mozart. Fo r analyrical approachcs, sce espccially C.rl Dahlhaus, Ludwigvon Bcerhovcn: Approache.s to /Tis ,\fosic, trans. Mary Whi tto ll (Oxford: O,ford University Press.1991): Robert Hatten . Musice/ Meoni.ngin Reelhoren: Markedness. Correlation. and lnterpretarion (Bloomington: Indiana Universily l'ress, 199-1-); and J'red Evereu Maus, "Musicas Ora ma ." Mu.sic '/neo,,-Specrrwn 10 (1988) : 56-73. The analysisgiven bere of Beethove,l'sEroica Sym 11bouy. r,rst mo"ement. though different iri rnany respec1s, draws on Philip G. Oowus. "Beetboven·s 'New Way" and tbe Eroica." MQ 56 (October 1970): 585-604. as well as on an:ilyses byThomas Sipe. Beet/10,-en. Eroica S11npl1on, ·. aud Stephen Rumph. Bee1l,o,,en.After Napoleon (see below). On political works by Beetho"en . and lheir iníluence on bis otbcr music. see Nicbolas Matthcw. Political Beerho,••n (Cambridge: Cambridge Un;"crsity Prcss. 2013).

For Fu d her Readi ng

On the stringcruartets. see Lewis l.ockwoocl e, ai., lnside 8ee1hoven·s Qi,aners: His1ory, Pe,fon11once. lnrerpreta1ion (Cambridge. MA: H3r\'O rd Universi,y Press. 2008) : TheSttirtgQuar1etsof8eetho11e11. -ed. William Kinderman (Urbana: Univers it_y of llliuois Press, 2006): Leona rd Ratner, 171e Beethoven String Quo rters: Compositíonal Strategies 011d Rltetoric (Stanforcl. CA: SL11, ford , 1995); 77le Beethoven Qu.orr.ei Compo,,io,,, ed . Rober1 Wimer and Robert Mariin (Berkeley: Unive rs ity ofCalifom ia Press. 1994-); and Joseph Kerman . 71,e Beeil,oven Qu.arrets (New York: Knop f. 1967: repr. Norlon.1979). Oiscussions of Beethoven·s symphonies within the la rger sty listic contexts o f bis time can be found in A . Peter Brown, 77le 1-irst Colden Age of the V1ennese SJn•phonr: Hardn. Mozart. Bee1hoven . cnd Schuben: Mark Evan

Bonds. Mu~i~as Though1: Lisleningto the SJ111phonyin lhe Age o/Beethoven (Princcton: Princelon Uni\'ersity Press. 2006): Da\'icl \Vyn Joncs. The Srmplwnr in Beethoven's

miniature formar New York: Kalmus, 1971): works omiucd from rhis edirion are in SupplementemrGesa.mrousgabe. ed. Willy Hess (\Viesbaden: Breitkopf & H~nel, 1959-). Thc rrsditional cou nt and numbering of' Beethoven ·s S)'mphonics ::ind orhcr genres orni, cc11ai11 composi1ions, such M his .. BattleSymphony"' (also titled llil?llington·s Victory: Op. 91. 1813). several early J>i• no sonatas. ond n piano concerto of 1784. ln the standard thematiccatalogue of Beelhoven·s music. Das Werk Beethove11.s (Mu nich. 1955). Georg Kinsky and Hans Halm list his Opp. 1- 136 followed by 204 works hbeled "Woo·· (Werl: olmeOpu.su,.1,l~work witbout opus number); additional materfa] is inS,udien.w,d Ma,e.rialie.n :mm Wt!ri·..vtneicl'i ,,is l-'Oll Ki.nskr.. ffalni , e<l. Kurt Oorfmüller ( Muo ich: Heale. 1979). A uumber of addltional worksare listed io Willy Hess. Veneichnisdernichr in der Ces«mtousgahe ver/!Jfe111/iclucn Werl.:e Ludwigv,rn Bee1/,o.,ens [index of\Vorks by Ludwig van Beethoven Nol in lhe Colleeted Edition] (\Viesbaderi. 1957). updated and ,rans. James f'. Greeo as 11,eNew He,s CatalogoJBeeihoven's Worl.:s (\Vcst Newbury. vr: V:uice Brook. 2003) . For Beethovc1>'s lcttcrs. sec The l.erters o/Beethoven. 3 vais.. rrans. and ed. Em lly And e rson (NewYork: S1. Manin"s, 1961; repr. London: Macmillan , 1985). and l.etters 10 Bteihoven and Other Corresponden<e, 3 vols., ed . ond rr•ns. Thcodorc Albrecht (Lincoln: University oíNcbraska Prcss. 1996). On Bccthove1i"s autogra phs. sketchcs. and s kclch · books. see Douglas Johnson. Alan Tyson, anel l\obert \Vinrer, The Beethoven Sl:eichbool:s: /Jisrory·. Reconsiruc1ion, and lnvenrory· (Berkeley: Universi1y or Cal iíornia Press. 1985). and Lewis l..ockwood, 8eeihoven: St11dies in 1/,e Creorive Process (Cambridge. MA : Har"ard Univers.ity Press. 1992). Sketehes ora siugle eorn1>osition are exl,aus tively treated in Robert Winter. Composi1ional Origins of Bectltoven's Opus 131 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research, 1982). Sketches for lhe EroiC-O. Symphony anel ol herworksare published in 8eethoven·s ..f:roica" Skeichbook: A Criticai Edi1io,1. tra.nscribed. edhed, and witb a com mentary by Lewis Lockwood aud Alan Gosman (Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 2013). A copious. scholarly, and up-to-date online bíbliogrophy is '/7le Becrhoven Bibliography Da1abase, avai l:thle ar "~"'•-sj su .org/ depl.s/ beerhoven/ darabase/ data base. lum 1.

A61

of Romanric Gc nius. see James H. Donclan. Poetry·a.nd the Romantic Mrr.sicalAesthe1ic (Cambridge: Combridge Un iversity Press. 2008): Abigoil Chontler, E. T. A. llojfma,.n·s ,\1,,sicalAestherics (Alclershot: Ashgare. 2006): and Ch~rles l\osen , Romanric Potts, Orirics and Other Afod,nen (Cam bridge, MA: Harvard Univcrs ity Prcss. 1998). Rosen·s The Ro,Mntic Ceneraiion (Ca mbridge. MA: lfarvarcl University Press. 1995). combinesa study of musical fo rms and styles oí composers active in lhe 1830s with an explo.a1ion of1 he altitudes and literary background of Romant.i cism. Excerpts frorn the RomanLic writers Jeal\ Paul ~nd

\Vilhelm Wackenroder appear in SR 148- 149 (6:1- 2). E. T, A . Hoffmann's writingson music arccollectecl in E. T. A. Hoffmann·s ,lfosici>! Wruínb'" Kreisleriana. 11,e Poetand t/,e Composer. MusicCriticísm. ed. David Charhon. trans. Martyn Clarke (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1989). anel his famous essay on Beetho"en is excerpted in SB 160 (6:13).

Buihoven°f Píano Sonaras:A Shon Companion (New Haven: Yale Unlversity Press, 2002): Ken neth Drake. The Beethoven Son-0tas ondthe Oreative Expuieno-e (Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2000): Timothy Jones. Beerhoven: The ..Moonlight "and 01/ier Sonata,. Op. 27 and Op. 31 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press. 1999): Donald Francis Tovey. A Companion ro Beeihoven·s Pianofone Son(llas: Bar-by-harAnalJ~is. preface • ncl notes by Bmy Cooper (London: Associated Board of 1he Royal Schools oíMusic. 1998): o.nd George 83rlh, The Pionis1 as Ora1or: Beethoven and the Trc111s/ormatior1 of Keyboard S1,-le (hh•ca. NY: Cornell University Prcss, 1992). ElaineSisman . "J'athosoncl the Pothétique: 11hetori-

Vtennc (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsiiy Prcss. 2006): and Richa rd Will. 771e Charocteri.sticSJ111pho11yi11 theAge of Haydn ond Beethoven (Cambridge: Cambridge Universuy Press, 2002). Cu ides ro s pcctrre symphontes tnclude Thomas Sipc. Beethoven, E'roicaSrmpho11r(Ncw Y01·k: Cambridge University Prcss, 1998): Oovid Wyn Jones, Buthoven, PMtoralSpnphony(NewYork: Cambridge University Press. 1995): Nichob s Cook. Beethove,., SJ111plio11y No. 9 (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1993): and Oa,•icl Benjamin Lery. Beethoven: 11it Nintl, s,mphOrt)', rev. ecl . (New Ha"en: Yale University Press. 2003). The prern iere of 1he Ninth Symphony is desc.-ibed in Thornas forrest Kelly. Hrsr Nights: Five M1mcal Premi,res (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2000). 108- 79. 1-·o r Beethoven·s concertos. see Leon Pla ntinga. Bee1l1ove,1·s Concer1os: History·. St:,--le. Perfomiance (New York: Norton. 1999) : Robin Stowell . Beetl,oven: Violi11 Concerlo (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1998): and Antony Hopkins. 11..eSevenConcert.osofBeet.ho,,en (Brookf,eld. Vf: Ashi,'lllC. 1997). On llcethovcn's songs. scc Pml l\eid. The Bwho,,,n Song Companion (Manchester. UK: Manchester IJniversity Press. 2007). On 1he hisrory of rhe songcycle from Beethoven to rhe presen1, see L,uro Tunbridge, The SongCJ~I• (Cambridge: Combridgc Univcrsiry J>rcss, 2011). On Bccthovcn·s la1e pcriod. sec Stephen Rumph. BeethovenAJter Napoleo11: Politfoal l!omantfoism in tlte late Works <Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press. 2004). anel May,1ard Solomon. late Beethov~n: Music. 1Jiougltt. lmagina tion (Berkeley: Ur1iversiryofCalifomia Press. 2003). who argues rhar Beethoven·s late works reílecr changes in his beliefs nbout nature, the divine~and bumanity ::ts recorded in his daily diary. The swndard edition of Beetho"en's complete works is NeueAusgi>bc samtlfolterWerkc, ed . Joseph Schmidt-Gorg anel ~fartin Staehelin (Munich: HenDe. 1961-); ira latervolurnes.

,.,1St.-mçe in UeethoYenº,5 C- Minor Sonata, Op. 13,'" 8cc1!10~-cn

1hc oamc of ihe ed it ion iósivcn aaDe.t:,ho,,cn. lf'erlit:. ,,nd

Romanticüm

1?58). John D,1ve rio. Cro~~ini fbth,1; Sch 11"1:rt. Schumann..

Porun, 3 (1994), 81-105, explains lhe aesrhecic background to the PothétiqueSonata. Tilman Skowronec.k. Beethoven tl,e Pionisr (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010). examines Beethoveu's developm enl as a performer.

lhe general ed iiors are Siegha,·dl Branden burg and Ernst Herttrich. The (u-st such editioo was Ludwigvan Beethovens Werke. 24- series and supp. (Leipzig: Brcitkopí & Hartel. 1864-90: repr. Ann Arbor: ]. W. Edwards. 194-9: repr. in

John Daverio. Nin.eteenlh -Century' Musicand the Gennan Ro111on1ic ldeolog,- (New York: Schi rmer. 1993). places nmsic in the context of the Bomantic movemem in Germany. On the aestherics oi' Hom:mc icis1n ~mel ,he concepi

and Brahms (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2002). is a stUdyof the conneccions be1ween an and life of rhree major Romantic composers. For- general overviews of Sclltlbert's Lieder, see John

The reception o f BeCLhovcn·s work in and shon.ly after bis lifetlme Is consldered in Robin \Vallace. Beeihoven's

Critics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). A compilation and discussion of writings on Beethoven in Gcrman pcriodica.ls in the yc:irs 1783- 1820 op1>cars in The Critica! Reception of Beetl,oven's Compo,ition, hr lfis Gem,anContemporaries. ccl. William Mcredith. Wa)"1C M. Senncr. anel l\obin Wallacc (Lincoln : University ofNebraska Press. 1999). Scott Bumham, /ke1/,o,•en flero (l'rinceton: Jlrinceton Universi,y J'ress. 1995) . discusses the culniral value orBeethoven's heroic styleand its criticai recepiion. Alessandra Cornini traces 1be de"eloping mythology about Beethoven tlu-ougb art aud literature in 11leChangirig lmage of Beetltoven: A St11dr in MJtlimaki11g (Santa Fe. CA: Sunstone Press. 2008). On his American crilics. seeOro Frishberg Salo,nan. BeetltO\'en sSympl,onies and}. S. Dwigltt: 'li1e Birt/1 ofAmcrioon Music Cnric,sm (Boston: No i1heasterri Urriversity Press. 1995). Michael Broyles. Beerl,oven rrt Amenca (Bloorni,1gton: Indiana Uni"ersity Press. 2011). charts thc growing preseoce of Beethoven"s music in the United States and its impact on popubr culture. For Beethoven·s piano works~see Charles Rosen ,

Chapter ~5: The Romantic Generation: Song and Piano Music Thr Pia.no anel lhe Markct for M11s1cOn ,he piano. sec chaptcr 22 abovc. espccially James Parak;Jas ecai.. Piano Roles. 011 social and business ospecrs of music. see The farlr Romannc Ero. ed. Alexander Ringer: Hem)' Roy,1or, Music and Societ)' since 1815; anel Fred e ri e M. Schercr. QuarrerNotes and BartkNoies. ali under Pon V /llbove.

On absolute and pro~ram music in the ninelccnth

century. see Daniel K. L. Chua.Abso!111e Mu,ic cnd tlte Construction ofMeaning (Cambridge: Cam bridge Un i· verst,y Press. 1999): Carl Dahlhaus. The ldea ofAbsolwe Music, trans. Boger Lusrig (Chicago: Universiry ofChicago Press, 1989): ond Berrholcl Hoeckn er, Progrommingthe Absol11te: Nineieentli· Century·German .lfusic and. the lfenne neutics ofthe Momeni ( Princcton: Princcto n Univc rsity

Prcss. 2002) .

The Lied For overviews of rhe Lied. see 77ie Cambridge Componion to the Lied, ecl. James Parsons (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni "ersiry Prcss. 2004). and Genn,m Lieder· in ihe Nineieeiuh Cer1tury: 2nd ed .• cd. Ruíus Hallmo,·k (NcwYo,·k: Routledge, 2010). Lawrence D. Snyder. Genno11 Poerry·in Song: An lnde.t ofL~dcr (Berkeley: Falle11 Leaf, 1995). is an index to 9,800 Liecler composed si nce 1770.

Franz Schuben Recent stud ies or Schube,ú liíe and music include Bria n Newbottld. Schubert: 71,e Music ond t.he Man (Berkeley: Uuiversity of Callfornia Press. 1997): Jolu1Reed. Schubert . 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford Unlversily Press. 1997); E:liUlbeth Norman McKay. F'ranz&hubert:A Biography(Oxford : Clarendon. 1996): and Christopher H. Cibbs. "lhe LifeofSchuberr (Cambridge: Cambridge Univen,ity Press. 2000) . a brieí biography. See also The Cambridge Componion to Schubert. ed. Gibbs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1997) . Da\'id Schroeder. OurSchubert: His foduring l ega.cr ( Lao· ham. MD: Scarecrow. 2009) . examiL1es Schubert through the eyes of contemporaries and later generarions. Ori1,ónal sources ore in The Schuben Reader: A Ufe of Franz Sch11ben in Lerrersand Documems. cd. Otto E. Dcuisch , tr3ns. Eric Blom (Ncw York: Norton. 1947), ond Schubert: Men,oirsby flis Priends. ed. Otto E. Dcutsch (London:A. and C. Black.

A62

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

For Fu d her Readi ng

Reed. TheSchuhert SangCompanion (New York: Universe. 1985). 3nd Michael Ha ll. Schuhen 'sSongSets (Aldersho1. Engbnd: Ashgare. 2003) . For ,he culniral contexr of Sch11ben·s songs. sec Susan Yo11cns. Schuberts late Lieder: 8eyond theSo11gCyele (Kew Yo,·k: Cambridge Universi,y Press, 2002), and J_,wrence Kr"mer, fl-oniSchubert: Se,,,. alit)', S11hjectiei1:,-. Song (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998). Othe rnota blestuélies inclmle Sterling L,mbert. Re-Reodi11g Poetryc Schubert's MultipleSetti11gs o/Goethe (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell. 2009); Susa.n Youens,Schubcn's Poeis tutd rhe Making ofUeder (Cambridge: Camb riclge UtLiversity Press, 1996): Richard Kramer. Diswnt Gycles: &lwbert and 1heC011ceiv,ngofSor1g (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, l994); Marjorie Wiug Hirsch, Sclu,bert 's Drama tu: Lieder (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Susan Youeos, Schubert, D,e scltMe Mit/lcrm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and Youens, Reiraci ng a 117inier's Joumer Scl11•ber1:, Wi nterreise (1 thaca, NY: Corncll Uuivcrsity Prcss.1991}. Krislina Muxfcldt. Vani.hing Sensibilities: Sclwbe/1 . .Beetlwven. &humann (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrs il)' Prcss. 2:011). examines songs and operas by Scbuben and sonbrs by Schumann . amongothe r works. in rhe comext ofVienn:11.mder :1 clim:l te of censors hip. Schuberts m:inuscript for lli'inrerrei..se is avail:'lble in facsimile: Franz Schubert. Winrerreise: 111eAutograph Score. with an introduction by Susan Youcns (Ncw York: Picrpont Morgan Library witb Dovcr. 1989). On the piano music. consult Charles f'is k. Retuming Cycles: Co111erts for 1l1e lnterpreiarion ofSch uberi lmpromptuS and L.astS01101os ( llerkeley: University ofCaliíornfa Press. 2001). f'o r Sclmbe ,ú orchestral , nd ebamber music, see chapter26. The modern c1·itical edition ,:,f Schuber1·s collected wo1·ks is NcucAl<sgabesan11ticl1cr Werke, ed. Walther Do,·r el ai. ( Kassel and New York: B/lrenreirer, 1961,-). A11 earlier edit ion is Kritiscl, durchgesc'1encCesanuausgabe, ecl, Eusebius Mandyczewslci et ai. (Leipzig: Breitkopí & H~rtel. 1888-97: repr. New York: Dover. 1964- 69; in miniature formal New York: Kalmus. 1971}. 21 series in 41 vols .. 10 separate Revisionsbericht.e. Thc Lieder are also publisbed in

Press. 2007). Sce also Daverio. Crossi11g Paths: Sr.'1ubm, Sclumio11n. and 8m'1ms (above); L1ura Tunbridge and Roe-Min Kok. Rethi11ki11g Sclw>»ann (Kcw York: Oxford Universi,y Press. 201 1); and TTieCombridgeComponion IO Schwua,v1, ed. Bea,e Pe ,·rey (C:unbriclge: Can,bridge Univcrsity Press, 2007), On rhythm in Schumann·s music, see Harald Krebs. PanJM)" Pieces: Metrical Dissona11ce in 1l1e Mttsicofl!obertSch11ma11n (New York: Oxfo rd University Press, 1999). Schumann's writings are examinecl in l..eon Plantinga. Sclwmann as Critic (New Haven; Yale University Press. 1967). and excerpls are in SR 157 (6:10), iucludingltis famous appreciation of Brahms , "New Patbs" (1853).

a complete editio n by C. F. Peters in 7 vols. The tbemalic cata loi;ue is Schubert: A 1ncmarieCatalogue of His Worl.·s h)'

ch,pter 26. The tirs1eollecced ed irion w.,s Robm Schtmtanns Werl.:e (Leipzig: Breitkopf & H3rtcl. 1881- 93; repr. in minia· h lrc formal Kew York: Kalmus . ll97l).A ncw edition is in progrcss: Robert Schumann: Neue Ausgahe slim!licher Werke. ecl. Al;o Mayedo. Klaus \Volfgang Niemollcr. and mhers ( Maini: Schon. 1991-). Por a 1he ma,ic cai,logue. see Roben Schunt.(urn: Themo.fisches Veneichnissanulicher im. Druck erscliienen.eil mtLSikali-schen Werl·e. ed. Kurl Hofím:.m and Siegmar Keil. 5th e<l. ( Hamburg: Schubenh, 1982).

Deutsch (londo11: Dem. 1951): rev, and trans, by\Valthcr Dürr ct ai. ~s Franz Schubert: Thematisches Verzeichnis seicner Werke in chronologi,scher Folgevon Ouo Erich Deutsc/1( Kasscl: Borcnrcitcr. 1978).

Roberl Sclu,m a n n For an inrroduction to Schumann·s li fe and work. see John Daverio, Roben SchtnMnll: flem!d of a '·Ne-w Poe1ic Age"' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 01her biographies include Eric Frederick Jensen.Schumonn, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012): Michael Musgrave. Thc Lifc o/Sch11<mann (Cil mbridgc. Cambridge Univcr~ity Press. 201 1); Peter f'. Ostwald. Sclwmorm: 1nc lnner Voicesof e1 Musico! Gen ius. 2nd ed. (Bos1011: Norrheas1el'n UniverS ÍI)' Press. 2010) : and John Wor1hen. llober1Schumo11.n: Lifeand Deail, of a Mr,,sician (New Haven: Yale University

His rel:itionsbip wiLb Cl:i.r:1 Schumann and thei r Hves io

music are brought to liíe in '/ncComplcte Corrcspondcnce o/Cloro ond RobertScl,u,na11n, ed . Eva Weissweiler, 1r:u1s. Hildegard Fritsch and Ronald L. Crawford (New York: P. Lang. 1994-). and The Marrioge Diaries ofRobertand Clara &huniann: From Their Wedding Dax tltrougl, the Russia Trip. cd. Gcrd Ncul,aus. irans. Pctcr Osrwald (Boslon: No nh· caslcm University Press. 1993). Srudtes of Schumann's Lleder rnclude Jon \'1/. Frnson. Roben Scltumnnn: The Bool: ofSongs (Cambridge, MA: Harva rd Univcrsity Prcss, 2008); 8ca1c Julia Pcrrcy, Schuman,i's Dichterliebe ond Eorly Romanti,c Poeiics: Fragmentation of Desire (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer· sity Press. 2002); David f'e rris.Schumann's f:ichendorff Lied.erkreis and rl,e Genre of the Romantic Cycle (New York: Oxford Uni,•ers i1y l'ress, 2000); EricSams, 71,eSongsof Robe,·tSchum011n, 3rd ed. (Bloomingion: Ind iana University Press. 1993); and Rufus Ha ll mark, The Genesis of Schumonn's Dic/11er/iebe: A SourceSiud,- (Aun Arbor: UMI Research, 1979). See also Muxfeldt, Vani~l,ingSensibitiries. under Schubert above. On Schumaon·s piano music :.nd its intinHtle associaeion \\'11 h li1eta1 u,·e. see Erika R,ei man. Scli l1ma,tn·s Piaoo Cyclesa,1d rhe No.,els o/Jean Paul (Rocbester, NY: University of Rocbestcr Press, 2004). Nic.bolas Marston.Sclmmann. Fantasie. Op. 17 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 1992). offers an intensivestudy aí an extended work. forSchumann·s orchestral and chamber mus ic, see

Cloro Schumann Sec Nancy B. Rcich. ClaraSchumonn: TheArtisrondthe

Srepl,en Foster

f'ann)' Mendelssobn: Rethinking Peminisl BiOb"ªPhy."'

On FoS1er. see Ken Emerson. Doo-dah!: Stephe11 Foster ond. ihe Rise ofAmerica" PopulorCuln,re (New York: Simon & Schus>cr. 1997). and William W. Aus1in, --susanna:· "jeoni.e:· oncl ··11te Old Pol.ksot flome'": TI1eSo11gsofSieplien C. Fosierfrom lfisTimeMOurs, 2nd ed. (Urbana: Univcrsity of Illinois Press. 1987). l'Or bibliogrn11hy, consult Calvin Elliker, Stephe11 Collins Foster: A Cuide lo llc.search (New York: Garland, 1988) .

19,h-Cenrury· Mus,c 26 (Fali 2002): 11 3- 29. argues 1hat

Mu.sic.for Piano See Nineiee,11/1-Gentu?· Piano 1\fosic. 2nd e<l., ed. R. Lirry Todd (New York: Routledge, 2004), For piano music by Schubert. Robert Schumann. and Clar3 Schum:tnn, see above. R. Allen Lou, From Parisro Peoria: How f:uropeari Piano V.rt!4osos 8rougltt Classicol Mus1c to theAmencon Ueartlànd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), recoun1s the

North American concert tours of legendary pianistssuch as Leopold de Mcyer. Henri Herz, Sigismund Tbalberg. Anton Rubinsteiu. and Hans von Bü.Jow.

Fel,x Afc11del,coh n A m3gisterial biography is R. Larry Todd, Mendelsso/111.: A Life in Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003). Otber biographies incl11de Clive Brown .A Portrait ofMendelssohn (Ncw Ha"en; Yale University Press, 2003): Pbilip Radcliffc, Mendelssolin. rev. cd. Pclc r \Vard Joncs (Oxford: Oxford Unjversity Press. 2000): Pctcr Mcrccr·T3_ylo r. The UfeofMendelsso/111 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsily l'ress. 2000): and Roger Nichols, Me11delssohn Remembered (London: f'abcr & l'aber, 1997), which highligh1s primary clocumcn1s. For his eorrcspondcnce. scc Fel.~ Mendelssohn: A life i,1 Leuers, ed. Rudol f Elvers, rrttns. Craig1'01lllinso11 (NcwYork: Fromm lnternational , 1986), 1neCambridge Componion to Mendclssohn, ed, Peter Mercer -Taylor (NewYork: Combridge University Press. 2004), ond Tlie Mendelssolm C'.ompo,uon, ed. Oougloss Seaton (Westport, CT: Creenwoocl, 2001), include articles on thecomposer, his li1nes, and his works in individual genres. R. Larry Todd, Mendelssoltn J::ssaJ~ (New York: Routledge, 2008), is a collection of essays by lhe lead ing Mendelssolrn scbolar, Por bibliograpby, see j ohn Mich•el Cooper, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy: A Research and lnformation Cuide, rev. and enl3rged by Angela R. Mace (New York: Routledge. 20l0) . For Mendelssohn·s orchestral and cbamber music. see chapter 26. Thc modem criticai edilion is úipziger A1tsgabe d,r Werke. cd. lntcrnatioualc f'clix· Mendclssobn Cescllscha ft ( Leipzig: Dcutschcr Verbg fü r Musik. 1960- ). The lirs1 r.ompleie works edirion was rhe Kritisch durchgeseheneAusgabe (Leipzig: Brei1kopf & H~ncl, 1874-77: ,repr. Farnborough, Englancl: Cregg lmcrnolion>I, 1967; milli3 · ture f'ormat New York: Kalm11s, 1971). 19 series in 35 vols.

Woman, rcv. ccl. (lth.:1<;a. NY; Corncll Univc r~ity r rc~.s.

Fanny Hensel

2001). anel Joan Chissell. Clara Schumann. a Dedicated Spirit: A S11Ld)'of Iler Lifeond Work ( London: Hamihon. 1983). For her correspond ence ., nd diaries wilh Roben Scbtnnann , see above.

See I\. Larry Todd . Pan ny 1/ensel: The Other Mendelssohn (Oxford: Oxford Universiiy Press. 2010), and l'rançoise Til lnrd. Fcmny Mendclssolin ( Ponland. OR: Amadeus. 1996). Marian Wilson Kimber, º''l'he 'Suppression' of

A63

llensel was be11cr supporied as • compose r by her brorher anel fom ily 1han has bccn belicved. For more on Hcnsd , scc Todd, Men-delssolm f:ssors (abovc), and Fanny Mcndels sohn Hcnsel, The /,etters o[Fa11nr Hensel 10 Feli,,· Mendelssohn, ed. and trans. Moreia]. Citron (Sruyvesant. NY: Pendragon. 1987). Dos falir is available in a modern ed ition, l'nnny Hensel- Mendelssohn. Das)C<hr: l2Charalrterstllckefardas forie-Piono , 2 vols .. ed. Liana Gavrila Serbescu and llarbara Heller (Kassel: l'urore, 1989). andina color reproducrion of rhe f,ua.l fai r copy, Fanny Heusel. Das falir: ZwõlfClwra· kterstacke (184/) fardas fimepi,mo. lllustrier&e Reinschri/1 mil Zeichn ungen von Willielm Hern;el (11,e Year: Twelve Chara-cter l'ieces (1841) for fortepiono. lllustrated fairCoprwuh lllustrntio,,s br Wilhelm He,,sel], facsimile ed. with epilogues by Beatrix Borchar<l, Ayako Su&ra- Maack. and Christian T ho rau (Kassel: l'urore. 2000). Marian Wilson Kimberoríers a new view of lhe work basedon the faircopy. in "Fanny Hcnscl's Scasons of Life: Poctic Epígrams. Vignctlcs . .and Me3ning in Dasjahr. • /oumal o[.lfusu:ou,b,ical Research 27 (2006): 359-95. 'rhe songs are ca13Jogued tn Annene Mau rer, Thema tiscl,es ~neiclmis der klavierbeglei.teten Sololieder Fanny Hern;els ( Kassel: FuroTe, 1997). For a rese>reh gu ide, sce John Michael Cooper, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy: A Cuide to Research. witlt an lntroducti--On to Researclt Conceming Fann,- lfe11sel (Ncw York: Routlcdge. 2001).

Fryderyk Cltopin The si,ndard srudy is Ji m Samson, Chopi11 (New York: Oxford Universi1y Press, 1996). Perspectives from his ,:,wn rime a,·e gathcred in Pierre H. Azoury.Cl1opi111hro11gh Hi.s Co,11emporaries: Prie,tds, Love,i, aru!Rivals (\Vestport, CT: Creenwood, 1999), and Jean·J•c<rues Eigeld inger, Chopin: Pianisl ond Teocher as &en by His Pupils. trans. K.rysia Ososto,~ics and Naomi Shoher. ed. Roy Howat (C.1mbr;dge: Cambridge Uni,·ersity P,·ess, 1987). On íhe 111usical environmem du ,·ingChopin'syoutb and education in Pola'1cl, see Halina Coldberg. ,\fosic in Cl,opin's Warsaw (Oxl'o rd: Oxford Universily Press. 2008). ForChopin's musical liíe in Paris !L.nd lhe culturaJ and sociaJ enviroume.m of tbe c.ity. see William Atwood, 7ne Parisian Chopm (New Ha,•en: Yole Universi1y l'ress. 1999), and Tad Szulc, Chopin ,n Paris: 1he Life and nmes ofthe Romonric Composer (New York: Da Capo, 2000). Recent studiesof Chopin io his times are in 71,e Age a/Chopin: lnterdi.sciplinary· lnquiries. ed. Halina Colclhcr·g (Bloomingtou: Indiana Univcrsity Prcss. 2004). Scealso Chopin'sSelected Correspond,mce. cd. and trans. Artbur Hcd · ley (London: Heinemann. 1962). On Chopin's music, seeJohn S. Rink, C/1opin: 771e Piano Co11cenos (Cambridge: Cambridge Universil)• Press, 1997): Jcffrcy Kallbcrg, Chopin 011he Boundaries: Sex, fli.sto?·, and Music<1I Cenre (Cambridge, MA: Harvnrd University Press, 1996); TheCombridge Componio,110 Chopin. ed. Jim Samson (C,lmbricl~. C.1mbridge Uni,•c.r~ity rrcM. 1??2) • .,ncl

Chopin, Preludes, Op. 28. Norton Criticai Scores. ed. Thomns Higgius (New Yo,·k: Norton, 1973) . Por bibliography. see Will iam Smialek, PrédéricCltopi,1:A Cuide to Reseorch (New York: Carland. 2000),

A64

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

The modem criticai editio n is Complete Worl<s. ed. Jan Ekier (Cracow: Polskie \Vydawn. Muzycine. 1967- ). The flrst was his IIYerl<e, 14 vols. (Leipzig: Brei tkopf & H~rtel. 1878-80: supplcmems •nd reports, 1878- 1902), cata logued inAn Annoroted Coialog,,,e o/C/1opin's Firs1 Edition, cd. Ch ristophc Crabowski and Jo hn Rink (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). For thematic cata logues. see Maurice J. E. Brown. Chopin: An lndex of llis Woris in Chronologicol Ordcr. 2nd ecl. ( London : Macmillan. 1972), and Krysryna Kobyla1iska, Prêdéric Chopin: '/1wna1iscl1-bibliograpl1 isclies IV'erl,;,-.rzeicluiis (Mu n ich: Henle. 1979).

Franz liszr The standard biography isAlan Walker. Franz Li.szr. 3 vols. ( lthaca. NY: Cornell University Press, 1987-97). See also Oe,·ek Watson. Lmt, rev. ed. (0,cford : Oxford University Press. 2000). and Dana Cooley, 77,e Vkruoso Lim (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004,). On Liszt as a piano teacber anel vinuoso. seeAut,'USl GõUcrich. 77te Piano

Master C/ass ofFran, Li.szr. 1884-1886: Dairy Notes ofAub'™' Collutch. ed . \Vtlhelm Jerger and RJchard Louis Zlmclars:

trans. and enlarged by llichard Louis Zimdars ( Bloomington: Ind iana University Press, 1996). Kenneth Hamilton,

Afrer 1he ColdenAge: Roman1ic Pianism and Modem Performance (Oxford: Oxford University Prcss. 2008). d iscusscs the playingstylc of Liszl and la ter pia,üsts and Lhe devei· opment of the recital of classics of piano litcrntu re. 77ie Cambridge Companion to Lisrt. ed. Kenneth Hamilton (Cmnbridge: Cambridge University Press. 2005). and 77,e Unr Companion. ed . Arnold Bero (Westport. CT: Greenwood. 2002). includc various smdics or Lisz, and his work in musical ~rnd bistoric::i.1 coutex,. Frani lisito ,ut His Wotld, ed. Christopher H. Cibbs anel DMa Cooley (Princeton: Princeton University l'ress, 2006), coutains primory sources os well as scholnrly essays. On the pfono music, see Kenneth Hamihon. Linr: Sonota m 8 Mino,· (Cambridge. Cambridge Un iversity Press, 1996). and Jim Samson, lllrtu· ositrand rlte Musical Worl<: '11le'l'rállsce1,detllal S1udiesoflim (New Yo rk: Cambridge University Press. 2003). Ou Llszt's

Lranscriptions for pfano or "1orks by Beethoven, Berlioz, Scbuben, Wagner. and otbers, see Jonathan Kregor, Lis,i as 1ranscri.ber (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press, 2012). For considera1ion of Liszt as an importam cultural figure. see Lis,t and the Birt/1 o/Modem Europe; Musicas a

Mirror ofRe!igious. Political. CuJlurol and.Aesiheric Transfor· mation. ed. Michael Safíle and Rossana Dalmontc ( Hills· dalc. NY: Pendragon. 2003). For hiblioi,'l'apby. sec Michael $afile. Fraru li.sz<: A C,;ide10 Research. 2nd ed. (New York: Romledge. 2004). l'or Lisii's orchesrral mnsic. see chapter29. A number or cornpilario ns of Liszfs own wriri ngs :md corrcspondcncc are available, includingSelecred Leuers, ed. and trans. Adrian Will iams (Oxford: Clor endon. 1998).

as his Ne11eAusgabe snmtlich,er W.,ri<,. ed . 1. Sulyok et ai. (Kassel and Budapest: B~renrei·rer. 1970-). The flrst. criticai ed i1ion, left incomple1e. was his Musikalische Werl:e, 34 vols. (Leipzig: Breitkopr & H::trtel. 1907- 36: repr. 1967).

lott1s Moreau Gottscholk S. Frcdcr ick Starr. Bomboull,!: The Lijúmd Time, ofLouis Mareou Cottschalk (New York: Oxford University Press. 1995). is an excellent biography. Gortschalk's memoirs are published as Notesof (J, Pianisr. ed. Jeanne Behrend (New York: Knopr. 1964-: repr. Oa Capo. 1979). for a bibliography, see James E. Perone, Lot,is Morea.u Cousclwlk: A Bi.o· 8ibliograpl1r (Wes1port, CT: Greenwood. 2002).

Cbapter 26: Romanticism in Classic Forms: Orchestral, Chamber, and Choral Music Orchestra.s and Orcltesrral Music 11t,eO,tltestro.:Originst111d'lraMfo11lláti011s. ed.Joau Peyser (New York: Scr ibner. 1986: repr. Billboard, 2000), isa useftd com· pendi um of articles about tbe orchestra aml orchcstral music sincc tbc late cightecnlh centuty. including dcvdopmcnt of instrument.s . conductors. concert Híe. and repertoire. See also Hie Cambridge Companion 10 rhc Orchesrrn, ed. Colin Lawson (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press, 2003). ,,nd D. Kcrn Ho lonian. The Orchesrra.: A ~,,-Shorr lritroducnon (Ncw York: Oxford Unjvcrsity P,css. 2012) . On lhe conduc· to r. scc The Cambridge Companion lo Conducting. ed . José Antonio Bowen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003). The d iverse performance venues and repertoire of orches1ras in 1his era. in 1he Unitcd $,ares as elsewhere. are illusrra1ed in 1he ess::iys inAmerican Orchesiros üt 1/1e Ni,1eree111h Ce,iw?·· ed. John Sp i1ier (Chicago: Universiryor Chicago Press, 2012). f'or" broad treatmeut of the symphony in the Rornantic era, see TheNi11etee111h -Ce11t11ry·S,·mpho111; ed. O. Kem lloloman (NewYork: Schi,·rner, 1997). The impact orBeethoven's symphonieson la1ersympho11ycomposers isd iscussed i11 Mark fa·an Bo11ds. After 1/eerhoven: lmperoti,,es of0rib1nalifr in ti1tS)'11pl1Mr (Cambridge. MA:: Hatvard University Press. 1996). On piano coucertos. see Stepben D. Lindeman. Srmc· h1ralN0<,.,/l)'and Tradihon m theEarlr Romanuc Piano Concerto (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendr:igon. 1999).

füse ofti.e Classt('a/ Repertoire A seminal article i• William Weber. ··Mass Culture and lhe Rc•haping of European Musical Tasle. 1770-1870." lni.mati.onal Review of1/ieAestherics and Sociolos;rof Music 8 (1977): 5- 21: repr. 25 (1994) : 175- 90. ln The Crear

Tran,fonnarfon o/Musical Taste: Concen Programmingfrom /Jayd1110 Brahms (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press. 2008). Weber rraces 1hc lorger d c,•elopmems of which 1he risc oi' 1hc classiMI rcpcnoirc was • port. Scc olso Weber. Music and rhe Middle Oass: The Social Strncture ofConcen Life

and An ArtiJt ·., Jou.mc:r: Lcttrr:.s d'1.1en bac:hGlier ê.s mu.sique.

in, l..ondo1l. f>ari.s. and Vàc:nno beht;cc:n 1830ar,d 1848. 2 nd cd.

1835-1841. trans. Charles S11t1oni (Chicago: University of

(Alrlershot: Ashgale. 2004). Lydia Goehr. 77ie lmagi11ary· Muswmof Musical Wiirks:,1ri cssarin rlie Pl1ilosophyof Music (Oxfo ,·d: Clarendon. 1992). eXJilores 1he development o i'

Chicago f>ress, 1989). A new scholarly editio n or Lisu·s wo,·ks is in p,·ogress.

rhe conceptof Lhe musical work. a central pari ofthe idea

of musical classics. and its effecrs on musical culmre. Mar· i hew Celban, 77,e lm•ention of"Folk Music.. ond ·:4r, Mu.sic": Emerging Caiegories from Ossion 10 Wagner (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 2007). examines 1he origina of rhe conccpts of ore music :ind folk mtisic. Admir:ition for the great composers of the past- Boch. Hondel. Hoyd n. Mozan. anel Beethoven- is eviclent in the 1841 essay by Americ.1n Tr:mscend enrnlist writer M:1.rg;ire1 fuiler in SR 150 (6:3).

Franz Sclt ubcrt On tbe symphonies. steA . Peter Brown. 77,e l'irsr Colãen Ageofthe VienneseSrmphony: llayún. Mowrr. Beer/ioven , and Schubert: Brian Newbould, Schubm nnd theSymphony: A New Perspccnve (Siirbiton, England: 1'occata, 1992): Ma,·k De Voto. Sclw.be,·(s Creai C Major: Biograpl,y ofa Sympl,o ,1y ( Hillsdale. NY: Pendrai;on Press. 20 11): anel Sclwberi. SJmphonrinBMinor(''Unfmi$hed"). Norton Criticai Seorcs. ecl. Martin Chusid (Ncw York: Norton. 1968). Sce also lhe bibliography for chapter 24.

Hecror Berlioz Excelleni smd ies of Berlioz·s life and works incJude David Cairns. Berlioz. 2nd ed .. 2 vols. (Berkeley: University ofCali fornia Press. 2000): Hugh Macdouald. Berlio: (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 2000): anel D. Kcrn Holoman. Berlio, (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Univers ity Press. 1989). l"or a shon er introduction. see Peter Bloom. 'l'he Life o[ Ber· lio, (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press.1998). On 1he music, see Julian Rushron, 77,e MttSic of Berlioz (New YoTk: Oxford Univcrsity Press, 2001); idem .. Berlioz. Romeoer Julieue (NewYo rk: Cambridge Univcrsity Press, 1994): and Daniel Albr ight, BerlioisScmi-operos, Romeoeifuliene ond La Danrnario11 de Fcmst (Hochester, NY: Rochester University Press. 200 1). A. Peter Brow11. 'l'he SJmphonic Repenoirc, vol. 3A. '/1,e F::uropea11 Symphonyfrom cc>. 1800 10 co. 193-0: Cerm.anrand the Nordic Counrries ( Bloom ington: Ind iana University Press. 2007). includes dctailed d iscussion of ali four Berlioz symphonies. Olher ustful hoo ks include The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz. ed. Peter Bloom (Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000): Julian Rusbton, Jhe Musical Languageof Berlioz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1983): and D. Kern Holoman. The Crearive

Proct$S ,n 1heAu1ograph Mus,col Documentsofllecror Berlio,. ca. 1818- /840 (Anu Arbor: UMI Rescarch. 1980). For forther rcfcrcnces . scc Jcfírcy Langford and Jane Otnker Craves. flector Berlioz:A Cui,leto Researd, ( cw York: Carland. l989). and Michael G. H. \Vright.A Berlioz Bihlfogmphp Critica_/ Writingon flect'1r Berlwzfron11825 to 1986 (Farnhorough: Saim Michael'sAbbey. 1988). A recern 1r:msl:H ion oí Berlioi's 1re::iHse on instn.1men · tation and orchestration is 8erliois Orchestration Treatise: A Tra11sk1tio11ond Com menta?·· trans. Hugh Macdonald (Cam bridge. C;:imbrltlge Univcr~ity Pre:,~, 2002). Bcrl io~·~ c.ritic.11 writings on music nre in Berlioz, Eveningsu:it/1 the Orcl1estro, rrans. Jacques llar1.1111, foreword by Pe1er Bloom (Chicago: Universi1y oíCliicago Press. l'J'J9). His other writiugs

A65

include his Memoirs. rranslated in the ninereemh ccnmry as Autobiogrophr of flecror Berlioz. 2 vols .. rrans. Rachel (Scort Russell) Holmes and Ele,mor Holmes (London: Macmillan , 1884: repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2011), and mo,·e reeen1ly as 'íl,e Memoirs o/Berlioz, tr:ms. anel ed. David Cairns (NewYork: Knopf, 2002), and his correspondence, collected in llector Berliozand Daniel Bernard. Li/e 011d. letters of Berliot. 2 vols .. lrans. Ma i11waring Dunstan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010), anel Se!<,cted Leuersof8er/ioz. ed. Hugh Macdo nald and trans. Roger Nichols (New York: Norton. 1997). Writings of Ber• Hoz's contemporaries and colleaguesare in Michael Rose. Berlioz Remembcred (New York: faber & fobe r, 200 1). Berlioz, fontasticSymphony. Nonon Criticai $cores. ed. Edward 'r. Cone (New York: Norton. 1971). is o scor e of 1heS,111pho11ieJi,nrattrque with ,nany related sources and articles. 5cc also Brian luchru·dson. Berlioz. Symphonie fantastique (Lceds: Mayílower. 1990). On tbe symphony's premjcrc. scc Thomas Forrcsl Kelly. Firsr Nigh1s: FiveMusi· cal Premieres (Ncw 1-13\•cn: Yale University Prcss. 2000). 180- 255. Mariam,a Ritchey. "Echoes of rbe Gu illotine: Berltozand 1he French Fa n1asr1e." 191/1 -Cenrury· \lusic34 (Fall 2010): 168- 85). links 1he symphony 10 1he literary genrc of 1hc font.'.lStic, :i.nd Pr3nccsc.., Bri11an, ''8crlio1...:rnd thc Pathological Fantastic: Melancholy. Monomania. :rnd Romanlic Autobiography,'' 19th-Cenlury· Music 29 (Spring 2006): 211- 39). connects ils program to Homantic aesthel· ics. medical beliefs. and the iclea ofthe d isabled genius. On 1he relarion of form 10 drama in rhis and 01her works, see S1ephen Rodgers. form. Program. ond .lletaphorin rhe M1,sic o/Berlioz (Cambridge: Cam.bridge University Press. 2009). The rnodern criticai ed ition isNew Berlioz E:ditio,,, ed. Hugb Moc<lonal<l et ai. (J(,ssel: Bãrenreiter, 1967-2004) . An earlier incomplete edition is his Werl<e (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hãrtel. 1900-1907: repr. New York: K.ihnus. 1971). 9 se ries in 20 vols. The standard cat.~logue is O. Kern Holoman. C,wdogtre of rl,e Works ofHecwr Berlio, (Kassel: BiireoreiLer. 1987).

Fclix Me11delssoh11 a1td Robcr/ Schumann A. Peter Brown, '11,eforopeanSpnphonrfromca. 1800,o ca. /930: Cemian.yand the Nord,c Countries. nnalyzes ali tbe Mendelssohn aad Schumann sympbonies in úelail. For a close look at Mendelssohn·s most popltlar symphony. see John Michael Cooper. Mendelssohns ··11alian· SJmphon,· (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003). Jori \V. rinson.

Robert Schumann and rhe Studrof Orchcsrral Composition: The Cenesi., ofthe Firs1 Spnphonr. Dp. 38 (Oxford: Cla rcndon. 1989). offcrs a foscinating look at ,hc composition process. For Sehumann's concertos, see Claud ia Macdonald , Schumann ond rhe Piano Concerro (New York: Rou rledge. 2005). Scc also ,he bibliography forchapter 25.

Chamber Mus,c On cham.bcr mm-1ic by Beethoven. Schuhcrt. Mcndcl:s~ohn.

RobertSchumn nn , Brahm$. and othe.r nineteemh~century composers, see Ninereenrli-Cent11?' Chamber Music. ed. Srephen E. Heíli ng (New York: Routledge. 2004) .

A66

For l'urfh e r He adiug

Chorai Music See Nmereenth·Cer,nu)'Choral Music. ed. Donna Di Cr,zia (New York: Routledge. 2012): Nick Strimple. Choro/ Afusic in t/,e Ninetee111/1 Ce111ury(Ncw York: Amadeus. 2008); and 71,e Cambridge Componion ro Chorai Music. cd. André de Quadros (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012) . llyan Mi nar. Chorai Fanra.sies: Musíc. Fesri,>i1,-. ond Narionhood in Nineteenth-Ce11t11rrCem1ony(Cambridge: Cnm bridge University Press, 2012). shows 1he sig11incance of chorai singing for German natlonal identity. Henry Raynor traces the bistory or chorai socie:ties in "Chorai Mus ic in Gennany and Englaod ," in Music o11dSociery sí,1ce 1815 (above under Parr /V}, 86-99, On men's cboirs in france. see "Orphéon." in NG2: on meo·s cboi rs in Germany, see "Liederrnfel ... in NC2 . 011 the nineteenth-centúry o r3totio tradit~on. see volume 4 of Smither, A Historyofthe Orolorio (above under chapter 15). Oo Mendelssohn's oratoriosand bis role in the re"ival of Bach's St. Mauhew Passíon. sec Jeffrey S. Sposato. The PriceofAssim,larima: FelixMendel.ssohn and 1/ie Nineieenth · CentruyAnti-Sen,iric Trodition (Oxford : Oxford Untvers rry Press. 200(,): Cel ra Applega1e. Baclt ln Berlin: Nation and Culmre in ,\lendelssoh.n's Reviva/ of rhe St. Marrhew Passion (lthaca, NY: Cornell Universiry Press, 2005); and Siegward Reichwald. The Musical CenesisofFelix Mendels · sohn's Paulus (London: Scarecro·w. 2001), A selectio11 oí partsongs can bc found in Engli,sh Roman· tic Partsongs. ed. Pnul Hillier (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1986).

Mus,c for Relrgtous Services James C31·ra1. Palestrina 011d 1he Cemwn Romomic Imagina· 1io11: T,,terpreiing Historicism in 1V'ine1ee,ulr -Cen1t1')' Music (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsiry Press. 2002), diseusses Pnlestrinn's influence on nineteenth-century church music and how his style affecce<l composers of the llomanric era, inclodi ng Mendelssohn. On women organists in Protestam English chu rches, see Judith Barger, Eluaberlr Sti,fü,g and lhe M"sical Life of Fem.ale 0'1J'Mis1s ill Ni11ereeritl1-Ce,u«')· fogland (Aldershot: Asbgate. 2007), Oo Reform Judaism, see Rubin and Baron. Musicínjewi.<h HistO')'O.nd C.rltun (cited under cbapter 2 ,bove). Tlie U,uted Sr,, tes On mus ic ia tbe Unitcd Stales. includingearly ,ünctccuth· ccntury church music. scc espccially Richard Crawford and Larry HambcrBn.An /nrmductíon toAnierica'sMllsic. 2nd cd. (Ncw York: Norton. 2013); Richard Crowfo rd. Americo's .\lusieal Life: A History (Kew York: Nonon, 2001): H. \Viley lfüchcock. Music in the Unired Srores: A llistorical fntrodnciion. 4ch ed. with Kyle Cann (Upper Saddle River. NJ: Prentice Hall. 2000): Tht Cambridge flis1oryofAmeri• can Musíc. ed. David Nicholls (Cambridge: Cambridge Un ivç.nity

r rC$$,

For Fu d her Readi ng

see Nicholas E. Tawa . From Psalm 10 SJmphon,-: A lfistory of Music in New England (Boston : Nonheasiern Universi,y Prcss. 2001) . Sing 71,em Over Again to Me: Hymns and HJwnbooks in Americo.. eJ Mark A. Noll ,md Edith L. Bhunhofer (Tusca loosa: Un iversity of Alabama. 2006), is a recent collec · tion of essays on hymns in the United States, focused on the nineteenth cenniry. On lhe shape-note trndirion, see David Warren Steel anel llichard H11ffman Hulan. '/11e Mokers ofilreSacred HMp (Urbana: University or Illino is Press. 20 l0): John Bealle. füblic Worsh ip. Privaie Faillr: &i.cred Ha,p and American folksong (A1hens: Universily of Georgia Press. 1997) ; and Buell Cobb,'lhe Sacrcd Harp: A Tradi· 1ionand lts Music (Athens: University ofGeorgia Press. 1978). 1ncSacred Harp has appeared in many ed itions and contin ues to be revised . most recenlly jn 1991 ( Bremen.

GA: Sacred Harp. 1991): a modern facsim ile is available or the th ird edition of 1859 (Nasbvillc: Broad man. 1968). On l owell Masoo. sce Carol A. Pcmbcrto n. Lowell Mason: Ui., Life and Work (Ann Arbor: UMI Resca rch. 1985). and Lowe11 Mason: A Bio-Bibliograpl•)' (New York: Greenwood, 1988).

Chapter ~T Romantic Opera and Musical Theater to Mirlcentury Opera Por general works on opera . sce chaptc r 14. Particulo rly pertinem 10 this chnpter are Thc Cambridge Companion ,o Crond Opera. ed. David Charlton (New York: Cambridge Uni\•ersity Press. 2003): Edward J. Denr. 77,e Riseof Romomic Opero, cd. \Vinton Oean (Cambridge: Cambl'idge University Press, 1976); and Joseph Kern,an, Opero.as Oramo, rev, cd. ( Berkeley: Univcrsity of Ca lifornia Press, l988). l"or some provoc.11ive approaches. see Mary Ann Smart, Mimomania: .1/ilsic ond Gesrure in Nine1e.e11!11-C<:11t11')· Opera (Berkeley: University of Califo l'll ia Press. 2004), anel Carolyn Abbate, U,u,mg Voices: Opero and Musical N<m·auve in ihe Nirieleenrh Ce,uurr (Princeton: Princeton Uriiversity Press. 1991). An excellent book on singing and staging opera is Pbilip Gossell. Divas and Schol.ars: Performin.g /ralian Opera (Chicago: University of Cbicago l'ress. 2006). which includes on pp. 316-17 Kossini's embellished \'ersions of Una •oce poco fo , On female opera singers such as Maria Mal ibran , see '11,eArtsof11te Prima Donna ir> tire Long Ninettelllh Ce1111uy. ed. Rachel Cowgill and Hila,y Poriss (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity P,·css. 2012): Hilary Poriss. Changingthe&ore:Arias. Prima Donnas. and theAuthoritrof Peifornumce (Oxfo rd: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 2009): and Susan Rutherford . The Prima D011na and Opera. 1815-1930 (Cambridge: Ca mbridge University Press. 2006). For facsi milcs of operas by early Romamic composers, sce the series Earlr l!oma ntic Opero, cd. Philip Cossett anel Charles Roscn (NcwYork: Garbnd, 1977- ).

1??8) : Oilben: Ch,,~e.Arncrica.~1 M11:,,1ic;

Prom 1/1e Pilgrimsto the Presenr. 3 rd ed. (Urban•: University or Illinois Press. 1987); and Charles Ham m. Music inll,e New 111/orld (New York: Nonon. 1983). Por New England,

Natron alisni and Exoficism The besr oven'lew of nn rionalism i.s Richard Tnruskin. .. Nn 1ionalism," in NG2. See also Musícol Con-srr,Jcrionsof

Na1ionalism: Essap on the Flis101yand TdeologyofEuropean Mus,calCultu.re 1800- /94-5. ed . MarryWhite and Michael Murphy (Cork: Cork Uni\•ersity Press. 2001), and Ph iUip V. Boh Iman . Th.e Music of füiropean Notionolism: Cultural fdenci1ro,11d Modern lfisiory(Sanra Barbara: ABC-CUO, 2004) . On cxoticism from thc Baroque cr, onward, sec lb lph P. Locke, Mus ical Eroricism: Tmages a.nd l!ejlections (Cambridge: Cnmbridge University Press, 201l).

/ra/1011 Opera See Oaniele Pistone. Nine1ee111/1-Ce,11u,,· ltalfo11 Opero from Rossini r-0 Puccini, trans. E. Thomas Glasgow (Portlaod . OR: Allladeus.1995) . and Charles Osborne, 77,t Bel Co ,uo OperasofRossini, Doni:eui, and Bellini (Lo ndon: Methuen. 1994). On tbe business or opera, see John Rosselli . Th• Opera lndusr,,· ,n ltolyfro111 Cima rosa to Verdi: 11,e Role of 1/1e lmpres(lflo (Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press. 1984), For opera and the Risorgimento, see f rancesco lzzo. ·comedy between Two Revoluiious: Opera Buffa and tbe Risorgimento, l83HM8." JM 21(2004): 127- 74. Sec also lta/ian Opera: 18/0- 40. 58 vols .. cd. Phllíp Gossctt (Ncw York: Carla nd. 1986-). for facslmtles o( prinred edtrtons of complete operas :mel excerpts by contemporaries o f Rossini, BelJini , and Donizetti.

Cioac/11no Tlossrn, Por biography. scc Richard Osbornc, Rossini. 2nd cd. (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 2007). and David Mount· f,eld. Rossini (New York: Simon & Schusler. 1995). Still of imerest is an 1824 book by a hero· worshipingcomempo · rary. Stendhal !Marie Henri Beylel. Life of Rossini, tran.s. Richard N. Coe (Seaule: Univcrsity ofWash ington Press, 1972), who gives deligh1ful insights thougl, notaccuraie information. Rossini's own comments ábout bel canto and other subjects are in Edmond Michotte. Richard Wogner's Vi.sit 10 Rossini (Paris 1860) andAn Eveningar l!ossini's in 8eal!-Sejour(Po$sy) 1858. rrans. and annotaled by Herbert Wemstock (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1968). An apprecia1ive reviewof Rossi11i's Willio111Tel1 by Berl ioz is in SR 156 (6:9). Seealso 1'he Combrid.geConipaniM 10 Rossirli. e(l. Emanuele Se,üei (Cambridge: Cambridge Uoiversity Press. 2004); antl Denise I'. Gallo, C,oachino Rossini: A Re,,earch and lnformanon Cuide, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010). Criticai editions of Rossini'& works are available in

Edizione criticadeUe opere di Cioacltino Rossini (Pcsaro: Pondazione Rossini.1954-) aod in WorksofRossini. gc n. cd . Philip Gossctt (Kasscl: Borcnrcitcr. 2007- ). Víncenzo Bellrn, See John llosselli. 17,e Lífeof8ellini (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni,•ersity Press, 1996), and Simon Maguire. Vincenzo Bellini and 1heAes1heticsof Earlr Nine1een1h -Cenn,,,· ltalian Opera (Kcw York: Carland. 1989). On Nom1a. scc David

A67

dio Monteverdi. 2002- ). A uscful rcsearch too! is Step.hen A. Will ier. Vlncenzo Bel!ini: A Research and lnfom,anon Cuide. 2nd ecl. (l'lew York: Routledgc, 2009).

Caetano Donizett, On various aspects of Doni>.etti's life ~nd ,,orks. sec Willfam Ashbrook. Doni,etti and llis Operas (Cambridge: C,mbriclge University Press.1982): Philip Cossett.Anna Bolcnaand theArrisric Mah,rityo{Caeta110 Donizetti (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985): and John Allin, Oo11i~et1i in the Ligh1of Romamicísm an.d the 'feacl,ir,gofJohanrt Simon Mo.yr (Shaí1esbury: Element.1991). See alsoJames P, C1Ssaro. Cae1ano Donizetti: A Hesearch and lnfomw1io11 Cuide. 2nd ed. (New York: Garl:lnd , 2009), The cri( ical edition is Caetono Donizet1i. Co!lectcd Jll'orks (London: Published unde,· the auspices of the Donizelli Society by Egrel House. 1973-): see Series l for the operatic works.

French Opcm aflll /lalle1 For opera in Rcvolutio onry Francc. sec Eouuc1 Kennedy. Themre, Opero. and Audlences ,n llevolurtona,,· Parts: Allalpfs

and Repertorr (Westport. Cr: Creenwood. 1996): and Mus,c and rlte French Re,·olunon, ed. Malcolm Boyd (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 1992), For (he general history of Frcnch opera in lhe f,rst balf aí l he ni nctccnth ccntury. scc Patrick Barbicr. Opera in Paris. 1800- 18$0: A lively fli,story. erans. Robert Luoma (Ponbnd . OR: Amadeus. 1995). and Anselm Cerha rd. The Urbaniuirion of Opera: Ml<sic 1'heater in Paris in 1/,e Nineree,uh Cen11,ry·, tra ns. Mary\Vhitall (Chic3go: University ofChicago Pr·ess, 1998). Mark Everist. "Crandopéra- petit opéro : Pa1'ÍSian OperaauJ Ball et from thc R.estoratio n to the Second Empire," l9rh-Cenru')·Music 33 (Spring 2.010): 195-231. examines the political contei<t íoroper, and ballet. fi·om state conirol to censorshi1>-The essays i,i Rea.dmgCrirics Readirig: Opera and 8<,ller Cr'iricism i,1 France from rlte Revolu1ion to 1848. ed. Roger Pa rker anel Mary Ann Smart (New York: Oxford Univers i1y Press, 2001), exami ne contempora.ry c riticai responses to Freuch o perá

and baUe1. Oo Frencb grantl opera, cons,Llt Thc Cambridge Companion 10 Crand Op,ra. ed. David Charlton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003): Sarah Hibberd. french Crond Opero and rlre Hislorical Tmaginafion (Cam bridge: Cambridge Uni"ersity Prcss. 2011): Hem! Lacombc. The KeJ~ 10 French Opera in rhe Nineteenih Century: trans. Edward Sclrneidcr (Berkeley: Unh•crs ity of California Press. 2001): Jane F. l'ulcher. The Notion's lmage: French Crm,d Opera. as Po!iricson.d PoliticizedArt (C,mbridge: Cambridge Unh•ersiry P,·css, 1987): Robe,., lgna1ius 1,,erellier, A11 /nrrodu"rion to the Droma1ic WorksofCiacom.o Mep,rbeer: Operas, Baller.s, Canta&os. PlaJ~ (Aldcrshot: Ashgaic. 2008): idem .. The Operas ofCiacomo .\1eyeroeer (Maclison. NJ: foirlcigh

Klmbcll. Vinccn;o Bdlini: Norm,a (Q.am.bridgc: Cambridge

Oick in,1on Univer~ity rre,1~, 2006). lmcl Mark Everi~t~

University Press. 1998). Bellini's complete works are in Vincenzo Bellini , o<fiiione na;:ionale deli~ opere. 1801- 1835 (Cremona: f'onda1.io11e Cla11·

Ciacomo Me;rerbeerand Music Drama in Nincteenth-Cen&ir')' Paris (Aldersho1: Ashgace. 2004,). Gabriela Comes ela Cru1., "Meyerbeer's Music ofthe foture." 7ne Opero QMrterlr25

A68

For l'urth e r He adiug

Tl,e United Stales

(Summer• f'all 2009): 169- 202. arb'llCS for Mcyerbecr's iníluence on la ter ltalian and Cerman opera. For Les Trorens. see flector Berlioz. Les Tro,-ens. ed. lan Kemp (Cam · bridge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 1988). Thc kC)' srud ies on c::il"ly ninetecnrh cenrury b.:ill c, ::i re Marian Smith, 8allet Md Opero in 1heAgeofCi.selle (Prince· ton: Princeton Uni\'ersity Press. 2000). and Rethinking lheSJ1ph: Ncw Perspectives on the Romonric Ballet. ed. Lyn n Carafola ( Hanover, NH: Uni"ersity Press of New England/ Wesleya n Universi,y Press. 1997). See also '11,eCambridgc Comparti-OI> roBaller. ed. l><tarion Kant (Cambridge: Cam· bridge U,tiversity Press. 2007); lvor fo rbes Cuest, Ballet under Napoleon (AJ1on, Engbnd : Dance. 2002); and Susan Leigb F'oster. Choreograph)"a nd Narrative: Balle1's Staging of Sroryand Dcsirc (Sloominb'IOn: 1ndiana University Press, 1996). 00

Cerm a11 Opera See \Varrack. Cernwrt Opero.. under cbapter l7 above. Ca ri MCJ rfo

A69

For Fu d her Readi ng

"º" Weber

The sta ndard btography Is John li. \Varrack. Carl Marto von Weber, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). An imporrant smdy isStephen C. Meyer, Carl Maria ,·on llil?berar,d theSearchforaCerman Opera (Bloomington: Indiana Un iversity Prcss. 2003}. Scc also \Vcber's Collecled Writing,on ,\fosic. ed. John H. \Va rrack. trans. Martin Cooper (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1981). and Donald C. Henderson.Cari Mariavon l!Yeber:ll C11idero Heseorch (New York: Carland .1990). Collecred works are in Carl Maria von \Veber, Cesarrttousgabe (Mainz: Schou. 1997- ). Thematic catalogue co111p . by Friedrich \V, Jãhns (Berliu: Robert Lieuau.1871: repr. 1967).

Russi.a On music in Russia before 1he n.ineieenth century. see Manna Hitzare,•, E:,ghteenth-C-en,u,:,· Russian Muste (Nders hot: Ashgate. 2006). i{ichard 'l)ruskin's On R11ssian Music ( Berkeley: University oíCaliíornia P,·ess. 2008) is a collec· Lion of essays on Kus.si3n rnusic from Lhe eigh1eenth to lhe twer1ty-í1rst cerituries. For narionalism in Russian music. see M:i rina

frolova-Walker. Russior, Music a.nd Natúmalism: Froni Clinka to Stalin (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2008). On operas by Clinka and othcr Russian composers througb rhc 1860s. scc Richard Toruskin. Opera and Drama in Rl!ssia as Preached and Practiced in the /860s (Ano Arbor: UMI Research Press.1981). On Clinka. see Alexandr, Orlova. Clinka 's Life in Music: ,1 CI, ronicle. trans. Richard lfoops (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. 1988): and Aleksandr S. Rozanov. M.1. Clinka: ffis Lifea,id Times (Neptune City, N.J.: Pag:tnittfana Puhlicatiotts. 1988). Sce also Clinkú MemOil'$. trans. R. B. Mudgc (Norman: Univcrsity ofOklahoma P rc~:s. l?G3). Hutgcr Hclmcr:,. "~lt Ju.1t Rcck.$ of Íti'.llianl.$m

0 :

Traces of ltalian Opera in;l UfefortlieTsor, • Musicond Letters 91 (August 2010) : 376-405. demonstrates how Clinkis narionalis1 style is a cons,ruction based on :rn exisring halian id iom.

On the history of performing European operas and classical music in the Unired States. see Joseph Horowi,1., Classical Music in America: A lfisro,:,·oflts Rise ond Poli (New York: Nor1on, 2005); Karen Ahi<[l•isr, Dem.ocroc)'a1the Opera: Music, Theaierond Culture in Nell) Yorl.:Cii,; 1825- 60 (Urbana: University aí Ill inois Prcss. 199'2'): severa! oflhe essays in Opero artd lheGolrl.en 111/est: 17ie Pasl. Preseru. ond fiiture of Opero. 1n the U.S.A .. ed. John L. OeCaetani and Josef P. Sirefman (Rutherford, NJ: foirleigh Dickinson University Press.1993); John Dizikes. Opero inAmerica:A Cultural History· (New lfaven: Ylle Uuiversity Press. 1993); Kather• ine K. Preston, Opera 011 tlie Road: 1i-aveling Opero 'l'ro11pes in the United States. 1825-60 (Urbaaa: University oi' UHnois Press. 1993; repr. 2001); Michael Broyles. Musicoftlte Highesr ClàSS: El,r.sm ond Populism rrtAntebellum Bosto,, (Ne,, Haven: Yale University Press. 1992); and l..àwrence \V, Levine. Highbrow/Lowbrow: 71,e Emergen,ce of c,.Ltural Hierarchr in America (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Uuiversiiy Press. 1988). Scc also PcterC. 0Jvis. TI1eAmerican OperaSmger: 7he Lwes and Adventures ofAmerica's Creat Singers in Opera and Conc,n, frorri 1825 co rhe Presem (New York: Doubleday. 1997). On all types of American theatrical m.usic. see Julian Mates.America·s Mu.sica!St{>ge: T,vo f/1mdred Yeal'$ ofMU$ical 11iearre (Westport. CT: Crccnwood. 1985). Derek B. Scott. Sounds of the Metro poli.: The Nineteenlh •Centu,:,· Popular lh·olution in London. Ncw l'orl.:. Pari.s. and Vienna (New York: Oxford University Press. 2011). places the devclopment oí popular musical 1heacer in New York in a broader rransArlaniic comex-1.

Amerrron Opera Orl the dcveloprnerit of oper3 by A.meric:in composers since the nineteenth century, see Elise K. Kirk,Americon Opera (Urbana : University of Illinois Press. 2001), anel severa! essays in Opero ond rhe Colden Wesr. ed. DeGaetani anel Sirefmo n.

Minstrd Shows On minstrelsy. see William J. Miliar. Behi11d 1he BurntCork Mask: .f orlr Blackface Minstrels)" andAn rebellum American PopularCulwre (Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1999): and Oale Cockrell. Demons of Drcsord.er: Eartr Blackface Minstrels and. 11,eir IVorld (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1997).

Chapter ~8: Opera and Musica l Thea1er in tbe La ter Nineleentb Century Richard Wagner Biographical smdies include Joachim Kõhler. Richard Wagner: The Las, ofthe TTrans. mms. Stewart Spencer (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 2004); 8,rry Millington, The New Cro,,e Wagn-er (New York: Pailgrave/ Crove. 2002): and Mich;icl Tilnncr, Wab'TIGr ( flrinccton; Princcton UniYcr-

sity Press. 1996) . Thc monument,il biography by Ernes1 Newman . LifeofRichard Wagner. 4 vols. (London: Cassell, 1933-4-7: repr. New York: Cambridge Universi1y Press. 1976). is sr ili wonh consulting.

Useful general sourccs includc The Cambridge Wagner Encrclopedia, ed . Nicholas Va1.sonyi (Cambridge: Cam · bridge Uni\•ersity Press. 2013): The Cambridge Compa»ion 10 Wagner. ed. Thomas S. Crey (Cambridge: Cambridge University P,·ess, 2008); Bal'ry Mill ington, 11,e New Crave Cvide to IVagnerMd //is Operas (Oxford: Oxford Unive rsity Press. 2006); Charles Osborne. The Complete OpcrO,S of Rith· ard Wagner (New York: Da Capo. 1993): Woi"-ier Handbook. ed. Ulrich MUiier and Peter \V.,pnewski. lrans. John Dea1hridge (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Uni\'ers ity Press, 1992); and Carl Dahlhaus. Richard Wai,mer's Music DromO,S, trans. Arnold \Vhittàll (Cambridge: Cambridge Unjversity Press. 1979). John Deathridge, Wagner Beror>d Cood and IM! (Be rke· ley: LJnjversity of Caliíornia Press, 2008). offers a new view oí \Vagner's operas. Simon Williams, Wogner ar>ct 1he Rorr,anric flcro (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer·sity Press. 2004). analyies tbe beroes in the operas. Lau· rence Dreyíus. lVognerarid tlie Ero1ic lmpuJse (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 2010). examines Wagner's rcprcscntatioos o f scxuality anel rcactions from comem · pora rics. Nichobs Vazsonyi documcnts Wagncr's camp:iign to promote himselfas the most C-erman composer nnd

Bee1hoven·s rmes\leeessor, in Richard Wogner: SelfPron>oiion and 1he Mol:ing ofa Brand (Cambridge: C.,m • bridge University Press. 2010) . Pctcr Conud's Verdi a,idl or Wagner: fo:o Men. Two Worlds, Two Centuries (London: Tba.mes & Hudson. 2011) is lhe í1rst book- lcngtb com pari· son of ihe two composers. Concerning\V.,gner'sanri-Semitism. see MarcA. Weiner, lli'agnerand rheAnri-Semitic lnwgillàtion (Lincoln: University oíNebraska Press. 1995). anel Jacob K.-ltz. Tlie DarkerSideofCenws: Richard Wag,,er'sAntisernitism ( Hanover, N H: Univcrsity Press of New Eugl:tnd, 1986). See olso Cottfried Wagner. 1'wiligfa of the ITTigners: '/'he Un.,eilingof a Fomil)'i ugaC)·(New York: Picador. 1999). On 1he Bay,·euth Festiv31. see Fre<leric Spous, Bayreut/1: A fl,sw,:,·of1he Wagner Fesl!Vol (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1994). On Wagne r and singers. see Susan Rutherford. "\Vilhelrniuc Sehrõder-Devrienl: \Vagner's Theatricàl Muse." in Women.. Thrarre. a.nd Performance: New Hi.stories. N~w tlistonographies, ed. Magb'Íe B. Gale and Viv Ga rdner ( Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 60-80. On Wagner·s composirion:11process. see Cun von \Vesternhagen·s The Forgingofthe ..Ring-, Richard Wagner's Composition Sketchesfor ..Der Ringdes Nibelu11ge11 ... trans. Arnold Whittall and Mary \Vhittall (Cambridge: Cambridge Unh•crsity Prcss. 1976): and \Varrcn Oarcy. Wagner's De>s Rh.eingold (NewYork: Oxford University Pre8$. l993). See also Richard Wagnerond flis World. ed. Thomas S. Crcy (Princeton: Pri11ce1on Universi1y Press, 2009): L.,wrence Kramer, Opero. o.nd Modeni Culwre: Wagnerand Strauss (Berkeley: University oíCaliíornia Prcss, 2004): Phil ip Kitcher and Richard Schacht, f'indingan Ending: Reflectionson Wagner's ..Ring .. (New York: Oxford University f\rç~~. 2004). Fred 8rlgh,tm. le-ógnc:.rond Ninetecnth-C,,mhil)· Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Oie,er Borch meier. Oro.ma and rhe World of Richard Wúg>ter. 1r~ns. Daphue Ell is (Princeton: Princeton Unjversity Press. 2003): Bryan Magee. The Trwan Ch-0rd: Wagnerand P/ufoso·

phy (New York: Me1Topolitan. 2001); and AnalJ~ingOpera, Verdi and Wagner. ed. Carolyn Abbate and Roger Parke,(Berkcley: UniversiryofCalifornia Press.1989). On Tris1an und. lsolde. sce Richard ITTig,ier: Tri.sr-0n u.nd /solde, e<l. Artbur Croos (C:trnbridge: Cambridge University Press. 2011). An asture onalysis of l'he Prelucle ro Trista11 und /solde is Will iam J. Mitchell . "The Trisran Prelude: Techniques and Structure." 11ie M<ISIC Fort,m 1(1967): 162-203. Eric Chafe, 11,e T,·%-icand rhe l:csratic: '/!te Musica/ Revolution ofWagner's 'friston <ltld ]solde (Oxford: Oxford Unjversity Press. 2005). li nks theopera withScbopen · bauer and includes an analysis oí the Prelude. l\oben Bailey, Preludeand Tronsfigurationfrom "'Tnstanand /solde.'· Norton Criticai Scores (New York: Norton, 1985). gives historical backgrotmd . views and comments. and analytical essays on the Prelude and the operas conclusion. For a bibliography. sec Michael Sofíle. Richard Wagn,ar: A Research and lnfomwrion Cuide. 2nd cd. (New York: Rontledgc. 2010). \Vagner's writings are puhlíshed in his Prose Works. 8 vols .. trans. \Villiam Ashton Ellis (London, 1892-99: repr. New York: Broude. 1966): cspcet31ly rcleva111 3re vol. 1 (An and Revolv.rionand 11teAnworlrofrhe P111ure) and vol. 2 (Opero ond Droma). Comment3ty on tbese is in Dicter Borcbmeyer, Richard lVagner. 11ieo,:,·ond. Theatre. trans. Stewort Spencer (Oxford: Clnrendon. 1991). and Thomas S. Grey. Wagner's .lfosicol Prose: 1é.rt and Co11rerts (Cambridge: Cambridge University P,·ess. 1995). Au excerpt l'rom 11,ellrtworkofthe forure is iro SR 153 (6:6). Docttmemàly materill includes \Vag-ner. Mr Ufe. ed. Arnold \Vbittall. trans. Aridrew Grey (Cambridge: Caru· bridge Uu.iversity Press. 1983). oud Cosimo \Vagner's Di<>ries. ed. Martin Cregor-Dellin and Dietrich Mack. trans. Geo!"fre)' Skelton. 2 vols. (New York: Harco1trl Brace Jovanovich. 1978-80). IV3f.'11Cr'scorrespondcnce iseataloi,•uecl in WagnerBriefe-1/4,rzeichnis: WBV: Chronologisches 14'n:eichni.s der Briefe ron Richard Wagner. ed. \Verncr Brcig. Manin Diirrer. andAndrcas M.ielkc (\Viesbadcn: Brcitkopí& lfartel.1998). A ncw complete c dition o f\'(lat,'llerºs music is

111

prog ..

ress: S1muliche Werl.:e. ed . Ca rl Oahlhaus et ai. ( Mainz: B. Schort's Sohne, 1970-). An earlier edilion, Musikaliscl ie Werl.·e. ed . Michael Balling (l.eip1.ig: Breitkop f & H~rrc l, 1912- 29; repr. NewYork: Da Copo, 1971), was ineomplere. The catalogue of works is Richard Wagner Werk -Ver.eich nis: Veneiclin ia der musikalischen Werke Richard Wagners und ih rer Q11ellen. ed. John Deathridge. Martin Ceck. and Egon Voss (Mai n>.: Schon. 1986).

Ciuseppe Verei, For Vercli's biography. see Julian Budden. Verdi. 3rd ed . (O:<ford : Oxford University Press. 2008): John Rosselli. 11>e Uje of14'rdi (NewYork: Cambridge University Press, 2000); and Mary Jane Phillips -Mnti. Verdi: A Biographr(Ncw York: Oxford University Press. 1993). Survcys ofhis operas inc.ludc Rogcr P.:trker, Tiu: Ncw Grot>c Guidc to lirdi and Ili~ Operos (O:<ford: Oxford University Press. 2007): and Julian 6udden, 11,eOperosofVerdi, 3 vols. (New Yo,'k: Praege,·, 197382). ,\ nd reas Ciger. Verdio11d rhe Fre11ch Aes1heric: Verse. S1anwand.Melod,-i11 Nine1een1h-CeM\ll)'Ope1'0 (Cambridge:

A70

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

Camb ridge University Press. 2008). s bows how in bis operas on l'rench librenos Verd i adapt ed his approach 10 su i1 French poetic rh)~hms and public taste. and how this changc atfec1cd his b 1cr operas. Emí lio Sala, TheSoundsof Poris ;,. VerdCs ··w trMiato" (Cambridge: Cambl'idgc Un i· ver$ity Press. 2013). p laces the opera in 1hc c11lt1aral contcxt of mid- n ine tee mh· century Par is. Articles on Verd i'sAttila in Cambridge Opero Joumol 21 (2-009) address issues oí history. poli tics. t he notion ofliberty. and public reception of\lerdi in t he 1840s, especially Carlotta Sorba, "Auilci a nel Verd i's Historical lrnagina tion" (241-48): Douglas lpso11. "Attila Ta.kes Howe: Tbe Heception of Verdi's Opera on the Eve of f\evolut io o" (249-57); 3Dd Helen Greenwald. "Son er lumiere: Verd i,Auila. and lhe S,,n.rise over tbe Lagoou" (267-78). Cuides to individual works include David Rose n. Verdi: Requ,em (Cambridge: Cambridge Un ive rsity Press. 1995): James A, Hepokoski, Ciuseppe Verdi. Owllo (Cam· bridge: Ca.mbridge University Press. 1987): ai,d He pokoski. Gi,isepp• Verdi. Fa!srap·(cambridgc: Cambridge University Prcss. 1983). Otbcr useful books: The Cambridge Verdi Enc)"clopedia. ed. l\obena Momemorra Marv1o (Cambridge: Ca mbridge

Un iversiiy Press, 20 13): TheQmibridge Compnnion ro Ve.rdi, ed . Sco11 L. Balthaz"' (C.,mbridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press. 2003): Gilles d e Van. Verdi'sThearer: Crearing Drama lltrough Music, ITans. Gilda Robe·r ts (Chicago: Univcrsity ofCbicago Press.1998): Rogcr Pa rkcr. Leonora's l.astAct: Essap in Verdian Discottrse (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1997); Verdi's Middle Period: SourceSrudiC$,AnalJ-sis, ond Perfonnonce Pro-ctlce. ed. Mariin Chusid (Chicago: Univer$ily ofChicago Press. 1991): Pierlu igi Peirobelli. Music in 1he 77,eaier. Essa1-s on 1,1,rdi úlld Oilier Camposers ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, !994);Atlál)~ir>gOpera: Verdi ond ll"og,ier. ed . Abbate and P>rker: David JGmbell. Verdi in rheAgeoflialian Roma,11,cism (Cambridge: Camb,·idge Un iversi1y Press. 198 1): a11d \Vil Iiam Weaver. Verdi: A Documenw,,·Siudy ( London: Thames. & Hudson. 1977). For·a n exte11ded comp a rison wiib Wagner. see Conrad . Verdi Mdl or Wab""' (above underWagner}. For Victor Maurel. see Karen Henson ... Verd i. Victor Mau rei. and fm·de-Siécle Opera Performance:· Cambridge OperaJoumol 19 (2007): 5<J-84. for• bibliography, see Creg<>ry W. Horwood, Ciuseppe Verdi:A Cuidero Research (NewYork: Carland. 1998). Vcrdi"s complclc works cdition is The ll"or/.-sofCiuseppe Verdi. cd. Pbilip Gosseu (Chicago: Un iversity ofCb icago Prcss: Milan: Hicordi. 1983- ) .

Verismo An excellent recem anicle. Anel reas Ciger. .. Verismo: 0Mgi n. Corruplio n. and Redemption ofon Op eralicTe rm ." JAMS 60 (Summer 2007): 271-315. hns c t.ri1icd 1he his1ory of rhc term i 1eri-smo. Thc most rcccm book on verismo is Alan Mallach. The Aurumn of/11,tia,1 Opera: From Verismo to Modemi~m (1890- J?JS) ( Bo~ton: Northeat\te rn Univcrsity Press. 2007). For earlier stud ies. see Carl Dahlhaus. Healisrn in Ninereen r/J -Cennuy MtJ,Sic. 1rans. Ma,-y Wh i, tal1 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press. 1985). a nd Mar·

1eo Sonsone. Verismofrom Lireramre to Opera (Edinburgh: Universiiy of Edinburgh. 1987).

Cia.romo Pucr.uu Sec Julia n Budden, Puccini: lfis life ond Wor!:s (Oxford nnd New York: Oxford University Press, 2002): Mary Ja ne Phillips- Mniz. l'uccini: A Biogmphy ( Boston: Nonheastcrn University Press. 2002): P,;c;çiniond lfis Operas. ed. Ston ley Sndie (London: Macmillan. 2000); Mosco Carner, Puccini: A Cririco.J 8iograp/Jr, 3rd ed. (New York: Holmes a nd Me ier, 1992): and Williom Ashbrook. 11,eOpe,mofPJLccini (New York: Oxford Uuiversity Press.1968). Alexandra Wilson, TT1e Puccini Problem: Opero. Norionolism and Modemily (Cambridge: Cambr idge Uaiver sily Press. 2007), pbces 1>uccini in 1he context o r his e ra and the oper>1ic t rad itio n . Severa! frne English·language essays o n asp ects or Madama Bu.ne,jlyappear in ,l fodan,oBi,ue,fl,: 1:or,e,,ralismodifi"e secou,, l'approccio puccin iart0. lo ricezione. ed, Anhur Groos a nd Virgíl io Bernardoni (Flo rencc: Lco S. Olschki, 2008). Also notable is Helen Grcenwa ld. " PicturingCio - Cio · San : Jlouse. Scrcen. anel Cercmon}' in Puccini'sMadanta 8unerjly." Cambridge Opera)oum.al 12 (2001): 237-59. Nicholas Bar.gwona1h. The ilalian Tmditions and Pi,ccini: Composirional Th,a.,·and Praciic, in Ninereen rh -Ce,iru.,Opera (Bloomington: Indiano UniVCr$íty Prcss. 2011). shows mcthods taught at Italian conscrvatorics in the nincteenth century and tbc role o f trnclitio n in thc works of Puccini and earlier ltolion composers. And re w C. Davis. "fl Trirrico." "Turondor," and Pii.ccinCs l..a.reS1,-le (Bloom ingion: lndian~ Un ivers iry Press, 2010) , shows how Pucci ni uses

comr-asting st_yles and rwis1s conventions co create expression. characteriza1ion. and dr:u,,a. F'ol' progr.arnrn:uic notes on all th e operas, witb musie:tl examples, see 711e Puccini Comp,rnion. ed. Williom Weaverand Simonetta Puccini (New Yo1-k: Norton, 1994,). The rhematic ca1alogue is Die1erSchic kl ing, Ciacomo P11ccir1i: Coralogueofrl,e IVorks (New Yo rk: B~re nre ite r. 2003). l'o r bibliography. see Linda B. Pairtile. Ciacomo Puccini: A Cuide to Research (New Yc>rk: Garland. 1999).

Fra11ce See Music, 1heaier, and Cultural Transfer: Pari..,. 1830-19/4. ed. Ann"b'l'e l f'auser and Mork 1::verisl (Chicago: Chicago University Press. 2009); Steven Huebner. french Opera oi 1/1e Fin-de-Siécle: JVog,1ensm. Nationalism. and S11ie (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 1999): a nd Hcrvê Lacombc. 71re Keys 10 French Opera in 1he Nine1eenrh Cenw,;r On Counod. see Sreph cn Huc:bncr. The Operas ofCharles CQ,mod (Oxford: Clarenclon: New York: Oxford Univer$ity Press. 1990); James Hardi ng. Counod ( New York: S1ein a nel Day. 1973): anel Timothy S. Flynn, Charles François Cou.nod:A Resea,~h cind lllfonno1io,, Cttide (New York: Rourlcdgc, 2009). For Bizer. thc standard biogra1ihy in English is \Vinton Dcan . Ce<>rges Bi2e1. Hi~ Life and Work, 3rd cd. (London: Dent, 1?75). Su~an McClary. George~ 8ü:ct: Cannt:n (Ncw York: Cambridge University Press. 1992). otfers insigh,fol views ou 1he opera's porrraynl oi' women and che exollc. a mong 01 her 10pics.

lluss,a On Anton Ruhi ns1ein anel 1he St. Pe1ersburg Conserva · 1ory. sce Phi lip S. Toylo r. Anron Rubinsrein: A Li/e ir> Music (Bloomington : Indian a Universiiy Press. 2007). The il1fl u· ences of\V.:agner's music :-i.nd l i1cr.:u·y vtrrir ings on gcnc r:,1 ... tio.ns of Russi:m musiefans ;md writcrs :'.I re diseussed in llosnmuncl Bartlen. ll"agnerand llussia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1995). See also items listed uncler chap ler 30, below.

Piotr ll"yich Tcha1ko1•sky The most co11,prehensive biogra phy ofTcha ikovsky is by David Brown, in four volumes: Tchaíkovskr: 1'he EarlJ· Years, 1840- 1874- (New York: Norton. 1978) : The Crisis Years,

1874-1878 (1982): 1'he Yearsofll"andering. 1878-188S (1986): and 7he Fwol Yeors (1992). See also Holand Jobn Wi ley, "/cliaiko,.sk,- (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009): David Brown. 'lchcuko,,sky: 11,c Manem d His Music (Lon· do n: l'ab e r and Faber. 2006): Edward Cardcu. Tchaikoi>sk7

A71

Ta ruskin. Musorgsl.,-: fight fssa,-.and an Epilogue (Prince• 10 n: Prince1on Universiiy Press. 1993). and Caryl Emerson ond Roberi Willia m Oldan i. .\1odes1 Musorgsl:yand Boris Cod1mov: MJ1hs. Rec,liJies. Reconsiderorions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

N,kolai ll11nskx· Korsakov Rims~·y· Korsakov's Principies o/OrchC$tmti-0n. tran s. Ed ward Agme (New York: Dover. 1964). describes his approach. wi1h examples fron1 his own works. His memoirs appen rin MrMusi<:ol Ufe. tr.ns. Judah A . Joft'e. :irei U.S. ed. (London: faber. 1989); see also Remi,,iscencesofRimskr-Korsakov. ed. V. V, Yasu·ebtsev, ed, and tra ns. flo rence Jonas ( New York: Columbia Urliversi1y Press, 1985). l'or b iJi liography, see Gerald R. Seaman, NikolaiAndreevich Rim~loy-Korsako,,, A Cuid.e r-0 Researclt (New York: Ga,-l>nd. 1988). His wol'ksare collecled in Pohwe sobra11i.esochi,1enii [Complete Wo rks) (Moscow: Gos. niuzykal'noe izd ·vo. 1946-70: individual volumes repr. Mclvillc. 1-'Y: Belwin Mills. 1981- 84).

(Oxford: Oxford U11ivcrsi1y Press. 2000): Antbony Holden,

1chaikovskr A Biogrophr (Ncw York: R.indom Housc. 1995): and Alexander Poznansky. Tchaikovsk,-: Thc Quesr forih;, lnner Mon (New York: Schim,er, 1991) . Primary docum ents , r e in Tchaikovsky: A Self-Portro1.1, comp. Alex, nd r• Orlova, irans. R. M. Davison (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 1990), and Tchaikovsky. Leuers to His FamilJo AnAutobiography. trans. Galina vou Mcck (New York: Stcin & Day. 1981) . Otbcrstudies inc lude 1-JcnryZajaczkowski. Tchaikovsk/s MusicalStyle (Ann Arbor: UM I Rcsea rc h. 1987). ond the essays in Tchaikovskrond HL, World. ed. Leslie Kearncy ( Princeton: Prince ton University Press. 1998). On t he operas. sce He n ,y Z:ljac1.kowski. An lniroduc1ion to Tcltaikovsk,-"s Operas (Wcstpori, Cf: Pracger, 2005) Thc new critica i cdi1 ion is P. /. OlaJkovskr: Novoye polnoxe sobraniyesochin-enirlNew Edition ofthe Complete \Vorks] ( Moscow: Mu1.yka: New York: Scho11.1993-). An older collecied wol'ks editio n is I'. 1. Ch0,ykovsk,-: />olnO)'tl sobraniye sochineniy [Complete Works). ed. 8. \1. J\saf'yev a nel others (Moscow: Gos. muzykal'noe izcl ·vo. 194 0-90). 7lie Tclw.ikovsk,-Handbook: A Cuide 10 1he Mtm oud His Miisic, comp. Alexander Poinans~-y and Brett Langstou ( Bloomington, lndiana Un ivers ity Press, 2002) . includes a tbematic catalogue. catalogues oí photogrophs and le tters, amobiography. and bibliography.

Bedr,ch Smetana See ]ohn Clopham. Smerana (Londo n: Dem, 1972). a nel John Tyrell. Czech Opera (Cambridge: CamhMdge Universiiy Press. 1988). The most comple1e collected editio n isStudi· 1ni v,rdáni dei Bedncha Smerany [Study Scores of Smeta nis Works] (Praguc: Muscum Bcdi'icba Smctany.194-0- 77),

Anionin Dvorok The best biogrophy in English is John Clapham'sAntonlÍI Dvortik. rev. ed . (NewYork: Nonon. 1979). See also Michael B. Beckerman. New Worlds o/ Dvorók: Searcl,ingir>America forthe Composer's lnner Life ( KcwYo rk: Nonon. 2003): Rer/1 ittkil1g Dvoro.l:: Vi~ws from Five Cowuries. ed. David R. Be,•eridge (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996); D~rákar>d llis World. ed. Michael Beckerman (Pri neeton: Princeton Univer-sity Press. 1993): and Dvorák's Lerrers and Hemmi.scences, ed. Otakar Sourek. irans. Ro be rta Samsour ( Prague: Ani~. 1958: repr. New York: Da Capo. 1983). Dvo rãk's works ar e collected in KririckéllJ-da'ni podle sklada1elo,.a rukopisu [Crit ica! Edition oftbe Complete Works] (Prague: Artia, 1955-). l\ecent catalogues are Pcter J. I'. Herben.Antonín O.,ofák: Complerc Ca.ralogue o/ IVork,< (Tadley: Ovo rák Society, 2004). anel Jarmil Burghauser and Job.n Clapham. Themaric Catalogue. 2nd ed. (Prague: Bárcareile r. Edilio Supraphon.1996) .

Modesr Mttsorg~ky Biograpbies include Dovid Brown, Musorgskr His Li/e and Works (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 2002). and Caryl Emerson. The LifeofMusorgsl.:,·(Cambridgc anel New York: Cambridge Unive rs ity Press. 1999). Documemsore col lected in The Musorgsk-r Reader:A LifcofM. P. Musorgsk':)· in le11ers or>d Documer>1s, ed. Jay Leyda and Sergei Be n e n sson (Ne"' York: Norton, 1947: repr. 1970): \fusorgskr Remem bered. comp. and cd. Alexandra Orlova. irans. Véroniq u c Z..ytzdf and Frcdcrick Morri:5on ( Bloon1ington; lndinna

University Press. 1991): ond Alexonder Orlova, ,lfosorgsky's

ll"orks ond Da)~- trans. Roy E. Gue m her (Ann Arbor: U'MI lksearch . 1983}. lmpor1am crirical snidies are Richard

Opemta Por a general bistory. scc Ric hard Trattbnc r. Operella:.A Thealrical 1/istory: rev. cd . (New York: Routlcdge . 2003) . See also Scott. Sounds of lhe Me1ropoli,< (ab ove under cbap ,er 27). for operena and related fo rms in London. Vienna . and Paris. On Johann Strauss, see Camillc Crirtenden,Joltonn Strauss on d Vien na: Operett<> and rhe Politics o/ Popufor Culwre (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2000) , On Oilbert and Sullivan. ~ec Miehae l Alnger. Gi.lb-ert and Sul livan: A Dual Biograpl,r (Oxford: Oxford Uni\•er sity Press . 2002). and Gayden Wren, A Mos• lngenious Paro.dox: 1'1eAn o/Cilberi or>d S1,lliva11 (New York: Oxford Universi<y l'ress.

A72

For Fu d her Readi ng

Fo r l'urfh e r He a diu g

2001). Philip H. Dillml. SirArtlr.urSullivan: A Resource Book (Lonham. MD: Scarecrow. 1996). includes work list. bibliogmphy, d iscography. fil mography. and other resear ch aids: see also Dillard's HowQuC1i111 rhe WaJ~of Poradox!: An Annorored Cilben &Sullivon 8ibliography ( Mcn,chen, NJ : Scarccrow. 1991).

Chaptcr 29: Late Romani icisrn in Cen nany and Austri a D1cho1omies On the rise of 1he classical repectoire, see \Vebe,·, 711e Crea, Transfomwrion ofMusical Taste (see cbapter 26). Harry HMkell , Tire E:arl,-Mu$~ Reviva/: A Hisrory·(London: Thames & Hudson, 1988), traces the r ise of historical concerts and Lhe bistorical performance movement from its origins rhrough the late twent ieth cem« ry. On ed itio ns, see • Ed iLions. bis(Orical.'" in NC2. On Hans von Bülow, see Kenneth Birkin. Hans vem Biilow: A Ufe for Music (Crunbrid~e: Cainbridge Uuiversity Prcss. 2011). and Alna Walkcr. liansvon Bülow: A U.fe.and Times (Oxford: Oxfo rd Unh•ersl,y Press. 2010). Kevi n C. Karnes demonsn ates [he roots of the new discipline o f musicolog)' in the inte llectual and musical life ofVienna in Music. Criricism. and rhe Challengeof Hisro,,-:

Shaping Modem Musical Thought in Late Nineteenth•Cenlury· Vienna (Oxford: Oxford Univcrs ity Prcss. 2008) .

Johannes Brahnis Biographies i nclude Malcolm MacDonald. Brahms (Oxford: Oxford Universi,y Press, 200 1). and Consiantin Floros. Joha1111es Brahms, Free but Alo»e:.A Life foro Poetic Music. ira,.s. Ernest Bc rnbardt- Kabisch (NewYork: Petcr Lrng. 2010). A Brahms Reoder. ed. Michael Musgrove (New Haven, CT: Yale Unive~ity Press, 2000), inçludes letters, reviews, early biog)-nJ)hies, reminiscences, and commentaries from hjs friends ar,d conten,po rary cri i ics. See also JohomteJJ Brol,ms: Hi.s Lifea,1d urrers, ed. Si;yra Avins, lrar1s. Josef Eisinger and Avins (New York: Oxford University Press. 1997). On the music. see 7710 Compleat Brahms: A Cuide. ,o tl,e Musical Works ofjohannes Brahms, cd. Leoa Borsteio (New Yor k: Nortoa , L999). anel John O:iveri o, CrossingPa1hs: Schubm, Schumann, and Brahm,• (Oxfo rd: Oxfo rd Uni· versity Press. 2002). On developing variation. see Walter Friscb. Brahms and the Principie ofDeveloping Variafion ( Berkeley: Univcrs ity of Caliíornia Prcss. 1984). whicb d raws from Arnold Schocn bcrg's "Brahms thc Progr es· s ive" and othe r essays i n SrJieand ldea (sce undcr chapter 31) . Margaret Norley. l.areness and Brolr.ms: Music and Culmre in ihe Twiliglu ofViennese Liberolism (Oxford: Oxford Universiry Press. 2006). sima,es Brahms in ,he c11lrure of l.:ite- ninccecm h.. cenn1ryVie11n::i. ::i nd 0 :-inicl Bcller .. McKcnno. Brahm,s Mid 1he Cem,anSpirit (Com bridge. MA: llarvord University Press. 2004). sn,dies the intcrpret>·

Prisch ( Princeion: Pr incecon Un iversi,y Press. 1990); rev. ed. Walter Frisch and Kevin C. Karnes ( Pri ncer.on: Pri nceron Univers ity Press. 2009). Swd ies of Brah ms·s sym pho nics ir,clude \Valter Frisch. Brahms: 11ie FourSymphonies (NewYaven: Yale Uuiversity Press. 2003); A. Peter Brown, 7'1teSpnphonic llepértoire, vol. 4. 711.e Seco11d Colden Age oftlie Vien11c.se SJ711phor,y: 8ralm,$. 811,clmer. Ovoról,. Mohle-r, o.ndSelected Conte111p-0ranes (Bloomi nglon: Indiana Universi,y Press. 2003): Raymond Knapp. Brohms and 1/ie CJ,allenge ofrhe SJmpho11r (Stuyves,int. NY: Pendragon. 1997): David Brodbeek. Brahms. Sy111pl1onr No. I (New Yor k: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Re inhold Brin kma,m , Late ldJll: 11,eSecond S)'mphonyofjaha.nnes Brahm,< (Cambridge, MA: H,rvard Universit_V Press. 1995): and SJmphonr No. 4 in E Minor. Op. 98. ed . Kenneth Hull. Norton Ccilical Scores (New Yo rk: Norton. 2000). On tbe f111ale of lhe Fourth Symphony, sce also Raymond Knapp. "Tbc Fin,le of Brahms's Pourtb Symphony: ThcTale ofthe Subjcct." 191/i-Century·Music 13 (Summer 1989): 3- 17. and J. Peter Burk holcler. "Bra hms and Twem ieth- CenruryClassical Music." 19rh -Cenrury· Mnstc8 (Summ er 1984): 75-83. For 1hc 01her i nsrrumeri wl nlusic. scc rhe relev::mt chapters in Nineteen<h -Cenwry·Chamber Music, ed. Stcphen E. llcfl ing (Kes, York: Routledge. 2004) . and Ninereenrh • C.ntury·PianoMusic. ed. l\. Lar ryTodd. 2nd ecl. (NewYor k: Houtledge. 2004). and Barbara Owen. 11ieOrgon o\fosic of/ohannes Brahms (New Yo rk: Oxfor d Univer sity Press. 2007). Forihe vocal music, see l nge va11 Rij. Bral111is·s Song Collec1i-011s (New York: Cambridge University Pr·ess. 2006): A. Craig Bell. Brol11ns: The Vocal Mi<5ic (London: Associ>ted University Press. 1996); and Mi,chael Musgrave. Brahms.A Cerman Reguiem (New York: Cambr idge Univers ity Press, 1996). For bibliography, see Heather Pla1t.Joha11nes Braluns: A Rese.arch and/rifom,aliM Guid<:, 2nd ed. (New Yor k: Rout· ledgc. 2011); Thomas Quigley. Johannes Bral,ms: An Armo· wred Bibliob"ªPl,yof,h• litera1ureThrougl, 1982 (Metucben. NJ : ScMccrow. 1990): anel Thom as Quigley ,vith Mary 1. 1ngraham. Johannes Brahms: AnAnnotaied Bibliograpliy of rlte Literature from 1982 ro 1996 wirh an Appendix on Brahms andrhe /nr,mei (La nhnm , MD: Seorecrow. 1998). Brahms's comple1e works are in his S~mtliche Werke, 26 vols. (Leipzig: Breitko pf & H~rtel. 1926- 27: repr. Ann Ar bor. MI: Edwards.1949: rcpr. in m iniatu re fo rma, New Yo rk: Kahm,s. 1970). The thcmatic cat,loguc is Donold McCorkle and Margit McCorkle.Johannes Brahms: 11,ematisch-bibliographisclies Wer!:veneichnis (Mu nich: Henle. 1984) .

Franz U,~zt See underclrnpter25 above. For Liszr's orchest"rnl music, consult Keirh Thomos Johns, The SrmphMic Poems of Fran.z Liszt. ed. Michael Safflc (St11)~·esa nt. NY: Pendragon. 19?7).

rion .) o f n.ltion:1li.sm ., nd religion in Drahm~·.s l nõtrumcnt;i)

Por Li:u:t.'_, v icw-, of p rogram mu.sic, :scc SR 158 {(,;))); fo r

and vocal works . See also 77te Cambridge Companion to Bro}ims. ed. Michael Musgrave (New York: Cambridge Universi,y Press. 1999). arod /Jro.ltms álld His IIVorld. ed. Walte r

beaury. rarher than programm a1icis m. see the excerpt from On rhe .\fosicallr 8eou1iful in SR 162 (6: 15).

Eduard Honslick's ,rgument for a specif\cally musical

An1on Rruckner Derek w:,tson. Bmckner (New York: Oxford University Press. 1996). surveys Bnickner's Iife anel works. Stephen John son. Bruckner Rem.embered (Bosron: Faber & Faber, 1998). is a psychological biog,·aphy. Various topics are rrea1ed in 71ie CambridgeCompanion ro Bmclrner, cd. John \Villiamson (Cambridge: Ca mbridge University Press. 2004). and ili BmcknerStudies. ecl. Timothy L. Jackson and Paul Hawk.shaw (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997). On the sympho nies, see Julian Horton, 8nickner's Syrnphonies: Art0lysis. Recep1ion and Cultural Politícs (C.t m· bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Browu. 7l,e Second GoldenAb'" of1lw Viennese Spnplw11r: and Benjamin M. Korstvedt.Anlon Bruckner: SJmphonr No. 8 (Cambr idge: Cambridge Univers ity Press, 2000). For Bruckner's wind anel chorai music. see Keith William Kinder. H1e Wind 011<! 117illd· Cl,orus MttsicofAllton Bmck11er(Westpo rt. CT: Gr eenwood. 2000). Tbc criticai ed itio o is tbcSamtlicl,e Werke. kri1ische Gesamwusgabe. ccl. Lcopold Nowak (\/icnna: Musikwis· scnschaftl ichcr Vcrlag. 1951- ). An olde r collcctcd wor ks edttto n tsSanullche Wéri,;e. 11 vols .. ed. R. llaas er ai. (Augshurg: l\. Filser. 1930--44).

Hi,go Wolf On \Volf's Llcdcr. scc cspecially Susan Youens. Hugo Wolf and llis MllrikeSongs (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2001): idem .. Hugo Wolj: The Vocal Music ( Princeton: Pri nceton Univcrs iry Press, 1992): anel Amand, Glauen.

/Jugo Wolf '111d 1he lfognerior, lnherironce (Cambridge: Cam br idge Un iversi,y Press, 1999). Songs of \Volr and orhers ::i re rchued to the ~idvcnt of musical model'nism in Ed \\lard F. Kraviu , The Lied: Mirrorof Late Romaruicism (Ncw Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).

AT5

Strauss: Werl<veneichnis. rev. ed. (Vienna: Verlag Dr. l\ichard Srrauss. 1999).

Cha ptt'r 30: Oiverging Tradi1 ions in the Later Ni ne1een1h Century Francc On Prench nmsic. see "Pa ris:· §Vl -Vf 1. in NG2: Jann Pasler. Composingrhe Ciri,en: Musicas Public U1ilit)'i1t 77tird l!epttblic France (Berkeley: University ofCalifo rn ia Press. 2009): Eh ine Brocly. Paris: 11,e Mus~al Kaleidoscope 1870-1925 (Kew Yo rk: G. Braiiller, 1987): and tbe essays in frenei, Music. Culturc, artd Narional ldenlity. 1870-1939, ed. Barbara L. Kelly (Rochester, NY: University of Roehester, 2008). Fo r Franck, see l..turence Oavies, Pranck ( Lo ndon: Oent. 1973), and Cisar Fronck and Hi.s Circle ( Lo ndon: Bar rie & Je11kins, 1970).

Cabncl Fanré Biograpbics includc Jessica Duchen. Gabriel fouré (Lon don: Phaido n. 2000). and Jean M. NcctotLx. Gabriel Fauiré: li Musical L~e. tr:ins. Roge r Nicbols (New York; Cambr idge Univers ity Press. J99 1). On faurê·s aesthetics :md iníluence.

see Cario Caballero, Fauri and Frencli Mus~aLAe.srhet~• (Cambridge: Cambr idge University Press. 200 1) . For thc songs. sce Graham Jobnson. Gabriel Fauré: 11reSongs and Their Paef.s. witb translotions ofthe songs by Richard Stokes (Fambom. UK: Ashgotc. 2009). Roy llowat places F'aur é's piano music in the com ext of othcr composers in The.Art of French Piano Music: Deb1,ssr. Ravel. Pau rê. and Chabrier (f'lew Haven: Yale University Pi·ess, 2009) . A cu rrent bibliography is Edwa,·cl R. Phillips. Gabriel Faurê: A Reseorch ond Informo· 1ion Cuide. 2 nd ed. (Ncw York: Rou1lcdge, 201 1).

R<Lssía Richard Srrar,ss The mos, comprehensive s1t1dy is Non nan Dei Mar. Richard Srmuss: A Criticai Com,nenrary·on His Lifeona Work. 3 vols. ( lrhaca. NY: Cornell Univers i1y Press. 1986). See also Michael Kennedy, Riclwrd Siro.uss: Man. Musicíar1. Enib""° (Cambr idge: Cainbridge University Press. 1999); Bryao Gilliam. ·n,~ Life of Richard S1rnuss (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1999); and tbe essays collected in 'lhe Combridge Companion 10S1rauss. ed. Charles Yomnans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 20 10); Ric/1ord Stra1r,ss: New Perspectiveson rlte Composerond Hi, Work. ed. Bryan GiUi,m (Durbam: Duke Univcrsity Prcss. 1992): and Richard Strauss and l!is World. cd. Gilli:un ( Princc,on: Princcron Unh•ersity Press. 1992). On rbc o rchestral music. see Charles You mans. Richard SrrausssOrchesrralMusic a.nd 1/,e Cennan lnrel!ecniol Tmdi1io11: 11,e Ph ilosophico.1 Roo,s of Musical Modemism (Bloomirogton: Indiana University Press, 2005). Raymoncl l lo lclcn. Richard Stra«ss: A Musical Life (Ncw Havcn: Yale Univcrs ity Press. 2011) . traces Strau,ss's c.ucer .l$a conductor ,1long~ide hi$ work il~ a compot\er. Por the composer's own wri tings. see his Recollectionsand Rcfkcliorls, ed. Will i Schuh (Londo n: 8oosey& Hawkes, 1953). The thernadc carnlogue is FranzTrenner. Hichord

On Russia n music in the late nineteenth centtuy. see the prim<1ry sou rce readings in lfossi<uis on fü,ssio" Mus,c. 1880-1917:;ln Antholog,: ed. and trans. Stuart C.1mpbell (Cambridge: Cambridge University l'ress. 2003), and the d iscussio ns in Frolova -Walker. Russian MtrsicoridNarw..al· ism: From Glinka 10 Sralin (cited above under cbapter 27); Francis Maes.A History·ofRussianMusic: From KamarinskaJTl toBab, Ya.r, trans.Arnold j. Pomerans:tnd Eric:1 Pome rans (Berkeley: UniversityofCalifornia Press. 2003): Richard Taniskin. Defining Russia Musicolly: Hisl-Orícal and Henn,eneutical Essa,~ (Princeto n: Princcton Uni"ersity Press. 1997): and Robert C. Ridcnour. Nationalism. Mode.misni. and Personal /li,,alry· in l9rh-C,ntury· Russian Mu.sic (Ann Arbor: UM I Resc,rch. 1981). For Tchaikovs~-y. Musorgs~-y. anel !Hms ky-Korsakov. see ehap1er 28 ahove. On Tchaikovsky's symphonies. sec A. Pe1er Brown , 711eSJ1nphonic Reper<oire, vol. 38, 71,e Eu.ropeon S11nph onrfrom ca. 1800 to e<>. 1930: Creo I Brito in.. Russia. and France ( Bloomingion: Ind iana Univcrs ity P rcss. 2007). Timo thy L. Jaokoon. T,haikov,ky. Spnphony No. 6 (Pathétique) (Combridge: Cambridge University Prcss.

1999), imerprets 1he work in progr;imm,uic cerms relntlng 10 Tchaikovsky's hom osenialiry.

A74

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

80/1 emin See chapter 28 above. For Dvor:'ík's symphonies. see A. Peter Brown , 'ílieSecond.Colden.Ageofthe Vie1111eseSJ•npl1011y. 1mderehap1er29 above. Dvorãk's essay " Music in Amcrica" is in SR 167 (6:20).

Ed.-ardGneg A good hiography is Fim, Benestad and Dag SchjeldempEbbe. Edvard Grieg: 7'he M01t and: lhe Artist. trans. William H. Halverson and Leland B. Sa,eren (Lincoln: Universityof Nebraska J'ress. 1988). l'orGrieg's vocal music. see Sandra )arreu, Eclvord Criego ,,d His So,,gs ( Burli ng,on, Vf: Ash gate. 2003), and Beryl Foster, Edvard Grieg: 'ílce Chorai Music (Brookf,eld. V r: Ashb<:tte. L999).

Britain for the "English musical Rena issance" of the late nineteenth anel early twemieth cenluries. see Meirion Hu~es. The Eng/is/, Musical Re,w.issa,,ce. 1840-1940: Cons,rnc,ing a N«1ional M11sic. 2 nd cd. ( Manc hester: University Prcss. 2001). and Mci rion Hugbcs. 77,e E:nglish .\lusicol Renais· sonce and rhe Press. 1850-1914: Wa&ehmen ofMuslc (Alder· s hot: Ashgate. 2002) . On Pan,• and Stanford, see Jeremy Oibble, C. lfuber1 lf. Parry·: His Life and ,\fosic (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1992) and Charles Villi-ers Sranford: Man and Mu-sician (Oxford: Oxford Univc rsity Prcss. 2002). British symphonics. including lbosc by Parry. Staníord. anel Elgar . are discussed in A. Peter Brown 's '/'he SJmpl,onic Repe1toire. vol. 38. 77,e fü1ropean SJmphonyfrom ca. 1800 10 ca. 1830. On Elgar's life and works, see J. P. E. Harper-Scon. 1:lgar: A11 fatroordi11ary· Life (London: Associated Board of rhc Royal Schools of Music. 2007): Matthew Riley, Edwo rei Elgar !llld lhe Noswlgfo lmagina1iori (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007): J. P. E. Horper-Scott, Edward Elgar. Modemisl (Cambrõdge: Cambridge University Press. 2006): Jerrold North,·op Moore, elgar: Cl,íldof Drea,ns (London: Faber & Fabe,·. 2004): Michael Kennedy. lhe Life ofT::lg11r (Cambridge: Cambridge Universi1y Press. 2004): and Michael Ken,,edy. Por1rai10JElgar. 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University E'ress. 1987). Rele1•a111 essays and anicles ore in Edward I::lgarand Jlis World, ed. Byron Adams ( Princeton: Princ.eton University Press.

2007); ElgarSwdi,s, ed. J. P. E. Harper-Scott ond Julia n Rushton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007) : and The Cambridge Companion to E:lgar. cd. Daoje[ Crimley and Julian Rushton (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press. 2004). Fo r a bibliography. scc Stewart R. Crnggs. E:dward Elgar: A Source Book (Brooklicld. Vf: Ashgatc. 1995). His works are in The ElgarCompl.re Edirion. ed. Jerrold Nor1hrop Moore (Sevenoaks: Novello. 1981- ).

TI,e Umlc:d Stn tes See general sources underehaprer 26. obove. Joseph llorowitz. Classicat MusicinAmerica: A lfütory· oflt:s R.:sc: ond Fali (Ncw York: Norton. 2005). Íocu:sc:s o n

For Fu d her Readi ng

John Spitzer (Chicago: Univers i cy of Chicago Press. 2012). füropean MuStc and Mus,~ians in New l'<>rk Cu,-. 1840- /900. ecl. John Craziano ( Roches1er. NY: Universi,y of Roches1c r Press. 2006), is a useful colleeaion of essays. Ou Chadwick, see Bill F. fa11cct l . George Whitefie!d Clwd· wicl.·: 11,e Lifeond ,\ftlsic of rhe Pride ofNero Engion<l (Boston: Northeastern Univers ity Press. 2012) anel George White.fie/d Chadwick: HisSpnphonic Worns ( 1.. ,nham, M D: Scarecrow. 1996): Victor Fell Yelli n. Clradwick: l'ankee Composer(\Vash ing,on. DC: Sm i1 hsonia n Jnst ir.i,ion. 1990): anel l'auceu.

Ceo'1Je W/1irefield Chadu:~k:A Bio•Bibliogropltr(Wesipor,. CT: Greeowood. 1998). On Mac Dowell. see E. Douglas Bomberger. MacDowell ( New York: Oxford University P,·ess. 2013). for Beach. seeAdrienne l'ried Block.Amy Beach. Pass,onale Vicronan: 'llte Life and Work of Amer.ca11 Composer. 1867-194-4 (New York: Oxford Un iversity Press. 1998). and JeaneUWise Brown.Âlr,)·Beatkand HerChamherMusic: BiogrophJ: Docume111s. SIJ·le (Metucbcn. NJ: Scarecrow. 1994).

ª"

Band Musc(' R.icbard K. liansen, TheAmerlca,n Wlnd Band:A Cttln,ral /Jisrorr(Chicago: CIA. 2005). includes a his1orical overview, guide ro research, bibliography, and useful essays. For brass bands. sec ~43rgaret Hindlc Hazen ancl Robert M. Hazcn. The Music Men: An ll!ustroted llistory· of Brass Ban-ds in Americo. /800-1920 (Washington . DC: Sruilhsonia.n lnstitu · tion , 1987). Kennelh Kreitncr. Di.«oursi1tgSweet Music: 1owr, Bands and Commu niry Life in 1\,m-of-1he-Cenrury Penns-y1vania (Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1990). prese nas a case srudy of bonds in 1heir soci•I comexc. Also focused on bands in a speciftc region is 71,e Wtud Bar1d ln undAro,,,1dll'ew )'(rrk ca. /830- 1950. ed. Frank Cipolla and Donald Hunsberger (Van Nuys, CA: Alfrecl . 2007). Discussions of incli,,jdual composers a.nd works are in William li . Heh rig, 'l he lferi1age facrclopedl<l of 8or,d Music: Composers o,,d 1heir M«sic. ed. raul E. Bierley (Wes,erville. OH: lntegriiy.1 991- 96). The best iutroduc1 ion 10 So ...sa is Paul E. Bierley.John Pl1ilipSousa: American Plwnomenon. rev. ed. (Miami: War· ner, 2001). li is works are ca1al0b'Ued in Paul E. Bierley, 77ce Works o/John PhilipSouso (Westerville, OH: ln,egrity, 1984). See also his autobiõb<rapby, John J>hilip Sousa, Marching Along: RecollecnonsofMen . IJi'omen and Music (Boston: Hale . Cushman . and Flint.1928: rtpr. \Vesiervilk OH: lnlcgrity. 1994) . OnSousas band . sce Paul E. Bierlcy. The/ncredible Band ofJo/111, PhilipSousa (Urban a: Un iversiiy of lllinois Prcss. 2006) . and Parrick Wa rÍlcld. '" Maki ng 1be B:r.nd : The Pormarion of John Philip $ousas Ensemblc ... American Music 24 (Spring 2006): 30-66- $ousas progromming and his resh:ipi ng of 1he m~rch form íordr:un:itic effcc1 :ire dcwilcd by Patrick \Va,·f,eld. "'The Marchas Musical Oram a and the Speernele of John Phi li1) Sousa,.. JAMS 64 (Summcr 2011): 289- 318.

perform:mce. For composition . see Nichalas E. Taw:i. 771e

Popular Song

ComingofAge ofAmerican An Mruic: New E:ngland's Clas-<ical Romanricis1s ( New York: Greenwoocl. 1991). For orchestras, seeAmeâcM Ordtesm,s in 1lie Nir1eree1111t Cenn,ry·. ed.

Charles Hamm. Piming Popular Music i1t ir,, Pince (C,mbridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). begins \\'Íth 0 11 excellenc ourline of popul:ier music me1hodologies and con1inues wi1h

a chronolot,iicaJ narrative of popular musíc in lhe Unite d States. Some of the sources listed undcr chap1er 35 also rreat ,he nineteenrh cemury. Charles Hamm, YesrerdOJ'S: PopularSonginAmerica ( Ncw York: Norton, 1979). ot'fers Ml overviewof Amcrican popu lor song. Jon W. Fínson, The Voices 1'haiAre Cone: Them es in Nine1ee111h -Cen1ury-Americar1 Popular Son.g (New York: Oxford Universi,Y Press. 1994) . focuses primarily on the lyrics. Nicholas E. Tawa. 7'/,e Wario Tin Pan A/Ler: American PopulorSong. 1866-1910 (New York: Schirmer, 1990). traces de,•elopruents 1hrough the f,.-s, 'l'in Pan Alley period. ::tnd David A. jasen. Tin Pan Aller: The Composers. ,1,e So11gs. ,he Peiformers. 1rnd 77,eir fü11es-TT1e Golden Agt ofAmericar, Popular A/u.sic from /886101956 (New York: Fine, L988). fol lows the story lhrough ,he nexi two generarions. Reference ,votks on Tin Pan AJley. from lhe late- nineteenth thro\igh the mid-twentietb ceuhuy, include David A. Jasen. Ti,, Pa-n

AUe;r: A,1Enc;rclopedia ofsl,e ColdenAge ofAmerico,,Soni'S (Ncw York: Routledgc. 2003): Thomas S. Hischak. 77,e Tin PanAllerSong Enc;rclop,dia (Westport. CT: Grccnwood. 2002): and Kcn Bloom .AmericanSong: TTieComplere Com · panlon to Tin PanAller, 2 vols. (NewYork: Schlrmer. 2001). 11,e Encrclopediaof Popular Music. ed. Colin Larkin, 4-th ed . (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), is• eomprehcnsivc rcferenec work on popular musie. includingpoptllar song. Scc also choptcrs 34 and 36. bclow.

AfncanArnencan Mu$rC Por genera l histories. seeAfiicanAmerican Music: An /ntrod1tcrio11. ed . Mellonee V. 811rnim ancl Ponia K. Mauhsby (NewYork: Ro111ledge. 2006): DenaJ. Epstein.

Si11fi,l Tunes ond Spiri1uals: 8/act· Polk Music ro she Civil WM, rcv. ed. (Urbana: Universiry of Tllinois Press. 2003); F.arl L. Stewort.Africo11 Ante11co11 Music: An lntrodvction (New York: Schirmer, 1998): Eileen Southern. 71,e Mi,sic of 8/ock Americ0r1~:A lfis10,,-. 3rd ed. ( NewYork: Norton. 1997): Samuel A. Floyd. J r.. 'ílie /'ou:er of 8lack Mr,,sic: /1uerpreti11g lts lf,story-fromAfr.co to 1he Un,led Sra1es (New York: Oxford Univcrs ity Press. 1995): and Arnold Shaw. B!ack Popular Music inAmrrica: From shc Spirisuals. Minsirels. and Ragtime ,o Sou!, Disco. an.d Hip•lrop (New York: Scbirn,er, 1986). On U,e lote nineteenth century, see Lynn Abboc t and Ooug Seroff, Ou1oJSighi: The Ris,ofAfrican American Popular Music. 1889-189S (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. 2002).

PART VI : THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ANO AFTER Omstand ing su rveys of n'1enrierh -century art music include Joseph Auner. Music in 1he Twenrie1h and Twe,11,-Pirs1 Cenruries (Ncw York: Nonon. 2013), poired ,eith hisAnrholog:,-for Musicin rlte Tu:enrierlt and Tu1en1J··Firs-r Ccnh,, ic" (Ncw York: No rton. 20 13)0 Robert r. Morg-.1n . Twentielh · Century· Music: A llisrory· ofMusical S1rle in Modem foropeandAmerica ( NewYork: Norton.1991). accompanied by hi s1ln1/iologyoJTwen rie1h-Ce1111,ry' i\fi,sic (New Yol'k: Nor1.011 , 1992): and Glenn \Va1ki ns , Soun.d-

A75

inb''" Music in ,he Tweniierh Cenrury·(Ncw York: Schinner. !988). Music criric Alex Ross offcrs a fascinating acc-0um of rwemieth -ce ntury mus ic in its human :md culnar:lil contex1s in The Rest Is Noise: Lisrening ro the Twenrierh

Ce,uury· (New York: forrar, Scraus and Ciroux, 2007) . Other survcys inelude Mark A. Radice. Concert Mu~ic ofihe Twenrierh Century-: lts Personalities. lnstiwtions. and Tech · niques (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003): Eric Sal,.man , Twe11 tie1h-Ce11 11<ry· Music: An. lntrod,.ction. 41h ed. (UpperSaddle River. NJ: Pre naice Hall, 2002): Bryan R. Simms. Music of1/1e T,ventieth Cenr"'Y' S1rleond Struc-1ur-e. 2nd ed . (NewYork: Schirmer. 1996). witb occompauyiug an 1hology; Paul Griff1 ths , Modem Musica,,dAfier (Ox.ford: Oxford Universíty Press. 1995); and Arnold \Vbiuall. Music since lhe Firsl IJi'orlá IJi'ar (London: St. Martin's, 1995).An excellenl technical guide is Joel Lester.Ar1alr1ic Approaches 10 Twen1iet1,-Ce111"1'· Music (New York: No.r ton. 1989). Books on specifte gcnres iucludc The Cambridge Companion to Twen1ie1h-Cert1ury·Op,ro. ed. Mcn,yn Cooke (Ca mbridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2005). and James McCalla. Twenlieth · Cen.tur:rChamberMu.sic. 2n d ed. ( New York: l\omledge. 2003). The muhi-authored Cambridge flis1ory·oJTweri1ie1h Century· .1/usic, ed. Nicholas Coobnd An1hony Pople (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsicy Prcss. 2004). c mbrnces jazz and popular musicas we11 as art mus ic. Eli ·

jah Wald offers an innovotive view of lhe cenrury·s popctlar music in How the Beatks De$tro)'ed. Rock 'n' Roll: An Allernarive l/is1ory-ofAmerica11 Popu.lari\fosic (New York: Oxford University Pl'ess.20 11). For rnusic in ics soci31coritexls. seeModem 1'irnes: F'ronl IVo,ld. lVa,·I ,o 1/iePrese,11, ed. Robert P. Morgan (Basings toke: M:tcmill:tn. 1993). and Twen1ieth-Ce,uury· M"sic and P0Ji1ics. ed. Pauline Fairclougb (Farn.ham, UK: Ashgate, 2013). Glenn Watkins. PJTarnids M 1/ae Louvre: Music. Cul1ure. and Colfoge fro,n S1ravillSk,-10 1/ie PostmodemJ.Sls (Cambridge, MA: Ha rvard Univers iiy J'ress.1994). places rnodern music within a broadercult\lreofborrowing. reforenee, and eclecticiscn. Danid Albright. Untwis1ing1/reS,rpen1: Mo,lem,sm in Music. Uierature. and 01herArls (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2000), draws parallels between mus ic and the o1 be r arts in lhe f1rs1 bal f o f the cwe ntie1 b century. Nicolas Slonimsky's Musicsince 1900. 5ih ed. (New York: Scbirmer. 1994). is a compendium ofuseful rcsourccs. including a timc linc oí musical evcnts :ind numcrous primary docu..mcnts: il bas bcen updatcd by

uiura Kuhn. 6th cd. (New York: Sch irmer/Galc. 2001). O,her timelines includc. for classica l music. Charles J. Hall , Chro11ologrofWes1ern Clossicl)t Music. vol. 2: 1901-2000 (New York: Rou1lcclgc. 2002), anel for popufor music. Frank Hoffmon n, ChronologyofAmericori Pop,,lar Music. 1900- 2000 (New York: Roualedge, 2008). M11sicofrlre Twen ti eth -Century· A,•a.nt-Gorde, A Biocri tical Sou rcebo<>k. ed . L1rry Sirs~-y C\Vestport. CT: Creenwood. 2002). offers re~ourcc:~ íor re~c,uç h .

Composers· writings and ocherprimary documents are collected in S R2: Modemisni«nd Music: )l,.An,l,ologrof Sources. ed. Daniel Alhrigh 1(Chicago: Uuive rs ity ol' Chicago Press. 2004): Composers on Modem MusicalCuhure: An

A76

For l'urth e r He adiug

AnthologyofReadingson Twentie&h •C,,nn,,.,·Music. cd. Bryan R. Simms (New York: Schirmer. 1999); and Contemporary· Composers 011 Co,uemporary·Afosic. exp,ncled ed .. cd. Êlliot, Schwanz,nd Barney Childs wi 1h Jim Fox (NewYork: Da C3J)O, 1998). Compositions by twentierh- century women composers are collected in Contemporary·A»thologrofMusichr W<>men. ecl. James R. llriscoe (8loomingion: lndi,na University Press. 1997).

Chapler 3 1: The Early Twentielh Cenlury: Vernacu lar Music Rccordcd Sotmd On the history and technology o f recorded sound, see Jerome F. Weber. John Borwick. etal.. "Recordeei sound;' in N'G2. for a foscinating discuss io n oíits impact on musical life. see Mark Katz. Cápn,ri,,gSowut: How ·iechMI· 01r1· Has Changed A/usi,:, rev, ed . ( Berkeley: University o[ CalHornfa Press. 2010). Music. Sound. and 1echnolo1r1·in America. cd. Timothy D. Taylor ai. (Durham. NC: Duke Untverslry Press. 2012). Is a coll.ectlon of prlmary sources

on tJ1e development of tbe phon.Of,'Tapb , radio, and sound

for ii lms. David Suisman, SellingS011nds: The Commercial Re,-olu1ion in American Mu~ic (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss. 2012). placcs phonograph rccords and olbcr oew tcchnologies in a hislory of Lhe rapidly cxpand • ing music industry in lhe carly twcnticth ccntury. The essays in l!ecorded Music: Perfom,ance. Culrnre. and Technology. ed . Amando Bayley (Camhridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010) . otfer various perspectives on research i1110 recordcd sotmd i 1l thc rwe11ric1h .and twcnty· li.rst centu · r•ies. Jo1taLha11 S1er11e, Tl1eAudible Pas1: Cullural Origins of Sound Reproduclion ( Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), places sound recording in • broad cultural conteict.

For Fu d her Readi ng

BondMusic Por E.nglish bands. see Dennis Taylor, English Brass Bands and Their M1isi<:. 1860-1930 (Newcas,le upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. 2011): Roy Newsome, Bross Roors: A Hundred YearsoJBro,ss Bands and iheir Music, 1836-1936 (Aldershot: Ashg:11e: 1998); and The Briti~h Brass Band: A Musicala,utSocial Hisro')·, ecl. Roy Newsome (Oxfo rd : Oxforcl University Press. 2000). On bands in ,he Uni teci S1a1es. see Frank L. Battisli. '171e Wint/$ofCl1onge: '11te Evol11· 1ionof1he Co111empo1-o')·American 11-ind Ban.d/E'nsemh/eand ltsConduc1or (Galesville. M D: Meredith Music, 2002) and The Twe,ttielh Cer1111ry·American Wi,1d Band/Ensemble: His · IO')·- Developmenr and literalltre (ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music. 1995). On Holst. see jon C. Mitchell, from Kneller Hall 10 Hammersmilh: 17te /Jand Worns oJCustov Holsl (Tutz· ing. Germa11y: H. Sch11eider. 1990).

Ragtime Siudies of ragtime i.uclude David A. Jaseu, 111a1American Rag: 11ieS1ory·ofRab~imejrom Coasl to Coem (New York: Schinner. 2000): Rai,qime: lrs His10,.,-. Composers. and Music. ed. John Edward nasse (NewYork: Schirmer.1985): and the classic hisrory by Edward A. Berlin , Ragnme: A Musical and Cultural flistO')' (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1980) . for its antecedents. see Abbon and Scroff. Out ofSighl. On Joplin. sce Roy Argylc. Soou Joplin and lhe AgeofRagtime (Jefferson. NC: M!cFarland. 2009): Edward A. Bcrli n. Kingof Ragtime: Scon]oplin and Hi-s lira (Ncw York: Oxford University Press. 1994): anel Susan Cunis. Da11cing1oa. Biade Man's 'r1111e:A LJfeofS0011 Joplin (Colum bia: University oí Missou ri Press. 1994-). On Cook. see M,rva G,-irf111 Caric,-.Su•tngAlong: The .\fusicol Ufe ofWiU J\forion Coo!· (Oxford: Oxford Uraiversity P,·ess. 2008). A useful rcíerence work is David A. Jasen. Rtt,,"lime: An E:ncrclopedia, Discography. and Sl,cetography (New Yo,-k: Rou ,ledge. 2007).

Popular· Song and Stage Music Ear!;-Jau

A77

University Press.1998): and FrankTirro.Jou. A llisror:r2nd ed. (NewYork: Nonon. 1993). Fora bricíaccoum and basic repertoirc. see Scon DeVeaux and Cary Ciddins,]022: Essential listening (Ncw York: No,~on. 2010) . Pcrson3J accounts of 1he history of ja,.i 3J>pcar i11 N31 Shapiroand Nat Hentof'í. 1/ear Me Tal!-in· ro l'<i: TheStory·of Jcw: as Told bythe Men IP'ho Mr1.d, lt. 2nd ed. (New York: Dover. 1966). Keeping Time: Rea.dü1i,,s infazz flistory•. ed. Roben W.1lser (Oxford : Oxford Uni,•ersity l'ress. 1999). is a useful collec· tion of source readings. Baseei on inrerviews wi,h Jelly R.oll Monon. Afan Lomax's Mister Jellr Roll: ·n,e Por11mes oj'JeUy Rol/ Morton. New OrleMs Cniole and ··J,we,uorofJazz."3rd ed. (Berkeley: Univers ityofCa.lifortda Press, 2001). isa valuable study of Morton and tbe earliest daysof jazz. E<ldieS. Meaclows.Ja:::,. Scholarship and Pedagog;c A Researc/1 and Jnfom,alion Cuide. 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2006) isa useful refer· ence Lool. For moreon jazz. see cbapiers 34-, 36. and 38.

Mahler: '/7,eS)'nphonies (Ponland , OR: Amadeus.1993): and Donald Mitehel1. G1,s1av Moliler. Songs o.nd Symphonies of 1.ife and Deot/1: T111erprewtio11s and Anno101lons. new cd. (\Vood • bridge, UK: Boydell . 2008). Julian M. Johnson. Mahlers 1/4,ices: Expnission Md Iro,,,- i,1 ihe Stmgs and SJ1nphonies (New Yo,-k: Oxford University Press. 2009), interprets Mahlers style. Studiesof individual works include Peter Franklin , Ma/iler: SJ»1plto11yNo. 3 (Cambridge: Camb,·idge University Press. 1991): James L. Zychow-icz. Mohler's filurr/1 Spnpltonr (New York: Oxford Universíty Press. 2000): and Stephen E. Heíling. Mal,ler: Dos Liedvor> der Erde (Cam· bridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000). for a bibliog· rapby, see Susan Filler, G11s1avandAlma Mahler. A llesearch and Tnformarion Cuide (New York: Routledge. 2007). A critica i edition of Mahler"s works is in progress. ed. lniernationale Custav Mahler Gesellschaft (Víenn.a. 1960- ).

Chap1er 3:.a: The Ea rlyTwen lieth Century:

Richard Srrouss Sce cbapter 29. abovc. On thc operas. sec Richard S1ratiss: Salame. ed. Dcrrick Puf'íett (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni · versiry Press. 1989): llryan Gillt:un. /lich.ard Srrau.ss's Elekira (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991); and Joanna Bottenberg, Shanid Crealion: Words and Mu~i,: in tht Hofinannsrhal· Sirauss Operas. with foreword by Steven Paul Scher (New York: P. Lang. 1996). Strauss's complete operas appear i.n Richard Strauss Edition: S/imtliche Bahnenwerke (Vicnna: Vcrlag Dr. Richard Strauss.1996).

The Classical Trailition ModernMusic The view of modern nmsic skerched here w:1s farst outJi ned

in J. Peter Burkholder, ·· Museum Pieees: The Hisloricist Mainstream in Musicofthe Last Hundred Years.- JM 2 (Spring 1983): 115- 34. and ··Brahms ond Twentieth-Cen tury Classical Music;· 19th· Century· Music 8 (Sum.mer 1984): 75- 83. Scc also Lcon Botstcin. "Modcru is m." in NC2. and Walter Frisch. Cemian Modemism: Music and the Ans (Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforn ia Press. 2005).

Claude Debussr

Custo.;• Mal,ler Excellent stud ies of Maltler and his n1usic i11clude Oo,iald Mitchell, Cus1ao Mol1ler: The Earlr Years. rev. ed .. ed. P:1111 Bnnks and David Motthews (\Voodbridge. UK: Boydell. 2003): Mitchell. Ctmav Mahler: ·n.e Wunderliom Years. new ed. (\Voodbridge. UK: Soydell. 2005): anel Henry-Louis de La Grange. Afahler(vol. 1. New York: Ooubleday.1973: vols. 2-4. Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press . 1984.1995. ond 2008). See also Jens Malte Fischer, Gustav Mahler.

The s1,ndard biogra1>hy in English is Edward Lockspeiser. Deb,,ss,-, His Life and Mind. 2 vols. (New York: Macm ill:l.n , 1962- 65); a shonerversion is Debussy, 5th ed. (London: Dent, 1980) . See also Paul Roberts, Cloude Deb11ssr (l..onclon: l'haiclon, 2008): lloger Nichols. The l.ifeofOebriss:r (Cambridge: Cambridge University P,-ess. 1998), and Nichols, Debt.ssy Remembenid (Portland, OR: Amadeus. 1992). Richard S. Parks. 77ie MrMic ofClaudt Debussy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), shows Debussy's

For sources on popularsong in lhe United States, see chap· ter 30. above, aud cbapters 34- a:nd 36. below. For English popular song. see Dave Russell. Poptda r i\fosic ir1 fogla,ul. 1840-1914: A Social Hisiorr (Mou,real: McGill ·Quee,i's University Press.1987). On musical theaterand Bro:rdway, see chapters 34- ,nd 36, below.

The detaíled and insightful "Jazi' essay by Mark Tucker (text) and Travisjackson (bibliography). in NC2. is an excellent pbce 10 begin any study of jazz. NG2 contains articles on every aspect of jazz, and coverage is even more

Musi1-forSile,11 Films Mervyn Cooke. ··Film music.- in NG2. briclly survcys lhe em ire history of Íllm musie. The bcst study o[ the s ilcnt era is Martin Miller Marks. Musicand1heSilen1 Film. Conrexis and CaseStudies. /895- 1924 (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 1997). See also R.ick Al11nan.Silen1 film Sound (New York: Columbia University Press. 2004). and TheSoundsof l:arl,-Cinemo, ed. Richard Abel and Rick Altm•n (Bloom ington: Ind iana University Press. 2001) . Pilm Mu$ic 1. cd. Clifford McCany (NewYork: Garlancl. 1989), includcs

2nd ed .. ed. Barry Kernfeld (New York: Croves Oictionar· ies. 2002.). Cm,ther Schuller"s classic text. EorlJ-Jau: lrs RootsandMusicol Developmer,i. re,•. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1986). traces the bistory of jazz f rom its origins lhrough Duke Ellifib'lOn. Bnicc Boyd Raeburn. New Orleans Sryleand rhe Writingoj'Americanfan H,siory·(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 2009). challenges the cenrr:11ity of New Orle:ms in acc:ounts of jazz. Coun Carney. C,<ttin· Up: How Eartr ja22 Co1America·s Ear (L,wrcncc: University Press of Kansas. 2009). examines the sprend and ncceptance of jazi in thc comext or cconomic. poli ti·

20 11); Peter Franklin. 77re L,fe o/Mahler (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry l'ress, 1997); K11rt Blm kopf. Mahler: A Documenta')' S1udy (New York: Oxford University Press. 19?6): Deryck Cooke. Cusrov Mal,ler: An lnlroduction 10 HiJ ,lfosic (London: Faber & Faber. 1980): ond 1he essays in 11ieMalrlerCompanion. cd. Donold Milchcll andAndrew Nicholson (Oxford: Oxford University Prcss. 1999). and in The Cambridge Companion 10 Mahler. ed. Jcremy Barliam (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 2008). K. M. Knitlel.SeeingMahler: Musicand the 1.,:mgua.geofAntisemi· 1ism in jin -de ·siécle VienM (Farnham. UK: Ashgate, 2010), revcols the s11btle anti · Semitism direeted at Mah ler. For dctailccl srudies of Mahlers music. scc A. Pcter

~cYcr,,I ç hilpte r~ on thc mu~lc of 3ilcnt fi lm~ .1nd car)y

ç,al . .$Oclal. and culturill fa.ctons. Comprchçn.$ivç hl.,toric.$

Brown. 1'hc $eçond Golden Age of t.he Vic:rmc:.:ie SpnphonJ;

Camhridge Univer~lty PreM. 1??7); .lnd Artlu ir n. \Vet'..lk.

cinema. A good research guide is Gillian Anderson. Music forSile111 F'ilm.s. 1894-1929: A Cui;/e (Washington, DC: Libraryol" Congress, 1988).

of jazz from early days to modem ja1.1. include Ted Gioia . 771e /Jistorxof)cm, 2nd ed. (New York: Q,; ·ord University Press. 201 1): G, ry Gidclins. Visi,ms of)atz (Oxford : Oxíord

l\aymond Knapp. Spnphon ic Me1amorpl1oses: S11bjectivityond AliertátÍOll in Mohler's Re-cydedSo,,gs (Middletown. CT: \Ves· leyan University l'ress. 2003): Constamir1 Floros. C11swv

Claude Debussy,md Twentierl,-Centu')' .1/usic (Boston: Twayne. 1983). On panicularworks anel genres, see Paul Roberts.

thorough in ils companion, Th.e New Crove Dictionary· ofJa.rz.

trans. Stew:irt Spencer (New Haveu: Yale University Press.

coordJn:1tion of changes in pitc.h coUection with f1gura.tlon, phrasing, and form. Roy Howat, Debussrin Proporuon:

A .\111sicolJlnalJ>sis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1983). proposes that proportions. including Lhe Colden Sec1ion. are importaut aspects o[ Debussy"s forms. For more on thc music and thc composcr. see David J.

Code. Claude Debu.,.r(London: Reaktion Books. 2010): Marianne \Vhccldon. Debussys laie StJi• (Bloominl:,1on: Indiana University Press. 2009): 11ieCambridge Compon· ion ro Debussy. ed. Simon Tre,ise (Cambridge: Cambridge University Pt·css. 2003): Debuss;rond His World. ed. Jane F. Fulcher (Prince1on: Princeton Univcrs ity Prcss, 2001): Deb11-ssrStudies. ed . Richard L-lngham Smith (Cambridge:

A78

For l'urfh e r He ading

lmages: The Piano .\liisicoJClaude Debu.<;..sr(Ponland. OR: Amadeus. 1996): Roger Nichols and Rfohard l•ngham Sm ith . Oaude Debuss,·. Pelléas ei Mélisande (Cambridge: C.1mbridge Universiiy Press, 1989); David A. Crayson, TT1e GenesisofDebussy's PelléMer Mélisande (Ann Al'bor: UM I Reseorch, 1986); Robcn Orledgc. Deb1.ssrand the Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1982): and Debussy. Prelude 10 "'/7,e Afremoo11 ofa foun," Nonon Criticai Scores. ed. William IV. Austin (New York: Norton. 1970) . Por cultur:il ::md pol itical background lO muslC in Fr:1nce in Oebussy's lifeti me. see Jane P. Fuleher. Fret1 ch Ct.!turol Poli!ics and Music: From the DrtJfusAJfair 10 11,e first World War(New York: Oxfo rd Universi ty Press, 1999). Mauhew Brown, Debussy Redmt: The Jmpacr of His Music Oll Popular Culwre (Sloominb'lOn: lnd iona University Press. 2012). s hows the uses of his music throughout lhe twentieth centul)' in a ,•ariety of contexts. On performai1ce praccice. see Debuss,-i,, Peiformo.nce. ed. James R. Briscoe (New Have n: Yale University Press. 1999). For biblfography and or.hcr aids. sce Briscoe. Claude Debussr A Cuide to Research (New York: Carland. 1990). Oebussy·s essays are published ln Debus•ron Afosic: Thc Criticol lVrirings ofrhe Greo r Fren"11 Composer, ed. François l es11re, tr>ns. Richard Langh•m Smith ( r-lcw York: Knopf, 1977). excerpted in SR 197 (7:28 ).

Maunce /lavei Rcccnt biogrophics ü1clude Rogcr Nichols. Ra.-e! (Ncw Haven: Yale Universiry Press. 2011): Benjamin h't)'Maurice llavel:A Ufe (NewYork: Welcome Rain. 2000).and R.oger Nichols. Ravel llemembered (New York: Nonon. 1988). Srephen Zank, lronyand Sound: 71ie Musico/ Maltrice Ravel (R.ochester. l\"Y: Universiry of R.ochester, 2009), ireats Ravel's acsthetic vicws and rnus;cal language. and Michael J. P1iri. Ravel rhe Dccadent: Mc,n<>ry'. $1,blimation, 0t1d Desirc ( ew York: Oxford University Press. 2012). pinces Rnvel's music in th e rradition ofthe French Oecadence anist ie moveo1ent. Helpfo l colleet ions or essays include Unmasking Ravel: New Perspectives on 1he Mu.sic. ed. Peter Kaminsky ( R.ochester. NY: Uuiversiry of Rochester. 2011): RavelStud· ies, ed. Deborah Mawer (Cambr.idge: Caml>ridge University Press. 2010); and '/heCambridgeCDmpanwn 10 Ravel, ed. Mawer(NewYork: Combriclge University Press. 2000). On rhe baileis , see Deborah Mawer. 1he Ballet$ of Mourice Ra,•el: Crealion and foterpre1a11011 (Aldershot: Ashgate. 2006). Primai)' docmnents appear in A Ravel Reader: Correspo11de,we. Anicles. Jnwviews. ed. Arbie Oren.siein (Ncw York: Columbia Universi,y Prcss. 1990: rcpr. Dovcr. 2003). For biblioi,.,.aphy. seeStcphcn Zank.MauriceRm,ekA GuidetoResearch (NewYork: Romledge. 2005). On consrructions of neocb ssicism in Fr::mce. sec Scon Mcssing. Neocktssicism inM1,sic: From rhe Ge,1esis of1/1e Concep1 through tl>eSchombe,glSrrovinsky Polemic (Ann Arbor: UM 1 Rcscarch. 1988).

Serge Racl1ma111nojf Biographies include Geoffrey Korris. Hach maninoff (Oxford: Oxford Univers ily I'ress, 2001); Sergei Benens·

For Fu d her Readi ng

sona nd Jay Leyda. Se'1/ei Rachmaninoff: A Lifetime in Music (Bloomington: Indiana Universiiy Press. 2001): and Barrie M,nyn . Raclunaninoff: Composer. Pionisr. Condnc1or (Alder· shor: Scofor Press. 1990). On the music. scc David Burlcr Can nata. l!aclww,, irioffand 1he S)'npltonr ( 1llOsbruck: Studicn; Lucca: UM, 1999).

Alexander Scriabi n See F.ubion Bowers, Scriabin. A Biography, 2 vols .. rev. ed. (New York: Oover. 1996). anel Boris de Schloezer, Scriabin: Arrisr and Mysric. rrans. Nicolas Slonimsky (Berkeley: University oíCali forn ia Press. 1987). an acco1u11 by a friend and relative. On the rnusic. see especia.lly Ke1111eLh M. Smith. Skl)llbin. Philosopltrand rhe Musico/ Desire (Farnham. UK: Ashgate. 2013); Peter Deane l\obens. Modemism in Rtmian l~aM Mus,c: Skrn,.b,n. Prokofiev. cmd Their Russ,a,1 Contemporo,·,es (Bloomington: htdiana University Press. 1993): ar1d James M. Baker. TT,e ,\fosic ofAlexander Scriabin (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1986). The tbematic catalob'Ue is Dan.icl Bossharcl. Thematisch· chronologisches Verzeichnis der nmsil.-alischen Werke vonAle:rander Sk,jabin (Arclez: Edtztun Trais Glats. 2003).

lsaacAlbéniz and E1111que Cra ,wdos Thc standard biography of Albé niz is Walter Aaron Clark. Isaac Albénir: Ponrail ofa Roman.tic (O., ford: Oxford Univcr· sity Prcss. 1999). For bibliograpby. scc Cla.rk. lsaacAlbéniz: A Cuide lo Research (Ncw York: Garl,md. 1998). A partia! catalogue anel discography is Po la Bayrelman. /sMcAlbéniz: Chronological Usr cmd 'l'ltemar!c Catalog of //is Piano IVorks (\Varren. Ml: HaTinonie Park Press, 1993). The firs, detailed English- languagc biography or Granados is Walter Aaro11 Cla.rk, forique Gro,tados: Poet ofthe Piano (O,f ord : Oxford Univcrsity Press, 2006). f'or a research gu ide. see Carol A. Hess, Enrique Granados: A 8io-8iMiogroplr.y (New York: Greenwood. 1991). ,\fon uel de Falia Especially sign if1can1 are two recent books by Carol A. Hess. Sacred Passions: 11ie Lif• átld Music ofManuel de fàlla (New York: Oxford University Press. 2005) a,id Manuel de falia andModemism in Spain. /898- /936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). See also Nancy Lee Harper. Manuel de Falia: Hrs Lifcand .\lusic (Lanham. MO: Scarecrow. 2005). and Bw·netl James. Mo.nu.e/ de falia and tlie Spani$1, Musical Renaissance (London: Collancz. 1979). For a rcsearch guide. see Nancy Lec Horper. Manuel de Falia: A Bio-bibliograpl,y (Westpon. CT: Crccnwood. 1998). Tbc t.hematiccatalogue is Antonio Ruü:•Pipó. Catalo6'lte de l'oeuvre de Manuel de Falia (P•ris: M. Eschig. 1993).

liams (Oxford: Oxford Unh•ers i,y Pl'css.1964,; repr.1988) . On the nmsic. see Lionel Pike. Vaug/1an Williamsand the SJ1nphonJ' (London: Toce,t•. 2003): Micl»el Kennedy. The Wor*sofRalph Vaugl1an. William.s, rev. cd. ( london: Oxford Univcrsi1y Press. 1982): ~nd Kennedy, A Goralogu.e ofthe Wor*so/Ralph Vo11ghon Willia11tS, 2nd cd. (Oxford : Oxford Unh'crsiiy Prcss. 1996). Vaughnn Williams's writings a·re gnthered in severa! volumes. including Vaughon Willicwis onMusic. ed. D•vid Ma nning(Oxford: Oxford Universiiy l'ress. 2008); Norional Musicand Orlw essa,~. 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon.1996): 771•Moki,1go/M11sic(hhac;.1. t-rv: CorneU University Press. 1955: repr. Wes1por1 . CT: Greenwood, 1976); a.n<l Lerrel'So/Ralph Vaugh011 Williams (/895-)958). ed. Hugb Cobbe (New York: Oxford Univers ity l'ress. 2008).

Gustav Ho/çt Por biography. see Michael Shorr. G"sta, Ho!st: 71,e Moro andHis Mttsic (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1990). and Lmogen Holst. G,wav Ho!s1:A Biograpl,r. 2nd cd. (Oxford : Oxford Univcrsity Press. 1969: rcpr. 1988). On thc music. see A. E. P. Dtck1nson. 1/olsr's Muslc: A Gutdc. ed. Alan Glbbs (London: Thames. 1995): llichard Green, llo!st: 'lne Planers (Cambridge: Com bridge Universiiy Press. 1995); nnd 1mogen Holst. The Music ofCusta" Holst. 2nd ed . (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 1968). Thc works are catalogucd in lmogen Holst.A ThematicCaraJogueofGustavfloL,t's Music (Lonclon: Faber & l'c,ber. 1974). For bibliography. sce Ma ry Chris rison Huism• nn . Gusrav HoLsr: A lleseorch ond lllforma1íon Cuide (New York: Routleclge. 2011).

l,eo§ Jo nacek Sccjoltn Tyrcll,]Máéek: Years of a Life, 2 vols. (Londo n: Paber & Fabcr, 2006 anel 2007): Mirka Zcmanová .Jandl<!k (Boston: Nonhcastern Universiiy Press, 2002); Jarosl.av Vogel. l,eoS]anáook: //is Lifeond Works. rev. ed .. ed. Karl Jnnovic~-y (New York: Nonon , 1981): and Zdenka Janfüek. Mr Lifew,rh ]ané.rek. ed. anel frans. John 'l)'rrell (London: raber. 1998). On rhe operas. see Derek Ka1z. ]0t1át<k Beyond 1h• Borders (Rochester. NY: University of Rocbesrer. 2009): Jané.i':ek's Operas:A Documelltary•Account. ed. John 1)'rrell ( Princeton: J'rinceton Universiry Press, 1992); anel Tyrrell, Leosjanáéek: Kàt"a Kabanovã (Combridge: Cambridge Univers il)' Press. 1982). The catalogue is Nigel Simeone et ai .. janáéelcs Works: A Catalogire ofthe Musicand Wrilingio/1.eo§ Janá.ét.k (Oxford: Clarendon. 1997). 11,e complete works are publisbcd (Pr>i,'Uc/Kassel: Supraphon/Bãrcnreitcr. 1979- ).

Jean Sibelws

A79

The 1ern1s "rota1ional form" •nd "teleological genesis" are James A. Hepokoski's. írom hisSibelius. SJmphonr No. S (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1993). On ,he sym phonics, scc A. Pcrer Brown. The European SJ>llphon)'fron, ca. l800toco . 1930: Gem11111ro114rlteNordicCowuries. Otl1er studies includcJeonSibelius and /!is World, cd. Daniel M. Grimley ( Princeton: Princeton Universil)• Press. 2011): 'lhe Cambridge Campanion toSibelius. ed. Grimley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004): 111cS1belius Campo11ion. ed. Cle,,da Oawn Coss (Wesrport, Cl': C reenwood, 1996): and BurnettJames.1lte ,\fosicoffeanSibe/i,rs (Rutherford. NJ: foirleigh Dickinson Universiry Press, 1983). Fora bibhogra· phy. see Clenda Dawn Goss,Jean Sib«lius: A Cuide 10 Resea,~h (New York: Carland. 1998). '[b e tbemotic catalogue is Fabian Dahlstrom . JeallSibelius: Themati$ch-bibliqi,'7'0phi$ches '41r· zeiclrnio seiner IVerke (\Viesbaden: Breitkopf & H:l11el. 2003). On Finnish and Scandina\'ian music in general. see Ruth-Estber Hillila and Barbam Blanchard Hong. Histcrical Dic1ionary·of1h•Musica11d Musician.s offinland (Westport. CT: Grccnwood. 1997): Musicand Notionalism m 20th•cen· t,uyGrea, Bri,ain and Finland. cd. Tomi Mtlkel~ ( Hamburg: Von Bockel, 1997); Amony Hoclgson. Scandlnavian Music: Ft.nland and Swedell ( Rutherford . NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Universiry Press. 1984); and Tim Howell ,AjierSibe/ius: Studies in Finnish Mu-sic (Aldershot: Ashg:trc. 2006).

EnkSat,e On Erik Satie as exe mplar of tbe av:ml· garde. sce Ala.n M. Cill mor, Erik Satie (Bosron: Twayne.1988). •nd "Erik Satie and rhe Concep1oft he Avanr-Garde ." MQ 69 (\Vinter 1983): 104-19. which draws on Renato Poggioli. The Theory oftheAvanr -Garde. rrans. Gcrald Fitzgerald (Kew Yo rk: Harper & Row, 1971). Steven Moore \Vh iting.Satieihe Bohemian: From Cabaret to Concerr 1/all (Oxford: Ox-ford University Press. 1999), linksSatie to the popular music of the P>risian cnbaret and café-concert. See also Cnroline Potter·. E'rikSotic: .lfosic. Art. and lilerot,.re (Farnham. UK: Ashgate. 2013); Mary E. Davis. E'iikSatie (London: Reaktiou Books. 2007): Robert Orledge. Satie Remembered. trans. Roger Nicbols (l..ondon: Faber & Fàber. 1995): Nancy Perloff. Art and lhe fvery-dar Pop11lar Enrertainnwu and the Circleof Erik Sa1ic (Oxford: Clarendon. 19':II); and Robe rt Orledge, Saue theComposer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990) . Salies writings have been published in A Mammals Notebook: Collected Wtitings ofErik.Satie. ed. Ornella Volta. trans. Amony Mclvillc (l..ondon: Atlas. 1996). and The Wrirings ofErikSatie. cd. and trans. NigclWilldns (l..ondon: Eulcn· berg. 1980). His .\fen,oirs ofanAmnesiac. excerpted in SR 208 (7:39). illustrate his sarireof convemion. Ahel'n:ttive uses of the term "':wam-g:irdc" in musi e ~re bricíly survcycd in Jim Samson. "Ava nt gardc;· in NC2.

Biogrophies includc Simon Hcffer. Vaughcm Williams (Lon· don: Weidenfcld & Nicolson. 2000): James Oay. Vaugn0t1

The cJ.ssic biOb"ª()hy is Erik T•wastjern•. Sibelius. rev. ed., rra ns.anded . Roben L1y,on (London: Faber& Fabe r. 1976). Orher recommendcd biogr.iphies includc Clcndn D•wn Coss, Sibelius: A Composer·s life andthe Awakening off'inland (Chicago: University ofChicogo Prcss. 2009):

Williom,1 (Oxford: Oxford Univcr.slty Prc.s:s. 1??8)~ Jcr-rold

Andrew Barnctt. Sibclit,~ (New H,wcn : Yn)c Un iver-

Luigi Ru:s.solo':s c:s,:my "'Thc Arl of Noi:sc:s: Futuri:st Mani -

Northrup Moore. lii ugnon IV.lliams: A Life in Photogmphs (Oxford: Oxford Univel'sity Pres.s. 1992): nnd Ursula Vaughan Williams, R.V.W.:A BwgrophrofRalph Vaugl,art lli'i!-

sity Press. 2007) : Guy Hickards.Jeall Sibelius ( London : Phaidon, 1997); and Roberr L.,yton,Sibclius (New York: Schirmer. 1993).

festo" appears in SR 177 (7:8). See also Luciano Chessa. Luigi RILssolo. Pururist: Noise.. Vis11al Ans. at1.d rhe Occult (Berkeley: Univers ityof Califomia Press, 2012). and

Ralp/1 Váughan. WillHu11s

Fu111nsm

ASO

For Fu d her Readi ng

For l'urfh e r He adiug

Ma rjoric Pcrloff. The Futwist Moment: Ava,tt•Garde. ,Ivan, Cuerre. and the úmguageofRupture (Chicago: Univcrsi1y af Chic.igo Press, 1986).

Chapter 33: R.idical Modernists Joseph N. Srra11s, /!enu1.king1he P(lSr: M11.sic Modemism and the lnfluenceofthe Tonal Traditiori (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Univers ity Press. 1990). cliscuss.es the mus ic of nve of the composers in this chapter in terms of their competition wi1h the pasl. The best in1roduction 10 set -.heory. used for analyzing atonal works by the cornposers featured in tl1is ebapter :ind m:iny others, is Joseph N. Straus, lntroduction to Posa• Tonal Theo,y. 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle ltiver, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2005). The semi nal work is Allen Forte. 'rheStrucrureof AtonolM11-sic (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1973).

Arnold S,·hoenberg Bojan Bujié.AmoldScl1oe11berg(london: Phaidot1, 2011), offers a recent sympatbetic bio~raphy. for a short biogra· phy. sec Charles Rosen,Amold &ltoenbe,g (Chicago: Urti· versicy of Chicago Press. J996). A classic biography Is \'li'Uli tteich.Schoenbe,g:A Cri11ca!B1ogrophJ', trans. Leo Black (New York: Praeger, 1971: repr. Da Capo, 1981). hnportant studies ofthc man and bis music include Sabinc Feisst. Schoenberg's Ni:w World: 11ieAmerican l'ears (New York: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 2011) : Ethan Haimo. Schoenberg's Transformation ofMusical Language (Cam · bridge: Cambridge Universi<y P-ress. 2006): Bryan R. Simms. 7'heAronol HusicofAmoldSchoenbe,g, 1908-1923 (New York: Oxford Universi<y Press. 2000): Walter Prisch. 71,e II<U'l)' WorksofArnold Schoenlwg, 1893- 1908 (Berke ley: Ur1 ivcrsi1y ofCalifo rnia Press, 1993): Ethan Haimo, Schoenberg's Seri<JI Odysser: 1'he Evolution of His Twelve-Toiie Merhod, 1914- 1928 (Oxford: Clarelldon. 1990); Alexander L. Ringer. Arnold Sdwenberg: 'l'he Composeros )ew (Oxford: Clarendon. 1990); Carl Oahlhaus, Schoenbe'll'ond the New Music, 1rans. De rrick Pu fíelt and Alíred Cla}'1on (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987): and Joan A. Smith, Schoe,1beo6 à11d His Circk A Viem,ese Portrail (New York: Sclúrmer, l986). lnsigbúul ess:iys and olber useful materiais can be fou nd in '/7r~ Cambridge Companioruo Schoenberg. ed . Jen· nifer Shaw and Joseph Auner (Cambridge: Cambridge Universily Press, 2010); Schocnbe,gand His World. ed. Walter Frisch (Princetou: Prineeton U11iversity Prcss . 1999): Scl,oenbe,g. Berg. and Webern.: A Companion to rhe Second Viennese School. ecl. Brya n R. Simms (\Vestport. CT: Greenwood, 1999): 71,eAmold SchoenbergCompanion. ed. Walter B. Bailey (\Vestpart. CT: C reenwood. 1998): and Consimcrive Dissonance: Arnold Schoenbergand rhe Tronsfomaorions ofTwe11rie1l1-Cenrury· Culrrire, cd . Juliane 8r3nd and Christopher Hailey (Berkeley: University of Californ ia Prcss. 1997). Por Pierrot lunaire, sce Jonathan Dunsby. Sdtocnbc'!j', f\icrrot lunain:: (Cambridge: C,,m bridgc Univc;r-

s i<y Press. 1992) . Theocl or \V. Adorno. Plu!osopli)'ofModem M,,sic. trans. Arrne G. Mitchell anel \Vesley V. 8lomster (New York: Seabu,y. 1973: repr. Continuwn . 2003). argues

that Schoenberg's music is a tme (and Stravinsky's a false) refl ecrion of modern times. Schoenbcrg's most in íluential cssays appear in the col lee1ion s,,te álld ldea: Selected Writings ofAmold Schoen • be,g, ecl . Leonard Stein, u·ans. Leo Bb ck (NewYo,·k: St. Martins, 1975: repr. Berkeley: University ofCali fornia Prcss. 1984and 2010). llis "Con,position ,vith Twelve Tones" is excerpled in SR 181 (7:12). Otheri heorelic.1I writings inelude 11ieory·ofHormOll)', trans. Roy e.Ca,ter (Berkeley: Unive,·s ity ofCaliío rt>ia Press, 1978: repr. 2010): The Musical ldea and 1/ae Logic. 'feclrnique. álld Art oj' lt.s PresenratUm. rev. ed .. ed. andl trans. Patricia Carptm· ter and Sevcrine Neff ( Bloominb,>1:oa: Ind iana University

Press. 2006); and Cohcrence, Counrerpoinl, Jnsrrumenrarion. lnsimcnon in f'orm. ed. Severine Neff. trans. Charlotte M. Cross and Severine Nefí (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1994) . Writings. paintiugs. and otherdocuments are collcctcd inA Schoenbe,g Reader: Docu-mentsofa L-ife. ed. Joseph Auncr (Ncw Haven: Yale University Press. 2003). For corrcsponclencc. sec his Letters. ccl . Erwin Stcin. trans.

Ei,hne Wilkins anel Ernst Ka iser (London: Faber & f'aber, 1964: repr. Berkeley: Unl\•erst,yofCaltfomto Press.1 987); TTte Berg-SclroenbergCorresponde»ce. ed. anel tr.rns. J11liane Brand , Christopher Hailey, a.nd Donald Harris (New York: Norton. 1987): anel two lctrers in SR 170 (7:1). The complete works appear in Sãmtliche W..rke. ecl. Josef Ru fer and Carl Dahlhaus (Mainz: B. Schott; Vienna: Universal, 1966-85). Forcatnlog11es. seeAmold ScMnbe,g: Goralogi,e Raisonné (Vienna : Arnold Schonberg Center. 2005). anel Josef Rla.fer. 77,e lVorks ofAmo/d. Schoeoberg: A Goralob~" of His Cornposirions, 1Vri1ings, and Pairuings. , ra11s. Oika Newlin (London: fober& Faber.1962).

Violin Concerto (Ca mbridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prr.ss. 1991): 77ie Berg Companion. cd. Douglas Jarman (Boston: Northe,s1ern Universiry Press. 1990); anel Jarman, Tlte Musicof A!bari Berg (Berkeley: University ofCal ifornia Prcss, 1979) . Berg's writings are 11·311sla1cel in Pro Mu,.doPro Domo: 1'he lVritirigs ofAlban Berg, cd. Bry,n li. Simms ( New York: Oxford University Press. 2013). See also The 8erg-SchocnbcrgCorrcspondence. and Brya n ll. SimmsAlban. Be,g: A Researc/1 and l11fom1a.ti.on Cuide. 2nd ed. (New York: Rouiledge, 2009). Anl<m Webern The standn rd biography is Hansand Rosaleen Moldenbauer.A111on von Wcbern (New York: Knopr. 1979). More recent shorter biographies are K.11hryn Bailey. The Life of W.bem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998). and Maleolm Hayes.Anro,.von Webem (London: Jlhaidon. 1995). Siud ies of the music inelude Katluyn Bailey. TTae Twel,•e-Note Mu.sic ofAnton Webem: Old Forrns in a New úrr>guagc (Cam bridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Prcss. 2004): Julian Jolmson. W.bem and the Transformation ofNawre (Cambridge: Cambridge Unlversl<y Press. 1999): Schoenberg. Berg. and Webem: A Companion rollieSecond Vr.enneseSc/100!, ed. Bryon R. Simms: and Allen Forte, TheAtonol Mu.sicofAnion W.,bern (New Ha,•cn: Yale Univcrsity Press. 1998). Wcbcrn·s lccturcs o n thc cvolution o f music. which :i rgue th::it h'lclvc• tonc music is 1hc incvitablc rcsult of

historical development. are callcctcd in 71ae Poth.lo New M!bsic, ,rnns. Leo Black (Bry,1 Mawr. PA: Theodore Presser. 1963). l'or a research guide. see Zoha n Homan.Anron aon Webem: AnAnnorared 8ibliograpl1r (Detroit: lnformation Coordinators, 1983).

Alban Berg

lgor St raomsky

for• biogrophy. see Mosco Carner,Albor> Berg, The Mon OJld the IVork. 2nd eel . (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983). On lh e operas. see Pntrici, llall. Beri;'s Woz:cck (New York: Oxford University f'ress. 2011) anel A View of Be,g's Lulu.1hro11gh rheAu1ogrophS011rces (Berkeley: Un iversity ofCal ifornfa Press. 1996): DouglasJarman.Albao Berg. Lulu (Camb ridge: Cambridge IJniversity Press, l99 l) and Alban Bcrg, Wozzeck (Cambridge: Cambridge Unfrersity Press . 1989); George Perle, 77re Operas ofAlban Berg. 2 vols. (Berkeley: University or California Press. 1980-85): and Janet SchrnaHeldt, Berg's W,oz.eck: Harmo,uc Li111guoge and Dromalic Duign (New Haven: Yale Unive rsity Press. 1983). Other s tudies iucludeA/ban Be,ga11dHis IVorld. cd. Christopher Ha;Jcy (Princcton: Princetoo Uojversi1y Prcss. 2010): Schoenberg. Berg. and Webem: A Companion to the Second VienneseSchool. ed. Bryan R. Simms: The Cambridge Companion ro Berg. ed . Am hony Pople (Cambridge: Cam · bridge Univcrsiry Press, 1997); Dave He,d lom, Tlte 1\/usic ofAlban Berg (New H3ven: Ynle University Press, 1996); Albon Berg: ffütoricol ondAnal,-tical Perspectil'es. cd. Dovid Gablc and Robe rt P. Mo rgan (Oxford: Clarc ndon, 1??1): Theodar W. Adorno. Alban Berg. MasteroftheSma!lest Link. trnns. Jnliane Bra nd anel Chris topher Hailey (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 1991): Amhony Pople, 8erg.

Biographical studies include Stephen Wolsh, The New Crove Stravinsky (New York: Grove. 2002). Srra,•insky: A Creotive Sprir,g, R,,ssia ond Prcmce. 1882-1934,(New York: Knopf, 1999). and S1rovmskr TheSecond E::rile: frarace andArnerico, 1934-1971 (New York: Knopí. 2006): Charles M. Joseph. Str'avinskr IMide Ot<t (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2001); Michael Ol iver, lgorStravinskr (Londou: PbaidoD, 1995); Mikhail S. Dmskin, lgorSrravinsky: His L-ife. Worlr~. and Vi,<ws, 1rans. Martin Cooper (Cambridge: Cambridge University l'ress. 1983): and Eric Walter White. Straviruky: 11ieCornposerond His IVorks. 2ud ed. (Be1·keley: Univer-sity ofCaliíorn ia Press. 1979). See also Vera Stravinsky aud Robert Crafl. Siravinsk,rin Picture,; am! Documenrs (Ne"' York: Simon & Scbustcr. 1978). Richard Taruskin. Stravinskrand rhe Russian Traditions: A Biographyofrhe Works through Ma,•ra. 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1996). is the mos, compre· hensive and importam study ofS1ravi nsky's de\1elopn1ent. tr.'.\eing rhe s3lient eh3r.1cterisries of his musie ro 1hei r

origins in his Russian backgronnd . On The Ri1eofSpring, 3cc Ch,nleo;

M. Jo~eph. Stmtiin~kx'~ Ballet~ (New H,wcni:

V:1le University Press.201 1): Peter Hill. Stravinskr The Rireo[Spri~ (Cambridge: Cambridge Universi<y Press, 2000); and Pieter van den Toorn, Srro,ir,sk)'ond "'/7ie Ili te

A81

ofSpring", 77re Begírmings of a ,\fosica.l Language (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). The premiere of The RiieofSpring is dcscribed in Thomas Forres, Kelly. First Nigltts: Five Musical Premieres (Ncw Havcn: Yale Un ive ,·sity Press, 2000), 256-359. Othcr signi fica nt recent books on the music includc Pieter C. V.rn dcn Toorn and John MeGinness. SrravirMlty and tlte Russian Pcriod: Sottnd ond l,egoc)'ofa Musical ldiom (Cambridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press. 2012): Gretchen Horlacher. 811ildi,1g 8/ocks: Reperirioraand Conrirmirfirt 1/te Mt<sicofStra,•insky (New York: Oxford University Press. 2011); Tlie Cambridge CompaniOII ro Stravinskr, ed. Jona· than Cross (Can1bridge: Cambridge Unjversity Press, 2003); Charles M. Joseph , Srraoinskyand Balanchine: A Journe)'oflm•ention (New Haven: Yale Un iversity Press. 2002) : Mau ,·ee n A. Carr. Mulhple Masks: Ncocl<>ss,cism ira S1rM1ris!fs IVorks ori Creek Sub1ects (Lincoln: Universily or Nebraska Press. 2002): Josep h N. Straus. Stravinskr's Late Music (Ncw York: Camb ridge Univcrsity Press. 2001): Jona than Crass . TheSrraoinskr Legacr (Ncw York: Ca mbridge Un iversity Prcss. 1998): and Louis And,eis· sen and Elme r Schonberger. TheApollonran Clockwork: On Strovinskr, irans. Jeff Hamburg (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press, 1989) . Stra,fosky's writings. even when ereditcd to him nlone. wcrc almost always thc rcsuh of collaboratio n {some

would soy ghost· WTiting). These incluelc An Autobiograpl•r (New York, 1936: repr. l'forton. 1962): Poctics ofMusic iri rlte l'onn ofSi:t lessons. irans. Arlhur· Knodel and lngolf Dahl (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univel'Sity Press. 1970), excel'pted in SR 172 (7:3): anel• series ofbooks with b is :iss istànl Robert Crti.ft. wbieh contain m:rny penetrnting observ:u ions on music an<l musi<:ians in lhe twentieth

eentury: Co,wersorions wi1/1 lgorStrovi11Sk)' (Carden City. NY: Doubleday. 1959); Memories a11d Commentanes (Garden City. l\ Y: Douhledày, 1960; repl', Berkeley: University of Caliíornia Press. 1981): faposirions and Developme,~ts (Garden City. NY: Doubleday. 1962): 11iemcs and Episodes (New York: Knopl'. 1966): Dialogutsand a Diarr (Ncw York: Knopí. 1968: re\'. ed. as Dialogues. Be rkeley: University of California Press. /982) ; and Rerrospecrives and Co11clu•ions (New York: Knopf, 1969) .

Béla Ba ,·16iThe standard biography is Halsey Ste,·ens. ·n.elijeand Musicof8e1a Bartók. 3rd ed .. ed. Malcolm Gillies (Ncw York: Oxford University Press. 1993). Others include Bcnjamin Suchoff. Béla Bart6k: Lije and Work (Lanham. MD: Scarccrow. 2001). and Kcnnctb Ch,lmcrs. 8€/a Bartók (London: Phaiclon. 1995). See also Malcalm Cillies. Bnrról: Remembered (London : Faber. 1990: NewYork: Nonon. 1991). On the musie and the career. see David E. Sehneid c r, Bortók. flungory. and lhe Renewal ofTradition: Cose Studies in. the lntcr~c:ction ofModcmit')·an.d Na ti-onalit)' (Berkelçy.

University ofCalifornia Press. 2006): Benjom in Suchoff. Barrók's Mikrokosmos: Cenesis, Pedagogy. andSt]1e (L1nham, MD: Scnrecrow, 2002): '11t eCarnbridge Companiori10 Banók.

A82

For l'urfh e r He adiug

cd. Ama nela Bayley (Carnbridgc: Cambridge Univer· sicy Press. 2001): 8anól, Perspec1ives: Man. Compaserand li:1lu1omusicol-0gist, ecl. Elliort Antokolerz. Victoria Fischer. and Benjamin Suchoff (Oxford: Oxford Uni,•e1'Sity Press, 2000): Judit Frigyesi, 8éla 8ar16ko11d Tum-of-1he-Cen1u..,· 811dapw (Berkeley: Universiry oíCalifornia Press, 1998): L5szló Som foi, 8éla Bart6k: Comp<>silion. Conceprs. and Au,togroph Sources (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1996): Bart6kand f/is World. ed. Pe1er L1ki (Princeton: l'rinceton University P,·ess, 1995); The Banók Companion. ed. Malcolm Gillies (Lonclon: Faber.1993): Paul Wilson. 11ie MusicofBt!la Bart6k (New Haven: Yale Unive,·sity Press, 1992); Emõ Lenclvai. Béla Bartók: AnAnal11isof His Music (London: Kahu &Averül, 1991): ElliouAntokoleti. The M11~ic of Béla Banól:: A Srud)'of'f'onalitr and Progression in 201l,-Centur,· Mus,c (Be rkeley: Uni,·ersity of Ç3Jifornia Press. 198,~): and Erni:\ Lendvai. Hie Worl,;shopofBMók Md Kodá,-(Budapest: EJi1io Musica.. 1983). Vera La.ttipert . Folk Music in Barrók's Compositions: A Soure< Catalog (Budapest: liungarian Hcritagc liausc. 200 8), is a catalogue of íolk mcloclic:s Bartók uscd in his mus ic. Banók's own wrhtngs are co1lected in Déla Barról.· Essa,~. ed. Benjamin Suchofí (Lincoln: Universicy or Nebrosb Press, 1976: repr. 1993). Twoessaysontheuse offolk music in modem ort musieoppc,r in SR 198 (7:29) . For a bibliography. see Elliott Antokolctz. Be1a Barto'k: A Research and lnformation Cuide. 3rd cd. (Ncw York: Roul· ledge. 2011).

Charles Jves Gayle Shenvood Magee, Charles l<•es Reconsidered (Urbana: U11ivc1'Sity of Illinois Press. 2008). is a bricf biography 1h3t r::ikes imo .:1ccoum 1·cccn1 rcse3.rch , including a ncw

chronology for his works. Thc most eomprehensive biogra· phy is Jan Swafíord, Charles J.,es, A Life ,vithMtt.Sic (New York: Norton.1996). Sniart F'eder. 'llie LifeofCharles foes (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer.sity l'ress, 1999). isa s hort biograpby, anel h,s earlie r Charles lves. "Mr fa1her·sso11g"': A f'sytltoanal)1ic Biograph)' ( ew Haven: Yale Univer·sity Press.1992) focuses ou lves's relationship with his musi· cian fother. Viviao Pe rl is. Charles kes Remcmbcred:An Oral Histo,y (New Haven: Yale Un.iversity Press. 1974; repr. Urbana: Unh•ersity oí Illinois Press, 2002). gathers reminiscences of lves by friends and associares. On lvess use of borrowed music. see J. Peter Burk· bolder. AIJ MadeofTtmes: Cliarles lves and tlie Uses of.\1usirol Borrowing (New Haven: Yale Univcrsiry Prcss. 1995). lves's sourecs are eollected in Clayton W. Heoclerson. The Charles lves Tunebook. 2nd cd. (Blo~mington: India na Univer· sity Press. 2008). On his use of s,ylistic he,erogeneity. see L1rry Si,rr. A Union of Diversiries: Sr11e in rhe Mti.ic of Charles lves (New York: Schirmer, 1992), and J. Pctcr Burkholclcr, · s1ylistic Heterogencity and ToJ>ics in the Music of Charles lves." /ouma! of Musicologieal Research 31(2012):

For Fu d her Readi ng

University of Illinois Press. 2013). , racesthe history of IVes·s reception. O,herstudies oí lves and his mus ic include Mark A. Zobcl. H,e 71>ird s,-mphonrofCharles lves (Rillsdale, NY: Pend,·agon Prcss, 2009): Timot'hy A. Johnson. Basebcll o.od the M"sic o/Charles J,,es: A Provin.gCrotmd ( L,rn ham. MD: Sc.1recrow. 2004): Philip I.Ambert. '17,e MusicofCliorlC$ lves (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1997): Charles lvesand His World. ed. J. l'e1er 8u1·kholcler ( Princeton: Princeton Unh•ersity Press. 1996): Charles Jvesand the Cla.ssk.al 'fradilion. ed. Ceort'rey Block aud J, Peter Burkholder (New Havec,; Yale University Press. 1996): Geoffrey Block, /ves. Co,wm!Sonata: Piano Sonata No. 2 ("Concord. MA. 1840/860") (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. l996): David Michael Hertz. Angelsof R'cali,r: Emersonian Unfold· ings in Wrighl. Stevens. and fres (Carbondale and Edwards· ville: Southern lll111ois University Press. 1993): aridJ. Peter Burkbolder. Charles /ves: The ldeas behind theMusic (New Ha,·cn: Yale University Press. 1985). David Nicbolls.Arneri• can fxp,ríme,ual Musi.c. 1890--1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), places ívesatrhe beginningofthe expelime mal musfc rracltt1on ln, the Untted S rates. lvess writings are collec1ed h, Esso)~ Beforeo Sonaro. 7lie

MoJOritJ: onc!Oth.er Writings, cd. Howard BM1wrigh1 (New York: Norton.1970). andMemos. ed.John Kirkpatrick(New York: Norton. 1972). Sclectcd lctters are inSelected C,,rre• spmtden<e o/Charles lves. ed. Tom C. Owens ( Berkeley: Uni· versityof California Press. 2007). and letters and reviews are in Charles lves and Hi.s World. ed. Burkholder. Tbe brief essay "Music aod lts f'urn re" appe3rs in SR 178 (7:9). T he swndard catalogne of lves's music is James B. Sinclair.A Descriptive Catalog11e oftlie Musi-e o/Charles fres (New Haven: Yale University Pi-ess, 1999). for researcb guides. see Gayle Sherwoocl Magee, Charles J,·es: A Researcl, a11d Information Cuide. 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010). and James M. Bu rkand Michael J. Buclds.,1 Clwrles lves Onrnib"s (Misso ..Ja. MT: College Music Society. 2008).

(unham. MD: Scarccrow. 2002). Ceoffrcy Block surveys fonneen musicais in fochanted Evemngs: The Broadway ,\fosical from -s1,owboa,- to Sondheim (New York: Oxford Univcrsicy Press. 1997). Srncy Wolf. Cl1011ged for Cood: ; 1 femi11is1 Hisro1'' of 1lle Broad•.or Musical (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), offers a íeminist •pproaeh. including recent s hows such as Wicked anel Glee. See also 11ieO,ford Handbook oftheAmerica" Musical. ed. Raym ond Knapp, Mi,chell Morris. and Stacy Wolf (New York: Odord Universi,y Press. 2013): Gerald Bordmnn and Hichard C. No rton.American M11sical 'lliearre: A Clironicle. 4th ed. (New York: OxforJ University Press, 2010): Thomas Hischàk. 71te Oxford Companion 10 iheAmerican Musical: 11,earre, film. ond 1i!levision (New York: Oxford Uuiversity Press. 2010); 11,e CambndgeComponion 10 the Musical. 2nd ed .. ed. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird (Ne,, York: Cambridge University Press. 2008): Raymond Knapp. llieAmeriea" ,\fosical and 1/ie Pe,formance of Personal /de11ri.fr (Prince1on: Pri nceton Uuiversity Press. 2005) and TheAmerican ,\fosicaland ri« Fomiauon oJNational /dentit)' (Princeton: Princeton Uni· versíty Prcss. 2006): and Anclrca Most. MakingAmerirons: /ews and 1he Broadwa)' Mustcal (Cambridge. MA: tlarvard Universicy Press. 2004). A good research gu iei e is William A. Everett. The ,\fosical: A Research Cuid.e ro Musical Thuter andfiln,(Ncw York: Routledge. 2004) . Amcrican popular song in the Íl rst balf ofihe h,·en tieth century is Stm•eycd by\Vil.liam Hylan<l. TheSong Is Ended: Songwriters and American Music. 1900- 1950 (New York: Oxford University Press. 1995). Jeffrey Melnick.A Rig/11 to

Sing 1he 811,es: AfricanAmericans, }ews. ond Ameriean Popular

Ja.tz and Popular Music

Song(Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.1999), exam ines the role of ethnicity ir1 lhe construetion ofTin P:tn Alley and Americau popular song styles. ln a s imifar vein. see Jack Gottlieb. f1m11r /t Does,i't Sound}ewish : flow Yiddislt S011gs ª"d Sp1agog11e Melodies lnfl11e11ced 1'i11 Po" Allex, Broodwara,ul Hol!J""OOd (Albany: University of New York in associa1io11 will, lhe Lih rary of Congress. 200+). Phil ip Furia, 71,e PoetsofTin Pa11 Aller,A Hisrol")·ofAmenco's Creat lJTicists (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1990}. is a valuable sludy oflyrieists. for analysis of popular songs

A growing num ber of writers reinrd jau and popular music

from this e ra. seeAJJen forte. Listeningto ClassicAmerican

as central to music hislOry. perhaps more so 1han classical 1nusic in che twenrieth cenrury. A recemstudy by llonald Scbleifer, Modernismor\d l'op11larMu.sic (C..m bridge:

Pop11larSongs (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 2001.). and 11ttAmtrical\ Popular Bollad oftht Coldtl\ Era, l9U-19S0

Chapter 34: Bctwern the World Wars:

Cantbridge University Press. 2011), argues that the populàr music ofGeorge Gersbwin , Cole Porter, f':11s WaUer. ànd Billie Holiday is on the sarne levei or artistry as modernisl music and litei-ature. D3vid Sch iff. 71te Ellwgton Ce,uur,· (Berkeley: University ofCalifo rnia Press, 2012), places Duke Ell i11gto11 ar tbe center of a11 account or tweniieth· century music. intcrweavingjaz;z. popular, ancl classical music.

Musical Tl1eoterand PopularSong

l GG- ??. On hl.$ c..·uecr a3 an o rg.:inl.$i and it:, influcnec o n

Two cxccllcnt ovcn · icwt\ o( thc Broadway mu:sical .ire

his music. see Burkholder, "The Organis, in lves:· JAMS 55 (Summer2002): 255-310. David C. Paul, Charles lves ;,. tlie Mirror: Americo" Hi.s1ories ofon lconic Composer(Urbana:

1.Arry Stempel. Showtime: A llisto7'·ofthe Broadway M1t.sico! 77,ea_ter(NewYork: Norton. 2010). and Joseph Swain, The Broadu:arMi.sical: A Criticafond. Musico/ S11rver, 2nd ed.

(Princc1on: Prince1on Universicy Press. 1995). See also general sh1dies 1111dcr " Popular Song" in chapter 30 abovc. and clllipter 36 below. For )crome Kern. see Stephcn Ban~eld./eron,e Kern (New Haven: Yale University Press. 2006). anel Cerald llorclman ./erome Kem: flis Ufe ª"d Music. 3rd cd. (New York: Oxford U11ivcrsi1y Press. 2000). Of thc dozens of biographies of Irving Berlin, a good pbceto s1ar1 is wi,h L:ture11ce 8ergrcen'sAs ThousoridsOteer: 7l,e Lifeof/,ving Berli,1 (INew York: Viking, 1990). The best studyofBerlin's earlyTin Pan Alley style is Charles Hamm's /iving Berlin: Songs fron, 1/ie Mdring l'ot. The I'onnati,,. Ycor,. 1?07-1?14 (Oxford. Oxford University Press. 1997). On Berli n's musica is. see Jeífrey Magee, /,vi,,g Be,füi's Americon ,\fosical '11,ww (New Yo rk: Oxford University Press. 2012). For Cole Porter. see Wil·

A83

liam McBrien. Cole Porter: A Biograph)' (New York: Knop f, 1998).

George Cershwm 11,c standard biography is Howard Polbck, George Gershwin: f/is Ufeand Work (Berkeley: Univcrsity oíCalifornia Prcss. 200(.), Othcr biographies includc Walter Rim ler. George Gershwin: An lnlimate Portroit (Urbana: Univers ity of llli nois Press. 2009): William G. Hyland , George Gershwi11: ;J New Biograph)' (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003): and Rocl11ey Greenberg. George Ce,-sltwirl (Lo ncl on: Phaidon. 1998). Tbe essays in 77,e Cershwi11 S1rle: NewLooks ai 1he Musico/George Cershwin. ed. Wayne Schneide r (New Yo rk: Oxford Univers ity Press. 1999), offer Cresb insights antl analysis of Gershwin's IHe and music. Gers bwin's collaborat io11 with his lyricist brother lra was a key aspect or bis songwriti ng. treated in Deena Rosenberg. Fa.scuioo11g Rli11lini: Til• Collaboration of George cu1d Ira Gersl,,vi,i (New York: Dut1on. 1991) . Chap1cr 6 oí füchard Crawford's TheAmerican Musical Landscape (Berkeley: Universiry ofCalifornia Press. 1993). traces 1he hls1ory and legacy of "I Cot Rhy,hm." fo r Cer· shwin·s Broadway shows, see L.arry Starr. George Cerslavin (Kew Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 2011). On his music, scc also David Scbiff. Gershwin. Rhapsodr,,. Blue (Cam· bridge: C,mbridgc Univcrsity Prcss. 1997), andStcven E. Gilbert. TheMu,.,icofGershwir, (New Havcn: Yale Univc:rs ity Press. 1995). Collec,ed wri, ings by Gershwin. his fomily membe rs. friends. and critics appear in '/1,e GeorgeGersl1 u:i11 Reoder, ed. Robe,, Wyatt and Joh n Andrew Johnson (New York: Oxfo rd University Prcss. 2004). Contemporary views of

Cershwin. including Cersbwin's own '"The Composer in the Machiue Age." are gathered in CeorgeGershwin. e<l . Mel'ie Armitage (New York: Longmans. Green. 1938: repr. Da Capo. 1995). A good research guide is Norbert Ca ,·novale. Ceotge Ger&hwi11: A Bio-Bibliogroplty (Westpo,1. CT: Creenwood , 2000).

Blues For overviews, see Elijab \Vai d, The Blues: A 1/4,1'· Short lntro· d11c1ion (New York: Oxford Unjversi1y Press, 2010). :uul Paul Oliver's "Blues." in NC2. OUver'sBlues Fellthis Moming: Meaning m the Blues. 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) . provides careílll lextual interpre· talioo. and he has edited au important eollection of essays. Yon.derCon>< 1/ie Blues: The Evolulion ofa Genre (Cambridge: Caml>ridge University Press. 2001). Sec also Oliver's h is · tory. The Sto7'· of rhe Blues. new cd . ( Boston: Northcastcm Universiry Press, 1998). Peter C. Muir. úmg Lost 8/ues, Popular Blues inAmeriea . 1850-1920 (Urbana: Univcrsit)' of Illinois Press, 2010), traces 1hc early history of thc blues bcforc their po1>11lari1.ation in 1he 1920s. On womcn blues s ingcrs. sce 8u1.zy Jackson.A Bad Woman Pc.cli.nÕGood: Bluc.:1 a11d ihc Worncn. WhoSins- 11,,:,m

(New York: Norton, 2005) : Angela D»is. 8/ues legacies and Bla.ck Femillism: Gertrude "Ma" Hoiner, RessieSmi1l1. and Billie Holid0,J' ( New Yo,-k: l)amheon, 1998): and Oaphne

A84

For l'urfh e r He adiug

For Fu d her Readi ng

Duval Ha rrison. Black Pearls: Blues Queens ofthe 1920s (New Bnmswick. KJ: Rutgers University Press. 1988). On delta blues. see Ted Cioia. Oelr-11 Blues, The Life and Tim.es of1he Mississippi. Masrers Who Re'1olufioni.2ed Americcn Music (New Yoi-k: Norron , 2008). ond Elijah \V.,ld. esooping 1/,e Delr(l: Roberi]ohnson Md lhe Tn,·enlion <>f the Blues (Ncw York: Amist.ocl. 2004). IV. C. Handyoffers his toke on the provenance of the blnes i n fiuher of1he Blues: An Autobiogroph)', ed. Arna Bomemps (New York: Collier. 1970). Other good resources include 'rhe imcJ-c!opedi<r o/ rhe 8/i.es, ed. Edward Komara (Ne,e York: Ro,ttledge. 2006). and 1'/1e Car11britlgeCornpanion to Blues ª"d CospetMusic. ed. Allan Moo re (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002). For a researcb g,,ide. see Robert Ford , A Blues Bib!iogruphy. 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge. 2007).

º'""

Jazz i11 rl,e 1920s See urid er " Early Jazi' in cbapter 31. A.mont:tbe best sourccs on Louis Armstroug are Brian Harker, LouisAmI strong's Hor Fiveand Ho1 Seven Recordinb>'S (Ncw York: Oxford Univcrsity Prcss. 2011): TcrryTeacbout. Pops: A LifeofLouis Armsrrong (Boston: nough1on Mlfflln. 2009): Thomas Brothers, Lou.isArrnsirong·s NewOrleans (New York: Nonon, 2006); Joshu• Berrect. LouisArmstrongand Paul Whitemon: Two Kings of]o:: (New fü ven: Ya.lc Univcrsity Prcss. 2004): G3ry Gidd ins. Satchmo (New York: Doublcday. 1988): and Michael Meckna. Satchmo: The LouisArmstrong Encrclopedia (Westport. CT: Greenwood. 2004). Writings about Armscrongare collecred in 1'he touisAnns1ro11gCompanio11: eighr Decades ofComme111ory. ed . Joshua llerren (New York: Schi rmer, 1999). and his own perspecrive is ava ilable in Lo1tis Armwong. bt His Own llil>rds: Selecred Wriri,tgs. ed. Thomas Brothers (Oxford: Oxford Uuiversity Press. 1999).

Big Bands andSwinl[ Gunther Schuller followed his srudy of eorly jan with n,e Swing tiro: 'l'he Development offa.:. 1930-1945 (Oxfot d: Oxford Uni,•ersity Press.1989). Oav,d W.S,owe.Swing Clw.nges: Big-BMd]az, in New Dea!America (Cambridge. MA; Hàrvard University Press, 1994). places the music in bis torical context. Jeffrey Magee, Tl,e Uncrownéd King o/Swing: FlercherHcndcrson and BigBandfan (New York: Oxford University Press. 2005), sheds new lighi on Henderson·s role in early jaziand 1he development of swing. There were also .111-women swingbands. described in Sber.-ie Tucke r. Swing Shift: 'itll-Cirl"" Bands of the 1940s ( Durbam. NC: Duke Uni,•crsit_y l'ress . 2000).

Jan ,n Europe Tiurojazzland: ]a.zzand l':uropean S01trces. Dyn.amics. and Conr~s. ed. Luca Cerchiari. uurem Cugny. and Funk Kerschb.aumer (Bosron: Nonheasr.ern University Press, 2012). demonstrates Europc3n iinfluence on Amcric~n j31,.1.. thc impact of jazz in Europc. and thc dcvclopment of Euro· pc,111 jo1r.1:. ,:ylçr Edw,ud Stovall, Pari,1

Noir: African Amc:ri-

cans in rhe Cityof Light (Boston: lloughton Miffl in. 1996), includes compelli ng accoums ot' 1he ime1·ch:mge between American :md Europenn jan rnusicfons. For jon·s iníl uence

in Germany. see]au & rhe Gemians: EssuJ• ori rhe lnfluence o/ ··flor" Am erican /dioms on 1he 20,h-Cenn,ry·Cemio n Music. ed. Michael J. lludds ( Hillsdale. l\"Y: Pendragon, 2002).

Duke Ellington John Edward Hassc, Beronct Category·: The Li/e ond Cenii,s o/ Duke 1:,1/inb~º" (New York: Simon & Schusrer. 1993). is the best oll -aroun<l biography. but the best sn,dy of 1,llington's early career is Mark Tucker's Ellingtori: %e oarlr Ycar$ (U rbana: Universi,y oi' lll ir10is Press. 1991). Harvey C. Cohen. Duke Elling10,,s America (Chicago: University ofCbicago Press. 2010). offers a fresb view based ou new interviews and arcbivaJ researcb. John Loujs Howlancl. Ellingron Up1own: Duke Ellingron, James P. foi, nson, and rl,e Binh ofConceri]azz (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Pr·ess. 2009), iraces Elliol,'IO•>°s role in the de"elopment of sympho nic jazz. See also Schiff. 'rhe elling10,, Centtuy (above). Duke Ellingion. in Person: An lnrirnure Memoir. b_y Mercer Ellini,'loo with S1anlcy Dance (80s100: Houghlon MifOfo. 1978). offers a personal view by his son. wbo succccdcd htm as leaderofthe Elllngton Band . An lmponam collection ofwritings by anda bom Ell ington is The Dul:e Ellington Readtr, ccl. Mark Tucker (Oxford : Oxford University Press. 1993). See olso Ellington·s amobiography. Music Is MyMistress (Garclcn City. l\>-Y: Douhlcday, 1973).

FilmMus,c Roger Hickman. Reel ,\fosic: E:rpl oring 100 Years of Pilm Music (New York: l'f onon . 2006). and Mervyn Cooke. A flisrory· o/ film Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2008). ore excellent inrrocluc1 io ns 10 ~lm music. Useful resources on f1lm musicof this and huer· periods ir1clucle James Buhler. David Neumeycr, anel Rob Dcemer. lfeoring 1he Movies: Music ond Sound in Film flisrory· (New York: Oxfo,·d University P,·ess. 2010); 7'1te Hollywood Hlm Musit Reoder. ed. Mervyn Cooke (New Yo,·k: Oxfo rd University l'ress. 2010); James Wieribicki. fílm Music:A HlStory· (New York: Routledge. 2009) and 71ie Rourledge Film M«sic Sourcebook (New York: Routledge. 2012): Movic Music: T1w J-ilm Reader. ed. Kay Dickinson (New York: Routledge. 2003); Musicand Cinema. ed. James Buhler, Ca.ryl f'linn. and David Neumeyer (Ha no,•er, NH: Univershy Press of New E.ngland. 2000): l.aurence E. MacDonald. 1helnvisibleAno/Filrn Music: A Cornpreliensive History (New York: A.rdsley House. 1998): Gary Marmorstcin. Hollrwood Rhapsody: Movie Music and /rs Makers. 190010 1975 (Ncw York: Schirmer. 199?): Ccorgc Bun. TheAn ofFilniMusic (Boston: Northcastcrn Unh•ersity Press. 1994); Mich,el Chion. Audio- Vision: S.,1md on Screen ( New York: Columbia Universiry Press. 1994-): anel an earlyclassic. Claudia Corbma n. Unheard Melodies: Narntrive F'tlmMusic ( Bloomington: Indiana Univcrsity Press. 1987). So,md ond Music in Fi!m 11nd Visuol Media: An Overv i(';w,

ç.d . Gr,1e m c Harper (Ncw York: Continuum , 200?}.

includes essays covering evel)1 hing from theory and practice ro ed iring ~nd sound production. Fbl' f1lm musicais, see Richard Ba ,·rios.A Song in the Dark: me Bit'rh of1he Musical

Film, 2nd ccl. (New York: Oxford University Press. 2010). On musicforcanoons. see Daniel Goldmark. Tunes for 'Toons: Mrr.sic 011d the Hollrwood Canoon ( Berkeley: Universiry of' California Press, 2005) . Rcseorch guidcs include Jc311nic Gayle Pool and H. S1 e· phcn Wright,A Reseon:h Cuide to Fllm ond 'rele<ision Music in the Unired.Stoies (L,nham. MD: Sc.irecrow. 20 11). oncl Film and 7elevision Music: A Cuide 10 Books. Articlcs. and Composer lrLtcr,iews. ed. \V.irren M. Sherk (Lmham. MO: Scarecrow, 2011).

Chapter 35: Between lhe World Wars: The Classical Tradition Fmnce For musical c1dture between the wars, see Mary E. Davis. ClossicCh,c: Musk. Posfuon. ot14 Modenusm ( Berkeley: Uni1•ersi1yoí California l'ress. 2006); Jane F. Fulcher. 71,e Composeras Jrucllecrwi!: Musicand ldcologr it1 Fmnce 1914--1940 (New York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 2005): and James Harding. 77te0..on theRooj: Scenesfrom Musical Lye in Paris in 1/ie Tiventies (Loncloo: Macdonald.19i2) .

ASS

Grcenwood. 1989). On]onnrspieb auJ: sce Clai re Taylor· Jay. TheArrisr-Operasof Pfirmer. Krenek. and Tlind,mith: Polrrics ond 1h e ldeo!ogyof rhe Artist (Aldershor: Ashgaie. 2004) . K11rr We,11 S111d ies incluclcS1cphcn llinton, Weills MusicolThoo.r~r: Stages of Refam, (Berkeley: University of Cnlifornia Press. 2012): Jllrgen Schebera. Kun Wei/.1: An Tlliistrated Ufe. tTans. Caroline Murphy (New llnveu: Yale University Press. 1995); Ronald Taylor. Kun Weill: Composerin a DMded World (Boston: Northeasr Univers ity Press. 1992): David Drew. Kur1 Weill: A Ha,idbool: ( Lot1don: Faber & Fabor. 1987): andA New Orpheus: Essays on Kttrr Weill, ed . Kim Kowalke (New Haven, Yale U,tiversity Press.1 986). For T/,e'/7,reepenn.yDpera. see Stephen Hinton. Kuri Weill: 1'he 1'hreepennr0pero (Cambndge: Cambridge U11iversity l'ress. 1990). A comple1e ed ition is un derway. 7lte K1trl Weill Ed.itio,, (New York: .Kurt Weill l'oundation for Music. 1996-).

P1111/ Hindcmirh Lu1her Noss. Paul llindemith in rhe United Srates (Urbana: Un lverslry of lll lnols Press. 1989). rreais Hlndeml!h's

Arlhur Hon«gger

career in exile. Dav1d Neumeyer, 17tc Musico/ Paul ffi n-

Smdies of Honegger include H,rry Halbreich.Anhur Hon.egger. trans. Roger Nichols (Ponland. OR: Amadeus. 1999): and Ccolfrcy K. Sprall. '17,e MMicofAnhurHonegger (Cork: Cork Universily Prcss. 1987). Sec a.lso bis mcmoirs. Artbur lloncggcr. JAma Composer. lnus. Wilson O. Clougb (New York: St. Marrin's. 1966).

demith (New Haven: Yale Un iversity i>ress. 1986). offers 3 mcthod of analysis. On Mathis der Moler. sce Taylor- Joy. TheArtist· Operas ofPfilmer. Krenek. and lfindemirh (abovc uncler Krcnck). ond Siglind Bruhn. The 1'emptation of Paul flindemirh: Mathis der MalerasaSpiritual 'restimo11r (Smyvesam. NY: Pend rogon. 1998). For bibliography. see S1ephen Lunmann. Paul llindemi1h: A T!esearch ond ln.for"'Olion Cuide, 2nd ed. (New York: Rou1ledge, 2009) . Hindemi,h's eompositional ,re3tises oUllioe his approach and were once q11iie iníluen1iol: 71,e Cra/1 ofM,.sicalCompositiori ( New York: Associated Music, 195+) anel A Composer's World: llorizonsoncl Limiro.rioris (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University P,·ess. 1952). Hiscom1>lete works have been publisf,ed inSiimtliche Werke. ed. Ku,1 von Pische,· and Ludwig Pinscher (Mainz: B. Schoil . 1975-86).

Da nus M,lhaud Por biography anel o catologuc or works. sce Paul Colh er. D111·ius Millwud.. ed. ar1d trans. Jane Hohíeld Calar11c (San Prancisco: S,m Francisco Prcss.1988). Rcccntsn1dics of the music includc Bo.rbora L. Kelly. 'rrodition Gnd Sl)ie in 1he Works ofD11ri.uf MW,aud. 1912-1939 (Aldershot: Ashgare. 2003). nr1d Deborah Mawer. Dani,s Milho1i,cl: Modoluy & Structure ,n. Musico/1he /920s (Aldershoi: Ashgate. 1997). See also Milbaud'sautobiography. Mr HapP)"Lij'e. 1rans. Donald Evans, George H:,11. àud Clu-istopber Palmer (Ne,e York: M. Boyars, 1995).

Francis Poi,lcnc Srudies include Corl B. Schmidt. Enrrunc,ngMuse:A DocumentedBiographyoffroncis Poulenc (Hillsdale. NY: Pendragon. 200 1). and Benjamin lvry, Francis Poulenc (Loudon: Pbaidon. 1996). His memoirs are publishcd asMr Friends and ,\ lyself llinversarions. trans. James Harding (London: Dobson, 1978). and Diarro/MrSongs. trans. Winifrcd Radford (london: Collancz. 1985). For a c,mlQb'lle and hibliography. see c~r1 B. Schmidt. TheMusico/Proncis Poulenc (1899- 1963): A ll,1alog1te (Oxford: Clnrenclon, 1995). and George R. Kcck, Proncis Pou lenc:A Bio-Bibliogrophy(NewYork: Grecnwood, 1990). Ernst Krt>n,eS.·

See John L. Stewart. Ernst Krenek: 'lhe Man and His Music ( Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press. 1991). ond Garreir H. Bowles. omsi Krenek:A Bio-Bibliogrophr (New York:

M11sic 1111der r/ic Nazis Michael M. Ka1er, llimposer, ofthc Nazi Em: liighr Por1rai1s (New York: Oxford U1üversity Press, 2000). looks at composers who remai necl in Germ:iny durlng N.'.lzi rule. such as Orff and Strauss. as well as those who left Gennony. su ch as Hindemitb. Scboenberg. and \Veil l. See also Michael Haas. Forbidden Music: The]ewish Composers Banned ~)' 11,e Nazis (Kcw Havcn: Yale University Prcss. 2013): Karen Painter. Sp11pho11icAspirations: Gemw.n Musicand Politics. 1900- 1945 (Cambridge. MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss. 2008): Shirli Cilben . Musicin rhe ffolocau,11: Confronring Life 111 rhe Naz, Chenos and Camps (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2005): Mu.sic and Nazism: Ari wider 1jT01111,-. 1933- 194'5. ed. Michocl H. Ka,cr and Albrcchr Ricrhmt11ler (L.,aber: wobcr. 2003): Driven inio Paradise: The Musicol ,\ligrationJror11 Nazi Gcmian;-to thc UnitcdStatc~. c d. Hcinhold Brinkrn,1nn ,1nd

Ch ristoph Wolff (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1999); Pomela M. l'oner. Most Ge,ma11 of1l1eAr1s: Musicol011)' ond Socicrrfrom 1/1c Wein,or Rcp1,blic 10 the t:nd of Hirler's

A86

For l'urfh e r He adiug

Reich (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 1998): Michael M. Karer, The r.,,;,51ed Muse: MtJ.Sicúmsand Their Mttsie in 1/,e 71,ird Reich (Ncw York: O,ford Un iversiry Press, 1997); and Erik Lc,'Y, Mu~icin tl,e Thircl Reich (New York: St. Morrin·s. 1994).

Sov,e1 M1,s1c See Marina Prolova-\Valker, /lu,5.vion Musicand Nalionalism: Pram Glinko t0Stali11 (New H»•e11: Yale University Press, 2008); Solliet Mr.,sic Md Societ)' U11der Le11in and Sralin: 7'/te 8aronartd tlteSickle. ed. Neil Edmunds (New York: RourledgeCurwn, 2004); eil EdmtLnds, Tl1e Sovie1Proletarion Music Movement (New York: Pe1er Lang, 2000); Boris Scbwarz, Music and Musical Life in &viei Russia . Enlàrged Eduion, 1917-1981 ( Bloo mington : Indiana University Press, 1983): and Russ1a11 and &vier Music: Essa)'s for Boris Schtt·arz, ed. Malcolrn H. Brown (Ann Arbor: UMI Research, 1984,).

Sergey Prokofiev Biographjes include Simon Monison. 71te People'sArtist: Prokojievs Soviet Years (Oxford: Oxford Universi1y Prcss. 2009): David Nice, Prokofiev: Prom /lussla to rhe Wesr. 1891- /935 (New lfaven: Yale Universiry Press, 2003); Harlow Robinson, Se!)J'ei Prokojiev: A Biograph)', rev. ed . ( Boston: Northeastern Universiry Press, 2002): and Claude Samuel. Prokofiev, trans. Mirinm John ( London : Marion Boya rs. 2000). The essnys in Serger Prokofievand lfis World.. ed. Simon Morrisan ( Princeton: Princcton Uni · versity Press, 2008). shed much new light on his biography and his music. See also his auro biography, Prokofiev b)' Prokofiev: A Composer's Memoir, ed. David H. Appel. trans . Cuy Dan icls (New York: Doubleday, 1979). His diaries havc bec11 publ ishcd in Sergcy Prokof,ev, Diaries 1907- 191-i: Prodigious Youth; Diaries, 1915- 1923: Beltind theMask; and Diaries, 1924- 1933: ProdigalSon, trans. and am101ated by Anr hony Phillips ( lthaca , NY: Cornell Universi1y Press. 2006. 2008, and 2013), On 1he music, see Stephen O. Press, Prokofie•s Ballets for D,aglrilev (Aldershot: Ashga,e, 2006): Nei l Miniurn. The M!!sie ofSergei Prokofiev (Ne\V Haven; Yale University Prtss, 1997): and Pe1er Deane Roberts, Modernism in Ru.ssian Piano Music: Skriabi,l.

Prokofiev. and '111eir Hussian Con temporarfos (Bloomi ngton: Indiana Univers ity Press, 1993) . for bis Mm musie, see Kevin Barrig, Composingfor rhe RedScreen: Prokojievand Soviet Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), Excerpts from Prokoí,ev's wrilings are in SR 189 (7:20).

Dmirn Shosrc,i·o.,ich Complicatingou r underst:mdingof Shostako,,jch is Solo · mon Yolkov's Tesrimonr: The .\{emoirsofDmitr,•Shosrakovich, tr•ns. Amonin• \V. Bouis (New York: Uarper & Row. 1979). which Volkovclaimed was b3SCd on exrensive interviews wi1h Shos••kovich bur h,s bcen shown 10 bc l•rgcly fobric3ted: see 1he review by Laurel foy. "Shostakovich vcr.1u.1 Volkov: \Vh o~e Tc~tlmony? :· The Ru-,~ian. Revicw 3? 0 980): 484-93. andA Shostakovich C11sebook, ed. Malcolm Hamrick Brown ( Bloomingron: Ind iana Universiry Press. 2001.). Yolkov paimed Shosia kovich as a secre1 dissiden,

who encoded mess.:iges orresist.ince in his music: see 1he

For Fu d her Readi ng

commemsabom Stalin in 1he excerpt in SR 190 (7:21). Allan B. Mo and Dmitry Feofanov. Shosraho,•ich lleconsrdered (London: Tocc.11a, 1998), have defend ed Yolkov. whose Shostokovich ond Siolirt: 11,e &troordirwry Relar.ionship ber wee,1 rir e Gre,,,r Composer a11d li1e 8rwll Dicwro,·. 1r3ns. Antonina \V, Bouis (Ncw York: Knopf, 2004), 11111st be trMted wilh grMI caution. Other w·riti ngs on Shos,a kovich include \Vendy Lesser, ,\fosicforSilenced Voices: Shosioho,ich and flís Pifteen Q1,ar1ets (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 2011): Shosiokovicl, Studies 2, ed. Pat1line f'airclough (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press. 2010); Tite Ctrn1bridge Compártion to S1,ostakovich. ed. PauJine fairclougb and David fan· rung(Cnmb ridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press, 2008): Elizabe1h Wilson. Shostakov1ch: A Lifc Remcmbcrcd. new ed. (Londo11: Fabe r & F3ber, 2006) ; Sl10s1akovicl, a,,d His IVorld. ed, Laurel Fay (Princeion: Princeton Unjversiry Press, 2004): David Panning. S/1ostakovic/1: String Quartel No. 8 ( Burlington. VI': Ashgatc, 2004) : Laurel Fay.Shostakov· ich:A Li/e (Ncw York: Oxford U,úvcrs ity Press. 2000): Esti Sheinberg. /ronr. Sarire. Parod.rand ihe Grotesque in rhe Music o/Shos,akovrch: A Tlteor,•of.11ustcal lricongrurnes (Aldershor: Ashgate, 2000): Shosiakovicl, in Conre:rt. ed. Rosamund Bonlcrr (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsiry Press, 2000): ond Shostaho.-ich S"1dies. cd , David Fonning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), The famous Pravdn rcview "Chaos lnsiead of Music," which attacked Shost,kovich's lodyMacbeth ofthc Mtscnsk Di~trict. is in SR 188 (7:19). A use fui reso,u·ce is Derek C. Hu ime. DmirriSl1os1akovic/1 C<1tolo1J1,e:'/11ef'irsi Hu,1dred )'earsa,1d BtJtmd, 41h ed. (Lanham, MD: Scartcrow, 2010). Shost:tkov-icb·s works appe:u· in a new <:omp1ete works edition now underway, Novoe sobrariie sochin.enii (Moscow: lid-vo OSCH, 2000-). and in a>i earlier edilion, Sobra· nie socl1inenii v soraka dvukh 10m ak/1 (Moscow: Muiyka, 1979-87).

,\fo.s,c lll Canada For his1ories of music in Catiada. see Timo,hy J, McCee, '171c M11.sicofConado (New York: NorLOu, 1985), wluch ü1cludes :>n an1hology: Paul Hel mer, Growi11gwi1/1Canada: 77,e EmigréTrodirion in CanadianM,tsic (Mo111real : McGill Qt1een's University Press, 2009): Elaine Keillo r. Music in Canada: Captunng Land~cape and Dil'crsit)' (Montreal: McCill -Quten·s Univtrsity Press, 2006); and CeorgeA. Proctor. Can.adian M1tsic of1he Twentieth Cen.rm:r ('foronlo: Uruversi,y ofToron10 Press. 1980) . Rcference works iuclude Encyclopedia ofM1tsicin Canada. 2nd ed .. ecl. Mclmut Kallmann. Cilles Potvin. Kenneth \Vintcrs et ai. <Toronto: University ofToromo Press. 1992). anel Carl Morey, MrJ.Sic in Canada: A Research and lnfomiarion Cuuie (New York: Carland , 1997). On Ernest MocMi lbn. see Ezra Schabns. Sir Emest MacMillan: The lmponance of8ei11gCanadian (Toronto: Uni · YCr.'.'iity oíToronto Prç-,$, 1??4}. and the compo~er•_, writ-

ings in MacMillan on M11.sic: ossaJ'S on Muoic. ecl. Carl Morey ('l'oronto: Dundum, 1997). l''or Clande Charnpagr1e. see Maureen Nevins. Claude Champ<1gne, 1891- 1965: Composer, 'leaclier. Mu.sicion (Ouawa: Naiio11al LibraryofCanada. 1990),

/,arinArnerica MrmcsofLarinAmerica. ed. Robin Moore and \Valter Aaron Clark (NewYork: Norton, 2012), is a comprehensive overview of music in L:nin Americ.1, from coloni_il rimes ,h,·ough the presen ,, orga ni zed by region.

Hcttor Vil/<• -Lobos See David P. Applehy. /leitor Vil/a-Lobos: A life 0 887- 1959) (L,nham. MD: Scarecrow, 2002): Eero Tarasti. He1tor Vil/a-Lobos: 'l'he lifeond IVorks, l88?-1959 (Jefferson, N'C: Mcf':,rland. 1995); Gerard Béhague. Heiror Vil/a-Lobos: The Searchfor81-ozil'sMusicálSoul (Aus1in: lns1inue oí latiu American S1ud ies, Univers ity ofTexas at Aus1in , 1994): Simon \Vrigb1. Heitor Vi/la-Lobos (Oxford: Oxford Universily Press. 1992) : and Lisa M, Peppe rcorn. Vil/a-Lobos. 1l1c Mu.sic: An Anal)'sis of His StJic. irans. Stefan de Haa11 (London: Kahn & Averil, 1991). anel Vi/la-Lobos, ed. Audrey Sarnpson (London; Ornnibus, 1989), f'or a resource b'Uide, see Da,,;d P. Applcby, Heitor Vi/la ·Lobos: A 8io·Bib/io6'raphr (Ncw York: Greenwood, 1988). .\{u.sic tn Mexico Vi:,rgeneral studies in English, see Dan Malmstrõm.

lntroductian to Twenrierh Cenrur,·Mencan Musit (Uppsala : Akad. avh. Uppsala University. 1974) . and RobertStevenson, Music in Mecrico:A HÍ$fOrical Survey (New York: Crowcll, 1971), Ncwcr pcrspcctivcs are offcrcd by Ruth HcUic r-Tinoco. EmbodJing Merico: Touri,,m. Na tianali,,m and Performance ( New York: Oxford University Press. 2011). and Alejandro 1,. M,drid. So~nds of rhe .\1odem Natio11: M1,sic. Culture, and ldeas in Posr-Revolurionar,· Merico (Philadelphia: Temple Universi1y Press. 2008). On Carlos Ch:h•cz, see Robcri L. Parker, Corlos 01dvez: Me:r:ico's Modem· Da)'Orpheus (Bos1011: Twayne, 1983) and Carlos Cho·"'" A Cuide ro Research (New York: Carl•ncL 1998), l'or Silvesire Hevueh>s, see Peier Corland. ln Searclt of Silvestre Re,·ueltas: l;:ssaJ'S 1978-1990 (Santa ~e: Soundings. 1991).

The U,ured Srutes For generaJ histories. see under chapter 26 above. On musi • cal modernism between Lhe wors. see Carol J. Oja. Mak ing M!!sic Modem: New York m rhe /920s (New York: Oxford Uru vers ity Press. 2000). See also Ot10 Karolyi, ModemAmerican Music: Fron1 Chartes lves to the Minimal,sts (Madison, NJ : Fairleigh Diclúnson Universily Press. 1996). For thc cxpcrimentalist or ultramoderuist w-ingof American composers. see Michael Broylcs. Mavericks and Otlter Trad,tions m American Music (Ncw J-Javcn: Ya.lc Unh•ersiry Press. 2004):Anierican Ma,•ericl-.. ed. S11sa11 Key ond L., rry Ro1he (San Froncisco: San Francisco Symphony: Berkeley: Universi1y ofColi íornia Press, 2001): and David Nicholls, Amtricon &perimtntal Music, 1890- 1940 (Cam bridge: Cambridge Universiry Prcss. 1990),

A87

Edgor1/ Varese Biogr•phies includeAl,n Cbyson. E:dgard. Varése (Lonclon: Saneruary. 2002). and Lou ise Yarése. Varése: A l.ookmg· Glass Dia1y (Ncw York: Korton, 1972). On 1he music, s,ec Edgord Varése: Composer, &1md Sculptor, Visio110,,·, ed. IFelix Mcyerond lleidyZimmermann (\Voodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2006): ~falcolm MacDonald, Varêse: Astranomerin So,md (London: Kahn &Averill, 2002); Jonathan Bernard. '/'he ,\fos,cof /::dgar Varése (New Haven: Yale Universiry Press, 1987); and '111e New lflor'ldsoffdgord Vorêse, ed. Sherman Van Solkema (B,·ooklyn: lnstitu1e rorS1uclies inAmed c3n Music, 1979), See 1he excerpts fron1 Y:tr~se's writings :tod lec1ures iu SR 179 (7: 10).

He,uyCowell See Joel Sachs, Hemr Cowell: A Man .\1c,de of Mt<s,c (New York: Oxford Universily Press. 2012): Michael Hicks, HcmyCowell. Boltcmian (U rbana: Universityof Illinois Press, 2002): and 7he W/10/e WorldoJMusic:A Hei1?·Cowell Spnposium. ccL David Nicbolls (Ausu-alia: HarwoodAca· dcmk. 1997). CowclJ's work on behaH of )jving composers Is described ln Rita 11. Mead. /Jenr,· Cowel!'s New Mu.,rc. 192S-l936: The Societr. rhe ,\lu.vic Edi1ions. and she Recordings (Ann Arbor: UMI Researeh. 1981) . Cowelrs own writings 3re fnscinaling: New Mu$ical Resources, ecl, David Nicbolls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), and The IVrilin.f,i of1/ernyCowell. ed. Bruce Saylor and William Lichtcnwanger ( Brooklyn: lnstitute for Sn,dies in American Music. 1977). Por a c.1talogue. see \Villiam Lichtenwanger. 1ne Music of flemyCou-ell: A Descripri,·e Ca1alog (Brooklyn: lnslil\lte íorS1udies in American Music, 1986).

Ruth Crawford Seegcr The st3ndard biography is Judith Tick, Ruth Crawford Sceger, A Composer's Seorclt for American Music (New York: Oxford Universily Press, 1997). On 1he music, see Joseph N. Siraus, 7'/te MusicofHu1l1 Crawford Seeger (Cambridg-e: Cambridge Unh•ersity Press, 1995). and Ellie M. Hisama, Ce11dering Musical Modernisni: 17ie Music ofRurh Crawforcl, Marion Ba.uer. and Miria.m Guleon (Cambridge: Cambridge Unjversity Press, 2001). Ruth Crawford's Worlds: lnnovution and Tradirion Ln 'twentt.elh-Centu,,·American Music, ed. Ray Allen and Ellie M. Hisama ( Rochesler: Universuy of Roches,er Press. 2007). contains essays covering all aspects of her car<:er.

George Cersh win Sec under Ccrsbwiu in chaptcr 34. abovc.

Aaran Copland Howard Poll•ck. Aa.ron Copla11d: The Lije and Work ofan U11commo11 Man (New York: Henry Hoh, 1999), is the deiin itive bioguphy. Elizabe1h B. Cris1, Musicforrhe Common. Man: Aaron. Gopland During the Depression and War (Oxford:

On thc Amcricani$t w-ing. $Ce 8arb,1rn L. Tl.,,çhler,Àn

Oxfo rd Un ivcr.sity Prc:s:s, 2005). explo re.$ Copl.ind'.s po1-iti -

American M1uic: 1heSearchforan Amcrican MuJical ldentit)' (New York: 0ll'fo,·d Universiry Press. 1986), and 8a1·bar:, A. Zuck,A Hisror,·ofolfosicolAmericari ism (AnnArbor: UM I Research. 1980),

c:i] views ancl their effects on his music. Nadine Hubhs . TI1e Quecr Composilion ofAmerica's Sound: Gay Modemists. Arnerican Music, ond No1ionol ldenrirr (Berkeley: Universiry o f Californi• Press, 2004), argues 1ha1Copland and 01her gay

A88

For l'urfh e r He adiug

composers he kuew (includ ingThomson and Bernstein) were cemr:11 in c;reaáng a distin c;ri\fe Americ.1n musical id iom th:u is part of modent A1nerican id enrity. 01 her srudies inelude Gayle Murchiso11, TheAmerican Smivinsky:

11,e Sryle 011d Aes1l,encs ofCoploncl"s New Americm> Music-The forl)' Works, 1921- 1938 (Ann Arbor: Univcrsity of Michigon Press. 2012):Aaron Coplond arut: His World. ed. Coro! J. Ojo and Judith Tick ( Princecon: Princeton Universiiy l'ress, 2005); Copland Connotarion.s: Struliesand /nteiviews. ed . l'e,er Oickinson ( Rochescer. NY: Boydell, 2002); and Gail Levin and Jud ith 'l'iclc.AaronCoplánd'sAmerica: A Ct,ltural Perspective (New York \Vatsou•Guptill. 2000). Copland colláborated witb Vivian Perlis on his mem · oirs, Copland: 1900 rhroug!t 1942 :1nd Copland: Since 1943 (New York: St. Martin's. 1984 and 1989). Copland's writings include .\Jusicond lmogi,1oi.o,, (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1952): The New Mt1~,c 1900-1960. rev. ed. (New York: Norton. 1968); Copla.nd on Music (Garden City. NY; Doubleday. 1960); and Aaron Copland. A Reoder: Se!ecr-ed Wr,tínb"· 1923- 1972. cd. Richard Kos'tclaaetz (Ncw York: Routledgc . 2004). His letters are in The S,l,cted Correspon · denceofAaron Copland. ed. Ell7.a.bech ll. Crise and \V.1yne Shirley ( New Haven: Yale Universicy Presa, 2006). For bibliography, sec Marta Robcnson and Robin Armstrong.Aaron Copland: A Cuide ro Research (Ncw York: Roullcdge. 2001}.

IVilliam GrontS1ill Catherine Parsons Smich. WWio_m Granr Srill (Urbana: Universiry of Ill inois Press. 2008). is a compac, biography. For Still's autobiography. see his My Life. My 117ords:

111eAutobiograpl1roflflilliom Cran1 Sii/1.. Americon Mas1er Composer (Flags1aff. AZ: Mastcr l'laycr Libr:try, 2011). Stud · ies include Catherine Parsons S·m ith, William GrontSrill: A Srudr in Contradictions ( Berkeley: University of C:tlifornia Press. 2000). anel IVlllian, CraruStill 0t1d lht fusw• of Ct,!11, res inAmenco.n Music. 2nd e d .. ed. Judith AnneSti ll ( ~lagstafí. AZ: Masier- Playe r Library. 1995). excerpted in SR 195 (7,26). See also lf/illiar,, Cranr Sti/!: Ar> Oral Hisro?·· ed. JudithAnneStill ( Flagstaff.AZ; Master•Player Library. 1998). and 7'he íf/i/liarr,Gro,uS1ill Reader: EssarsonAmerican Afosic. ed. Jon Michael Spencer (Durbam. NC: Ouke Universicy Press, 1992). for bibliogr:iphy, see Judi1h Anne Still e1 al.. lf/illiam CranrSn/1: A Bio-Bibliograph)· (Wesiport. CT: Greenwood, 1996).

For Fu d her Readi ng

ebraring Bird: The Triumph of Cha:rlie Parker (NewYork: Beech Tree. 1986; repr. Da Capo. 1999); Ken Vail. Oin)'Cillespie: 11,e 8ebop Years. 1937-1952 (L1nham. MD: Sc.1recrow. 2003): and Oiz1.y Gillespie's autobiography, To BeorN01 ,o Bop (Ncw York: Dou.blcday, 1979). For Mil cs Davis, sec loisMi/es, the Atl!Obiography(Ncw York: Simon & Schuster, 1989): Ashley Kahn. Kind of 8l11e: Maki11g of rl,c ,\ ·files Davis Masrcrpiecc (New York: Da Capo. 2000); Jeremy Yud ~; n, Miles DMis. MilesS11ules, 011d the /nvenrion of Post Bop (Bloomi ng1on: Indiana University Press. 2008): f)·ank Ti.-ro, 77,e Bir-rh of the Coo/ o/Miles Davis and His Associates ( Hillsdale. NY: Peudragon Press, 2009): and l\icba,·d Williams, 71ie 8/ue Mome11r: A.files Davis· Kind of Blt,e and rhe Jlemaking of Modem M11,sic (New York: Nortoa , 2010). On íreejazz. see .Ekkehar<l Jost. free}a:z (New York; Da Capo. 1994). Phil Ford. Dig:Sound and .\Jus,c in Hip Culture(O,,ford: Oxford University Press. 2013). explores wby jazz. music. nud sow1d were centra) to hip cullure in Lhe postwar years. a phcnomenon th:it plays out in music of this e ra in uncx ~ pccted ways. Populari\focic ln 1he past two deca<les. scholars have contrihuted a numbe.r of 1heore1ical models to the srudy of popular music. Two of 1he best are David Bracken. ln1erpreti11g Popular Music (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1995). and Richard Middle · ton. StudJing Popuwr Music ( Pbiladclphia: Opea Univcrsity Press. 1990).An exccllcnt introductory survey. focuscd oa musicafter\Vorld War li, is LmyS1arrand Christopher \%1em» n.A111erican l'opularM1tsic: PromMinsrre1$J·to MP3. 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University l'ress. 2013). A counrernarrarivc is in El ijah \Vald's lfow rhe Beorles Desirored Rock ·,.· Ro/1: Ar>Altema1ive lfisto?·ofAmerican Populàr Music (NewYork: Oxford University P,·ess. 2011). l'orCmada, see RickJackson, EncycloJ'<'dia o/Canodúuillock. Popa,,d Folk Music (Kingston. Ontario: Quorry, 1994). See•lso David Jenness anel Oon Velsey. Clossic Amcrico.n Song: The Second Holf-Cer1t1L?', 1950-2000 (New Yo rk: Rou1ledege. 2006); Stuart Borthwick. Popular Music Genres: An fnrrod1<C1io,1 (New York; Routledge, 2004); 'lhe Cambridge Companion 10 Pop and Rock. ed. Simon f'rith, \'(!ili Straw. and Jobn Street (New York; Crunbridge Universiry Press. 200 I); and 7'he Pop. Rock and &ui Rroder: Hiswru,.s 111td Debates. 2nd ed., ed. David Brar.kett ( New York Oxford University Press. 2009).

Co11ntrr Music

Chapter 36: Postwar Crosscurrents Bebop andAfw See Scott DeVeaux. The 8irth of8ebop: A S-Ocial and Musical llisro,y (Berkeley: Universiry of Cali forn ia Press. 1997): Eddie S. Meadows, Bebop io Coo1' Con1ext, ldeologr 10 Musi· cal lden1i1)' (\Vestpon, CT: Praeger. 2003); •nd Todd S. JenJ..;ns. Freefa:z and Free lmprovisation: An foc)'clopedill (\Veotport, CT; Grcenwoocl. 2004). On the rnajor figure~ of

bebop, see Carie Woideck. Charlie Porker: fli.s Mt1$icond Li/e (Ann Arbor: Universiry of Michigan Press, 1996); '11te Clwrlie ParkerCompllllion: Sir Decades o/Comme1110?; ed. Carl \Voideck (New York: Schi rmer, 1998); Gary Giddios. Cel·

Bill C. Malouc and Jocelyu R. Neal. Coun1?· Music. U.S.A .. 3rd cd. (Austin: Uaivcrsity of Texas Prcss. 2010): Jocelya R. Ncal. Cot1nt?· Music: A Cultural and Sr,-listic HisU>')' (Ncw Yo rk: Oxford Universily Press. 2012): and Colin Escon. losr Highway: The TmeStO')'o/Count')' .\lusic (\Vashington. DC: Sm ithsonian. 2003), otfer his1orical surveys. An excellenr ethnographical srudy is Aaron Fox. Real Cotmt,,·: ,\lusicMd Language in a Wórking·Class Culrure (Durham. NC: Duke UniYcr.1ity Prc.1,:1, . 200+). On tbc .1outhcrn root,:1, of country. see Bill C. Malone. Don't GetAbo,•e Your Raisin': Co11ntry· ,\fasicnnd rJ,eSourhem WorkingClass (Urbana: Universiry of Illinois Press. 2002) and SingingCowbOJ-s and Musico/ Mounro.irteers: So111hen1Cu/1ure and 1he Roo1s o/Count?' Music

(Athcns: UuiversityofGcorb~ª Press. 1993). Othcr regional and mdividual scyles ,re rrcaced in Leigh H. Edwards. Jo/1m•)' Cash and 1he Parado,: ofAmerican ldentity ( Bloom ington: Indiana Univcrsity Press. 2009); Colin Escon, llank Wllliom.s: A 8iogroph)', rev. ed. (New York: Li,cle, 13rown , 2004): llichord Kcnzle. Sou1hww Shup!e: Pioneers of llonkr· Tonk. Wesrem Swing. and Count')·}ozz (New York: Routledge. 2003): and Charles K. Wolf.A Cood-Natured Riat: 1'he Binh ofthc Crond OlcOp?· (Nashville: Co11ntry M11sic Fo1111d,tio11. Vanderbih University Press. 1999). On bluegrass, see Neil V. Rosenbergand Cha rles K. \Volfe. 77,eMusko/BiU Monroe (Urb:rna; University of lll inois Press, 2007): The Bluegross Reader, ed. Thomas Goldsmith (Urb;na; Universi1y of llli nois Press. 2004): aud 1'h~ Bil! Mo11 roe Jleader. ed. Tom Ewing ( Urbana: University or Ill inois Press. 2000). a collection orinte rviews. memoi rs. and essays on lhe ··rathe r oí bluegrass:· See also the rnterd iscipl inary essays rn Jleading Co,m1,,- .\lusic; Steel Ct1iJars. Op?·Srars. and Honkrwnk Bem. cd. Cecclia Tiebi (Durbam. NC: Duke Univcrsily Prcss. 1998). audA/1 That Cliuers: Counr?· ,\fusicinAmerica. cd. George 11. Lewis ( Bowling Grccn. 011: Bowling Grecn Sta te Unlvers lcy Popular Press. 1993) . RltJ1hm arid Bfoes For a rich study or the cultural context of rhythm and b lues and rclatcd forms from thc 1950s tbrough thc 1970s. scc Brian \Vard . fu•t Mr S-Oul Responding: Rhythm and Blues . 8/ack Consciousness. and /lace Relarion• ( Berkeley: Uni l'ersicy of California Press. 1998). For bibliography. see Eddie S. Meadows. B/ues. Funk. Rh)1hmand Blu.es. Soul, Hip Hop. and Rap: A Reseorch t111d /n/ormr,ri-On Cuide (New York: Routlcdge. 2010).

Rock and Rol/ There .re several goocl surveys avail•ble. incl uding John Covoeh and And rew Plory. IVl,ai 's TT,a1 S01111d?: An lntr<1duc1ion lo Rockond lts HistO')', 3rd ed. (New York: Norton, 2012); Joseph G. Schloss. Ln rry Scarr. and Christopher \Vaterrnan. Rock: Music. Ct1/11,re. and Business (New York: Oxford Universiry l'ress. 2012); David P. Szatm:uy.Rockir1' in 1ime:A Social Hisro?·of Rock•arul•Jloll. 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prontice Hall. 2010); aud Glenn C. Ahschuler. Ali Shook Up: How Rock 'n · /lo!/ ChangedAmenca (New York: Oxford University l'ress. 2003). fo r elements of style. see Ken Scephenson, Wl,at to úst.et1form R()()k:AS11fü1kAt1al2~is (New Haven: Yale Univcrsity Press. 2002). Charlie Gillett. 77ieSot<nd 0/1l,e Ciiy: Th• Rise ofRock and Rol!. rev. ed . (Ncw York: Panthcon. 1984). is a cbssic bistorical acco,rnt. Paul l'ticdlandcr. Rock and Rol/: A Social /fis1orr (13ouldcr. CO: \Vesn'iew. 1996). examines rockand roll's place in American culrure. Philip l-1. Ennis shows i1s origins as a blend of other tr:1:clitions. its social and cconomic comexcs, and its evolution in The Seven1h Stream: The Emergence of Rocl:11roll in American Popular Mt1sic ( Middlctown. C'f: \Vcslcyan Uni·

A89

,\lakingRecords (Berkeley: Universiry of Califomia Press. 2001). Allan F. Moore rrea,s issuesof scyle and come:n in his Rock: 'íl,e PrimnrrTexi-Developinga MusicologyofRocl·. 2 nd ed. (Aldcrsho1: Ashg,,re, 2001). A loier pcriod is 1he focusof Robert \VàJser's sem in:t! RW1t1ingwi1h 1he Devi!: Power. Ge,,4er, and Maclness in 1/ea,yMetal Music ( Hanovcr, Nll: WeslyM University Press.1993). Numerous prinrnry sources are collected in The Rock llisto?·l!eader. 2nd ed .. ed. Theo Cateforis (New York: Ho11tledge, 2012); '11,e Pop, Rock and Sou/ Reader, ed. Brackett (see above); and Rock a,1dRoll Is llere roSu,rAn An1/iolog,,·. ed. William McKeen (New York: Norton. 2000). TheBeatles EspeciaUy recommended are Walter Evereu's 'lhe Beartes as Musícions: 'lhe Quar')' Men through RubberS-Oul (New York: Oxford University Press. 2001) and 1he Beol!es os M1tSício11s: Riwlvertl1ro1.gh 'f11eA,uholog,-(New York: Oxford University Press. 1999). See also Hm11er Davies, Th• Boo.tles. 3rd ed. (Ncw York; Norton. 2006); 11ie Cambridge Companion 10 rhe Bealles. cd. Kcnncth \Vomack ( Ncw York: Cambridge Unil'ersity Press. 2009): andAllall F. Moore. The Beatles. Sgr. Pepper's lonely 1/ean.< Club Band (Cambridge: Cambridge Universicy Press, 1997). The essays in "Every·Sound There Is": The Beatles· Re,,olverand1he Transforma1ion.of Rock a-nd Rol/. ed. Russell Reising(Burlington . vr,Asbgate. 2002) . cx3minc a s inglc alhum. Revolver. from a variet)-' of pcrspcctives to come to tcnns with thc Beatles' impact o n reco rding practices. The Beatles Ant/10/og;r (San Francisco: Ch ronicle. 2000) is a collection of imerviews, oral histories, and phocos. much of which h:1d 1101 been previo11sly published. An arnhology ofwrirings on 1he Beatles is Read rhe 8earles: ClMsi.can.d New Wí-irings on 1he Beatles, 11,eir Legacy, orid Whr 11,e,- S1ill Mouer. ed. )une Sk.inner Sawyers (Ncw York; Penguit1 Books, 2006). Fora discography, see )eff Rus.sell, 1ne Beoilcs Compleie Discography(New York: Rizzoli. 2006). Transcri1>1ions of ali 1he Beatles recordings are in 1he Beatles CompleieScores (Milwaukee; Hal Leonard.1993).

Follr and Protcst Mu.sii· On some of the central figures of the folk music movemen1, see Lawrence J. Epstt:in, Political J,"o{k Music inAmerica.n /rom lrs Origins 10 Bob Dylat1 (Jefferson. NC: McFa,·landl. 2010); David King Ounaway and Molly Bee r. SingingOw: An Oral H'81orrof American·s folk Music Revi1•als (New York; O., fo rd University Press. 2010): Rooald D. Cohen, Woody Cuthrie: WrilingA,neri.cas Songs (New York; Routlcdge. 2012): Will Kaufman. Wood)'Cu1hrie.American Radicai (Urbaaa: Uni,•crsity oí Illinois Prcss. 2011); Mark Aliam Jackson. Propher Singer: The Voice and Vision of WoodrCml,rie (Jackson: Universicy Press of Mississippi. 2007): Ed Cray. Ramblin' Mon: T/1e 1.ifeand Times ofWoodyC1tthrie (New York: Norton, 2004); Allan M. \Vin klcr, "To <Ve.l)thing There Is aSeasot1-, PereSeegero.nd the PowerofSong (Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 2009): Pcte Sccger, Where flàve All

\'Cr:)ity Prc~o,. 1??2) . Albin Z,1k 11 1 trace$ the ro1dic.1I c h.1nge

thc flowcr3 Gonc: A Mu$ical Autobio>_,'"roph)" (Bcthle hc m. PA;

in rnste írom swingto rock anel roll in / Don'1S011nd Like Nobody: l!emaking M11s ic in 1950sAmerica (Ann Arbor: Uni versicy or Michigan Press. 2012) and ereais 1he process oi' recording rock music in 'llle Poe1ics o/Rock: Cuuing'/'rocks,

SingOu,. 1997); David l lajd11. Positive!x 4t11 Street: 'fhe Líves and '/'inies o/Joan Boez, Bob Drlan. Mimi Baez Fari~a. and Ríclwrd Fari,10 (New York: l':1rrar. Srraus & Giroux, 2001); Joan Baez,And a Voice to Sing IVirh: A Memoir (New York

A90

Fo r l'urfh e r Headiu g

Summit. 1987): Bob Dybn. Chronicles (Ncw York: Simo n & Schmter. 2004- ): The Camhridg,, Compamon10 Bob DJ1an. ed. Kevin J. H. Detmrnr (New York: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 2009); and Bob Spir1,, D11an: A Biogrophr (New York: Norron, 1991).

Soul and Morown See Cera lei Early, One Nation Undera Croove: Motown and American Culture. 2nd ed . (Ann Arbor: Universityof Michigan Press. 2004,); 1\. J. Smirh , 11ie One: 11« Li/e andM"sic o/James Brown (New York: Gotl,am. 2012): James Brown's au1obiog,·aphy. 1 Peel Good: A Mem oir ofa Li/e ofSou! (New York: Americ.1n Library, 2005); Berry Gordy's au1obiography, 7o Be lo,-ed: 11,e Music, theMagic, rlte MemoriesofMorown: AnAurobiograpll,-(London: \Varner. 1994,); Bill Dohl.Morown: 'llte Golden Yeors (Lolo, \VI : Krause. 2001): and Suzanne E. Smitli"s critique, Doru:ing in the St,iet: Motow,, &11á lhe C.,ll1<ra! Po!ilies o/ Deuoi1 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2000).

Salsa See César Miguel Ronrlon. The Book o/Salsa: Jl Chronlcle of Urban Mu,,ic from thc Caribbean ro New York CilJ", trans. Fr>nces R. Aparício withJackie White (Chapei Hill; Uni versity of North Carolina Press, 2008) : lsabcllc Lcymaric. Cuban Fire: 11ieSaga o[Salsa and Lalin Jau (Ncw York: Continuum. 2002}: and Stevcu Lozo. Tito Puenleand lhe Maki ng of latin ,\lu.sic (Urba na: Un iversity of 111 inois Presa. 1999). Hobin Moore, Musicin rlre Hispanic Cari~bean: P.xperiencing Music, Expressing Culiure (New York: Oxford University Press. 2010), describes a varie1y oi' s1yles

For Fu d her Readi ng

Band and Wínd Ensemble Musrc See Frank L. Bonisti. 71te WindsofC/11mge: The E'vo!urJon ofrhe ComempororyAmeriean Wind Bon.d/Ensemblearul l1sC011d11c1or (Calesvill e, MD: Meredith Music. 2002); D•vid \Vhitwell , 11,c Hisro,yond.Ur.erorureoftlle Wind,8m1dond Wind En.semble, 11 vols. (Northridge, CA: Winds. 1962- 84}: anel Wind li'nsemble &ure<Jbool: and. Biographiool Cuide, ed. Marshall Stoneham, Jon A. Cillaspie, and David l..indsey (\Vestpon. C'I': Green wood. 1997).Seealso "Band," in NC2. For Persichetti, see \Va lter Simmons, '11,e Musico/ lVi!liam Scl,wno ,,, Vince,u Persicherr i, and Pew Meru,in: Voices of St0t1eand Srecl (Lanham, MO: Sc:u-ecrow, 2011) : Oonald L. Pauerson and Janet L. Pauerson, Vincent Persicl1eui: A Bio-Bibliography(\Vesrport. CT: Greenwood, 1988): and l'ersiche1ti. "Symphony No. 6 for Band," Jouma/ o/Band Research 1(Fall 1964): 17-20, from which his comment ou the band repertoire is taken,

Chapler 37: Poslwar Heirs lo lhe Classical Trad ition Surveysof •n muslc 3ÍterWorlcl War li include Elllon Schwanzand Daniel Godfrey, Afu.sic sincc 194-5 (New York: Schírmer, 1993).

Samuel Borber

Peter ]. Hodi,'Son. Benjamin Britwi: A Cuideto Re.rorch (Ncw York: Carlancl. 1996).

Olrvier Messwm l'he best biography is Peter Hill and Nigcl Simcone, Afessiaen ( Ncw Havcn: Yale University Press. 2005). Other use fui sources includc Carc1b tlcalcy. Messiaen·s Musical Teth niques: The Composer's Vrewond Berond (F.,rnham, UK: Ashgnie. 2013); Messiaen rhe 1'1teologian, ed. Andrew Shemon ( f~1rnha111 . UK: Ashgare, 2010); Sander van Maas, '17,e ReiMe111ion o/ Relib'ioi,s Music: Olivier Messiaen's 8reak1l1ro1<glt 1oward the Bé]-o,1d (New York: Fordham Universi1y Press. 2009): Christopher Di ngle, 11,e Li/e o/Messw.e11 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiiy Press. 2007); Messiaen Sruaies, ed. Robert Sholl (Cambridge: Cambridge University l'ress, 2007) : Madeleine Forte,OlwwMess,atfl, tlteMus,cal Mediator(Madison, NJ: Farle,gh O,ckinson Univers i1y Press, l996); 71te Messi~,i Componion. ed, Pe1er Hill (Portland, OR: Amadeus. 1995): and Claude Samuel. OU.,ier Messiaen: Music and Color. lrans. E. Thomas Glasow (Ponland. OR: Amadeus. 1994}. For t he Quarr.et for rhe fnd ofTime. sec Anthony Poplc. Messlaen:Quaruor pourla fm du temps (Cambridge: Caru bridge University Press, 1998). Cntcial to any undersranding of Messiaen is his The Technique of Mr Musical l./lngti.age. trans, John Sattcrfield (Paris: A, Lcduc, 1966). For bibliography. see Vinccut P. Bcnitez, Olivier Messiaen:A Reseanch and lnformalionGuide (New York: Rout[cdgc. 2008}.

A91

Richard l'oop (London: rabcr. 1992). Jonathon Harvcy. The M11sic ofStockhausen (Berkeley: University of Calí · lorni3 Press, 1975). onalyses Kre1mpiel ,nd other works. Stockh:rnsen·s own writ.ings are gathered in Srockltou,.sen 011 .lfusic: Lecturesand I,uerviews. ecl. Robin Maeonic (London: Marion Boya rs, 1989).

Pierre Boulez See Jonathnn Colclmnn. 1'1te Musical longi,agcofPierre 801,uiz: Wriringsortd Compositioru (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011): E:dward Campbell. Bo11lez. Musicand Phi!osoph,-(Cambridge: Can1bridge Ur1 iversity Press, 2010): Domi ,úqueJarneux, Pierre Boulez. tra.n s, Susan Bradshaw (Cambridge. MA: Harvard U,úversity Press. 1991): Peter F. Stacey. Bo11foz and the Modem Conccpr (Lincoln: Unh•e rs ily of Nebraska Press. 1987): and Pierre 8oule.: A Spnpos,urn, ed. William Glock (London: Eulenburg, 1986). O,, lemarteau stms mai1ro, see Lev Koblyakov. füJrro Boulez: A Worid ofHarmonr (London: Harwood Acade1ruc Publishers. 1990). and tbc co1wnentary and facsimilc itt 1\erre Boulez. Le marteau snn• moiire: Facsimi!e of the Draji &ore and rhe FimFair Copy o/rhe l'i,/1 Score. ecl. Pascal Decroupe, (Malnz: Schon. 2,()05). Boulez's own wtirings include Srocktakings from an Appnmriceship. cd. Paule Thévenin. irans. Srephen Wolsh (Oxford : Clarendon , 1991}: Bou!e:on MusicToda,-. trans. Susan Bradshaw and Richard Rodney Bcnnclt (Cambridge, MA: llarvord University Press. 1971}: and Ori,entations: Collecled Wriling:,. ed. Jean-Jacques Nattiez. trons. Martin Cooper (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).

inclucl ing s.als.a .

See Barbara B. Hcym:t.n. Samuet Barbcr: 11ie Composerand Hás J-/usic (New York: Oxford Univcrsity Press. 1992): Barbara lleyman. Samuel Barber: A Tltematic Cara!ogue of1he Complete IVorks (New York: Oxford University Press. 2012): and W'.,yne C. \'ilentzel. Samuel Barber: A Reseo.rch a11d lnformation Cuide, 2nd cd. (KcwY01·k: Routleclge. 2010).

Broadwarand Filni Musrc See chap1er 34, above, A useful reference 1001 is Corinne J, Naden's The Golde11 Age ofAmcrican ,\fasical 11,eatre 09431965) (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 201 1), which includes synopses. casls, and ot her informa1 ion forover 180 Broadway musicais. For l\ich:u-d Rodgers, see Geoffrey Block, Ricl1ard Rodg· ers (New Haven: Yale Un.ive rsity Press, 2003); 1'he Riclwrd Rodgers Reader, ed . Geoffrey Block (Oxford : Oxford Uníversity Press, 2002); l'im Carter, Oklahoma!: 1'he Mal:ing of an Amcrican Musica! (New Ha-ven: Yale University Press, 2007): and James Lovensheimer. Soulh Pacific: Parad~e RewriUen (New York: Oxford University Press. 2010). On Leonard Bernstein, see Paul Myers. Leonard Bernstein (Lonclon: Pbaidon. [998): Paul R. La ird , Leonard Bernstein: A Cuide to Research (N"ew York: Routledge. 2002): and Berns1ei n's own The}oyof Music (New York: Simon & Sclmsrer. 1959: repr. 1980). On IVes1SideSrorr • nd

A new biography is Pnul Kildea, Benjamin Briuen:A Li/e in 1he 1'wentierh Cen1111,-(London: Allen L,ne, 2013), On Brilten's sexuality, see Philip Brett. Musica.ndS,m,alilJ·ir, 8ritten: &lecred Essays. ed. Ceorge E. Haggerty (Berkeley: University oíCalifornia Press, 2006). The operas are discussed by Cfo.ire Seymour, 71,e Operas of&njami,, Britten:Expressiort a,,d t::vasion (\'iloodbridge, UK: Boyddl 2004), and tbe cburch music ex:mlined by Gr-:tham EWott, Benjamin Bntten:'/11c Spiritual Dimension (Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press. 2006). Other st\tdies include The Cambridge Companion 10 Benjamin 8ri1ten. ed. Mervyn Cooke (Cambridge: Cambridge Unh·ersity Press. 1999}: Michael Oliver. 8en1amin Britren (London: Phrudon. 1996): Arnold \VhiltaU. 77,e Music ofBriuen on,! Tippett: St1ufüs on 11remesand Techniques. 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990}: Eric W. White, Ba,jamin Brítren. lfis life and Operas, 2nd ecl. (Berkeley: University of Calilomia Press, 1983); and Pe1er Ev,ns. 11ie Musico/

Bernsiein'sother musical theaccrwol'ks, sce 1-lelen Smith,

8en1crn1b1 Britren (Minne:1polis: Universiry of Minnesot3

Amlrew Mead.Jln./ntrodtwtion.to theMusicof.\li!ton Babbitt (Princeton: Princeton Universi1y Press, 19?-1,), offers .a detailed overview. Babbttl summa rized his own views in a series or leccures published as Words aboul Mu.sic, ed. Stephen Dembski and Joseph N. Straus (Madison: Unjve,·sity oí\Visconsiu Prcss.1987). and bis writings appcar iu 77,e Collected P.ssaJ~ o/Mil1on 8abbítt. cd. Srcphen Peles 1vith Stcphen Dcmbsl;. Andrcw Mead. anel Joseph N. Straus (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003}. His most infl11emi• I essay, published as "\Vho Cares ifY011 Lisren? ," is in SR 174 (7:5).

There·s,. Place for Us: The Mus~I Thcotre Worl:s of Leonard Bernstein (F'arnham . UK: Ashgote, 2011): Eli1.abe1h A. Wells. Wc:M Sidc Stary: Oi,ltuml T\:r:spcctitrcs on (l.fl Amçric;an Mu~i cal (Lanham. MO: Scarecrow. 2011): and Nigel Simeone. Leonard Bems1ein: --w,sr SideSro,,,-· (l'à rnham. UK: Ashgare. 2009).

Press. 19"79). l'wo c•ccllcnr guides 10 major works are Philip Bren. Benjamin Britten. PeterGrimes (Cambridge: Cambridge

Karlhetnz Stock-1,ausen

John Coge On Cagc and his music, scc Rob Haskins,/ôhn Cage (Lon -

Univcr.1ity Prc~:s. 1?83). a nel Menyn Cool-.-ç, Brittc.n: War

Scc Robin Macon ic. Othc.r Planct:s: Thc Mu.~i-c ofKarlltc:in.z

d on: llc.1kti on , 2012): Kenne th Silvcrman. Bc:1,rinAga.in:A

Req11úm1 (Cambridge: C.,mhriclge Universi1)' Press. 1996). Por bibliography. see S1ewan Craggs, Benjamin Briuen: A 8io-8i!Jliograplt:y(Westpon, CI': Greenwood. 2002), and

Srockha«sen (Lanham. MD: Seorecrow. 2005); idem .. The Works o/Karihe!r»Srorkhausen, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Claremlon. 1990): and Michael Kunz,Srockhousen:/1 Biography. 1rnns.

Biogroplirof]ohn Cage (New York: Alfred A. Knopí. 20DO): David Nicholls,John Cage (Urbana: Universityofll linois Press, 2007); '11,e Co mbridge Componion 10 }oh n Cage,

Ben1anu11 Britten

Senaltsm See Markns Band11r.Aesrherics of101al&rialism: Conrempor01J·flesearcl1from Music ro Archiiectu_re (Boston: 8irkh~t,ser, 2001): Morag Josephine Cra nr. Serial M«sie, Serio! Aesrlteties: Compositional 11,eory· in Post-war furope (C:unb1·idge: C,mbridge Uníversity Press, 2001): and John D, V.,nder Weg, Serial Musica,1d Serialism: A Research 011d lnfonnorion C1,i<le (New Yol'k: Ro11tledge, 2001). Joseph N. S1raussllows the breadrh and variety of serialism in tloe Uni1ed Sta1es i n 'rwelve-1one Mus,c ,n Ame rica (Camb ndge: Cam bridge University Press. 2009) ,

M1lto11 Babbirr

Luc11m0Beno l'he besc scudy in English is Dwid Osmond -Srnich. 8erio (Oxford: Oxford Uttivcrsi1y Press, 1991}. On 1heSequenws, see 8erio 's Seq,w,zos: E:ssaJ• on Pc,jormonce. Composilion ond /lna!J•is. ed, Janet K. Halfyard (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007). Lttciano Berio, Rememberingrhefün,re (Combridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), contains his Norton leccuresat Harvard. See also below under ··Quota! ion and Collage:·

Ellruu Curter See James Wierzbicki, E:lliott Ca.rter (Urbana: Un.iversity of Illinois Press. 2011): ElliottCarterSrudies, ed. Marguerite Boland and John F. Link (Camb ridge: Ca mbridge University Press. 2012): Wiorr. Carrer: A Centenn1al Portrait m Letlers and Documenrs, ed . Felix Meyer and Anne C, Shrefller (\Voodbridge, UK: Boydell. 2008): David Schiff. The Music ofElliottCarter. 2nd cd. Othaca. NY: Corncll University Prcss. 1998}: EUiott Carter: Co!lected E:ssaJ• and Lecrures. /937- 1995. ed. Jonatbon W. Bernard (Rochestcr. NY: lJnj . versíty of Rochester Press. 1997):,nd John F. Li nk. fllíott Caner: A Cuideio Research (NewYork: G,rland. 2000).

A92

Fo r l'urfh e r l\ e ading

cd. David Nicholls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) ;John Cage: Mu.sic. Philosoph)'. and lnrenrion. 1933- 1950. ed. David \f/. Pancrson ( New York: Rotnleclge. 2002); Chris topher Shul,is. Si.lencing rheSoundedSelf John C/lge and 1heAmerico11 E,rperimen.10! Troditi.on (Boston: Northeastcrn Universiry Press. 1998); Richord Kostelanetz.Jolm Cage (ex)ploin(ed) (New York: Schirm er. 1996); James Pritchett. 7'/te Musico/John Cage (Com bridge: Cambridge Univers ity Press. 1993); and David llevill, 77,e Roorir,gSilence:Jo/111 Coge. A Ufe (New York: Arcade. 1992). The ess•ys in '/7,e New l\>rkSdwolsof,\fosica11d Visual Aris: Jol,n Cage. Morto,, Feldnia11. Edgard Varêse. Willen1De Koo,iing.Jc,.sperJohns. Roberi Rar,sclienberg, ed. Steven Johnson (New York: l\ouLledge, 2002), plaee Cage wiLhin Lhe larger New York musical anel artisticovant-garde. Kyle Cano, No Such 111i,1gAsSHe,,ce:Joh11 Cage°s-4.'JJ" (New Haven: Yale UniversiLy Press. 20 LO). is an engagingexamination of Cage·s most farnous piece iL1 co11lext. Cage's own writings are esseniial íor unclerstancling his

aims. Scc cspccially Silen~: Lectures and Wntings (Middlc · toW11. CT: \f/cslcyan Univcrsity P-ress. 1961). whicb givcs che best tdea of his work and Lhe orles: Jl Year froni Monday (l.ondon: Calder& Boyars, 1968); M: IVrilings. 1967-73 and X: Writings, 1979-82 (Middlctown, CT: Wcslcy,n University Press. 1973 and 1979): and Composi1ion in Re1rospec1 (Cambridge. MA: Exact Changc. 1993) . Cagc'sscminal cssay "Experimental Music" appcars cn SR 173 (7:4). On chance and indeterminocy. sce Thomas Dc Lio. CircumscribingtheOpen Universe (L,nham, NY: University Pressol' America.1984) . For 1he iradition s1emming írom Cage. see Michael Nyman, faperimenial .lfosic: Cage 0,1d Bexo11d (Cambridge: Ca mbridge Un ivers ity Press. 1999).

Mo,ton Feldman On Feldman, see Brett B011twell , "Morton Feldman's Craphic Notation : Projections and Trajectories." Joumol of theSoáet)'forAmericon Mttsic 6 (November 2012): 4,57-82. and 77,e Musico{ Morton Feldnion. ed. Thomas OeLio (\Vestport. CT: Creenwood. 1996).

Witold Lutoslawski See Charles B. l\ae. MusicofLuto.sJ'awsk,, 3rd ed. (London: Omnibus. 199'J); Lu1oslau·ski Studws, ed. Zbigniew Skowron (New York: Oxford University Press. 2001); Lu1oslawsklon Music. ed. and ü.1ns. Zbigniew Skowron (Lanbam, MD: Scarecrow. 2007); and Stanislaw Bcdkowski aud Stanislaw Hrabia. Wi1oldLu1ostawshi: A Bio-·Bibliograpl,r (Westpor1. CT: Crccnwood. 2001).

For Fu d her Readi ng

Horry Partch See Bob Cilmore. Hanr Pa.nc/1: A Biogmphy (New 1-laven: Yale University Press. 1998). Parreh·s own wrirings are in Cenesis ofo .llusic, 2nd cd. (Ncw York: Da Capo. 1974). and Biner Music: Collected Joum1>ls, êssoJ~. lnll'oducrions. ond Librenos. ed. Thomns McGcary (Urbano: Universityof Illinois Prcss, 1991). GeorgeCmmb See George Crumb: Profile ofa Con,poser. ed. Don Gillespie (New York: Peters. 1985). and David Coben. George Cn,mb: A Bio· Bibliogropl,y (\Vestpo,1, CT: G,.eenwood. 2002).

Electronic ,\foste Usefol resources include Nick Collins. Margaret Schedel, and Scott Wilson. Efoctnmic Mus1c (New York: Cambridge Universiry Press . 2013); Joanna Demers. Lisienmg '/11rough 1/ie Noise: 111eAes1lietics of&penmenral Elec1ronic Music (Oxford; Oxford University Press. 2012); Tbom Holmes, Elecrronicand E:rpenmen1al Music: 1eclinoloi:r, Music. and Cu/111-re. 4Lb ecl. (Ncw York: Routledgc. 2012): 77ie Cambridge Companton io Elecmm,tc .\rfusic. ed . Jullo d'Escrlvan and

Nick Collins (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 2007): Peter Manning, Elecironlcand ComputerMusic. rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2004): Joel Chad abc. Electric Sound: The Pasf and Prornise of Elecfronic Music (Uppcr Saddlc Rivcr. NJ: Prcnticc Hall. 1997): aad ru, ca rly classic. Ell iott Schwartz. E:ledronic Music:A listener's Cuide. re,•. ed. (NewYork: Praeger. 1975). On Varese's Poêm-e êlecrronique. see More Treib . S,x,,ce Calculated in Secon.ds: 'l'he Philips Pa,'ilion. Le Corbusier. a,,d fdgord Vortse (Princeion: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, 1996). For a rcseareh gtricle. sec Robert L. Wick, E:lecrronica,,d C~mpu ter Music: AnAn,,oia,ed. Bibliograph)' (\f/esrport. CT: Creenwood. 1997). See also the essay by Karlheini Stockha11sen excerpted in SI\ 182 (7:13).

lannisXenakis See Nouritia Maiossian. XtMk,s (Lonclon: Kahn &Ave rili. 1986); Beaolt Cibson. 71Le lnsrn,me,ual Musicoj'lannis XeMkis: 11,tory·. Practice. Self·Bo,·rowing (Hillsdale, NY: Peudragon, 2011): James Harley, Xenakis: His Life in M,isic ( New York: Ro11tledge. 2004,); and B:llim Anclris Varga. Con,·ersarions wi1h /annisXenaki~ (London: Faber & Faber, 1996). Xenakis summed up his ideas in fonnalized Mr,sic. rev. ed. (Stuyvesant. 11.'Y: Pcndragoa, 1992), exccrpted in SR 183 (7:14).

,heAbsolute (Farnll31n. UK:Ashgate. 2011). analyzcs bis works :md their reception. For the relationship berween Ligeti"sAzmosphêres and his elecrronic music, see Jenni -

fer lverson. "Shared Compositiona l Tcchniqucs berwecn Gyorg)' Ligerfs Piêceélecrronique No. 3 andArmospltêres." Miteeilungen derPaulSacherStiftung. no. 22 (April 2009): 29- 33. See also Robert \f/. Rich>rt. C,-ll'!)-· Ligeti: A 8ioBibliography (New York: Greenwood. 1990) . An essay by Ligeti is excerpted in SH184- (7:15).

Universiry Press. 2001): Merylc Sccrcst. Steven Sondheim: A Ufe (New York: Knopí. 1998): and Stephen BanfielcL Sondheim 's Broodwt1r Musicais (Ann Arbor: Universiry of Michigan Prcss. 1993). On Lloyd \Vebber, sce John Soelson,Andrew Uord Webber (New Haven: Yale Uirive,·sity Press, 2004) ; Citron. Sor,dheimond UoJ-d· Webber; and Mich>el Wolsh. Andrew LIOJ'd Webber: His Life and Words: A Critica./ 8iograph)', rev. ed. (New York: Abrams. 1997).

Hrbnds

G11iusrera. T,ppelt. a,id 7ak·efllilsu For Cinastera. see Malena Kuss.Alberto Ci11 o.swa (Lo11<lo11: Boosey & Hawkes. 1999), anel Deborah Schwartz·K>tes. Alberto Cinastero: A Researcl, álld fofomtatio11 Cuide ( New York: Routledge. 2010). Studies ofTippett inelude 7'he Cambridge Companion ro Mu:ltael Tippert. ed. Keoneth Cloag and Nicholas Jones (New York: Cambridge University Press. 2013):Arnold Whittall. 71,e ,lfosic of Briuen and 'l'ippeu: aud lan Ke,np. Tippell: The ComposerandHisMusic (Londou: Eulcnburg.1984). On T:ikemHs11. scc Pctcr Bllrt. The Musico/Tom Takemfrsu ( New York: Cambridge U11tvcrstcy Press. 2001): Noriko Ohtake, Creativc &urces for rhe .1/usic oj'Toru Takemit.su (Aldershot: Seolar, 1993); and James Siddons, 'fon, TakemilSu: A Bio ·Bibliogro.ph)' (\f/cstpon. CT: Crcenwood. 2001).

Quow tion and Collage David Me,1.er. Quorarion and C1t!tt1ral Meaning in Twen tierhCemury· Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003). offers an oven'iew oíthe iss11e in a wide range o /' wol'ks. On Bcrio'sSin/011.i-0. scc David Osmond -Sm it h , Pl.a,yingo11 Words:A Cui.cle 10 Luciono Berio'sSinfo11ia (London: Royal MusiealAssociation , 1985). f'orGeorge Rochberg, see ehapter 38 below.

Chapler 38: The Late Twemielh Cen1ury

Jazz On recent jazz. includjng critiques oí\Vynton Marsalisand Jazi at Lincoln Center, see Stuart Niebolson. Is Ja zz Dead? (Or Has ir Movcd 10 a NewAddress) (New York: l\ouliedge . 2005); '/'he r'uwre o/Jaz:, ed. Yuval Taylor (Chicago: A Cappella. 2002); and Erie Nisenon. Blue: 'lhe Murderof)att (New York: Si. Martin's Press. 1997).

Musicais Krzrsztof Penclerech

A93

Michael Long. Beo.111ifi,! Mo,LSrers: lmagining 1he Classic in Musical Media (Berkeley: UuiversityofCali fornia Press. 2008). s hows how classical music has been absol'bed jnto popular eult ure. includi "8 popul:1,· music noel f, lm scores. ForZappa, see bis autobiography.1'he Real Frank ZClppa Book (New York: Poseidon. 1989). as well as Kelly Fisher Lowe, The Wordsartd ,\fos,co{f'rártklappa (\Vestpo ..t. CT: Praeger. 2006); Ben Watson. 11,eComplete Cuide to rhe Music of Prunk Zappa (London: Omnibus. 1998) and Pran.k Zappa: 11ieNegative Dialecti.csofPoodle Piar (New York: St. Martin's. 1995): and The Fmnk Zappo Companion: Four Decades of Commen.rary. ed. RJchard Kostel:rnetz :rnd Jo hn Rocco (New

York: Schirmer. 1997). On Piaziolla , see Maria Sus:rn!l. Azzi :lnd Simon Col-

her. Le Cmnd 'l'ongo: The Life and Music ofAsror Piauolla (Oxford: Oxford University Prcss. 2000). Piazzollo tclJs bis own story in Natalio Gorin.Àstor Piazzol!a: A Memoir. trans. and cd. Fernando Conzalez (Portland. OR: Amadeus Prcss. 2001). based on an e,°tended series of imerviews. On Zorn. see John 6r,ekett.John2om: Tra4iti-0n and n-a,.sgression (Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2008). and Kcnncr h Cloag. Posrmodernism iJ, .l/r,sic (below).

Triteractions with Non -Westem Music See loc0ting fostAsi11 in WestemArr Music, ecl. Yayoi Uno Evere,t anel f'recleriek l.011 (Midd letown. CI': Wesleyan Uni versity Press. 2001·). 1'he increasing impact of Asian- born composers is part of a broader presence of Asian mus icians in tbe \Vestem classical tradition. documented by Mari Yoshibara, M"sicians fromo Dijferent Shorc: Asian,and AsianAmerican.~in Classical .\lusic (Plüladelphia: Temple Universiry Press, 2007).

New Tedrnologi.es On digital lcchnologics and thcir effects ou musie. sec Paul Thébcrgc. Anr Sound You Can Imagine: Making Mu.sic/ Cons1m1ing Technology (Haoovcr. NH: Univcrsily Prcss oi' Ncw England/ Wesleyan Univcrsicy Press. 1997). Cuides and 1e,'lbooks includeThom Holmes. The Rou1ledgeCi,ide 10 Mnsic TeclrnologJ'. (New York: Romledge. 2006); J11lio d'Escriv:ín, M11sic Teclrnolo.[)' (Cambridge: Cnmbridgc University Press, 2012); and Daniel lfosken.An lntroducti.o11 ro ,\fosic Technologr (New York: Routledge. 2011) and Mu.si-c

GyôrgJ' /.igeti

Genera l stuclics iucludc ELhaa Mordclcn. One Afore Kiss: The Broadu:ar Musical in ,he 1970s (Ncw York: Paigrave Macmll • lan. 2003) and 71,e 1/appie,i Corpse /',,e EverSeen: The Lasl Twcn,y-Five Yearsofthe Broadwar Musical (NewYork: Pai grave Maemillan, 2004); F.lizabeth L. Woll man, The Theaier Will Rock: A llistory·of the Rock ,llt,sical, fron1 Hair 10 lledwig (Ann Arbor: Univcrs ity of Michigan Press. 2006): and

cal Soi.n::c: ( Silcr.amcnto: Compo~cr/ Pc rfo rmcr. 1967 73),

Good introduction:s includc Ric h;ud Stcinifa, Gyórgr Ligett:

Jc~.$i<:a Ste rnfcld . The M~nm.sicol (BIQomington: lndü n,1

Tcclmolog,ra.nd thc: froject Shul.io: Spitlu::ihS a nd S,1,mplin.g

excerptecl in Source: Musicofthe.Al'ant-Carde. 1966- 1973. ed. L,rry Ausrin and Douglas Kahn (Berkeley: Universiryol' Cali f'ornia Press. 2011 ). and Yoko Ono's Gropefn,i1: A 8ook of lnsrructions (New York: Simon & Sch11s1e1·, 1970).

ilfo$ico/1l1e fmagination (London: f'aber & F.1ber. 2003): Ri chard Toop. Crorgr ligeri (L-0rnclon: Phaidon. 1999): and Paul Griffi rhs. OyorgrLigeri. 2nd ecl. (London: Robson. 1997). Amy llauer. Ugeri's Lome111s: Nosrolgi-0. e.~oticism and

University Prcss. 2006). On Sonclheim. sec Sieve Swayne. HowSondlteim Po,md Hi~ Sound (Ann Arbor: Universi,y or Michigan Pr·ess, 2005); S1e1>hen Cirron , Sondheim and LIO)-d-Webber: '/1,eNew .\fosical (Oxford: New York : Oxford

(NewYork: lloudedge, 2012) . On sampling. see Kembrew MeLeo<l and Peter OiCola, Creative licensc: 71,e l,awor>d Culrureof Digi111I &,mpling (Durham. NC: Duke University Press, 20 li); Dan Ouífell. Making Mu.sic with Sam pies (San

Mus,c and Theaterand Perfonnance Ari On Fluxus. see l lannah Higgins. Fluxus Experience (Berke ley: University of' California Press. 2002), .rnd Thomas Kellein . Flu,ms (London: Thames & Hudson. 1995). For compositions from the 1960s and 1970s. see tbe pcriodi·

Sce Wolfram Scbwinger. KrryntofPenderecki: //is Life and Wcirl:s. trons. William Mann (London: Sehon.1989). and Cindy Bylander. Knpzrof Pend,r,cki: A 8io-8ibliogmphr (\'!lestpon, CT: Praegcr. 2004).

A94

Fo r l'urfh e r He adiug

Fnncisco: 8ackbea1. 2004): Martin Russ.SoundSp 11hesis and Sampling. 2nd ed. (Oxford: l"ocal. 2003); •nd Mork Kaii. Captu.ring Soun4: How Technologr Has Cl,anged Music (Berkeley: Universi1y of California Press. 2004). l'or com1>uter musie, see under ehapter 37 above, anel Roger T. Dcan, The O.rford lfo11dbooJ:ofCornp11ter Music (Ncw York: Oxford University l'ress. 2011) . See also rhe foscinating accoum of using a compu ter progrnm to compose in 1he styles of llach. Mozart. Beethoven. and other composers in David Cope, Virtuc>I Mu$iC: CompurerSJ<ttliesis o/ilfosical Sryle (Cambridge. MA: MIT Press. 2001). MixcdMcd,a Agener:tl study of rnusic ,m<l mi_xe<l media is Nichobs Cook.AnalJ%íngMus,cal Mi,ltimcdia (Oxford: Oxford Uni versity Press. 2000). Seealso the ess•ys in Popular ,\-fos,c átld Mull1media. ed. J1Llie MeQuinn (Farnham. UK: Ashgate. 20ll). On music vídeos. see Diane Railton and Paul Watson. M,isic Video ond 1/1< Polilics of Represenw1ion (Edinburgh: Eclinburgb Univcrsity Prcss. 2011). On music ín vidco games. see Karen Collins. Come Sound: An lnrroduc· non ,o rhe Htsrarr. Theory. and Pracrtce ofVidea Game MU$fc andSa1md Design (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008). l'or film music, sec under chap1er 34 above.

Niches m Popu/or ,\l"s,c On types of popular music and group identity. seeJcnnifcr C. Lena. BandingTogether: lfow Communities CreateCenres in PopularMusic ( Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2012). anel Dick Hebdige. Subc11lt11re: 77,e M,aningofStyle (New York: Rou1ledge. 1991). On disco. scc Alice Eehols. /for Swff: Oiscoand rhe RemokingofAme,.ica11 C11lwre (Kew York: Norton, 2010): Tim 1...-,wrence, Lo•e So,·es 1he D<>r A Hisro,yofAmerican Dance Afasic Ct1!tt1rt. 1970- 1979 (Ourham, NC: Duke Univers ity Press, 2003): anel Alan Jones.Sacurdor Nighr Pever: 711e Stor:rofDisco (Chicago: A Cappella, 2000). Jon Savage's l:nglo11d's Dreaming: Anartl&J; Sex P,stols. Pt111k Rock. and Berond (New York St. Martin's, 1992) indudes a cbrouological aeco,mt, discography. and biogra· phies of key figures of punk rock. and Dave Laog, One Chord Wonders: Power and .\leanmg in Punk Rock (Philadelpltia: Open Universi1y Press. 1985), covers lhe British punk scene in the late 1970s. See also Brian •Co!,e:in. Encrclopedía o/Punk Musicand Cu/fure (\Vestport. CT: Creenwood. 2006) . and Clinton Heylin. Bab1ion.'s B11ming: Fron, Punk lo Gmnge (Ncw York: Canongate. 2007). On New Wavc. sec Tbco Catcforis. Are We No1New Wave?: Modem Pop ai the Tum ofrhe 1980s (Ano Arbor: Univcrsity of Michigan Prcss. 2011). Clark Hu mphrey's Loser: The Real Seattle Mu.sicSro,y(Portland . OR: Feral. 1995) offers agood imrod1.,crion 10 the Seattle musie

For Fu d her Readi ng

University Press . 2004) anel Fo,mdarion: 8-8oy~. 8-Gir/s. and 1/ip-llop Culwre in New York (Oxford : Oxford University Prcss. 2009) are íou nd31ional studies. Mark Kat• iroees 1heor1 of rhe DJ from thc beginnings of hip hop in Croove Music: 11,eArt andCulrure of rhe Hip-flop DJ (O<ford: Ox-ford Univcrsity Press, 2012). Sophy Smith, Hip-Hop Tumtab · lism. Creativit}'and Collo.bor<>-tio1> (l'a rnham. UK: Ashga1e. 2013). looks ai the creative process. Justi n A. Williams. Rl&J'""' 011dSteolí11': Musical Borrowingm H1p-Hop (Ann Arbor: Universi1y of Mich igan l'ress. 2013). is the first book 011 one of 1be central elements of hip hop. Richard Schur. Parodies ofOwnershíp: Hip·Hop Aestherics anel /niellectualProperry Law (Ano Arbor: University of Michig3n Press. 2009). looks at leg,~ issues around sampLing. David Toop's Rap Arracl: 3: ,l{ncan Rap 10 Global Hip Hop (London: Serpent's Tail. 2000) bas ,·ernained a vital source of infonnatiou on rhe early days o r bip hop culturc s ince its f,rst edition iu 1985. Adam Krims's srudy RapM11sicand 1he Poetics of lderitity· (New York: Cambridge University Prcss. 2000) offers importanr theo retical and met hod· ological models. Eithne Qu inn . Nllthin' bur a "C"Thang: The Culrnre and CommerceofCangsm. Rap (NewYork: Columbta Universicy Press, 2005). explores gangs1a rap, and Felicia M. Miyakawa, Fivt Percenter Rop: Cod ffop's M1,sic, Message, and 8/ack Muslim Mission (Bloomington: lnd i3na University l'ress. 2005), «amines the 1heology •ncl mcanings of m p lyrics •nd mus ic of 3 bbck relig:ious grou1>. 11,ot's thefoint!: 71,e flip -llopSwdies Reader. 2nd ed., ed. Murray F'orman anel Mark Anthony Keal (New York: Houi ledge. 2012), is an amholOg,)'Of scholarly. cri,ical, :ind journalis1k wrirings on rap anel hip 1101>from its origins in 1he 1970s. For bibl iograpby. see Eddie S. MMdows. Bliies, Fui,k, RhJ1l1n1a11d Blues, So1<l, Hip Hop. anel Rap: A Reseàl'Ch anel lnformatióll Cu,de(New York: Routledge, 20 10). 011 women·s music. see Bonnie J. Morris. k'de11 Bu.lt ~J' E:ves: 11,e Cult1<re of Women, Mus,c Festíeals (Los Angeles: Alyson. 1999): Stacy Linri Holman Jones. Kale,dosoope Notes: Writing Womtn's MU$iC and Orgaro ila1io1tOI Culture (\Valnul Creck. CA: AltaMira . 1998): and Eileen M. Hays. Songs rn Black and Lavender: Race. Sexual Polirics. and Women's Music (Urbano: Univers ity of Illinois Press, 20JO). For contem porary Christi,n music, see Bob Cers,iyn, fesu.s Rocks the World: The Dt.finirlve HisiorrofContemport;try· Christian Music (S3nt3 Barbara. CA: Pr3eger. 2012): Jay R. Howard • nd John M. Strcck. Apostles of Rock: 11,e Splinfel'ed WorldofContemporaryChristianMusic (Lcxi ngton: Univer• sity Press of Kenrucl-y. 1999): John J. Thompson. Raised bJ' Wolv,s: 11ieSrory·ofChrisrian Rockand Ro/1 (Toromo: EC\V. 2000): and E:ncyclopediaofConremporaryChrisrion Music: Pop, Rock. and ~rship, cd . Don Cusic ($31110 B•rba,·•, CA: Crcenwood. 2010).

Ducl·worth. Talking MU$ic: Conversations wirh Jo/111 Cage. Philip C/.ass. La une Anderson. and five Ce11erotions ofAmeri• ca11 E::rperimenial Composers (Ncw York: Schirmer. 1995). ineludes Cage, Babbiu, Young, Riley. Reieh. Cl•ss. Laurie Anderson, ::ind 01hcrs; ::ind Edw::ird Stricklti nd , Americo,1

Composers: Diologues on Contemporary· Music (Bloomington: lnclfana Uni\'ersiry Press. 1991), inclucles Cnnnb. Young. H.iley. Heich, Glass. Adams. anô others. See also John Hockwell.AllAn>erican Music: Composition in the Lare Twentieth C.:nru,,- (New York: Knopf, 1983). who embraces rock and pop as well as art music. Kennerh Gloag tre3ts severa! of the composers in Lbis ehapter, includi ngZorn. Gubaid,<l ina, and Rochherg, as postmodernists in Posimodemism in Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). ,\finirnalísm and Postmirtimalism General studies include Keith Potter. fo"r Musical Mii,imolis1s: La Mont< Young. TeriJ' Riler. Steve Reic/1. Pltilip Cla&. rev. cd. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press. 2002); Edward Strickland . .\1ínim.ali,m- Origíns (Bloomlogton: locllan• Unlverstiy Press. 2000): K. l\obert Schwam. Mmimalisis (London : Phaidon. 1996); and Wim Menens. America1> Minimal Music: La Mon.re Young. Terry· RileJ; Sieve Reic/1. Philip Glass. mns. J. H3utekiet (London: KAhn & Avcrill. 1983). Robert W. Fink. Repea fingOurselves: An>eri• can Minimal Mu,,icas Cultural Pinotice (Berkeley: University of C•lifornia Press. 2005). orgucs for the signiftcanee anel meaning oí minimalism.

On Yo1111g. see JeremyGrims haw. OrawA S1raiglu Une ana Pollow /1: The ,lfosic ond M)~licisn, of IA Monte Yo,mg (NewYork: Oxford University Press. 2011). On Riley. see MarkAlburger, Ter")· Riler (San Rafael, CA: New Music. 1998). llis most famous piece is discussed by Robert Carl. 1erry· RifoJ·'s 111 C (Oxforcl: Oxford University l'ress. 2009) . On Reích. see his 11'/ririn.gs 011 Mllsic. 1965-2000. ed. Paul Hillier (Oxford: Oxford Uníversity Press. 2002). excecpted iu SR 185 (7:16). and David J. Hoek. Srwe Reicli:A BioBibliography(Westport . CT: Greenwood. 2002). f'or Glass. see Roberl Mayeoek, Class:A Portrail (Lon• don: Sancm•ry, 2002); Wrirings on Class: óssars. lnrerviews. Criticism, ed. Robert Flemming(New York: Schirmer; London: Prentice Hall lnternational. 1997): and Class's own ,\lu,icbr PhilipClass. ed . Robert T. Joncs (New York: Da Capo. 1995). On Adams. sec TheJohnAdams Reader: &sentia! Writ· ings on an America11 Composer. ed. Thomas May (Pompcon Plains. NJ: Amadeus Press. 2006).

A95

pora")·Compositional Techniquesand OpenMU$u:. ed. llozalic Hírs and Bob Cilmore (Paris: IRCAM. 2009). ForCubaidulim. see Michael Kurt,, Sofi.a.C11boiduli11a: A Bi-Ograph,-, irons. Chris1oph K. Lohmann. cd. Malcolm Hamrick Brown (Bloom ington: Indiana Universiiy Press, 2007), and Cloag, Postmodemism in Music (above). For Ancl riessen. see Yayoi Uno Everett. The i\fosic t>f 1.ouisAndriessen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). and nae MusicofwuisAndnessen. ed. Majo Trochimcr,yk (New York: Roudedge, 2002). which includes ess-t1ys 0 11 and interviews with the cornposer. Writings by Schafer include his Voices ofTyrMII)': 1cmples ofSilence (Ontario. Canada: Arcana, l993): R. Mur· raySchaf,,.ori Canadian .\fosic (Bancroít, Ootario: Arcam. 1984): R. M1<rra,r Schafer: A Collecrion (Toronto: Arcan:i. 1979); and ·ru11,rigof1l1e Worl4 (New York: Knopf. 1977). See also Stepben Adams. R. ,\farraySchafer(To ronto and Buífalo: University ofToronto Press. 1983).

n1,

Polystyl,sm Sources 011 Schnittkc includcSeekingrheSoul: 77ie Music ofAlfredSchntrrke . ed. Ceorge Odam (London: Gullclba ll Scbool of Musie anel Oram•. 2002): Aleksandr lvasbkin , Alfred Schniuke(London: Phaidon, 1996); andA Sehnmke Reodtr. ed. Alexander lvashkin. trans. John Goodliffe (81oomingtou: Indiana Univcrsity Prcss. 2002). ForCorigliano. see Mark Adamo.John Coriglian-0 (Tod· morden: Are. 2000) . Peter Schickele. The Oefinitive Biogrnphrof P.D.Q. 8acl,. 1807-1742? (New York: llandom llouse. 1976). s houlcl be on every musician's bookshelf. On Schickele himself, see Tammy Ravas. PererSehickele:A 8io-8ibliog,.aphr (\Ves , port. CT: Praeger, 2004).

TTte New Accessibility l'or Zwilich. see Julie Schnepel, "Ellen Taaffe Zwilich's Symphony No. 1: Developing Variation in the 1980s," Indiana 7neo")· Review 10 (1989) : 1- 19. On P~rt, consult Hillier.Arvo Pari (Oxford a11d New York: Oxford University Press. 1997). and 7lte Cambridge Companion 10 An,o Pdn, ed. Anel rew Sbeutou (Cambridge: Cambridge University J>ress. 2012). On Tower, see Ellen K. Crolman.Joon 1i>wer: The CornpreheM1ve Bío-b1bliography (1...-,nham. M D: Searecrow Press, 2007). For Tavcner. see Piers Dudgeou. Lifting rlte Veil: The BiographrofSir Jolin Ta,·ener (London: Portrai1. 2003) . and Gcoffrcy Haydon.John Taverier: Glimpses of Paradise (London: Collancz. 1995). Sce also T•vener's The líus1cof Sil.ence: A Composer's Tesrament. ed. Brian Keeble (London: l'aher & Paber. 1999). On Roehberg, see Rochbcrg's five lines. PottrSpaces: 77,e IVorldofMr Music. ed. Ccne Rochberga11d Richard Criscom (Urbana: Universicy of Illinois Prcss. 2009): his The

1960s 101he 1990s. Trici• Rose's Black Noise: Rap Music 011d Black Cullure in

Composcrs in the Cfoss1cal Tracl11<on Jntcrvicws with rcccnt composcrs are containcd in severa}

Modernism and Jndil'idunlism l'or Babbitr, Stoekhausen, Boulez, and Ligeti, see chaprer 37. On spectral music. scc cwo special issues edited by

Con.tc:mpororj'Anu:rica ( H,1novcr. NH: \Ve.,Jcy,1n UniYer~ity

in tcrç~t-ingcollcction~: Ann McCutchan. TheMu~e7'hat

Jo:shu.i Fincbcrgon "Spcctral Mui,ic; Hi.1toryo1.nd Tcch -

Ae-,thctic.) ofSurvival: A Compo~u·" Vicwo/Twenticth-Ccnh.uy

Pres. 1994) is a starting point for •ny scholarly investiga, ion or rap music. Joseph G. Schloss's Moking Bea1s: 77,e Ar1 ofSamplc-Based Hip-flop (Middletown. CT: Wesleyon

Sings: Composers Speak aboul the Creofü·e Process (New York: Oxford Universiiy Press. 1999). includes lkich, Adams. Corigliano. Tower. Oaugherty. Sheng, and orhers; Willi•m

niques· and "Specrral Music: Aesthetics and Music." Contemporary· Music Revi.ew 19. nos. 2 anel 3 (2000); Fineberg's Classical \/u$iC. Why8orher? (see chap1er 39); and Comem-

Music. rev. ed .. ed. Will iam Bolcom (AnnArbor: Universiry of Michigan Press, 2004-). excerp1eô in S11213 (7:44); Cloag. Posimodemism in Music (a bove); ond Joan OeVee

scenc- 1he birthpl::ice or 3ltern:ativc ::rnd grunge- from 1he

A96

Fo r l'urfh e r Headiu g

Dixon. George Rochberg: ,l Bio •BibliographicGuide to lfü Li/e and Works (Sniyves,111. NY: Pcndragon. 1992).

Chapter 39: The Twenty-F'irs1 Cen11.11y

Zwaan anel Joost de Bruin. Adapring /dois: Authenticiry. TcknPerfom,once in a Global Telei>is1on Fom101 (Farnham. UK: A.shgaie. 2012).

lil)' and

M:rny devclopmcnr.s in 1his ch:ip1er :1rc 100 reccnt ro be wel l

Classrcol Musir

documented in books ora n icles, mak:ingonli11c sources more imponant. For individual musicians and institu· tions. their own wehsitesare one sou rce of usually reliable information . Many composers's. webslles are nvailable :it The Living Composers f>rojecr a t "'"~v.composers21.com. Grove Music Online is Lrustwonby but brief: frequently \Vikipe<lfa orfers more comprebensive iníorruat ion ou eur..

Onc of many essays to anno1mcc thc demisc of thc elassical trad ition is Colin Eatock. "The Death ofClassical Music." Queen's Quarter!y 109 (Fall 2002) : 402- 9. Julian Joh nson defends the value of classical na,sic in Whq Needs Classi· cal Music?: C11ll11ro!Ci1oice and Musical Value (New York: Oxford Un iversity Press. 2002: re1>r. with new 1>reíace. 2011). ln Classical M,.sic. Whr B01l1er?: Hearing rlte World of Contemporar;r Cul111re 1nrough a Composer's fars (New York: Routledge. 2006), composer Joshua Finebergdescribes tbe currenLs ituation forclassic:i.1mus ic. asserts its v:llue. and proposes possible solutions includingmultimedia. L:iwrence Kramer. WltyClassicaJ Mu.-SicSriJ!Mauers ( Berkeley: University oi California Press. 2009). seeks to articulate the values that classical musice mbodies and how tbey address bwnan nceds.

renl rnusic a.nd rnusicians but should be checked agai nst OLber sources whenever possibl.e.

New Tcch11olog;•and tlie Music lndustry• Carol Vernali is, Unruf,- Mediá: Yo111ube. Mt.stC Video. (md lhe New Digital Cinema (New York Oxford Unh•ersity Press. 201 3). addresses tbe new audiovisual media. Jim Rog· ers. 11ieDea1h andlijeoftheMusic lndusrryirulie Digira! Age (London: Bloomsbury. 2013). ar1,'1.lcs tbat thc Lllernet

CREDITS

ART 1-leidelberg, Ce1·many/The Sidgeman Art Llbrary. p, 4 , l1a lian School (14t h centu ry)/ Biblioteca l'ía,.iona le, Naples, lrnly/Giraudon f l'he 8ridgema n Art Library. p. 142, '/11 e tive Se,,ses. Heoririg/ Frans Pourbus 1be Elder/ Musée de Pica r· die, Amiens. Francc/Giraudonf íbe Bridgeman A,1 Library. p. 144, 11iree Musicians/ Master of the Hall Figures/ Hermit· age. St. Pete rsburg. Russia/ Gfraudo n/fhe Briclgeman Art

Symphonie, Op. 21 (Vienna: Universal Eclition , 1929) , 2-8. © 1929 by Universal Edition A.G.. Vienna. Copyright renewed . Ali rights reserved. Usecl by permission of E,iropean A,nerican Music Oistributors LLC. U.$. anel Canacl ian Agent for Universal Edit ion A.G.. Vienna. Exomple 33.9, 71,e Rir e o/Spri11g by lgor Stravinsky© Copyright 1912. 1921by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewecl. Reprinted by pe rmissíon of Boosey & Hawkes. lnc.. :m lma· gem company. Example 33.11: Music for Sirings. Perc1tssion and

p. 2, Swiss Scbool (14th centur1•)/ Universi1atsbiblioth<:k,

Is not hannlng the mus ic industry bm is tTansíormlng

4\fusic in Class,cal Ccnrcs

Ubnry. p. 286: J:m Vermeer. 7Jie Music l"sson/ H IP/ Art

it. Steve Savage, BJ1eS & Backbeaw Repurposing ,\lusic in the Digua!Agt(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011). explores how the teehnology of producing music has transíonuc<l musical activity. Aram Sinnrcich. Mashed Up: Mu,,ic. Technolog;J: and the Rise o/Confil(Urable Culture (Amhcrst: University of Massaclmsetts Prcss. 2010). looks at the results íor music3Jculmre. Anahicl K:issabian, Ubiq* ui1ous Us1ening: Affec1. Arren1ion" and Disrribured Subjecrivi&)' ( Berkeley: Universiiy of California Press. 2013), consid· e rs the sounds and rnusjc that surrou1id us :ind the wtiys we engage witb tb,u mus ic. M:tt Callahan, TT,e 1i·oublewith Music (Oakland: AK Press, 2005), offers a critique of the music industry.

David Metzer. Musical Modemismar 1he Tumofthe'/'went;r· Fir,1 Cenrury· (Cambridge: C.,mbridge University Press, 2011). argues for the continued vitality of modernist sryles in recent music and includes an analysis of thc l.1.ment from Snariabo'sL'amourdeloin. ForSaariaho. scc Pirkko Mo isala. Ka ija Saa_riaho (Urbana : Universil)'ofl lli nois Press. 2009): Kaíja Soariaho: Visions. Norrarives. Diawgues. ed. Tim Howell (Parnhom. UK: Ashgate. 2011): n-loweli, AfterSibelius (see ehop1er 32 above): and Yayoi Uno Everen, "The Tropes of Ocsi rc aud )ouissance in Kaija Saa,üho's L'amourde loi!l, " in Mu~icand Norrative Since 1900. ed. Michael Klein and Nicholas Reyland (Bloomington : Ind iana Univers ity Press,

Resource. l\'Y. p. 288, Frans Hals. C!own tcith a Lute/<i':>E\M NCrand Palais/Art Resource. NY. p. 407, Johann Zoffany. George. 3rd Earl Gowper. wit/1the Familr of Gl.arles Gorei Yale Ccnter for British Art. Paul Mdlon CoUection, USN Bridgcman Art Library. p. 408: Louis Carrogis Cannontcllc. TTie Daughters of rlte Musícian Rorer P!aJing Afosic (1760 )/ Erich l..cssing/Art Rcsource. l\'Y. p. 558: Famil)' Concert in llasle (1849) by Sebastian Gut1.wilier/akg-images/Newsom. p. 560: A Songwi1h,mt Words (1880) by George Ilamil · ton BarrablcfPriva,e collec1ion/@ John Noo11 Galleries, Broadway, Worccstershire, UK/fhe Sridegman An Lib,.ry. p. 762: Les mu,,iâens (1984) by Emmanucl Bellini/ Ban,1ue d' lmages, ADAGP/Art Resource. N"Y/© 2013 Artists Highrs Socieiy (ARS). New York/ADAGP. Paris. p. 764, la nwsicion (192 1) by Jean Pougnyf l'he Art Arch ive/ P,.ivate Collec· tion $wi11,erland/Gianni Oagli Orti/@ 2013 Artists Rights Society (AKS}, New York/ AOAG P. Paris

l::dition, Vienna for ali countriesexcept the USA . <!> Copyright 1937 by Boosey & Hawkes. lnc. fonhe USA . Copyright Rencwcd. Rcprintcd b_y pcrmission of Booscy & Hawkcs. lnc .. an Imagem company. Uscd in tl1c territoryoílhc world excludingthc Unitcd States by pcrmiss ion ofEuropean American Music Distribntors LLC. agcnt for Universal Edition A.G.. Vienrn . Example 33.12: ,\fusicforStrin~<s. Percus· sionond.Ce~t<>. S2106 by Bela Barrõk @Copyriglu 1937 by Universal Ed ition. Vienna fora li counrries exceptthe USA . © Copyright 1937 by Booscy & Hawkes. lnc. for thc USA , Copyright Rcncwed. Rcprinted by permission of BooMy & Hawkes. lnc.. an Imagem company. Used in the territ.ory of the worlcl exclud ing the United States bypermiss ion of European American Music Oistributors LLC. agent for Universal Edition A .G., Vienna. Example 33.13, MusicforStnngs, Perct,ssio,,arid Celes1a. S2106 by Béla Bartók @ Copyright 1937 by Universal l:'.dition. Vienna for ali countries except the USA. © Copyright 1937 by Boosey & Hawkes, lnc. for the USA. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission ofBoosey& Hawkes, lnc.,an lmagemcompany. Used in the territory ofthe world excludi ng the United States by pennission of Eu_ropean A,oericaLt Music Oistributors LLC. agent for Unh•ersal EditionA .C .. Vienna . E,ample 34.2:, From Bessie Smiih: E:mpress of rhe Blues. compilcd by Cbris Albcrtson. with musical arrangemeots by George N. Tcrry (Ncw York: Schirmer Books. 1975). 80- 81. Lntcrnational copyright secured . Ali rights reserved. Used by perm1ssion of Mal Leonard Corp. Example 34.3: Original sheet mus ic. Wesi End Blues, words by Clarencc Williams. music by Joe Oliver (New York: Clorence Williams Music Puhlishing, 1928). lntcrnational copyright secured. Ali rights rcscrvcd. Usecl hy pcrmission oí 1-lol Leonard Corp. Exomplc 34.4, Duke Ellington. Cotton Tail. as recorded by Duke Ellington and His Orchestrn on May 4. 1940. Transcribed by 03\<id Berger. ed ited by Brian AImeter. Ali rights resel'\•ed. Used by pe,·rnission of Hal Leonard Co rp. Examplc 35.5:

Trends in Popular Mu.sic Peter Mills. Mediaa11d Popular Mu>Sic (New York: Colum · bia University Press. 2012). looks at interrelationshi1>s bet-weeu contemporary medla aud popular mus ic. OnAmerican lclol ;rnd similar s hows. sec KaLhtrioe: Mfozel, Jdotized: Music, Media. and JdentitJ·in American tdol ( BloomiDb'lOn: Indiana University Press, 201 1), and Koos

2013). 329-46. ForCarter. see chap1er 37. for Adams. see chapter 38. For Colijov and Higdon , see 77,e Grove D,c11011arrofAmeri· ean Music. 2nd ed .. onlineat Grove MusicOnline. On bfuc carltedral and other works by Higdon. see Deborah llifkiu, "Musical Stories: Gesture and Texllu-e ia Jeunifer Higdan's Music 1998-2003;· fa 'frmpore 15 (Spring-Summer2010): 121-46.

MUSIC AND TEXT Example 4.1, Melody transcribed by Hendrik van der Werf, 11,e fa-tafll 'l'roubadour Melodies ( Rochester: Author. 1984), 13. Gerald A. Bo11d. text editor. Reprinted wil h permission. Example 6.1, Phil ippe de Vitry. Complete Worl,;s. ed. Leo Schradc. with ncw introducuon and notes by Edward H. Rocsncr (Mo naco: Éditions de l'Oiscau · Lyrc. 1984. 26- 28 . PolJph.oruc Musíc oftlte Fourteenth Century·. vol. 1. 82-84-) . lleprinted by kind permission of l"Oiseau-Lyre ar the University of Melbou me. Example 9.8: Edited by Aleja1>· dro Enriquc Planchort. Reprimed from Allan W. Atlos, An1ho!ogrofRen<1iJsa11ce Music (New York: W. W. Nono:n. 1998).159- 65. Reprintcd wilh pcrmission oíthc author. Exampl<' 16.5: From Tomâs de Torrejóny Vclasco anel Ju.a.n Midalgo. La púrpura dela rosa. ed. Louise K. Stein. Mus:i-Oa

flisparia. ser. A. vol. 25 (Madrid: lnstinuo Com plutense de Ciencias Musicales. 1999). 74- 80. Example 33.6, From

A97

A98

CREDITS

AppalachianSpringby A.1ron Copla nd © Copyright 1945 by TheAaron Copbncl Fund for Music. lnc. Copyright Renewed lloosey & Hawkes. 1nc .. Sole Uccnsce. Rcprinred by pcrmission orBooscy & lbwkes, lnc., an Imagem com p~ ny. Exomple 37.2 : From Ol iviei- Mcssi.'.lcn, Quoruorpourlo Jindu,iemps (Paris: Durand, 1942), 1- 6. © 1941 by Editions OURAN O S.A. Used by permission of the publisher. Figure 37.6: Excerpt from John Cage ,f,'JJ". Copyright © 1960 by 1-l enmar Press, lnc. Used bypermission. Ali rights reserved. Figure 37.7, OEC~M BER 1952 by Earle Brown. Copyright© 1961(Rene wed) by Associated Music Pttblishers. loc. (BMI). b1terna1ional Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by Penn ission.

by Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Li mited. Reprinrecl by permission of Boosey & Mawkes. lnc.. an Imagem company. Example 37.7: f"rom Kr,;ysuof Pcnderecki. Ojiarom ffiroszimy: Tren no S2 lns1111.mem1•Sm.)'tzko1i1e (\V.'.lrs:lw: Polskie Wydawnierwo Mu1.ye,.ne, 1961). © 1961 (Renewed)

EMI OESHON MUSIC. INC. ALI righ1s con1rollcd and aclministered by EM! DESHON MUSIC. INC. (Publishing) nnd ALPBED PUBLISHINGCO.. INC. (Print). Ali rights reserved. Used by permission. Chopter 39, p. 1003, Source l\ead ing. from Heather Mac Donald. "Classícal Music's New Colden Age," C,rrfournol 20 (Summer 2010). Reprinred wi 1h pernlission.

INDEX

Notr: A boldfoct' p,ngc numbcr inch catei ~, boldfttçe dit1c\1ission or lhe term 1111l1e 1ex1. llaJ1.cs rcfcr to 1llustr:llionirnr musi<::.I

examples.

J-\ cr-osmirh , 91.5 1\c~chyh1.s, 9 :sífcc1mn.s doc1rmc, 288. 296 97. 300.342, 343. 346. 384 . 408. ffl. 475. 483.

880 a capµdlo •lngwg. 25. 648. 735. 736 .4 chamar. Comic~ de Dia. 75. 76. 76 77

A>chcn Ca1hcdr>J,J0 A:,ron. P1eiro, 156. 157 ABBA. 99? Aod11cricnfrom rhe llorrm. Th.t. Mo1::m. Set Eniftlhnmga,i,f d.cm Smul. Dir., M ol.ar1 Abel, Carl F'rieJr1cl1, 466

AbcuJ.mus 1kcu, 398

Afgh.lln You1h Orchcs1ra. 1002 Afgl1::mi:11:u), 994 1\fnc3, E.uropean colonies m, 290. 373. 680

LºAfn<oi•<, Meye,beer. 704 Aíncan Amencan mus,c.Sl!t a/so pu

blt,ea. 759. 776. 862 65. 874 br:t66 band1>, 774 c,: lmrd , mu~Íç, 6-49 couutry music mflucni:-cd by. 9 11

Abge,,ng. 79 Ablelon L"e. 1000 ;)bsohuc musie. 595 . 72 1. 731,887

d iS«>,973

abatraeu1.rt. 77 1. 812

Ccrahwin i.nflucnccd by. 898 h1p hop. 76-3. 772. 970, 973-7•1, 992. 997.

:ibstl':tCt expressionisin. 943 Atadênm: de Poê!.ie t i de Musique. 258

O,·oíák'$ championship or. 7·18-49.

750-5 1. 85 1

Acadénile Royale de Mu,iq\lc. 356. 428

100? 1.uhls.trtl .songt compared whh. 676

:1ci1de mict- (priva1c.i~oci.uiom;}, 246,291,

Morown. 916

308. 310-11. 332.352. m .•I 13

A~dcmy o( Anti cm Music, 466 Ac.1demy oí M11s 1c (New York), 674, 753 acc1den1als. ~t'abo mlL';ica ru:.1a u1cb:uu. 38. 4 1 omiss1on of m notahon, l '10 in Ren:1iss.tn«- mu.sic. 160,25 1 m ton!ll :id:ipt:uions of mod:il mu$ic. 397 a.ceo,.upa1ucd 1-ec1tam·c. 430. 453. -IS6.

457. 481,483,49 1.495. 552. 556, 658 Acitand C./ot<o. llondcl, 545 >OOOSIICS. 13, 20,425.982 Ad O'J"lnum fno~mdum. 88. 8..~ AdagwforStm1g,. Barucr. 927 Adam, Adolphc. 670 Adam Je lo Halle, 78.78. 83, IOS. 105-6 Ad:1m orS1. Victor, 62 Adams. Jo~u. 979, 979 8 1,984, 987, 1006 7 Adams, Su;ih F'lowcr. 650 Adll;unJ;. Jane. 766 addcd v,Jucs. 932 Adlcr. Cuido. 828 Admeu,1. 11:mdel. 453

Ad\·eui.47 tld\'t'll-lltt\:11 ufRubin l{ood, T111: (r.lm). 874 Atne,d, V1rg,I. 669 A;•tJlicm lla'l'• Tl1!!, C(>m~II, 895 Acolian mollc. 159

nineleeuth-c.-enlury. 759-60.172 ragumc. 759,762, 7(,4. 772. 77,t 76,

899 rhy,hm-, nd-blucs. 759. 910,913,9 15. 965 sou!. 916 1wentlt1h -~en1Ury, 764,766.771. 7H-77,

862-74. 900-901, 907- 10. 913,916 1-\fnca.u Me1hod1íll Epuicopal Church. 649 Mric•n music. 759. 769. 775. 776. 864. 906. 966. 975. 978

Afro·AmtriCPII S1m11Jrour, Still. 900 90 1 Aflml.eBull. Harrls. 758. 758- 59, 861. 862 J\gincourc, b:mleof(l415). 167 AgnusDei.'1?. 50.59-60. 181. 181

d',A.guuh. i\faric. 618

agréments. 361,363.361. 402 Agnppin~. H,ndel, 451, •152 ~ 'UUcra. Chnslln.:l. 1000

Ahfuggi li 1rod,wr. Mo,.n. 555. SSS Aida. John :md l\i«. 963 A,Ju, Verdi, 697, 699. 70 1 AIFF format. 999 Amodamor; ,...m,ma111 oJT,•ars. Colijov. 1005 Ainswonh. He nry. 222 air, tngh:sh, 2i6 l - 6Z. S7l ,or, F,•cnch. 356.360. 362. 429. 485 86 ~ir;'1boirc:, 36'2 :urdecour. 259. 359. 362

A99

aarsérieux.362 1h,port (1ilm}. 874

Akhnoi,n, Ci>ss. 979, 998-99 Al:bdi!lns. 6. 7 AI Qacda, 994 alba. 75 Alb;mi~. 90•l

Albéní,. 1..,,c, 802. 804 Alb•n1, Domen,oo. '173. 475. 509.518 Albeni 1,;,.,, 4 73. 475. 545 Alh1. bushop oí. 72 Albigens1;m Cn1t1adc. 78 Albinoni, Tom.iso.39 1, 4 l6 Albreclu lV, dul:e of B:n,;,ri!I, 27.1 Albrecl11 V. duke of Ba"l1'13, 238. 283 Albrcclnsbcrger, Johann Ceorg. SM Alb1.m1J'mu-oyagcur. Lisl:l. 618

Albu11iftJrd·•<)ug,md. Schum~nn. 608 Almt<. Cluck, 192.193 Alcon family. 652 alea1oric tnu!.tC. St!I! ch.:rncc:: mdc:h!rmlnacy

Alcman, Cardinal Louis. 177 AJexandcr-1 1,a,aretfHu~~ia. 706 Alcx:uu.ler VI, IJope. 23-t A14'.ra,id('rJ\'t~'d,y(frlm).886 87

Alcxsinde.ri hc CrcJ11, 159 11laa,idtr'J f'rosr. Handel. 5-15

Alfons1>c:ISábio, k1ogoíCbt1lc: :kud Lé~u.

80 Alg:ironi, ír:i.ncesco. 491

Allet-'sAd\'4!nWru m Wandtriond. CarroU. 990 All,gr,, barooro. ll:,núk, 843

Allcluia, 111. 50, 57 58. 61~2, 88. 93 Alldu1u;Anelt'( uwk fanou. C;arol), 170 AJJelma D1essa11ri1firoius. 58. 58 AUtfo,a}um•s ut poima~88 ,llemandc. 272. J19. 366.367.10l.110

Allen. Lily. 996 Allen, füdwrd. 649 Allen1ow-n Band, 756 Allgt1rn~iné'Cr..Wliclw•derMu$1.k, Forkc:I. 468 Allgt:mt:utt! mus,lml..W,~ Zt,iu r1g ( muíltC::

iournol).16 1. 596 alm.iu1. 272

Afou.ro., H:mdel. 450, 452 AlsospruC'hlárutlu,nro. Str.iuss. 737- 38 :ihcrna1h'e roc:k. ?73 ahu. l 82

Am3dcu.s Vl ll, dukeofSa\'O)', 177 A111olfi m May 1831. Mcndelssohn (pain I ins), 636

AlOO

lnd ex

amatcur mms1cianAand music R:.ro4ue. 328- 29, 372- 73, 393- 95. 404,

413.461 decline of, 769

,no.•l23. '133. 435. 465.468.468. H6. 477. 494.S00. 501.502, 508. 517. 534,536.545. 566

c.1gltteenlh-cenhll)',

mue1et'.nd1·cen1uiy. 263. 559.586. 589.

604. 606. 614,617. 622,624.627. 63'1. 6'13, 618. 654. 7l9. 730. 755-51,, 758. 919-21 Rcn:iis.s:mcc, 143, J,15. 16 1. 223. 241. 243.

256. 260-61. 269,270 1wcn11ctl1-cc.n1ury. 263. 772.17'1. 805.

882. 884,899, 919-21. 928 rwcmrfl~1 ~ccnh.uy, 999 women;is, 612-13 Amati. Nicolô.384.385

d"Amatu. G1uscpp~.70 1 ..Am:oingGr.ac:c.-Ne"''lOn. 650 .1mbicnt n:iu.sic. 915

Ambrosc, S:.inl. 28 Atrlbru~i.an ('b.:uu !lr'ld lun1gy, 28

Amcnc:m Blndm:is1cri;As$oçi:1tion, 9-20

AmencanCon5em11ory. fon1amebleau. 892 Amencori Croff111 (ftlm), 971 ·72 Ame-noo.11 /dol (tdc.v1s1on -i;huw), 997 Amcr1c:m lndi:m music mAmc.ritan ualloualull worb. 754. 755

o,·or,n:·schampior\Shipo(. 746.85 1 Americ.;in music. &i: Unil<:d S1,11es

Americ,m R1:,·ulu1i1Jn, 409. 463. 496 AmtnMn String Quane1. Ovoíák. 749 Americ.:.s. colonies in. 145. 161. 190. 234-36.

240. 290-91. 331. 351. 368.373-77. 378. 409, 489,496 91.Seeot," spt:cifu: 001,ntrir,s Amhiq11u. V:1r«e. 893 L"Amfipu.rna.so. Vc:t.~lu. 308 omorlm,jo. t1. Falla,804 Amos. Tori. 1001 amourde luin. L. Saariabú, 1004 Andufemeg<l,~. lleetho,·en. 578. 597 Anc1enr lfotuso/Childreri. Cnnnb. 9'16 ...and 1h, moun101ns ri.$Íng notchert',

Scbw.tutuc:r. 92 1 Andçraon. l,aune, 966, 97 1, 971 Andre, C,..r-1, 975 AndriC!ISt:n, l..ouii.. 966. 983 84 Augle.s. 28 J-\nglican Churçh. Church uf F.ngl:md Auglkau dmrch music. Su chur ch tmuic. Angl,can: dmrch mue,,c, Rçform:mon

s.-~

>ngst. 8 19 ;mim:11 bone ins1n.imems. S. 5 Auuuàls. tbt. 9 1~

:rnim:ucd f\lms.87'4 Ann.i Am.il1a. duche-ü o í Saxe-We1m.1 r. '1 33

lnd ex

Anrthtidtpél.:n,w~. 1...ia.n, (>18

1n oper,1s-cl'fo,483 84

AnnirG,:t YuvrGun, Rcrlin, 9 17

ofR06s1n1, 660-61

d'Annunzio. C:1.br1clc. 796 A,io11ymous IV, 93. 94. 96. 98 Anselm. Saint, 8'1 answc:r. 401 Antare&1\udio Tcehnologics . m

separ:inon from reeit:ativ4". 321. 322,327 oíVerdi. 700 Ariodnt o.ufNC1YO$. $1r.)USS. 789 Lilricm,m. Montc,·crdi. 31<>. 319

An1es. John, '197

anoso. 319, 326

:1:111hem, 213. 224

Baruque. 372 o( Bilhngs. '496 oíByrd. 22•1. 240

Ariosto. l,ud~,;co, 161. 245.32 1.322 AriSlldesQu u11ilbnus. l l. 15. 17.38. IS? Ar.Stutle.4, li. 12. 13, 14.17.21, 70.159, 216. 478. 875- 76

c1gh1e<:-ollH:e1Hury, 496

An t1lox~nt1.s, 15-16.17

ur lfaudcl. 452. '456 rwcnric1h cennuy. 915 Arirhropafogy. P.irker/Cillt:.spie. 908-9 L'onrt<a r,u,J1co ridom1 olla modm,ci prouiro. Vtc<"nHno. 252 )lnr,- Pt!'~Onntl &mb. An. Cnmer. 945 an1i-Sc:m11ism. 685. 687. 81 l. 814. 856.

880. 885

•riecte, 487- 88

Arlen. H3rold . 859

Armern:a. 95'9 Arm.ído, Jtaydn, 53(> Annidt, l..ully.358, 358-59,360. 361.378. 791 Armstrong. Lou18. 865~8. 866. 874. 92 1 Am1m, Achtm \'On, S97 An1out. Jules. 66? 3naugeuleuts.St>t'al.so lrani('nplloni. pi.mo

bond, 695. 756 57. 900 big-b>nd. 868

antiphon. 51 Í:1uxbot1nlon scUing$ o(, 179-80 of H ildcg:u-d. 65

Ofl\~. 54-56. 60 o! Part. 988 polyJ)1JOIUéSCUings.170- 71 an11phon.il mu51c. 28'1. 333. ~e al$O potychor:11 more, :mtiphon.:11 perform:1n~ of ch:rnt, 52. 55

Au11photltr. S1 antiq11ity, mu&ic in, 3. '1 - 2 1. Srt aLso 6ptcific cult11n:s

Arnwc,•p, 152.163. 167 Apono.s: Rt!(Jtilo.for Pwnoorid OrchtStro. Z-Orn.

965 Apotheo,.sofLuUx. Th<. Couptnu. 423

of frou olc, 245

ArsAnuqu:a. 115 A,$C0.11rtumcnsurabd1--S. Franeo 104-6

Ar,no,•o. %,y, 114. 118. 126 An, No,•a. 1 1•1- 27. 132 ArsSub11llor, l 27 29.1 41. 178,983 Ar1tn0t'. Clayion. '152

....

fourleenth-ccntury. 113

ken~iwnce. l '18--5 1 1wenlle1h ...cemmy. 69S. 767. 770. 812.

A110JF,,gi,,. Th,. &eh. 44 1-42. 441. 448.

Archile1, ViuoriJ. 309.310 ardu1ecturt'

Arro/No,s4'~: Fut11ns, \/OJ'11/esro. Rus.M>lo. 809.

818. 857. 886. 891. 943. 975 I. 'ande ro11ch~rl,-clan•cin, Coupcrin, 423 An Enstmble oí Chic.igo, 965

161,545

i.,roquc, 292.292. 295,295 96,537

Ao o:, Am:ili:i, p r1nceijl: o( Pru$S1.á, 433

mchurçh mus,c, 333. 33'1, 3'12 gn)und l,;1.5$, 371, 380

A1111aHoíl"1ta. Uomielt1, bb!>

or lfandel, 4):i ,'>4

Ann:i or l)enmark, 26 1

Mor:wi.rn. •197

Anne. quecn o( Engl.ind. '151 Arme oíAtmrfa, 352

nincrcen1h -ccnmry, 654 in opcr.a burra, -118. 480

Anda. VmU. 695 A1td10 Rt-;olo, Jommdh. '19 1 A11ber. íl:intcl-Fr.:1nçois-f,.spl"i1, 655,668 Aucun onl trou~·éll..ondIDi-ilAnrw111ianln. Pt1rus de Cruce.106 Audnciry. 999 audiente$ cigh1ccn1h ttntury,410 11 , 4 14,458. <160. •165-68. 478. d8d . <190. 532-33

13, 618. 619,622.626 27. 653 54. 667,675, 671.678,682. 717-18, 71? sc-vcmtcn1h ~cenmry, 322,380 tweul1clh· IX'nlmy. 761. 769. 773,777,

778. 814. 824.833.839. 875. 899. 907,913. 915. 922, 9H. 924. 936, 938- 39. 945. 953. 956. 960. 981 . 991 Aufs11..gund fàUde,Su.dJ !lahogomiy. WeiU.

8aro4uc. 292 · 9,1 ~ighce,en1h~cenrnry, 109. 837

189. 234.239.267 Ar.iuju. Juan de. 376 AJ'be:au. Thoinot. 271 A...,adelt.J•oqucs. 15l.U6. 2"7

Baruque. 303. 304. 38()-.83. 392. 395. 445. 446. 945

oUo sed:il muslc Au amgnan l. Pierre. 163. 257. 270

nmetee111.h -century'.559.S75. 597. 612-

prch1&1oric. S

985

Atlos. V.r, Scbubcn. 598. 599. 600 ,11,..,.phtre,. l.ige,i. 95 1, ?82 aiou•l1ty. ?63. 813, 8 14,815-20, 824-27, 828. 839. 848. 854. 909. 924. 937.S«

íourrecmh wccn1Ury. 119. 129

Appoloclu4o Spo.g, Copl>nd. 899. 900 Aqui1:rni:m po1yphony. 89- 90. 109

d.Arco. l,h,.i;,;, 253 1l11: You Wci.sht'd in ihc BfoOO?. 852 Argc1\lina, 951. 96'1 65 ari~. 31 t .Secotso d.ie.:ip-0 :iria

:r.s1ronomy.:1nd music.11. 13. 289 AT&T Building (New York) . 985

ofkcnaiss.incc ,·oc.il 1m1sic. 273 ·?'1 by Sdioeoberg. 823

uiueiccnlb-ce·utury.59'4.680. 681 , 746

mcd1cnl, 8•1, 92. 123 Ren..,isunee. 149, 180.180 twcnltcth écntury. 857. 948. 950. 984 85.

A,Hain:. Pred. 861.861. 873 As Thc>11&,md.s Cl1«r. Bcrliil, 861 A.s lfe-s.ra ulM. Wcdk«. 261

im,870-72

ApJ>.thichfondulc1mcr. 912

Anbcuhurt' a:nd 1errlloncj, 67-68.18. 82.

l'a.ssassma4 du d1u:deC11~t:. Sain1-Saêns. 773 9&2 Asaociatwn forCoutemporary MUSt('. 886 As1iire. Adele, 861

ÀSsá.illll&, Scrndhéi,n,

8 10 :in song. 757.Se.:0l$0 L1edcr;&ong AnmShart. 996 Anu.si.Citw::mni M:ari~. 298. 299. 302 Li4r11181 U\1tro lkllr ll'npriftWum dtUo mvdt'mu musica, 298. 299 A11u.•orti o/ 1111: F'uwre, 11u:, W.iguer, 683 AsiJ

EuJ'opean colonies ir), 290. 680 ins1mmems;rnd music. 82,769. 791.

795. 896. 906. 922. 951-55. 957. 960. 963, 975 (Se,, al,o Chin• aod Chmese mus1c: Jnd,a .Jlld lnd,an music; lndones1:rn music: J:rp:rn :tnd Jupanese mus,c) Asprocon>esel11oggio. l-'crrarch. 2'19 Asprocr,rue,e-fraggio, Will.ien.148, 24?

881 auo'lllentalton. 184

Augustine. Saio1. 25. 26. 58. 984 m1los, •}. li, 12 l'ouro eh ·t1 ~~nl4' l<rmo, Vicenrino. 252. 252 Aur i('. Ctorgcs. 878. 878 Au.81J'al1anmu.s1c. 968 Au.s1 ri.a- Hungary. -109. '463 d1ssul\1tíou ur. 8-06. 856 late Roman1tc1~m m, 719 39. 78 1- 87. 790 mus1c.:il sthol:arihip m, 720. 84 l-'12 n.11ion.:ilu;m in, 680

Au.81 nau u1ugic. St.t Ct'rm:rn rnus1é :n1ihcnhcmod~. •10- •1 I ;1111 l1enlic11y, 680-8 1 Au10•Tune. 999 Auwma.11eDe-&cnp1wns. Sam·, 808 Amry. Ccnc. 911 Aa•oilable Fum,s /. Brown. 944 A~·o1lable Fonn$ li, Brown. 944 A\'Mtqueu.1 ne1·t'n adies. F.:iuré, 7<13, 744

,nnt•g:irdejm. 99- 10. 938. ?39 avan1 -gan.le Ll\u-51C. 77?. 803-1 1. 857. 922. 92-1 25, 939 45. 965 66. 975, 1003 pu.?09-10 rock. 915. 945 Ai•e Mono. . v,.rgo sere>rw. Jw;quuJ, l.O•t. tu:,. 206. 207-8. 209. 2 11 Are- Kgma cadomm. Combcrt. 22? A,•e1 erum co,Jmf, Mo1.3n. 556

1kt• \'ltgO Vl'Aflru,m,

100, JOO

Ro,h family, 393. 432. 436

;\veJ. J.icqt1c~ AmJré j(1~ph, 426 AviO'll4.ln. pap:tcy m . 112, 127

U.ieh ·Cetiellschar1. -46 1 8oduor1(1.S brtuil.-1"1,S, Vill:i- Lobos. 89 1

J\2tee musit.

back beati:.. 9 13 llcck War"IJ/""· Smilh. 863 64.86-/ background mu,;ic. 80? B,acor1. Fr.iocis. 290 &<'On. Roger, 70

235

S-A-C- H•uhjeet, H2 B,bbltl. Mil1on.9J9 on composmori as research. '126 dectronic music of. 949- 50

lbdu. F.ryk•h. 997

h lfl ut'UCC: o

Badmzm. 83du. 9?7

r, 927

serio! m11s1eol. 924. 934,934,938,957, 98 1. 987 Bobe.t w Topand, 1-lerben.. 772 Babyloru:.u Cap11v1cy, 11 2

Babyloni•ns. 6. 7- 8. 15 Bacch~ic. 'The-. Euripides. 916 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. ~3J. 438. SI 1 Br11hms·s«tmon of. 725 ~mpfind$atn sryleo, o(. 470 FrdcobaJd 1'5 influeuce on. 344 Ucderor. iij94 rccc;:plion or. ·16 1. 518 Sór)!ll3$(>Í, 472- 74.5) J 12,524

&e,, Joao, 915 b:igalelle. 829 b:igpip•, 81-82 &Yf. Jean Antome J c. 259 R~kcr, David. 96 1

Balakirev. Mily. 707. 709. 713,746 bal.:aucc:J bínary íonn, 505. 508-9. 51'1! Bnl0;nc.hu\ç, Ccoratt. 831 ll>l!e, Mlchael.674 fü1lin~segamelan mu.sic. 79 1. 936. 954 .. 963.

966. 1009 Rnlkan cpiçi;ingen;. 3Z ball.id.19'1. 597, 60•1,

s~ a4o Liedt'r. .s\mg

B::.ch. c..,tthcb F'ru.•dr1c:-b. 51 I

h:i)bd c,,per:1. 454. 488 89. 490,674

fk1ch, Joh~1m ( hris1fan, 5J5

ballade(1ns11·unienrn.l), 617

conceno, o!. 503.515-17.548-4? iníluc-ncc or. 541- 42 reccpnon9í. 46 1,518 s\lb$Cripno,n concen,or. •166 8:zch. j(ihann C:hri, 1oph. 397. 436

Bati,, Juhaou, :Seba.tla11, 220,288. 40i. 408, 432. 435- 40, 1:16. 5 11 , 1008 bomd lr.m&ériplion.:1 ur. 151 biog,,ophy oi. 436 8u).1thudeMs influence ou. 398. •105 c:rn1;;11;u;of_437. 443- 4G. 447. 727. 827 cham.ber m.u:su: of. 437. 1-12. 727 cln.1rch m11s1cor. 240 coinple1e "'·orks edirion. 720 çomposi1io n:al (>r'Ocess o f. 438 éOD«'110&llf, 437.837

and Co.-.,lli,389 d•rice :.uitei or. 103

b,lladc(mcdicval), 125. 126.138.1 75. 178. 198. 796 b•lla,a, 131. 133.ISS, 138 ballet of Jke1hoven. 574 ofCiplaud. 899,901 orCosiello. 963 oíllebussy, 796 [nglisl1«,ur1, 369 o[ Falia. 80•1 f'rench coun.353-54. 356. 36'1 halian.320

ufMlUiaud.879 ninctetnlh .. ccntuf)' French, 667. 670.

70•l, 716 111 opera5. 428. 454.

668. 669

or Prokofiev, 886 or "ª"cl. 797

Frescob~ld a's 1nflut:ncc \ln, 344

ufS.tie.809

,nOuenceor. 545,607.642. 72 1. 730. 805. 820,837.843. 884,891.968. 1005 lvn'.s quol:thon.s o(. 850 keyboord muslcof. 440 -41, 61 4,622.798, 82 1.837. 810, 955-56, 983

oí Su·avu1.sky. 832 36,837

:and L:issuit., 239 ,rus.ses or. 448. 461 orchcsn-al ,nusico(. 4•12 '13

organ mu,icor. 31'1. 437. 431HO. 62 1. 847 P,..ions of. 446. 448. G46, 648 quomions from. 1001 rcce(llionof.448-19. 460-61. 4?0-71

1·ework.1l'lr-,» by, 445 Styh611C6)'nlhC6160Í,

448 ,19

thcmahc l r,eàtment uí, ,172 V1v:1ldi s mllucm..-c on. 4:tl., 4:iO. 43'1

,s wor.1:-Jng mus1e1an. 437-38 Bach, Maria Barb:11.1. -136

·s.,1,. P. D.Q,". 986

A101

oíTcholkovsky, 707 8alUt com1queCU la mne. 354 &tU.-r de lo ,wi,. 354 . 357 &/le1desf,1e,d,&cch••· 354 s,11... Ku...s, 83 1, 832-36. 886 ballell. 260. 261 balleuo. 255. 317 18.328 OOllom mcuchero. Un, Verdi . 70 1 &m:lu:uc, mu.sículr. Scheiu, 3'19 S.nd Ploy«I On, Tht. 761 ba1:id and band music. Sttálto " 'i nd eflsernblc bigb,nds. 856.868-70, 907 conctrl bauds. 919-2 1 counuy mus,c. 911 12 e1gh1eenth-«n1ury, $02 1:an b:mds :rnd coinbos, 1$6!> blS marcluugbauds. 97) ninercemh ccnmry.589. 635. 695. 755-57, 817

lnd ex

A102

band .ind band music {oontmued)

scvcmccnth ccntury.3S4 55. 355. 393 1wen11eth-een1ury, 774, 777. 88'1 , 903, 920 2 1 .!Jandoueon. 881 . 964

Bangon II Can. 966. 983 B:rnistcr. John. 37'1 l,imjo .iod 4:u\jQ mu&iç, 676. 159.869. 9 11 , 912

honsh,..-, ·nie, Cowell. 895 bar-(onn. 7?

8a,·bc,·. S•mucl, 924. 927. 933. 957 Barbcnni, \tarteo. St·e Urban VIJI, Pope

ln dex

1;iyl1511c cvolunon of. 8'13 R.;1r1(1li, CvsimCJ, 203

b:u-y1on. 522. S23 bàs Jnstnu.ue1Hs. 136. 265 Basie, Conn1. 866 Buil. S..í111, 25. 26 ba•1llcas. 24 , 25. 295 bass, 182 b:t&!> elarinc1. 625

bauedanse. 272 b•••o oonunuo, 268.301 , 305. 306. 342, 108 :i.rias.37 1

·31.383

B,rbermi (:imily. 32 1. 344

1nchurcbmm.ic,333

Barbtt'rt'dtSwiglia. li. Rossmt.655. 657. 658.

m huc eigh1ecruh cemury music, 500.

659 61. 663. 666. 674. 677 Bardac, Emma, 792 8:1rJ 1, G1u\•a.1H11 de', 309, 310 12 bards. 7 1 8:lrdu;,, C;irolinc, 6?1

502 m Spinish musk, 375 tn 1rl0$0natas. 386

,n \'()e:.1 c.h:ambe r m11~ic, 329 ba&so oshnato. 329-3 1. 727

banolage. 727

bmoon. 282.30 1.502, 625 Ba.nien m1d Ha.,-,i(nn~. Mo1.an. 552 B:J,ome. r,,nur.561.561

l).:1l"lin._, 303

B:itoru. Pmupeô-. J93

Bsroque. 287 461. Set> arso spa•(ficcomposers. ge,1rts. o.nd rop1ct

l\anem, Chal'les. 469,470

B:m:nboim. Damel. 687

8:u·m,. Marghcrlla. 697

b,llcrand d•nce in.353- 54, 364 66,368. 372- 73 churth mu.,c m. 330 37.362 63. 372. 376. 383-84, 396-403 Frcnch vs. h:11i:m stylcs in. 422- 2-t

general ch.i.ractC"n!Slu:s oi. 300- 306 lusronc.:il background oí, 289 9) in$1romcnt-.il nnisicin, 342-50, 35-1 -56, 363-1,6, 372- 73, 37&-77. 384- 89,

396,397--401, •I 11, 4 15- 21. 428, 438--43. •159 60 Htenilurt' and art oí. 292-9? opçra :ind musu;al tht.aicr in. 307 27,

356-ú2. 365. 370-72. 375. 380-ll 1. 395. 410- 13. 414. •128-30. 45 1.

/laJrlcCryo/Fn•cdom. The, 76 1 baule pieces. 258 &.udela1rc. Charles. 796

&iyP,olm llook. 222,196 8:Jyreu~,. 685. 687 88,688. 69,1. 717. 722. 792 RBCSymphony Orc:hc5rra, 858 lkacl,, Amy Man:y (.l i ns. H. H. A.). ?SI. 751 55. 76 1 Beaclo Boy•. 1l1c. 915. 948 Be:m:lsley. Auhrey. (,95. 788 lkatlcs. thc. 911. 914. 919. ?22. 915. 919. 963. 973. 975. 1000 lkorrixCenci. CinJs1era. 9S4 Be:1uin!1rch:,is. Pierre. 554 bto1u:·ort1ridm1 ci º" mffl1tpmu:1p~. Lts. l\nncox, 469. 410

452-55. 6?2 oraw10s10. 336 37. 363. 384. 415. 451. 45~5?

bcbup. ?03. '107-') . 910, 921-22. 9:is Beccc. CiuS<ppe. 773

pr<>Íe$S1<>0:,I nuis,e1:rn~ 1n, 437

lkckett, Samud. 956

.i.S lerm. 288

them.iric orpnh..uion in, 388

1hcory. 425. 427-28 ,·úca1 cha,nbcr mu::!ie in. 328 -32. 362. 372. 375- 76. 381- 82, 396. 422. 45 1 B~roqt•estyle,292. 292 Boroquf! Vanatw,u. F'oss. 956 Brnk 11ot. S11oe1ana, 715. 718. 748 8a11ók.ll<la.813. 840-41, 810- H. 945--46, 967.1008

ªº"'""

Bac1ú. mOucm:e o u. 46)

biogr,phy or. 840 Cowdl and, 895 Debu:s.sy's inOuenc:c ou, 796 emigranon of. 892 intlutf'lce or. ?61-J, 990 :as modern1i1. 847 s:tylc synthes:11sof. 84 1 842- 47. 853- 54.

954

llee e.... ,he. 973 ~elho\'en. Joh.anu ,•;m. 564

BeclhO\'éll, K.31•1 \'311, 565 lkelho,·en. Ludw1gvan, 557, 560, 563- 85. 565. 1009

biography ur. 564 65 ca1·ccr J>eriods <,í, 56.3 eentrality or. S84- 85

cha,nber mu,iç of. 567. 576. 578 83, 624. 640 comJ>lele worl:-s edirion, 720 eompos1tion:a.l process of. 568

cunccnos or. 576 dcafnc•• of. 564 65. 568-{,9, 577. 579 Hç1lig-engt;1d1 'J'est;tmeni, 510

m,.. or, 5 78. 583 opn• o[, ·188. 575- 76 pooronsoí.568,577, 996 :til 1,1 crformtr. 564. S66. 576

piano so"ms of, 565 67. 578.579. 580, ,m. 840 p~1itic:a1 \ içws of. 575. 577 quotatloru. from. 956. 985. 1001

recep,ion or. 470. 575. 581- 85. 626. 628. 824. 854 so1H1la formas used h.)', 507

•o•g•of, ~78. 597 $1ring (lt•airlel1S oí, 567. 56?, 576, 578-83.

624 S1ylc or, 470. 594 •ymphonic• uf. 568. S69. 570-75. 571. 573- ?4. 577. 578. 580.583~4. 621. 624,630. 634. 635. 638.666.683. 684. 686. 724. 726. 727. 734. 735. 748. 768-ú9. 784. 790. 80?. 837 . 888 unity in works oí. 582 83 H"gur'sOpen:i. 7ltc, Cay. -15-1. •189. 489. -198. 674. 881 behav1oral scud1es. 766-67

bclc•mo, 616. 653. (,5 7 59 8d!(ium. 174. 668. 918 Belo«'<. Cher. 999 Belhni, Em1ua.nut:I. 762-63 8,elhni, Ctnrile, 282. 615 8clhn,. Vrnccn,o. 616. 621 . 655. 656. 660. 664 65. 666. 697 bçll5, 5. 7. 82,136,267 Bdls. Tiu·. R:adun:aninvrr. 799 Bem.bo. Plclr o. 249

8,n //ur(nhn}, 919 Bendidio. Js.abella. 253

Bcudldio. LlACt<tia. 253 BMed1CGr1ws Domino. •19. 89 8eneven,~n chint, 28

8enevo1i. Or uio. 333 Bc:-,rnett. Jo1se"ph. 751

Bcnion, Thoma, llart, 857. 858. 912 B,owulf. 71 8éram, Jean. 358

Berg. Alban. 813. 824. 824-28. 853. 933 Dehus.sy's míluence cm. 796 apre.$$[onhun of. 819 inílucn« oi, 9 19. 980. 990 Mahler·, innuenee on. 783 q uot:nions from. 956 Scbot'nLergaud. 8 14.824

Bcrio, l,1ci•no. 924,936 37. 956. 956. 983 Bériol. Cl1..1rlesdc, 6(,0 Bc,kclcy. Bu•by. 873 8cr-keoy. Jãnos. 520 Berlin, 433. 467 Philbannumc tn. 768-69 Siogaka.clc m1c 111 .64'1.648 B«hn, hvm,g, 773,859, 860-6 1. 873. 874,

lkrhm:., Htctur. 5?3. 6 13. 63.1 luogr:t1)11y or, 632- 33 Choprn auJ . 615 chor..tl m,1sic oí, 64G a, crilic. S96

i11íluc11ceof. ?09. 783 mélodm; or. 604 nper:,.s of, 492. 66'.I orcbt',Ll':tl UIU SIC of. 62"1. 630- 35. 638.

639. 732. 738.845 recepuun or, 651, 811 Limbrc u:sed by. 363 as \V:ignerl:m, 730 1k1·nandeVent~don1. 7'1. 74. 75, 76. 79

Jkmhard. Chru,IOJJh. :Ho lkmiui, Gíau Lomuo. 292- 91.293- 95. 297. 332. 334 ~rng1e1n, Leon~rd. 811 ,898, 917- 18. <) 19,

927. 954. 968 ll<rry. Chuek. 913- 14. 922 Jknin. 1.ouisc. 613. 623

of M:tcbaut. 120 of .Meudelssob.u. 608

of MomcYcrdi, 316

of Moz.arl. S1I0- 41 ofOckcghom. 191 of P.1lesuin3, 230

orí>urcell. 370 o( l\amuu. 426 OfR0681UI, 658 <.>fSchoc:nbc:rg, lil·I of Schubtr1, 598

ofCfara aud Rober1 Sebuu:mnu. 602- 3 ofSch111,. 338 oíStra,•insl)'. 83 1 ofS,rotz1, 332

ofTcha,ko,•sk')'. 708 ofVerdi. 697 ofV1va1dJ. '114

bo<uf6<irl<1ou. /,t. M1ll13ud. 879 hohêm<. IA, Puctini. 703. 963 lt(.lhemi:1 :snd Bohtmi:in music, 236- 37, 58<1. 71<1 15. 740. 747--49.&eo/soCzc<h music 8ofü:1111'rm Cirl.1?rn. Balíc. 67•1 B-Ohul, c•• ,g. 391. 436. 438 Boito.Arngo. 70). 702 Holdoni, Cio\':.nni. 697 Bc~ero. Ravel. 7?9. 878

Boleyu. Annc. 223. 260 Rolma.376

Rol\.'gn~ L'OU\'t.'018 Lll. 334

medieval. 70

or,cra in. 323 urdu:.1Lro15iu,389. 390. 391 Renn1ssancc. 154

U\'emun1h -cenn1ry, 380, 383-84 Trecen10. 131 Bomana. Cma!ltera. 954 Bon:.ip:.i1·re. Jén)mc. 568

Jktl1a11y ( hymn tune). 650. 65/ bio.ncotdotttng,w.11. Arcaddt, 247. 247 B1ber. Heum('h. 396. 403-4. 59'5

B111h ufu Nuti.u-11 . 1Ju1 (frlm). 773

btbheal rererencei. 10 mus1c, 8. 24 b1hhc:al :somuas. 101

Bi11l1 ofrhe CoíJI (Oivis album). 909

bor\é flule. 5. S

Bu,hop. Hc:nry R.. 601

llonham. John, 964 Bcmh<un. Kou,.,. 961 00/HH:chon.sora. Lo. P:aurt. 743--44

Richer,Jusrin, 9'96 b,g band. 859. 868-70. 874. 907 Big:,rd, B•moy,870 Bill Haleyand cbc Wmcls. 913 Rillings, William. 496. 896 Billy Budd. Briuen. ?29 Billytl,eKid. Coplond. 899 blruuyform. 364 65. 386-87, 504 6 b:tbnced. 505. 508-9. 51'4 rounded. 5 05-6. 524

aim1>lc, 504 Hinçhnu; {Cillt,t; dç Bim,), 1C.5. 17.5. 175--7(,.

176. 187. 193 b1og-rãphies oí8aeh, 436

orHmók.610 ur Bced10\ en. 56'1- 65 orBcrho,. 632 33 or Binchois. t 75

or 8r:1hms. 725 of 8ux1ehude. 398 orByrd. 225 oíCl1op111, 6 15

oíCoreJh. 387 orDebu..y. 792

orDu Foy. 177 ofOunstable. 111

or Elhng,on. 87 1 orfrescobaldi, 344

orCabrieli. 283 or Handel.450-51 orllaydn. 521 oí H,ldcg.ird uf Bmgen. 65

oílves.,848 oi Jaéquel de là Guene. .ib!I

of Josqum des l'r-ei.20 1

l,icdcrof.576 Ligh1 mw;icby.123

Btr-lincr, Emile. 768

or La,sus. 238

720.721. 783. 848. 990

of Lully. 357

of\l'3g11cr. 684 85 Rirdland. ?08 I,;nJsoug. 577, 735, 930

9 11 , '161, Y'/3 BerlUl Pamtcr.12 8crlhl School of Mt1.sic. 882

rnllucnceof, (>O l , b.:iO, b.::SI, b:S'l,M l. lO'l ,

of L141.1, 6 19

or Landini. 134

Bis,:nart.k. Ouu. 680 B1tdi« 8r('W, Oans, 965 biw:a, 955 8i1.c:1. Cc:orgc:s. 672. 705. 718

BlockAlb«m. Th,. Jay-2. 1000 Blackand Ta11 f'n11wsy, F.llinJ>'tOn. 870 Blodolrogcl,. Crumb. 916-17. 956. 957 BlnL*. Brou.n. oud Bttge, Ellrngton. 872

Bta<*Crool>. n«<p,s,iehe). 717 Bbck o.,,h, l 12. 130 B/oolcoot,rd)un5k(film). 913. 919 Blokcy. An, 909 81anche. Jacquei-Emile, 792. 878 Bl:rnd. J:,mc.tt A. 852 Bbncoo. Jmim1t'. 870 Blo.st!, MtiSon,. 971

t,taue Cngd, D~r (í1hn), 873 Bloggcr, 995 Blond1c:, 973 Blow. John. 3?1.372 Bluwm' uirh,d t,t nd. Dyl.an. 915-16 Blu,Angel, noe (~lml. 873 blu(cath<dral, 11 ,gdon, 1007 Blue M:inCroup. 971 bluc uo1es. 863. 864. 879 Bilu.bf-'1rd'j Cti.stlt>, 8:mók, 843

blucgra,;.s, 912. 921 - 22 blu••· 759. 776. 862- 65. 874 count1ymu&1ttnflue1\eed by. 9 11 Cershwin '.s use oí, 898 Milh:rnd's use of. 879 11,vel'sus< of, 799. 878 rock and roll mfluellced by, 9 13 Bl'.H..-c:•ccio, C10\•.:mn1, 113, 130, 133 tsoeharuv, Ahkh.:nl Jry1eh. til Bock. Jmy. 9J9 Bnchm. Thcob,ld .591.591 B,e1hi,.., 38- 39. 42

A103

&nap:me, Napoleon, 56 1, 563,575. 577. 58d, 655. 666

lkmonciní, C10,,~rnn1, •153

boog,e-woogie. 913 Booi:o/Commo11 223 l!ookof1heCoo,n><r. C.1S11glionc. 242. 243 Hool:oflht' 1/angmgCardl'n.S, 1hr. Schoc-nbcrg. 816- 17,817 bootlcg. Ser nuasl1up Hoor,rliriQus. Destiny's Child, 1000

Pm,.,.,

bup. &e behop

Bo,·dooi. Fa,.,,;oa. 453. 454. 484. 486. 486 &ré.ad~s. u,. Ramcau. 428 Bc>ri.<C<>dimov. Musorgol')'. 710. ?li. 712, 7l2,

718. 806. 887 &mw Da,t<'t (f1hn}. 873 llorodín.Alçk,;,,ndçr, 672. 707. 70?- 10, 713. 7'16 borrowmg. rcworlnug. and qi.10(.lhon. Se~

olso c:rnrus ftrrnt1s: oollage techn1que~ C(ln1r.lÍ.lC1

iu hallad opera. '188- 89 111 Baroquc. 445. 458 59 111 l»r1ók's mus,c, 8-13 :is b:isie fe:tmre of\tfe.$1ern music. 1008- 9 w Bcrg"s u.1u.s1c. 827 111

Debussy':; music. 795

i u lves'a music. 851-52 111 btcr1wçnticd,

c<:nturyo,usic. 924, 955- 56. 957. 985- 86

in S:11ie's 1m1sic. 609 111 Stoc:khau.scn ·s mustc:. ?35 rn S,rauss'smusfo. ?89 rn Stra,•m$L)··s miu;u.•. 832 1n rwen,y-fl rtt-cenmry mus1c. 100'1-S,

1006.1007 l\ormy:in.slr.7, l)m1m, 649,652 Bos6inc:ni;h~. f'rancísco. 245

A104

lnd ex

Bo•l<>n. 615~6. 650. 756 BoUicelh. S:ioliro. 152

Bo,danger. Nad13. 742.892. 899. 926. 964 . 978 Botole,.• Pierre, 796,895,935, 946 •~ oondueMr. 96'1 dee1ro~ôlCúUSliCIUU8kOf, 981

as IRCA.\I d1rector. ?70 serfal mos;cof, 924. 930. 934. 935- 36, 938. 957 8oorgeol8, Loy,. 221. 221,223 Bowic, Ua\·id, 966. 979

Luwrng. 304 bow.59 1

viohn.·120 Boycc. Wilham, '196 Brah.:un. David. 71 'l Brahm, ,Johann<ll, 719. 724- J2, 725,729 ich1(',·emen, of. 730 :ie!ltheticdii.pute with W:tgnerues. 720 21 8ad1'& uú1ueoeeo11. 46 1

b;ogrnphy oí. 725 cfounLer musk: of. M2. 728

or.

d 1ora1 mnsic 730 inOuence of. 751. 752. 755. 783. 807. 813

lves·s quoutions of, 850

Lieder of. 601 orchestr:il mus1c oí, 639 ptano mmm; oí, n2.729 reception of, 139 Scbumann·s: ad,•ocal')' of. 602

songs oí, 729 30 symphonicsof. 722. 72-4-27, 718

ln dex

reccphon or. 739

6)'rnphonies uí, 639, 73'1-36. 739 asWagner12n. 72 1. 732 BrUckwald, 0110 . 688 Bmge,. 152. 167. 173 Bnund , Antoine, ) 95 Bnmcllcschi, Filippo. 180.180 Brusgels, 173. 668, 948 Bnt$1'-''erk. 398. 399

Br)'dgu. h mes. duke of Cll:rndos. 452 Rrymn, Tim, 174 buccma, 20 B~1d1l2, Doo:.ild. 949 Blidmer. Ceurg, 82'l

Buddhism. 940 liu(fe1. l.J.mi:s-Aut,,f\1ste. S9J Buhnenícauipid. 684

Bulgarfa, 90•1 Rulg:tri:m Wom~n'sChnir, 960. 966 Buli. John . 276 b,Jllyre, 6 7. 7 llulow. Cosima von. 685. 722 Buluw, H, n, vun, 685,721. 722, 722, 726. 745

compo~tni; in. 715. 890-9 1 popul:1r musicof. 378. 879,891 brc:i.kd:incing. 973

Hreclu, Benoh. 857.88 1 8rcil, Joseph Carl. 773

BrenJel. franz. 730 Brentano, Ckrnen~. 597 brev,, ?2, 11 6-17, I 19.13 1 Brt:,•iary.51 8ris10w. CC'.'<>rgt' Fn:Jcr-ick. 675 Bnhsh Emp1rc, 750-52

l7S

180 86 mo1e«s:ind cham senings. 180

Buri,srndy.duchyoí. 167.173. 173-71. 189 8uruttm Onwru.A. Courbel. 681.682 Rurkc, ~dmund ,539 Bur-leigh. Harr,.•1'.. 7 48-49 burlesquc:. 654. 675 Burhu~rton. carl uf. 452 Rnrncy. Clw lcs, 468.5 13, 521 Busuoys.Autoinc:: (Bu&nois). 19~95. l98. 211 - 12 Bu1ler. l ltlen May. 774

61mehude. Oie1erich. 398 b,ography oi. 398 conccnaro ehorales or. 397

Car1ss1011. Ciàcomo. 331 . 336-37. 363 Conn<n, 6i,c1. 705, 705. 718 Carmina burom1. Orl'í. 885, 901

C.:ic<:ini. Seu i111ia, 320----2 l

eanon, 193 9'1

cacc13, 132 oíSchoenbcrg,82 1

Corrnwol, S<hum,nn, 608. 609 10. 610. 639 Carnegie llall (NewYork), 708 cuol. 168- 69.1 72-73 carolc. 82 Clrolinc, Q\ICCn of England. 452

111 s1xlct:ull1ee111ury, 227 ofStrannsky, 837

Curem.sei. Kodgc:rsand Hammcn;lctn, 9 17 Carr.:ieç,. Agos1111.i, JQ9

nmetecnth cenrury. 576. 578 83, 6~H.

Carra~J. Amubale. 283

Reu.iussancc. 268. 275

cadcncc in l\urgun.di:in ch.:mson, 176 closcd. 83

decep11ve. 693 double lçad1ng-ionc, 139 fr.111co-flt: nush, 195,227 "Landu,,. • 133. 135. 140. 176 ln middlc 10 li1c eigh1etmh cenm,y

rnusic. 472. '173. 526-27 iu mo1e1s. 107. IO'l mus1c3 fleta at. 138 39 open, 83 Phryg»n. 139 pla0'31. 74~ in l\enai55ancç musiç, 150 in toccatít$, 3-13

in nri:ti,3 0<1 oíBacb.142 ,n ooncrnos, 517, 548~19, 576. 637 ofCor<ll,.388 of 6 19- 20

u.,,.

Codmus t:J Hemucmt. Lully. 378 c~fé.. concerr. 706,716 C<>ft·concrrt aur A.mba.ssodt:u~. Dégas. 706 C.ge, Jol,n, 853, 895,924.939, 939- 43, 954,

957 ch:mce mosic o(, 9'10-'13 and Debussy. 796

;utluenee ui, 963. 966. 968 pem1ss10:n works of. 939. 946 prepared a>i:tno workg of. 940. 946 S31ie·•mflueneeun. 809

1weh•e: rnnc ,trorks or. 939 Cainc. Uri. 100 1

cakew•I~. 775 C:ildcr.Alcx:indcr. 943 CaJdel'ón de fa &rca. Ptdro, 375

Brihsh rrms1c, S1."C' f. nglis h o r 8ri1il$li 1111.1.sic

dance $Ul tt'$ o r. 403

calland response. 676. 75?. 864. 865. 900 Coll Me Madam. Berlin. 861. 9 l7 C•ll•e. M•na, 677

8rmcn, B.cnp mm. 924,928 29.929. 944,957 broads1de. 494 8 rondwood & Soni. 590 BrodskyQuartel. 963 Bron1.e A~c m6tnun cmt. S Brosthi, C:irlo.Ste t·arintlli

org:,n m,L, ;çoí,397,399-401, 405,438,727

C.:ih1n, Jt.:in. :i.nd C3l\-tnism, 16 1,213, 2M,

8rosses. Ch:arlcsde. 292. 416

8rowu. Earle. 943-44 Brown, J~mcs. 9 16 BmwnSugar, D'Angdo, 997 Browne, Auo'l.l.$t:., 623

tOCC3la.8 OÍ. 344

rrio .sonatH of. 1103 Byrd. William. 22S biug.. phy ui, 225 churc-h mu&icof. 22-i 26,240 conson songs of, 260 \'ari:alion.s of. 276. 277 Byron, George Gordon, Lord . 634-35 By,:an11nt:cham nnd hturgy. 2U. 45. 48, 60 Bp.s11Hinc ~:mpire, 25. 38, 61, 68. 1-45

Hru.beek. Uavc. \10'1

8nickner. Amon. ?34. 782 cl10ral mustc or.135-36. 739

iníluencc or. 783

cabalen,. 659. 661. 662. 665. 700 Cabamlles. Juan Baulisu José. 377

cabarcl 706. 7 16,772.879. 1001

C:mgnan. Prinee of, 426

chacooa. ch:u~onnc, 331 . 343,348 4?, 366. 374,377. 726-27. S.:,om p•,.•<•gha Ch,dwick, George Whiic~eld. 754, 90~ Chaliapm. Bons. 799 Cholon, Alfrcd f.<Jword.670 ehambcr music. So: ol!io initrumen1aJ mu$ic:

CcrnJtJ,. Jkr,mci u, 95,t

Càdeoza

gcnre&and h:xlun: iu .

Canbl,e;an muisic

C.ic;tini , Ma r ghcrit.i. 320-2 1

6oonrnlemi. Derruirdo. 30'9. Jl(), 312 burden. 168. 16? Burgkma.ir. Hans, 26? Burgthenter (Vu~nna), S•t-4. 54-1 kurgundu.n music, lbS, 173-87 cadencc fo rmubs or. 176 ch:u1suni. 175 76, 118 -79 coimc,politan siyle ar. 175 1Ua8Sf8,

Canbbcan mus1c. See l.,un Amcrican :md

canciún. 2•13

c:.ideoli:ie du riu~cube. 3 40. 34-0

branle. 271

musical liíe in, 890 n in~!IC:clll 11· ce111 ury, 588 parlor songs ut. 601 5 rwenriedt·cenrory. 856. 925

Cacdm.Cml ,o.302. 308 9.3 10 12.320. 347

buo,,u fisliuola. Lu. Cc,.ldom. d82

Brur1d<,1burgC011"r1os. Bach, H2 Rrnque, G<orge,. 770-7 1 8rax1on. Ty. 1001 8,·otil, 994

C.berón, An ,omo de. 275 76 caeç1a, 13 1, 132- 33, 198.S«u4o chaçc C.i«ini, fr.sneesc2. 320-21

AlOS

220 23. 228. 240. 496 C:tl1:a1Jígt l\a.nicro de. 49i. 493 eambi.u.a, 2:J 1 c.mbrai. 152. 151. 177. 178 ComdWrth-'<Jtl, Tht. (radio l)t'Olfl'3.m).858 C.:itf1erata. f torernine. 31O. 327 Camorra. lo, Pi;moll.a. 965 Campcown Ra.c:C'~. Fo:sier. 676

C.amuccrni, Viocenzo.658 C.a.mus,Alben. 90•1 (.:;in:1d,i baod~ u1. 774 oomposen. 890. 954,984 f'rcnch C:uholíc:. music in, -196

nr 8•nók, 845 of BiUings. •196 in

in 1wt-mie1h·cem\ll')' muslc. 953. 977-78, 984. 985. 988 ufWcbcru. 829.830 canso. 7S. 78 <>n1'bile. 659, 660-6 1, 664-6S, 700 C!lnl:ll!I, 329. 33 1 32 uf Bael,. 437. 727. 827 eigh1ecmh ·«nnuy. '108. '409. 4 13. 42 1, 422. 134-35. HH6. 451 Prokofu:v. 886 87 ors~i...o.,.nb-e-rg. 8 1'3 se,·entccn1·h ·cen1ury.331- 32. 362. 379.

1)f

381-82.396.397 c.imc Jondo. 892

Carricra. Kos.-.lba Giovanni, 486 Carrugis de: Ca.rmunc:teUc:. Lou.is. 542 Carroll. Lewi•. 990 Carier, Elllon, 892,898.924, 937-38. 1006 C:1n1so. f.nr1c,o. 677. 768 Cu.sablar100. fft lm). 874 Cas3110V3. C10,•3n ni C1acomo, 1l26

C:u;,ena, l'hilippusdc. 127-2?. l28-29. 137 C:isli, Jvl11my, 9 12

c.an1ioualstyle. 220 Con,wne.s socroe. Schou:, 338 39 can1or. 55. 57, 239, 437-38 "''"'"·· 126.129, 157.176, 195

Catlno1tl!i1. C:1ner. 1006 c.alhC'.'d.ra.1 s.c.buul. 70 C:ithcnnc oí ArJgon. 223 Ca1htrine ol' V.ilois. 167 C:uherinc 1he Cre:11, empress or Russi:1. 463.

988 cantui· Ílrmus/Jmuat1oil m a,'6$, 182,202.209 canms.-flrmus m:is.s. 181 - 82. 184- 86.1 93.

191. 196-97. 206. 208. 209. 227. 229 ('aútu, · r,rmut,; v"rlatiuoi. 34 8 Can t ' f'J la la1uaa m~-er, 1\crnari de v~n1;adorn, 7S Can.:on septmtilQtua.8. C:1br-1cli. 284 e.inzona. 265,281. 3<t3, 317 cnscmblc. 284. 285. 321. 343. 347 variaiiou. 317. 381.400-10 1 çan1.onet. 260,261 e,n,onen,. 255 .31~. 328. 3Z? Canumim. Pc1r.:1rch. 24? 1.'..aptLaluuu. 29 1. 8-81 c.opit<u•. EI, Sous... 717 capr-icc10, 343, '40 1 Capnttio~fpog,1ol, Rnnslty- Koffl:iL:o,•, 741

465. ?07 Cars. UoydWcbbcr.327, %2 Cauanc::o. Claudia. 3 16 c•ud• (pi. caod><). 100 Cavallcn. Em,hode.308- 9,311. 3 12 Conill,no 111s1,oana.. Mase3gni, 702 Cav,lh. Frane<!l<o. 322. 323. 332.356

Ca,•:inoni, Ghrolamo. 274. 281 Coi:-e, 1'fw. lleich, 978 Cn1:ui, i\l:111ri1io, 383-84

CeciH:m mm•c:mc ut. 648. 735 C,lt.stiol Com1rrr. 'nu•, htcs. 848

Cdos oun df'lai~maurn. llidalgo. 375

Cdtic ch.tul, 28 c,11•. 28. 11 C..n10 oonttrti L-Cclesio.stici, Vfadan.i, 333-3•1 Ciphale t'C Procns. J:icquel de: b Cucrre. 365

Ct-ren-w,~10/CatíJl.$,A, 811uen, 928 Ccrmmes, Miguel de. 292. 373. 738 Ces11, An1oniQ, 322,323.33 1

no. l'/fJ

Wptcu11 Siood UJLm). 8(1

<.:êwnnt:, l':iul .

e:i~. M:ireheno. 245

Chab.1non. Mtchel- P~ul·Cuyde, '161 Chabric r, Emmnnucl. 791 d1o1cc. 132-33. &e obu c.icda

Cara,-am,'lo.1i1chclangdo Meri.st da. 2-15. 246 Caribbc.u,. Eu,·opean colonics in, 290

{WCOHÍClh

ctnru,y. 930 33. 934 38. 967

chambcr sonau.$4,t sonau, da c.imera Chamb<innihcs, faélJUC::$ Cb.ampiun de. 363 Champa.J,'l~c. Clnt1do. 890 ch11ne~. 763. ?2-1, 940--43.Stt-olto

inde1ermin.:icy

eh:mtou. 126 A<8Nov., . 126 27. 14 1. 157 ArsS,1b1ilior. 127-29 F.ranco-t1cnusb, 190- 92.1116. 202,258

t:.1ch. 372 ca1echomeos. 50

SS.

639-43, 651. 728. 742

Bu'W-'ndi::m. 175 76, 178 79

cantllen.a. 168. l 72. 179 c:imiJbrion. 24 . 2.39. 3,u

e:uuusfmuus. 103.181 82.1 83.184 184 86, 188,2 19.224,445

534-36, 547.640. 642

C""o di,•o, BeWni. 664, 664-65, 675

Canl,guJ~<S,rnto Mori<>, 72. 80.81

Canmt in memoriam lknj<imi.n Bn"rte.n. Van.

ll>roqtoe, 343,347.422. 423,435, 412 eigh1t:cnd1· ~n1ury. 499. 500-502. 522.

c:uu;.ation. 517

Casuglione. Balda.s.sarc. 212. 213 Ca.srorer PQltu%. Rameau. 428 ca~trato ( pi. caair,1h). 32 1, 111 - 1'.l. '453. 486 C.1sul1n:1i, Ma(idalen:i.. 253 C:11:ilam.Alfrcdo. 702 Ca1alau1, Angclic:i.. 660 Cow/Qgued·o'-St'(lUS, MC6siacn. 930 C.a1.alunia. 371

Cc11thrrtiu7Tult!I. Ch.. uccr, 113 e:m1i c.,rn:isciales.ehi, 198 99. J99 é'.t1U1de. 5 1. 54 -56, 180 Ccuuic1m1 socmm, Srra,·md.-y. 831 c.uuig.i. 80. 125

spn;ifu:gt11M, irutrurrw11IO-lia11..t. cmJ oomposers

Frcnch si>.1ccn1h~ccnmry, 241 . 257- 59, 263. 281 P.1ns1.a.n popufor. 8?9 ohans<in de ges1e, 7 1 eh2nsonnie r. 74 . 78. 83

Chanronnitnl'.Arro.s. 78 cbam, 27 28.Seto40Gn:,gori:111cha111 Ambros1an, 28 Ashl;.çn.àti, 239

Byi.a.tUinc. 28 norn1ion oí. 32-37 Old Roman. 31 Sanuu ritc.167 68 e-hant eydc. 60 ,~. J:iinequin, 258 chant di:a)t'c1s. 28

ch'1t'H de$Oi.&tnu.r,

chapd, 151 52 Rurgundian. 174

Eugfah. 151-52. 224. 226. 452. 456 . ·196 Frcnch. 15 1 52.354,362 Ctrrna.n, 396 Spanish colom:.il. 3?5. 376 Citar. Rent'. 936 çharacicrp1c«,423 24 .595

orn,..hons, 726, 729 of Debu,sy. 795 of h ·cs.850 oí l.isn. 62 1 oí Mcnddssolm, 607

oíMusorgsky, 746- 47 ofS<-humau1l. 608- I J.6il-23 chari\r.1ri. l),f Charlettl.águc. Holy Rot.n.an cmpcmr. 29. 30. ·15, 69, 7 1. 876 Charlc•, Ray, 9 16,916 (;h:1rles 1, duke ofKourbon. l'J I

ChaJ'les L kmgof Eugl:uid. 368 69 Chorlcs 11. l<ingoíf.ngl•nd, 369. 370. l72 Charles lV, kingofFranoc.166

lnd ex

A106

Cluirlcs V. ~foly Rom.in emperor, 190. 20l. 223, 226, 234 Charles VI. Holy Romancmveror. 482.491

Chi!rlesX. kingof F°r.)nce. 667 Charlu the Bold. duke of Bur.b'\mdy. l 7<f.

189.190 Charpcnhcr, Mart-Antoine. 363

ch,rt, ?11 ,919 Chat Noi.r(P;1ris). 706

Chaucer. Geofírcy. 113. 127 Ch.:ive1, Carlo6, 891- 92.8?8 O,wp /11111orum, C.:agc. 943 Chen Y1. 968

Cl,er, 999 Chcrub1m. lmg:1. '192

Cl1csre.r. Billing::s. 496 <:htar°"uro. l-i9 50

Clucigo. blues in, 865-66 Ch1c:1go Sympbony Orc.hes-tr:1. 754 Chtlde. \\13.rn:n. 60S Chi/d, 1/an,ld. llyron. 634- 35 Cl1ildn:n ·s Conu:r, Debussy. 791-95 Chi1u aJld Chincsc mueic, 8. 904. 919. 959. 961. 966. 96-8. 994. 1002. 1009

ch1L1rronc. Su 1heorbo Cbodow1eda. Daniel N1l..olaus. 468 chotrbook, 191 chu1rsehool, 152

Chopin. Frydcryk. 593,615 Uiug-raphyoí.615

Rrahms's edilion oí. 725 complc:lc works cdiúon. 720

lnd ex

chornlc prcludc, :H:1, 34fl, 40 1- 3. 556 R.içh. •1•10 cboralc v::triations. 343, 397.401 2 Owrolu Co,1.s.u1,uuu.1s. lsaa('. 198. 226. 829 chord. concep1 or, 302. 1125 Q(

a,,;,..,. Vill•- wbos.891 chol'll,(injm). 866. 870 71 cboru, (in songs), 158. 7$8, 860 Chou Wt.n· ehung, 968 Ouur1s1E,srond~n. Lut.her.218 Otr1.s.re, l'tdempLOromnmm, Ou F.ay. 180 Qinste lfodemptc,rummum (hymn), 56. S6 ChJ•lshanily,4. 47, 78.Seeobochul'Ch music, c:nly Clm~Lian

diff11sion of, 22 23. 23 division.s ln. 25. 2? Chris11n.1. qut:cn oí Swedcn. 325. 387 Chns11ne or Lorr.l1ne. 308 Chrisrm•s. 47. 53. !i4. 56- 57. 58. 61. 63. 94. 97. 168-69. 234 Propcr íor. 50 51 (Jiri.crmos Historr. $chtm:. 341 CAl'lstuph~ Culomb. Millláud. 879 0irU'l'IH. Li.li~(.

733

Chnsry. Edwin P.. 676, 676 Chnsty's Min.strds. 675 ebrCJn\31t<"ge11us. 1S. 19 chroma11csah1ratton, 737,816. ü 17. 820- 21.

893 chrcun:ahci!lm. 160 1n Jlu1eteeutl1 ccruu,y muitC. 615, 620 21 .

672. 693 94,734, 737. 743. 755

Coll.$Ch.alk vitwcd by. 622 inOuen«oí. 618. 709. 795. 80 1. 898

in :sc:,·cnlc:cnlh-c:eutury musit. 302. 381 ins1xte~ruh centui-y nHl.!uc.160. 25 1 52.

~, pi:rnis1. 566. 592 piano mus1c or. 606. 613-17. 622- 23. GSG.

in twen11etl1 ·cC"mury music. 786. 788-89.

111.19 1, 809. 1006 q uolation8 rrom. 985

Cl!lra Schum!lnn :tnd, 602 Schumann ·s :advoc.n ')' oí. 602 Cllorol llfm11S/rom1l1</1ogV<da. llolSI. 804 chr,,ral music. &e al$c, lp.tcificcompon:r5 nnd gcnrts Frcneh Rc,·oluhonary. 562 nineteen1h-c,cnn.11y, 62-1. 643-5 1, 730. 733. 735- 36. 739. 751 - S2. 84 7 volydoural. 283 84. 333, 396, 495 n<en01crh-cc1m11y. 751- 52. 837- 39. 880, 886. 889. 928. 957. 98? ehural soc1ct1c~. 263,461.589. 624, 6"4. 616

chor.rk 2 13.21 (, 18. 240 oíBacl,. 827 conocn3to. 397 ofFranck, 742 llu.s.sitc, 7-47-48

Menddssohn'suseoí. 646 Mcycrbecr's use oí, 669 polyphonoe 6orting,, 218-20. 348, 40 1, 438.•140 1uuesou.rét'il lor. Zl'( chor:ile cant2rn. 445. •147. •1"8 ch1Jralc fan1a.15ia. -101 chc,rale m~m. 2 19

255 813. 815.828.832. 907. 96S Chock D. 974 churehc,lendar, '17, <l 'l ehurch mus ic.Anglic:m. 161.16 4. 213. 224- 26. 372. 452. 496. M8. 751.

805. 928 church rnusic. Baroquc: Angl,c,n. 372. 452 Lutheron. 337--4 1, 393. 396-403. 433. 438-40. 443--48 Rom,n Cathohc. 290--91. 332-37. 362-63. 376. 383 84.392. 396.451 church llHl.itC, early Clm~hao, 24--'IS :mciem Grcek influenoc, on, 25. 39. 41 43.45

nyun1ine, 28 chant dialects. 28 t:lmrch leadcrs· philosophy ur, 2S rn&trnmtnl&' cxc-lu&ion l'rom, 25 Jewish lirurgie.il infiuence on. 23-24, 60 church rnusic.cightccnth~cen1ury. 477.

495 97.512- 13.536 37.556 church nnu;u;. l.ud1crnn e1gh1een1h-oc:n1u1y, 433. '1 38---40, 443--48, 4Yó

oinerter11h · cemury, 648 SC\'Cntecnth -ccmury. 331- -11. 393.

396-103

six«en1J,- ccnrury. l6I. 164,213.215 20. 240. 274 (:'hu~h musi,c, mf'diev:i.l, •18-66, 84- 110, 113 tl.turch musk. mueceeuth c:tntury. 6'18- 50 eh\lrch music. Heform:mon. 145, 16 1. 16<1. 213 Anglican. 11, 1. IM. 213. 224-26

Calvinist, 161. 164. 213. 220- 23. 240 Lnthcran. 161.164. 213. 215- 20. 240, 274 ehureh nmsi,c, Koman C~1h0Jic

8,roquc. 290- 91. 332-37. 362-úJ. 376. 383- 84. 392,396.451 crghrccnih-ccnrury. 512 13. 536- 37, 556 nmt:lcent h-oenhuy, 6-18 Rcn3L&s:mcc. 145. 2 13. 226 39. 240. 274 IW(:1Uitlh Ctnl\11')', 66 church nmsic. Ru~ian Onlmdox. 649. 6S2.

ClcmenLi, Mm:io. 5G6. 606 cl.:ml"1tw J1 flto, La, ,\(c1:i111:1sio, 482 83

t•kml"1ua d1 T,ro. W. Slozart. S56 Ckojid,. 11,..e. 484,486,487

Clcomdcs. 15. 16-17.41-42.1 59 CléJ'a1ULauh, Louis Nic:ulas. 422 Cl<>Ck Sympbony. llaydn. 533 Oonn.d)•, orT1ttOngin ofih,-CakllW<Jlk. Cook. 115 Oon•moso. tbtUo. Scad,11i .381 83.382 Clo.tucrman. John, 370 doud -dl.ll.mLcr buwls. 946 Coctcau, Jc:m. 809. 878. 878

ooda, 507.55 1-52 Codcx Cakmnu.s. 89

Con,wr, C.1gc, 942 ç(n·1ç,ert lnmd, 920. &.· al10 b.a11tl:s and b;.n(I mtl!lie CtmCé.•rtclw,mp,etn:. PouJeoe, 880 concen é111dc. (i 14 Ccmtwt in tl1e Gard.:11, Schneidcr. 996

conccrtato mcdrum, 301,328 29. 333. 341, 376.396.397. •108 ccmcened m:adrigll, 3 0 '1. 329 conce.rlo.301 . 3?0. Set also piano concerto:

11.,

oír-alla, 804 oí Handel. •159-ú0 oí lligdon. 1007 of \loian. 548-50 of Pi:u•,1.01:1. 965 .,...d. 301 . 332- 35. 337. 33?-40. 362.

Chul"(!hi.U, i='l:':u1k. 874

College B:wd D1rec10~ K:11110,1:111 A(:'1}0C1.: 111on .

ofSh01:t::a.kovid1. 889

c1aceC103. St."C cha.oon3, chaco,rnt Cícero. 20, 1H. 158 Ciconfo. Joh.ionc:s. 152. 153

920 co1legmm nmslcum. 393. 143. 443 Colhn,, Jndy. 141

ofSrr~vinsl·y. 837 oíT1ppe1t. '95-t

c1nquillo, 622 tiphtr, muskal, 611

Colloredv, H1eronyrm1t;, archhi.sliop, 5-10,

circle of Mrl>s, 388-89

Coluu.n.a. V1ttona. 253 Colonne. F.dooud. 74 1 color, 118- 1'I. 932

681

citll:s. growtlt oi. 69. 146 Cm:en Kam• (film). 91() çitok, 131 cit1cn1, 131 Civd Rtghc.s tnonmu:u1 , 906. 915. 9 16 Ch; J W:ir, Americ:an, 679 clappers. 7. 9 CIApton. E,-Jc. 914. 938 Clnrc. Samc. 84 Clori,

Bishop. 604

cbrinet. 5 0?. 591.625 Clar·ke. huie• P.• 605 Clarkc;, Kc:nny, 909

CJ.rkson. Kelly. 997 el:i.ssicblues. 863 64 Classic ptrtod, 117 1- 72 ~Cl:t.$..sic:11" as 1cm1. 471 d~ical rmusic. •l 70- 71 , 753 cJ:i;54ic.al r<:p~rto1rc. &e rcpenou·c. çlass1cal ,1,,.1ca1 sryl<. 462, •169, "71. 557.St< abo -c igh1een1h- cen111ry music: cmp íutdt:trn .&tylc: Ef.tla1u s1yle; $prci.fircomposi"r, cfa.usuJa. 97 .. 11 8 8Ub8111Utt:, 9 7

clavecin. St.>t harpsiclu:,rd cl:tvecinis1s. 3(13 cfa., 1cemb:tlo. &e harps1d10rd

clancbord.U7. 269,401, 500.511 Clayton, Tho,mas, 452 elef signs. ::SS, 11!) C'lemc.ns. JaouUu.s. 223. 226. 258 Clemem V. Popc, 112 Clemen1 LX. Pof>C, 32 1

543. 556

co)Or;)IUr-1,

'i 54

eolorc&, 96

('.olrrane. John. 908. 909- 10. 921. 938 Columbia Recordi. 769 Cohunbfa Uni\ c1·si1y. 754. 9~8 Columhia - Pnnc;,ç1on 1-:leclrnnic Musu:,Sludio.

948-49. 949 Columbus. Christopher. 145. 190 Combouuriemo di Ttrncl't'dJ t' Glonndo, Monu;Ycrdi. 319

combo.jàu. 90?- 8 Come Our, l\erch, 976 11. 978 comédie-b•ller, 356, 357 com,c opera. Stt oper;i hurb: opera conuquc. OU UlJOcdlá JelJ·arte, 478, 789 commedrn per mus1ç.ri. Sec opera buffo. Cornmon M:arl..c1, 905 Communion. 47. 49. 50,51. 56. 60 eo1nmurusm. 902. 904 . 959. Sttolso Suvic1 Union

oompact disc. 769. 961. 969. 996. 997 ComPiJn.1. Sondhcim. %2 Comp~re, l.oyse1, l62. 195 oompc1i1ions. 12. 20 Compcm111u•11i1 mus1tal1, Vu:uu:i. 335

compo&cr1J org.1ni1,31ions, rwcnticch ccnnu)'.

878. 885-86, 893. 898 001,,1><>t1ho11, coi1c.çp1 o(, 85, 88, 91 - 92. 16 1 U>111pm.1tw11 I '16U No. l. You.ng, Y4::i

C<>mposu,on 1960 /'lo, 7. Young. 975-76 computcn; ;ind eompulcr mu~1c. 969-70.

1005. 1009

in3ncicrnCrcekmusie, 13. 16 17,39 inAn; Nova s1ylc. 11 8.123-24 iuArsSu.b1iliora1yle.129 1n Baroque mus1c. 302. 425 m L\urg11ndian ch:,n,on, 178 rn Counlcr- Rclonn;jtiun mu.Stc. 23 1

e1ghleenth ·ccntmy mus ic.537 Enght;h polyp11ony, 107-8, 167.168 m F'r:anoo flc.mudt mu.!ltc. 190. 227 111 Frrnch chansou. 257 in ninc1ccmh · ccn111ry music, 693- ~4. 737 iu rc<:ila1ivc :stylc. 3 13-14 111 Rcna1$aancc music, 144 --45. 15<1 55.

cl1l1rth i.onata. Su sonata da chi<"~

747. 989

oon•m·aronc,. 4 11,5 14 .562. 588. 608. 707, 713. 742,743,754 , 1002 eousouaucc and d1ssouaucc.&t!al.W hanttOll)'

111

of D,•oi-ák, 7.f8 c:1g.htct•0Lb- ccutury. 408. <113. 503, 515- 17

coj)ud,,d<la csrl,yu. Los. Arauju. 316.3?? Cohan. Ceorge M., 772, 111 C.,lbr>n, 1,abell,. 658 ü,ld W>r. 904 5. 959 CJJcma.u. Üri)ettc. 909. 966 oolbge rcchniq,>c, 763. 352. 924 . '135. 95556. 970. 985-86 Collect. 48. 53

cl\\1rth musi,c, "''cn11cth ctnt\ll')', 66. 805. 928. 989 Church o(England. 2l.f.223- 24. 240. 290. 6-l8 Clturch uí th-é ftesu1·1-cction (St. Peteriburg).

1..-onscious rap. 974

u><arly polyphony. 40. 86. 87, 96, 107

violirtt conceno

oíBach,

A107

156.157, 164. 167. 230-3 1 5ccond practicc. 297- 300. 316

tu SC','eutceuth- ttutuJ}" muiJc:. 318-19.

391

339

sc,"Cnccc;nch· eennny. :iO 1. 3'4:i. 380.

390- 9 1.405

in ii.xtt:(':nth-ccntury m.idrig;a;Js, 249, 2.5S 111 tw.:nttelh- ccintul')' mullic, 786,787, 788- 89, 79 1- 92.815. 832, 831- 35,

ofVivoldi. 415- 21.418- /9. 430- 31. 439. 467.503 conceno delle donne. 253, 320-21 ccmccrlo í1r-t11 - mcwemcnt fo rm. 5 15 16. 517.

541.548-49. 637 con«no gro..o. :m1. 416. 459- 60. 985.

111

s,,.

af.sUÇtlnCt:110

ton«rta. Jfüblic

e1gh1cen1h-cemury. <1 10. <122. •134. 442-43. 457- 58. 465- 68. 476. 512. 519.532- 33 n1nc1ccn1h ~ccm\11)', 602. 618. 624 27. 628. 640.610. 717-18, 74 l-42. 755-56 scvcn1r;eml1· cenrury. 291. 296. 373. 378. 393.398 iwemierh cemury, 890. 970 71 Ccmet:ns royrrn:.x. Cuupc:rin. 423

Co-nccrtsSplr.itutls (Pá.ris), 422. 466-67 Corieord Sonac.a. h •es;. 848. 852 cond11ciing. 357

condueton. 357. 626. 722.125. 782-83. 811. 900,9 17 18 eonduc:tus hockers in, 119 wouopho1Lic. 70

polyphonic,ll5. 99- 100.1 07. 108 Confasioru. Augw.-i-inc. 26 Cc,11f<.uio11s c,fcm En~flish Opmm Ear<.r, De Qmncey. 631 confr:uernilies. 80. 283. 316, 333 congregau<,mal 5inging. 216. 274. 438. 496 Congn:aa oíVJenna. 561. 584 CC>1lJU1lCl, l(i con1101ss1.mnsh1p. 468,469,527, 568, 57S. ,')fl'S,!>8 1, !>H3.bU~ b,6 14,61'/.C,1:H.

637. !18. 730. 739, 758.82•1, 854. 904. 9 14,915. ?22. 923. 924,936. 938- 39. 957. 961. 965. 991

837.843.849,851.862,874.882 8-1. 886. 892. 893.894.896-97. 8'>9. 907. 965. 982. 984. 988 eonsc.r1. or 1nstrumcnt&, 260, 267,268. 272- 73. 27S. 346.372 consor1 srmg. 260. 263 Cons1:1n11ne 1, Rom;.n emperor, 23. 25. 27 Constanunoplt-, 25, 27. 1-15 1,.'<IOICmpoí3ryChris1t:u1. n\uJ1e, 974 conteua.né<: anglotsc, 165. 166. 167

Conrin,•nrol llom1011y, 1ru-, füllings, -196

continuo. Stt basso c:ontinuo t.'OtUIJHt<I iustruwents, 301 . 415 Conrnl mo,um ti rtrnp1u. Rochbcrg. 955 oon1r.,b~.ssoon, 625 contr.ií:ac:t (j.aiz). 810. 908 contl"3fa<"turn, 74 75. 2 17. 218 con1ra1enor, 121.1 26. 129. 137, 170. 17-1,

176 contralcnor.:ihus. J 82 eoo1r;nenor" bó\.$$US. 181: con1rcdans~. 531. 554

euu•·.... •. 51 . 64-65.84. 152.334- 35 Cook. Will Monon. 775 cool jan., 909. 965,967 CooJ)er. J:imCJi Fenimor<e. 588

C.plaud.Aaron. 893.899. 899- 900. 902. 925 Boulnngcr nnd, 892

Mm music or. 919 Jvcschmpiontd by. 901 reeépuon oí. 901 seri.:il work$ of. 933 wi.nd en.scmhle muStc of. 920

copia. 243,376 Odi.bcs. 70-1

Coppf'l1a,

Copr2rio. Jnhn, :Hb t-opyr1ghl IS8Ut!S. 658, 970. J000

C~ulrier. 365 66,366 Corbu•ier. Lc. 9•18. 918. 950

COC}lli'Ht''1U'tU0$t. /,o,

lnd ex

A108

lnd ex

Cordicr. Jean. 153 Coré:., Cl,icl, 965

CorrU1. Arcaugdu. 305. 380. 387 b,ogi-,phy of. 387 conL't:rli g-russi oí. 391 . -t 16 iníluen« uf, 413.121- 22. 423. 42?- 28. 459 as orchcstra lcader. 390 son,o,sof.386--119. •105. S81 U.m;aJUy m U)USIC of. 306 cori s 1)ci1~11.

284.337

Congliano, John. 985-86 Cornar o Íàuuly. 294 , 295 Cornc1llc. Ptcrrc. 292. 356

Cornehus. Pe1er. 604 Carner. Plulip. 945 cometi. 136. 267,267.282 cornu. 20, 20

Corsi,J>copo, 312

Covcnt Cardc n Thcain~ (l.ondon). 628 cvvcr~. 913 cowboysong!i. 911

Cowcll. Henry. 853,893.895, 895-96. 902. 945 J\si.;mfiiníluenced wur-ksof. 954 C"l(• tnílucnccd by, 939. 940

,nflueMe of, 898 J,·cs çh.:tmp1oned by, 90 l ffCow pcr a.nd Gore Fam1lld, Tltc. ª 2oflany, 501 Cuyze,•ox, Animnc:, 357 Cou.c>l.:u\i, Chi:i ra Marg:iri,;i, 335,337 Craft. Rohcrt.83 1. 840 Cr.inach, l.u<:as.215 Crawíord. Rudt. &e Secgc:r. Ru1h Crawíord Croi1 Blue-s. Smi1h. 863 Crt.am, ?14

corn!nle. Stt cour:in1e

C,V.arion. Billings, 496

Cortéi, Hcrná.il. 235

Crt:arw,i. Titt>. H3ydu. 537-38. 538. 576 crto11,m du ,,wnd,. w. MUJ»,,J. 879.898. 918

Co$i fon wuc, Moun. 553 Cu:dptns11so. l...ornd ini, '131. 198

Wl'11run-.a o/I>rom~,hru~. 'The, Hccdw,·cn, 57'1 C,eclo. 48. S0,59,167. 167-68, 181.184

Costdlo. Elvis. 963. 966

dacapoorio, 379.381 83.S.,ol6oano: a.ncttc in ehurch music, 446,495 íorm of. 39 1. 1183 in imcnnenos. 48 1

in opera bufta. 418. 480 illupc,·as, 380,405,412.453 54,491 moperas.-en3,'183 8•1

Dabuey, Ford . ?74

innuenccof, 796. 80 1,804.806. 807.84 1. 843. 853. 868. 87 1.873. 890. 893.

di~13l ::iudio worksrnrions (OA\V6), 999 d1g1tal techno log1~. ')6'}-70

Ond:t16m, 85 7

IJ(lfn~, C.1gl w110.320 Dafn,. Ptn,312 dal scgno. 483 Dali.Salvador. 85'l DatlepU,ullc 4~-rt. C;n'a;licri,311 Oafa3, Joan Ambros10. 275 d(lntno1iond.il0-lw. l.,o, 8erl10,. 633 O;imrosch. W:ahcr. 892

dante. iu mu.&1<-aJ tht'àter. 917. 957 d-'.lnce music. 868 69. Seeo4o b-'.lllct; suirc.

730.?42 m iLxtccnth ~«ntury mus1c,

J.14- 45. 1S7.

230-3 1, 266 in rwcniie1h-centmymusic, 821.823. 829.

837,843,845.882. 884,896·-"17. 937 ·38. 964 65. 967- 88 863

COU111 1)1 bluu,

eouni rymusie. 903.91 1 12. 962

Couo1ry Mns1c Hall of F':imc.i.od Mu.seu.,n CNn,hville). 962 Couperiu. Fr.m~ois. 408. 123 Brahms'• edmon of. 725 harp.sichord and chamber 1n1.1sic <>f-363. 422- 24. SOS. 791 inOuen« of. 743. 798. 878 rcceprion of. 43 1 COUJ>lt:t, 3(,8 (:Our:inle, correotc:.. 349,365, 366, 36?, 368, 403. 440

Courbet. Cu.st:we. 68 1.682 courtly lon:. concep1 of. 15- 16 Cou11oia, An•o•nc:, S90

Oebussy'sinflucnccon. 796 mfluenceof.1005.1007 cnunhorn, 2-07. 267

Crusadcil, 69. 78. 19 Crysoal Pala« (London). 615. 64S Cu.bnn m1ssi.le erls1t. 904

Cub.,n popul,rmusic, 378,705.166. ?16, 1005 cubmn. 7?0-7 1. 809. 812,832,869 cue shee1. 773 Cu,, C<.ar, 70?, 746 Cum CU4'm. po.n•utu,. l.:asJtlll, 237 C1mt sratuu/Huso. H11sulMagi.sr.-.r irwultl". V11,y.

118. 11 8 19 cumul.111i\·c fonn. 850- 51 . 955 cuucifonu writiug. 6 C1mnm_f L1tdt Vixen. The. Jnnâ(ck. 806 Clipid a11d o~a.d1, Locke/Gibbons. 369 -cut1ingcon1~sts." 907

898. 930

Jan and r~g,lmc elemerus used by, 672. 777 rm:d1enl mOuenccs on. 11 O mélodic:.s 604 orçhc6tr:tl mu1t1c of. 79S- 96 p12no musie or, 793-94 quol3hons írom. 956 re«ptto,i of, 811 songs :md :,rngc music oí. 796 timbre: uscd hy. 363

or.

266. :m. 30,1 Oionpiuq11e-s, Schmin. 174 Dlp<>m di E111<ryt. Stror,i, 331-32 direc:1 perform:ince of ch.:tnt. 52. 55 d11e jod:eyt. 906.? 13 discam, 8'1, 90. 95 96. 96. 123. 130 5uhstiu11eçla111.iulae.ind. 97. 100 di,w, 973. 992

Oou<:f'dame1ohe (Mnchaut), 12•1 l~·,-..-lk<.A~'• ll1rl,er, 927

Oowl3nd.John. 261 62

Uoxology. 56 dramaliC opera. $1"( $Cmi-oper-a Jr.anun.a cumku, o per.a burt.a dr:imm:i lflOC'OSo.S« opera buffa l>rtom llou&t. 1he, Yoong. 976 Drvamo/Gtrontms. Th~. Elg:u. 752 D~a.ntRa.mbowDfl".ám 11wrnl~r. Sdt:t!er. 984

l>reigrosch,nopc,r, lhe, \Veill/ Brcch,. 88 1. 881

Ll..·"•miPro,1. B~c,e,0,. 111. 130, 1:n

d iiico reviv~l. 997

ooul'1 ch:apel in, 338. 339

l>i.scord. $:)l:am o10. 96,t

11.1 er.ghteenth cemu,y.

Oi5t•<Jrso StJpro ia ,rumca dt•' ii1w, 1.:mp1.

Buoque. 285, 303. 349. 361-66. 368, 372 ?3. 374. 3??.423 24. 504. 772

m,doev,J. 80.82--113. 126 mnc1eem lt ceunuy, 616. 62S. 627. 652, 723 Rcu.1i1t:1~111cc, 270-73. 276,285 1wcnt1cth ccn1ury. 859. 876 d;mce p:air, 272 dance suite. St:r orchestra.1 suite: suue. 8:m>quc Dance ,•1/lagu,iu. Champai;nc. 890 d;ancing, soci3l, 270. 271 D'Angdo. 997

D'A11~eben.kao Heo,y, 363,JM IJanicryc. Su.aiato, 272 D•nleAJigluen.1 13. 131.618 Da11te Symph.ony. Lis2t. 732 Oon:asdlgens,no.s, Cin.lslera, 954 Daphrn.s l'J Clttot. R;1vel. 797 D.inn stad1. 933 O:iumlcr, llo noré, 679, 68 1 O:ive M;mhe-ws &nd. 1hc. 967 Daml. Rcmt ni, 293. 293 Di:11. uf. Oouardlo. 148,148 Dai.id. Michçlnngdo. 293. 29.1 D.avies. Petcr Maxwell. 955

d11t1unct, IG

Dêg:,s. Edgar, 706

Oisney. W:ih, 874

Ort1mm.mg, Rt,cb, 978

Ddl'redi..-i. D1w1d. 898. 990 9 1 Ddacroix, l~ugêne.615 Dclibc~. l.eo. 704 Dtti(1(1/d (ftlio) , 8?3

d1s..wmmc;c. See conson:mcc :tnd

dnims. 267. 213. Stt CÍ$O kenlednims:

O~foe. O.in1d, 410

delta bh,e•. 863. 864 65 ~n.km11l~rdrrT,mku11,1 m O.stffl"l•ich 5eries. 720 /Nnkmtllf!rduTcmk.um:r .!l('J'les. 720 Ot:rllanolude1.tl$dtt.r To1tktw.st scr1ca, 720 Ocnmark. '478

Oesc.,nes. René, 290,296,300.425, 4?S Otseàrtes de Vc:nlemUlc. J~t-quc.s. 278 l~tJ'IS. Vorêse. 895 Ot;sign for Kirv CilyCo.rt. Mofo FaçtJde. H,utmanu. ?46 Oc&pr<"l. Joitqtun. S<'.t Josqum Ocsprcz. llegoiny's Child, 1000 dc1ente. 959

Dmoh Wluds, 920 lkud.sch,- Me~~e. 1.mhcr, 2 16 11.•u.s, Deu11mrus(Tr,u::1), 32.32 deuist•ha Rtqmem. Ein, Bn h ms. 730 de,•d oprng,•arl.i1ion. 728, 728. 73'1. 807. 813.

Cuno111, Frai:aocka. 453. 454 cyclc. Si!.: m i&S cydc. 6ongçyçlc

de t.ceuw. Ton. 930

cymb,1, , S, 1. 9, 24,136.267

D<"m<Ld<1m<"1--'ferit/O~tus, commen, porro1tl Umn.u, ;\d.:imdeb Halle. JQS, IU!>-6

Diologo«t.:ll(J nm.tiooa.nllCOl't J/:ll(J m()dl'm(J, t;zd.1.Jc1, :uu JJ

De m<1Hme. Andt·1cssen. 98•1

di>logne•, 61. 63. 335

Clceho.slovJ1kü1, 856. 9011

de Mille, Agncs, 917

Cicmy. Cul. 606, 619. ?9•1

Depl1nt'.11pJ11s., Binchoii;.. 175.176, 193

Dialogues of1hi:Cannd~res. Prmlcnc. 880 D1omo11dsori 1l1eSore,oflltr$h(l(f (album). 966

D•v••· Mary. 370 Davis. Miles. 909. 918. 921. 965

,133

opcrn tn, 395. 481 drone. 9. 80. 8 1. 85. 95. 719, 798. 833. 816. 885

561

Dayofrhe Deod ltfa.n. Tht>, River;i. 891 Deinsiiruiw11er,umca. &eLluus.39

Bohem1:rn music

dimimmon (ornamcm.ition), dnninmions,

Dorscy, Tommy.869 Oos1oe\ Sl')', f'eodor, 681 double lelding-1c,ne c:tdcnc:e. 13? double motct, 102

0.C<'mb,rl?S2, llr<>wn. 943-44. 944 Declara1ton or Lhe fligbts u( Ma.u and Cith:tn.

816. 621,823.826. 987 de,·dupmcot. 507. 529. 518-1?. 512.632. 636. ?35. 745. 185. 5;0. 987 lk•il.sofl..oud.on. Tht, PcndereeJd, 951 det.in dit ,ti.lia~. Lt., Rousseau. 485-66. -188 D,a. Cmuoeu., de, 7•1. 7S. 76. 76-77 l>w.b<lli Vima,ions. Rcerhoven, 578, 1001 O,agln lc,•, Scrgc,. 831. 832. 83·1. 831,, 886

Vlcch mu.s1c. H0~ 6 . :$N atstJ tsohemta :ind

Oi1<>1l, 173 dim.inutton (of durattonL 316

Oc.,ru10H, Virgfoi~. 230

dcc,dcoce, 787,881. 885

d,• .,., 973 e1ghrecmh -cenu.1r,•. 503. 517

Crt>gcr, Joh•nn, 397 Cn,mb.Ceorge, 946-47, 956,957.967

Debussy. Cbude. 780. 79 1- 96, 792,808

e~r~llC:: $pt•t:1fu:form.t :incienl Cneel:-. 12

632,642,654. 683-85. 731,792,893 Cromwc•II. Oh"cr. 369 "croouer,." 858 Cro•by. 8ing. 858.873 cross-rdation. 726

Cnrda Amanlla. 1foutevcrd>. 297-98. 298

1km ·, C-t-,Arotmd Mut•hAnp11al\". EI.Uugto u. 870 Dorian modc, 40 42 Oori.anoc1ave$pccie&. l(t-17

Didoa"dAcne.,., Pun...:11, 3?0-?2.J?I. 378 dicgc1icmuaic. 812

Diffenm, Tra,n.t. Reach, 978

1-\ztec aud Inca. 235 ror band. 756

cruwdJi.uurcing. 996

lhchh!rliebt. Schwr:t:IJlõ. 602-3. 639 Oickcns. Charle.s. 68 t

block COllStr\lCHOn of. 852

CRmon.:.i. 38d. 385

Om1c.'11i11gTigtr, H«ldcn /)rogou (fllm). 968

6-10. 956

b1ography or. 792

Creot•• llhopsod,r. lrningron, 870 Cres.Swdl. Luke. 97 1 Crlstofori. Barto1omeo. 500 criuc1sm. mu1ttc, 435, 461.168, 588. 596.602,

cross-rh)1htu. 729. 775

L'karl1 011d ,hc Afoiden Qo3ne1, Schoben, {kt.,rl1 and Trw~figi,fárion. Str.&uM, 790 lkath 111 Vt1u~. Bnn~n. 929

Ooni1e11I. Gamno, 621,655.665 66. 686, 691. 697,699 nnnne. John, 292

IJa ,,. f,1-l.lc oor.irl'tlde d'on·t»lt, lfore, 250-5 1. 251 Da Ponte. Lorcnw. 552. 553-55. 674

Co11on Tail, Ellington. 870-71,872 CounciloíCons1ancc. l17 Council o!Trcm,61. 63.228. 228 29. 230. 240

in cightecntlt-«nlu.ry mu11ic, 164. 435. 521,524,529,531. 545.551 52 in M1ccn1h•cenmrymus ic. 144-45. 154-55.1 57.188, 277-78 in Fronco Flcnnsh musie, 191. 193 94 of l landd. 456 imio,ti\-e, 188.197.198,209.219,225, 446.580 81 iOJ31l,865 in ninc1ccn1h-ccnnuJ' music. 580-8 1,

De hJd. Audriesseu. 98,l

d 1:u;1cm:me m.o\·cmcnt. 15. 313 diatonicgcnlUS, 15, 19 di:ttome se:aleé, 8. 16 17

º"""''· 63. ó33. 956 Dic1rich. M2rlcnc. 873

Cottou Club (1 1:,rlei:n), 870--71

Countc:r- RcformaC1vn, 164, 223-29 c:<.>un1erpoin1. 85 m &roque mmm:. 297 98. 302. 438.445 Rillings' vicwson, 496 in Burgundian c.h.,1ns<>n, 176

De Qmnccy, Thumal5, 63 1 0.- Slcial, Artdriti.stén, 984

A109

GtUSlllll311i,

254

di&8ó lliUICC

Dinçr6dorf, {,"ar-1 Dincrs ,·on. 5 14. 518

di,·,. 32-1- 25. 660-61 divcrcimcn10. 517.548

divertissemcm. 356. 361, <129 Dwin,.Comt>dy. D:m1e. l 13. 131

261>. 214, 30•1 Dt.ne. l~mmc" . 676 Di.nr Vominus ( ps;1l m). 53-54, S4 dWt$JOU$.

Dixon. Ccorgt:. W:1$hington. 676 Du:on, W1lhe. 967

O) Oanger Mouse. 1000 OJ Ea,wonn. D000 DmUriJ, Dvorák. 115 Dr, Att>ntU'. Adams, 1006-7 Dr. Cmdus(ld Po.massum.. Oebussy, 7?5 Doctr-inc uf lh e Affeehous. Stt .afícctions dodrinc

Dodd•. Baby,866 Oodd,, John,vy, 866 Dodekadwrdon. Chlreanu!i. 159

Dodge, Chn.1<0, 970 DoUe. Willillm. 369 dom{n.uu. 42 5 Do mm1c. S.:unt. 8-4

Oona,ello,148, 148~ 19, lSI, 152 Do" Carlos. Vecdi, 669. 696. 704 D011 Ct(l'\•a.11ri1. Moian. 553. 554-55. SSS. 674. 699. 115 Dm1Jr,au, S1nwu, 737,738 Um1 l'asquat~. Uom:u.:u i, 6b:,

Von Qwo.,, Ce""'""'· 292. 373. 738. 801 Don Qm.1:ore, S1r;.mss. 738- 39 Don Rodngu. Cinaslc:ra. 954

pt' l'CU6SÍOD

Grttk. 9 i\lesop,otamtan. 7 prehiAloric. 5 Ju Bus. Cc1,..ês. l/4 llu l'•Y· G\Oill,ume, 17S. 176-80, 117

.r.

b,ography 177 154

ca1'Cer

or.

chanwno of. 178. 178 79. 179. 184. l 91 152. l91

homel:.nd o(,

Lt Fr,incon. 165 ma88e8 oi. 192- 93. 206 m<>1(:tsand çhan1se111ng5of. 179--8() á& pe rforrn e r, 6S-66

recepuon oí. 164. 187 l)uchamp. Ma,·ctl, 857 D11111bat1r,n. OabConceno.S1r;wmsky, 837 011mlr.y Piauo Trio. On1i-ák. 148

Don, T,n, 960 l)unsrnble, John, 165.169, 110-?I, 172, 18 1, 183, 187. 204. 208 Ouple&!u1, Jos.epb~Siffred. 4?2 duplum. %, 9S. 9fl. lOl- 2. 106- 7, 108. 119, 123

Dupo111, Gabl'lellc. ?92 dur.11io1\al form. 910 D11rrhAdt1m$ Fali. Bach, 440,440 D11rehfouchui.:r l.copalJ. Bach. 415

Durcy, Louis, 878,878 Oussd;, Jan l.;1d11;la,•, 51 4,518,566 l)u1ch mus1c, 1wenti('.1h-cenrnr,•. Y83-tJ4 Outcl1 RC'formcd Church. 220 l)mrcy, llonorf.866 llull, Hank, 967

lnd ex

A110

ln dex

D"oíák. Antonín. 748 A111eric::m muílieviewcd Ly, 748- 49',

750 5 1 inOuence or, 8•17- '18. 850 oper.asof. 715

orehcstr.il mu&ic oí. ?48-49 reccptton of, 760 Dyl,n, lloh, 915- 16. 922. 975 dynam1ct in e,gh1ecorh ~«mury musfo. 514. 526. 532. 533,550 iu nuu:lt:cut11-éc:nlury

um:sic:.593,,657-58

Edward 111. k1ngof England, 166 ~Àlw.arJ VI, l::ing-of t ugl:,ncl , 223,225 Edw:mles. George. 772 qfttr.s o/Cood and BtJd C-01.,enmttrH Vi tl1e Tt>\tn a.nd tn th.: Cmmlry. Lorcnxeni. l SO

Egc:ri.:ri (Spanisb uun). 27 Eg,110111. C0<thc. 576 EID'P'· ane1eru. 4 Egyptian music. :rncien1, 8 E1du:ndorft, Joà.ep11 Fre1herrvou. 737 E1ffc1Tower(Pada). 765. 765. 99·1 c:1ghkcnth-centu1y mu111c, -107. Se,:also

m slxtccmh c-ennuymusic. 269. 283

Blroque: ~penfic composen. gtnl'ü,

in cwen1ie1h-cemu1y musie. 799.829.

Ul)dlúp«:t:

896-?7. 936 Eorly M11i1c R.:~·wol. n,t', llaskdl, 305

chnn;h 11111,óc. 433. 438- •10, 413 48,477. 193. 495-97.536-37, 556 cosmopolnanlam of, 4-63. 491. 588. 968

14'rth l'ltce, Ono. 945

for insin. 503- 8

E3stcr. <17. 48.62. 63

mitrrument:i.l mugic. 415- 24. 428. 438-43.

E:1&tnla.o Wuid Ensemble. 920

459- 60. 499- 5 18. 523-36. 545- 52. 565 68 ins, mmcn1s and en&emble8 in. 500-503 .,•• ,.•. 411- 13, 414,421, 428-30. 451.

t'bonyC.Onceno. Smn·in,;1,,.-y, 83 1 Ect-i:bearam luCC'.rn. Striggiu. 28-1: uhoi. 28.45 Ecluero::i~h. Abbey oí. 33

cclogue. 244 Écolc Ntedcrmcyer(P,jnS). 7-12. 7-13 coonomy c1ghtcen1h-çc;ntury, 40?, <163 mcdie\'31, 69- 70, l l 1- 12 tuue1een1b ceutUJy , 559. 562- 63. 577.

588 89. 594, 595. 679. 698 Renaii;.i;omce, H S-16. 16 1, l64.242 f(:\'(1lttcnlhwce11tury. 29 1

t\.,..entic-tb c--eotmy. 260. 771. 856, 57. 876.

885~6. 903. 904. 911. 959-60 twenty•f1nuwceut ury. 994

'1S2 55. '177- 91. 497 98. 536.

552- 56 ora1orn:,:;, '155-59.537

páll'Orl"l(t or. 433- 34 ••nl!', 477. 494 style and u.sre in. 4 10. 468-?S. 4?7-98 tht'O'}' tn. 425. 427 28 \'t>Calch.t.mLermuiu:. 422,451 f.'..t.n,JdáMNochsmusik. \{o1,a n, 548 Ein.it<in un rl,c lkor:h, Clais. 978-79 EitCl\Stlldt. 520 f:leanoror 1\ q·u1t:1lne, 74 elcçtric blues. 912- 13

&,,as.,.o/Sr Teresa, ll<:rn;n;, 293 94. 29/, 334

Eke1nc PfJteer. Morur-Cars. Skd. Ben1Uu. 858

Ecuatonal. Varê5e. 893 tdd!\, Norse. 71 Edelfolr. Albert. 806 Edinb,1rgh Mus1calSociecy. 466

c lccrronic mu.sic. 763.8 11 .89.S. 91q, cn4.

Efüon. Thomas. 7(,8, 768 Edli:n Musk·K,msr. Der, Wcn:kinei.stc:r.. 469 cducauon, mus1c in .aneienr C-,,eect. 13-14, 159

m anc,e.m Rome, 20 B>r,que.303 8:mók"s p«lagugical nu.1.51c. 843 Boulangcr·8cbsses. 892. 899. 926. 964 ,978

ln BratU. 891 ciglneenrh ccnmr)', <109- 10.-111. 41 3.

•131-38. 139-10. 465.196 EI Si&tema, 1002

Kodlly me,hod. 876 med;.,,,1, 40. 43--45. 68-69. 70 UutC'IC:C'lllhw«:Jltury. 562. 588. 608, 612-

13, 650, 707. 712. 754 Orlí melhod. 885 Rc.:n:..i$-.,:11\c;e, 152. 159 twcn11eth-c.'('tltury. IJ! b, 81Jb.8':l l . YUb. ~ZJ

rwemy tirs1wcenmry, 1002 oíwomen.6 12-13 Edward l. kingofEngl,nd.1 51 4

935. 917-50. 956. 957,976.981. 982. 1004 e1ectronic mu&ic &tud10&. 948-49

clec<ropop. 964. 992 Elcklra, Strauss. ?89 Elgar. Edward. 752. 752, 76 1 EJ11oh. Mendel&&ohn. M6.65 1 EU01. T. S.. 657,962 L'duird'omo«. Donu.et11. 665 Eli~1beth l. q11ecr1 oíEnglond. 223 24. 226.

261. 316. 368 EU;ng,on, Duke. 868. 869- 72.871, 9 18,922, 1001 . 1009 h;oll""phy or. 871 Ellinb'lon. Mert."Cr, 871 Emh<Jrlia1frmforCffhtt'ú, W:mtau.409.4/0 cn\bclltshmcnt. Ste ornam,en1atio1\ Emblcnu, Copl.ind, 920 Emb,;nms des$tchts. S~hc. 809 Einersoo, Ralph Waldo. 852 Emmct1. Dnn, 67'1 c;:mulu)ng;)n~ music. St'i"<rl$0,:aífec11on.s

doctrint:: e1hoi rn elgh1eemh-cenmryml1-&ic, 463. 475,

176.177 fü m music ;md. 773

Creek vlc,.·s on, 13 14. 159 60

tmsc.mble rnus ic. &t: chambc:r nmsic:; 1pt:cif11:

in m idd le-tu - la•c:. cighteentlt-ecnh.uy

oomp1,~ers cutcl g~1lf'f'.S J.:,ufulmmgautdt'mSerad. D1t. Muiart.S40.

musi<:, 483. 503 lu mneteculh- ccutury muíHC. 569. 586.

602 3, 630 34. 693.73 1 in Re n.iis~ancc mus ic. 158-59. 2-1 9 i1l k \'C11Cce11!11 -<:tnlul)' fn:nch uper.a, 359. 361 in $e\'emeemh •cenrnry music. 296-97, 299. 309-10. 313. 329-30.331 i1l $LXtecr\1h~cco1uiymus1t, 263. 278 m twenuclhwcenhuJ mus1c, 78(,. 78?. 790-9 1, 808, 836. 877-78. 888. 940. 955 tmp,rorConcer10. &t1110\·en. 576 cmpfind.,m '1ylc. 470. 5 11- 12, 52-1 Emp~ssu/Ma"'4:co, The. Sculc.369 E,ic}1c11U<d ldo1\d, The, S~ms. I004 S Ene111a. Ju~n. dtl. 24~ 4 Engbnd . &t also f. nglish or Brili.sh mus ic Ca.lvau1S1u rn. 220 Chorch or England in, l~3- 2-I t"iglueenlh-cenwry, 409, •132. ,t33-34, 449-50. 452. 455 -S9, 460. 463. 466

lodustr1a.l Rt\·olu1io" 1f1, 562- 63 medic\•.11. t,9 minstrd shows in. 676

nine1een1 h~cenmry. 645 Renais.s.anct:, 188 se\•en1een1h-eenmry. 290. 291. 368- 69 Ellgfüh C;v,IWar. 290. 368- 69 Eritli.611l><zncing .\lcwer. n,C", Playford collcctron, 372- n .l7J. 772 fngli.11, PolkSongSui.k, Vaug-h:u, W illi.ams, 714 Euglíab bom, 625

Fnglish llrnool, 805 Enghsh or Brili.sh mus ic Baroque. 346, 348. 351. 368 -73. 378. 432 t"1ghtccntl1-ccntmy. <I 77 .188- 89. -i94. 5 IS ~freen1h-tenrory. 165-73.178-79. 181 la.1e niudt:enth tu tarly 1wcn11e1h-cc:ntury. 716. 717. 750 52 mcd;evol. 79. 107- 8, 167- 68 uinctccnth-ccnlury. 596. 604-S. 683 Renolss.mcc. 223 26. 240. 260 62. 274 75. 276- 77. 954. 955 s ix1een1h ... century. 213. 222. 223- 26 1weut..ie1lt-centmy, 7)5. ?72. 7?-i. 804- 5, 86S. 914 15, 928- 29. 954. 955. 962~3. 982, 989 Engltsl1 SutttS, &eh. 440 enhar mun ie gcr)US. 15. 19 f. nheduannn. 7 l.'nigma Variali<ms, EJg.ir, 752 Enhghten,ncnt, 410. 462 68. 469. 475 76. 477. 482. ,190, 49•1. 496. 560.563.Stt o.lso eigh1eemh•centmy nl\1s ic Eno. Br ian. 975. 979 í11 rtm1.ra11, ,ro dot,C( pou11-roi,ure (Casert3). 128- 29.128- 29. 137

l_:$mrnfth,.. Benin. 613

c1ghrcenlh oennrry. 409 11 . 432 -33, 462-68 fout1tcnth cenrnry, 111 13 fa te e1gt11eenth to ea.rly r\lueteeuth eeo1ury. 560- 63. 575 MiddleAgcs.67- 70. 166 ni1\ctcenth ccntUf)', 587 88. 667. 678 82. 698. ?06-7, 7'11. 7'10 Ren~i.ss~nc.e. 145- 46. 164. 165- 67. 188-90 sevcmce01hcenn1ry,289 91 . 35 1 54. 366-6'1. 393 IWér\hcth CCuht')', 687, 765- 66, 767, 85658. 8?6 77. 904- 6. 925. 959- 60 F.urop~n Unio11. 960. 994 EulJUnlhc. Woh<r. 673 f.'O,igtlm..-. Rit:e. 7 17 Evan•, 8111. 967 f.\':tn$. Gil. 90"9 fa.'lJa. Uo)"d Wt'bbt>r. 962 e:cisccntfalisn-,, 904

Essa,-on Pfayirag rl,e Tronm,•rnc- Fl,itc. Quant7., 464

J-:.mrcis,. (ftlm). 85·1 t.X(lliçiS-m, ()5 6. 678. 681 780.St><(.l.l$Q non -

5•t3, 552,553 env1ro1unen1al music. 984 ep;c.1 0.7 1. 688. 806 Episcopal Church, 210 ep;sode. 401 . 417,442, 508 .516- 17 Ep1,Lle. 50. 53 fp11opl,oJSeiktlos. 18. 18 19 cqual 1cm1>erame n1 , 158. 302. 44(H l EnmJ. Séba&licu, 590-9 1. 6 18 ErooJ~ amante. CllvaJh. 356 t)f1õhres u11d Hlm. &eh. -145 frlkomg. Sclmhert. 599

n~·•st'•

Eroiru Symphony. Beethoven. 569. 570-72. 571.S73- 74, 574- 7S. 727. 784,790 Eni.',Q.rtung. Schoenberg, 817-18 Es ast gmug. Bach. 827 Eseudier publiduug í1rm. 654

n,.

fstayo,i lh4'0p~ra.A,.. Alg~ro11í, 491

E,,ayon rh, Trn,An ofPloymg K,,i,ooro l,asintmc-,.rs. C.P.E.. Bach. 511 l;,wys Refore o Scrwo, h·es. 848 tÃla.mpt•-1 ,

Dehu~~y. 794

eor•mp;e, 82 83. 125, 138 d.Este, Alfonso li. duke oí Ferrara. 2S3. 255 d'l~ re. Ercolc 1. duk-c oí F'err:\rai, 201

d'E.r;re. 1,;;,bell,. 153. 24'1. 2H d'E.s1e. Lconor'il, 255 Estefamlly, 153 fa1erhiiy. Amem. 523 Es1rrhá1y. N1.kobu.s. 619 Eo,cr'iláty, Nikol•us. 11 . 520 21. 522 f.s1e rh,by. P.iul Anton. 52C.-22. 532 F,,ih,•r, H,ndel, 456-57 Estouj:1. 856. 90'1 F.s10niao .-nusu::. 987 88 estribillo. 2'13. 376

Estierhó» ~,1,cc, 520. 520-23. 532. 532. 536 "Eth1op1an opera," 676 eihnomn••cology. 8•t0, 84 1--42, 865. 876,896 ethos. 13- 14.19.20-21.25. 159 Et1·u8ca11,. 19 20 é11Jdc. 601,. 611. 792. 795. 934. 981- 82 fi.,J..,..,-T(JM«u,z, Raduu;amnoíf, 799 Eugene íV. Pope, 180 ft1g1m~Ór1t'l,'lfl. Teba,kúVt.ky. 707. 718 i.'F,uridú:r, PcrL312- IS.3/i- 15. 3 16

Eurípides. 9. 18. 19. 19. 307. 946 Europc. Jamu Rcesc, 7'7-1. 869 fai rope. m:ip.s or e,. 1050.68 ca. 1500.189 cn. 1560. 214 ca. 16 10.289 "-' · 1848.587

en$tmble f1m1le, 41$2, t>!:l::S- ::a4

ca. I Y':IJ. YU.>

Ensemhle l111crCoutcmpuram. ~64 F.nsemblc L' lrinêrllirc. 982 Ensernble Modern, 964

educ.i1ion and p:nron.:..ge eemers. Ren.iissance.154 EuropcansO(t<:1y.cconomy, and poli1ic1

Wcs:icern m utaes:i

in e1gh1een (h -cen11Jry music, 552 in nme·1eern1h-centu1y music. 593. G16.

622. 673. 68 1, 702- 3. 704-5, 710, 7 18, ?47 in rwen11e1h -c-ennuy mus1c, 791,832 ExpericnCi! Mus1c Projcc1 Museum (Seattle). 961 62 c,rpcrimemal music. 763, 848--49. 852. 853. 892-93. 895. 902. 909. 924-25. 939. 945. nooa e<pos;r;on.•101, 507. 516,529. 51H9. 632. 735. ?45. 784-85 expr<S.tOn1"m. 763,771.780. 812. 811. 8 18 19.824 27.843.882 WuftOl~ lko, Vi3dan3. 333-34, 334 faburdeu. 168, 171. 172. 179 Foctih~ Mu.sic. Bcr-lin, 861 Fac-ebook, 995. 998 Foclt1m .,-,s, soh.1tart/Dv,,unt1s. 1OI. 101 Fa('n.U Codex. 138 Fairi,~round, 'Ih" llolborne. 212

Fu,.rrQuun. The. Purcdl. 372 KtSs. 'Ih,. S1,·,-insl<y. 837 F•Jla. M•nud de, 780. 796. 801 Falh.ng in l,,w.- Aga.1n, Holl:iender. 873 F:dlows. Oa\·1d. 137 fulSJo/f. Verdi, 696. 697. 698, ?O I FamilyConcc:n in.&uk Cutx:wiUer.592 f<Jnciullo dd U"'esr. Lc. Pucdni. 702 faney, 316

r..,.·,

f3nr,si:l. f:till-'S)'

B,roquc. 343. 346. 372. 401.439 e1gl1lten1J1 -cemury. 503 mnetec.:mh -century,606 7,62 1, 7'12 Ken:a,.ssinee, 265. 276-77, 271). 280 1wcnue1..h c.cn1ury, ~1!>, IJ'J'J Fo,u.o.s10 on<r ·n1eme of'lnom().S To.ms. V3tagh:m

Wiltiams.805 Fon,uJicjru'"kc. Sthumaun. 608

A111

Fo,..w,/1 Syrnr,hony. Haydn. 986 Farmelli, •111-12, ./12 F:.rn:nt',Ari~tide, 613 Farn-ue. Lomse. 613. 623

fouhed'o.lltJIJ, Josquin, 202. 207

Fauré. Gabriel. 74.1. 713-4'1. 790 Bou1.:mgcr's championship oí. 892 anfütt'OCC of. 890 mélodie& or, 604 rcoepuon or. 760 songs of. 713. 758 fou,r , C0<ihc.5?9, 631. 633. 612 ,.,PIJ.St, Counod, 704. 718 Fausr Sympl1ony. Llszt. 732 r,uxbo,,rdon. 168. 179 UO. 209 fon.tfo d·Otfro, Poliziano, 308 /1.J1•oritt, LA,., Douilcul, 669 Feldm•11. Morton, 895. 940. 943 f'tmoft i\111.&icwn u-uh Violo do Comba. S, ro,:d, 3.12 Féudou. Fr.iuço1s. 361

Fenndl, 1-'redcrick, 920 Fenne-&.-i, Christi;in, 1001 Ferbcir-. Edn:-1. 860 Ferd1.tl3üd. kingoíAr.:igun. 189. 233- 34. 213

Fcrdinand . princc or Spain, 508 ~\:rne)houg11. Brian, 983. 98'1. 987 F'err.a.bo.seo. AJfonso. lhe Younger, 3•16 Ferra.n1e, k1ng of Nap)('-$, 153 Ferr:ir:s Jew,~h mui1c ln. 341 l\cn:iiss.,nce. 153.20 1. 244 -SC\'tn1c;.enth -centu')', 380 wo ll!Ctl '$ V0<:31 (:fl$CmhleS; in, 253. 254 feSlt!B11,g, !'111. HeUJnck,219 fi·st,· 811rg. J:i11. l.,uiher. 218-19. 218- 20. 240.

635. 66? ftStt B11,.g. Ei,1. Walter, 219 íe-&twal&. mu&1C-

in :meien1 Cr-eece. 9. 12 Atti=c .tud lnc.1. 235

B3yrernh, 685 chorai. 645. 641,

111

eouiemporarymu.s1e, 92?. 933. 966 during Í-rt"nch Rc,·ohmon. 562, 645,. 646 nineteemh·cenniry. MS. 64 6

rock. 915 iu Koman Em1-1ire. 20

mVcmcc.-113

fim. Oebu,sy, 795 Feue.rs,wt. Stt'3uss. 187 Févl11, A.111011\c de. 209,210. 211 nddle. 7 1.271, 911. 912 Piddlrro11 rl1eRóo/. Sock, 9)9 Frdtl,o. Bcc1ho,·cn, 488.575 76 ficld.Jolul. 616 Field;ng, llenry. 410 Ftghr thc Pou:.:r. Public Euemy. 9?"1 tí.b•ura,ioo. 304 111 e1ghlt:enih· C('ntury musie. •I 17. .fJ9, 4lH, i>U~. M U4J, ~i>O, HH au uu1cteeutl1~c:t'11tury muS1t'. 59~. 6.01.

604, 615. 6 16. 665. 729 in 6C\-cn1centh -ccn1ury musk. -100

A112

lnd ex

F1gunuion k-0nJ1,w.td)

ln dex

832 34. 837 38,839.852. 893. 983-8-1.989

Florc nçe

in rv.·cnncth•ecnnary music. 793. 796. 802. 937,978.979 í1gured h:as$.30 1. 397. Sn aho b:i.sso

;a(';ulcmic1,1, rn, 308

éoutluuo Hll,di, rq:iment, l,CI. noni1.c11i. 665

cn1hedml in, 180

t.'OllCt.'rlO. 5 15 16.5/6 eurnul31h"c.850 5 1. 955

medieval. 69

cyclic.18 1. 635. 638-39. 734. 742. 75 1.

1'1lm. 71>(,. 855. 857-58 :mimatcd . 874

globa.l ,na.1·kt>t for. 960 mu-&1c \'ideos. 970-7 1 sc1cncc-r1e1101:i. 901. 9l9. 951. 953

hlm~md 1clcv1s1on mu.s1c. 664. 718. 763. 172, 855,876.1009 Asi:in, 919 coucnt musu: u~ed :as. 738. 953

ofCopbnd, 899 llollywood musicais, 859,861

llolst"s inílt1cocc un, 804 1.ntcr..,.a.r pcriod. 872-74

modernis1oomposers· iníl11enee on, 854 Ondes Martenot u.sc-d in. 948

Odfs in0w::m:con. 885 pop mU$1(: lll. 9 )9. 97 ( -72, 913 poc1-World W:.r li, 919. 921-22. 986

of Prokuf1t::\'. 886 87

Pucc1nt·s mnuence on. 103 rccem, 964. 965. 968. 979. 981 oíSbost.Lkuvich. 889 ••lcn1 hlm•. 773. 177. 971 ofT:ikemnsu. ?55 W.ib•m:r"s: inOucnce on, G95 f1lm nuir. 919 Flfmlf'Orks. Zon1, 965 rrn·;unvrs(frnc:.irnour). 75. 78, 79. 175 fm:il,it 0- 42 fmulAlu.Y. OdTrcd1<:L9'90, 990-9 1

fi nek lleinrich. 266 Firigafs C<wt' Ovenun-. Meuddssolrn. ~37

C:1.mt'r.11:a in. 3) 0- 12. 327 cau11 c.amasc1a.lescbl. 198-99

opera it>. 323. 380 llen31..ance, 152.153. 15•1. 190 S(\'Cnte~nth ..cen1ury. n1. 31?. 320-21 Trecentu. 131 womcn'&voe.:il enscmblcs m, 253 fioru~ organum. 8')- 90. 90 Flari.leg11w1. ~(ufí:.1. •103 F1uw. mylcars. Oowlaud. 262

FlotAirrOrumSong. l\odgcrs:md llammcrs1cin, 917 flute, b<inc. S. 5 flute . ........ ,... 267. 267,273.502 J\o•hm-syS1•m. 591.591. 625

fluxm; move mcn1. 945 F1yingD11tclimur1, 17,i:. W:'lgner.&r/Jit.'f(trul,· Holfo,iJ"'"· D11r. W::igner

102.102

Folies- Bcrgêrc (Pana), 706 folk mus1e. 9 15

Jl:tlJ(JO:thitn,md. 680-81, 721. 876 Norwcgi::rn, 749

Fl:mb<:11, Custa\'(, 68)

Fl3\'0r Ffav, 974 flô!dmnn.u.s. Du•.S1r:m$.$. ? l 6 /ht',l[t'ndt Hulló11du. Dtr. Wa.guer. 632. 684.

685 86

0!1.1edcr. 597 98. 599 oí l1111rgic.o11I ~cqtu~nee3, 62 of madrtg::.il. 245 m:1rch. 756. 775 in middlc-1n- l.t1c cigh1ecn1h ·«n1ury music, H3-?4, '1?5 minuct and trio, SOS

modified woph;e. 597-98. 601. 729 p-0pular soug. 860. 866 oírogs. 7'Z5 in Ren<o$sancedanee rnm;ic, 270 ril(u•nt.rllo, 4 14- 17. 4 19, 421~ 22. 435

rondo, 508 rot.:ilional . 80?

Polish.G l6

bafauced bma.1y, 505. 508-9. 514 o!ballnde.125.126.178. 198 orb,11,o,.132, 133 of balJctt.160 bar. 79

b;n,ry. 364- 65. 386- 87. 50•1 6 blockcom11ruc1ion. 712. ?l4, 802. 830.

FrancJ.s 1, kmgoí Fwncc, 257

F,·auck. Cés.ar

or. 73•1.

742. 8•15 keyboard mu$ieof, 742 recep1ion oí, 761 Fr:mco. Vcromci. 253

fuorue. 3<13. 34 5 of 11,ch. 439. 440-42. 545. 838 Baruque. 303. 343. 345. •100. 40 l. 439 orBarió~. 845 of Becthov~n. 580-81

<>f Berg. 825

francoofCologue.104- 6 1:rnnco-l'lcmishmm;ic. 152. 17'1. 188 2 12. 247. 258, 282 Gerou.o muaic iníloenccd Ly, 237

of Htnd!!matb. 884

S p1111ch IUUCIC 1nnut:llét"d by. 2!l4. 24 3 f'ranco•Prussian\l'.u. 741. 790 Francon1au no1at1on. /O-I. 104- 1. 109.

of R:l\'d. 798

116 17

of Mendelssolrn, 646 of ~for.:i n. 515 <.>Í Piau.c,lb, 964-65 ofSrr;)vinsl')', 838 Fulgt:i rocleslis tuna/ó Pttreflos/Romagaude1.

108

Fr:ankJin, &enjamin, 465 Frru>b.28.29 31.32.35.45 fr;am., Robcn. 604 fra,..,. P>n. 988 Fruutrilttb.:1rnJ -ldtcrt, S<-ltun)Jnn, 602 Frcdcnck theGrcat, kutgof P-ru5-51a. 409. <133. 43.l. HU63.465.486.51 I. 963 Freed.Al:rn. 9 13 íreeJ•n.. '103. 909. 910 1-h·~Jazz(Colemanalbmn}, 909. 910 Freeb nce He llraiser. 1000 Freemaiwory. 465. 556 fremMrt. /kr. Weber. 65;. 656. 670 73,672. 675. 677 French áod ludi.;m War, 409 Frcnch mu~nc. $ee ol,o Bur1,f\md1an mu$1C; Fr:anco-•1em1sh mus1c )broque. 351. 352-1,S. 377. 422-30. 432. 502

fttnda memal b:au, 425, ·127 fun aut. 748

ion:1t:., 506-7 squ:m: root. 9jl0

""'elve-i»r blues.863-64. 866 v;1rfat1ons.S08

-vc-rse- refralll. 604 o fvilfa ncico. 243 of vu·da1, 125

ro,·m•• ~xe,. 124- 25. 126. 127. H 1. 158. 188. 190.1?5. 196.202.211. 245

r''o1'ktl. Joh:inn Nikol:ius. 461, '168 form. S,.-t afso son:at:J. rorm

fronol,. 161. 241.2H ,263 Fry. W,lliain Hc:niy. 675 rug-,ng tune. 496,896

&1mple bin.ir)', 50-1

$c(ltt1Sh, 494 Scrbo-Croatfan. 8116. 846

Polk SongSocicty. 751 Fon,•·goro. Canill'fisi. 266 PorJ. Hcury. 765 66 Fonlle. O.,. S<h11ber1. 640

Frobergcr. Johann Jnooh. 3H. 399. 403. 438 From MrLife. S mct.tna, 747 From rhe llou&t! ofrht Dtod. JanMck. 806

full anthcm, :.l:2<1

-rorm3h sm .•. 886

Swi~.664

g:ing•""'P· 974 Caragc & nd. 999

f"rom tht Ntw World. Syrnphony. 0\'0Í'!k, 748-49. 847-48 Fronde revohtt 352. 353

rtvolution ln. 560-62. 645 s<we111ecrnh ccnrory. 290. 291 Prnncc~co da 1\I ilano. 278 fr.1.11t1-8, $;uni, 84

cha.ml>cr and sym11homc mu:s1c

Gandhl. lndi,.., 960

Fr.inkl1n, Arctl1.1, 916. 9'22, ?75

Roma1ü:m. 84 1 RusSlan. 673. 709. 710. 713. 746. 831

Slo.,,k,84 1 SIO\'('lll.iln, 533 Sp,n;sh. 705. 804

679

Freud, S1gm11nd, 71,6. 785. 819. 857 F'ricktn, ~:rne5tinew,m, 6 11 F'riednch, C::t11:p:1r O:w1d, S94. 594 Frlsdit0ál1ier FnJd1tt. Kubuau. 40-1 . 40.J

rounded binal')', 505 6. 524

o f troubadour and trouvê-rc Wn?, 76- 77

meditval, 71 }.fexic:m, 899

F1\'C' Pieces for Orc.l,estra. \Vcbern, 85-4 Fi~-eSe~e.s. ~- l\omhuuu;. ,100 fi.,:e Tu11gu&11sa1icms, Pi.azzoll.a, 965 Fwe Vi,na,arsof"Di~ies and úwJms." V:.ugh:rn Willi.:ims.804 FI.AC form.111. 99? n.m,ncu. 801. 892. 1005

Fran<:o- f1enus h mus,c. 197

s1rophi<. 56, 75. 76 77. 79. 83. 202.328. 380. 395.19·1. 597-98. 599,60l . 729. 885 8yrnpbo11lc. 528 3 1. 629 teleologic.;il gene.sis. 807. 850 oíu.H.'Cata . 279 tonalny,rtd.392

Finney. Ross 1.ee. 892 Fwnjslt uiusic.806-8. 982.1004 fi,.,,.gio.rdumm. Lo. Moiart, 552 finla-$t:mphce. La• .\tozan, 552

flrst ~mo\·cment fo rm. Stt sonata form tirgr pr:1cuct (pnmo pmric,a:), 298 f15k Jubilee Smgc:rs. 760. 760

Amcr;c,n. 753.896.899. 91 1 915 16 Briu,h, 75 1- 52. 774.804 5 R11l!l"rian. 841 . 845. 816 Croa1li.an. 533 C,c<h. 748. 805 6 Frt nch-C.uad,a.u, 890 G.rm,n. 597. 730. 784 Huugan•u. 840. 81 l. 8•15 lr1sh, •194, 605

F,nl,nd. 806. 8S6

Fim Cun.srnu:tion in M,rol. C:age, 940

o f da c.apo, ana. 381. 383. 391. ,.83 dur3tion.al . 940 ()frour1étn1h .. ccnuuy m.adrigal.132

ofrondett1.1. 78.125.126

r-1ynn, Errol. 874 F'okme. Mikhail. 83 1

Pinfondio. Stbtlius. 8-06

Hon muJiC<rh, Fn:.$(0b:tlch, 34-4, 345, .14S Fmtbud. 111~. Str3\'ln9ky. 83 1. 832. 833 Firtlt'orks, Smivmsky.831 f'irsr Buok ofAladri&ab. Casula na. 253

845

momen,. 935

mcdlt'-Val. 81. 81. 136 nutc muslc. 433. 442

F'ule0t.'OSIIHllál"ICtiDo11Ur1t1S.

in ('h:ini, S4, 56, 59-60

fou rlccnlh vcc:ntury. l l l-12, 11 3 bte uineteenth -«:otu,y, 740-42 lm1,'U1Gllc buundarJei.: 111. 74 mediev.:il.68-69 nattonalism in. 655. 790-91. 877 Re1l.:aiS$.lllt.'<:, 189 Reõtorat1on and July Rc,•olution 1n. 66 7.

íorte pfouu. 500 /ono del dt-stH10, ÚI, Vtrch. 70 l Fo ... Luk,s, 956 Fo,icr. SICphen. 588. 605.622. 676. 759. 772. 852 Foimroin, Ouclump, 857 tm,rl<U,Songs. Strauss, 790,927 4'33". C.ge, 942, 942 JõurSro&o,-...s. nu~. Viv.a1d i. •109. 421. 595. 100 1

,ne.

FourTops. 9t(J Frauce. S« al.su fn:nch mu.~ic

Amcric.an composers in, 892,899.926.

978 !l"-$adm1r1ii1r:nion in.35 1.3.:>1-5(), 741,

876

Calvinmnrn.220 2 1 cightecnth -ccntury. ,109. jl62-{1:t .. 6-t-(,S

Fun.-i.do. Ndly. tJ67 fusa. 11 7

fu,iun. 965. 992. 1000-100 1 íuturi,un. 809' 11. 924 F,,x. Johann Joseph. 233. 333. 521. 52·1. 551 Cabrkh.And«a. 226. 237. 282. 283. 281. 309 10,337 C•brieli, c ;ov,nni, 282-84.281. 362. 495 b;ogr•phy. 283 canto11u of. 285 polychor;)I m0tc1s of. 333 Scbü11. inOuenced by. 337, 338 CoeltcSymphony. Bt,cb. 755 Caffu.n o, Fra.nth1.no. 159

A113

C.1ndh1 , Moh.indais. 906

ganigc rock 1'C\'ival. 997. 1000 O.areia. M;mucl. 660 C:ir<:fa Lur<:.t, Fedc:ri<:o. 892. 946, 1005 Cardncr. Kay, 974 Ca,ga11111<1N Pa,uogn,el. lt:ibelais, 161

G,rib:old,. C;useppe. 680 Garla11d, Judy. 873 CarJandia. Joh.:mnes de, 92. 11 5 C.:inick. O.i.vid, 492 Caspa.rd dela nu1r. Ravel. 797 CH1old1, Giacomo, 255. 260 G,mh icr. Denis, 363. 365-66 ga,,ouc, 368

Cay. John. 454.489.674. 88 1 Co.yl)wortt. Poner.86 1 GayDi•rofM', TILeo(film).861 G•y•. M,n ,u. 916 Ccbr.1uchsmusik, 862 C€'ktim...-$ Fl.f.1sicm. C. S<'humann. 603---4 Ceminb n i. Fr:anceaeo. d 13

Ce!U!tol H,srotyofMi1t.1c. A, Buroty. 468

Ci'n1;rol ll1.srrnrof1htScunet.and ProctiCPof Musíe.A. H.iwkius. 468 Ceru:rol Wifltom Bof.Hh Enrers i11ro llea ..,tn , h·e&. 852,8S3

"gencr,tiong:ip." 911. 959 Ceomc rn o Buul1t. Agu.1lcra. 1000

Genncn label. 865. 866 Ccnoa. 190. :J23 genn:, 7 g-cuus(pl. gencra). 15- 16.19

George, Stefan. 816 Ccorge 1. king:of England. •152 George 11. klugof Englaud, 452 Ccorge Ili. k1ngof England. 461 C"''!'· 3m Eorl Cou:(>i'r. wioh 1h, Fomilyof Cha1Ít'$ Gon-. Zoff:i.ny. 406

George A"'oshm1{Wrl Bridge. Schuma.n. 920 CcraMoí\Valc,. 107 Gcrn1an rnus1<: &roque. 337 41. 341,.348. 351,368.

e1gh1ecmh-«nmry,477.-t84 86. 491.

Caieiy Thc.,,-e ( London). 772

393-·105, 432-6 1 c1gh1ccnth·cen111ry. 477.489-90. 494. 511-12. 513- li.520-57. 563-68

•192. 502. 514-15 mcdiev,I, 73 79. 114 29. 135

Cams:borough , Thomas.SIS

mcdlcval. 79

g•l•n• •,yle. 449. •162. 469. 471. 476. 478, 480. 495.503. 509.511.5 15.523 24. 526 27.529.545.547.552 Ca!ild. Calilc<>. 289-90. 297. 310

n1neoecn1h-e,nrnry.568-85. 596-601. 606 13. 629 30.635 43. 646 48. 670 73. 682.683 95. 715. 719 39. 781- 90 Renaiso1auce. 199. 214-20. 236-39, 259. 263.274

ninctte1Ul1-ccrltlu')', 630-35, 616, 666-70.

683. 703 6. 740-44 Rt!11itiss.ance. 2S7-59. 263 ""·cnric1h ocnnuy. 77'1. 790 99,808 9, 878-80, 930-33, 963. 982 French o,·crmre, 358. 361. 370. 37 1. 387. 423. 421. 452. 550 French Rcvoltu;on. 409, 463. 51,0 62,563. 574-75. 581. 655.1,66 Fre-richSull.-,, R:..ch, 440 hes.culJ.:tld1. Gu-olamo, :H3 '11,Jof-1. J'1Y- .:>O, 399 bmgraphy ar. 3,14 loílucncc of. 438

G:i_glilmo. M:in;o da. 320 gagliard:.i. Se-t! g aUi:mJ

Calllci.Vin<:ctuo,310 )2

galhard. gagharda. 271.271. 272 . 349 Gallican cham: ;md limrgy. 28. 29 CaUi - MariC. CCleJtine. 705 Callus. Jacob. S« lfandl. Jacob galop. 723 C"lupp;. BalJ,,..,re. •182. 509. 511,5 18 g:und:an.:tndg:imclan music, ·1~1. \/36. 'J!,4. 966. 1009 go1mu1.13 Gan.t$Si. Syh•c$tro, 163. 266.268

lwentit:th-eemury. 78 1-90, 813-32. 873.

860-85. 930. 933. 934-35. 948. 95G rn United S1ates. 7S3-5'1

Gcrma•l ·&pcaking lands Cntholu;ism in, 236-37 Lmhcramsm in, :lJ:, mcdtcvu.1. 69

ninercemh ccnmry. 584. 594 lte n.tisisance, 190

A114

lnd ex

Cenmm·ipcaking bnd$ (oonimued)

scvemcenth ccntury. 290. 291,379, 393- 95 Ccnn:iny. 959.Sttolso \.7(rm:in must<:: Germ.an ·$p<"akmg laudà

nmi-Semhism in, 685. 687 divl.sion or. ?04 c;igh1cc11th-Cc;ntu ry, 463

goveromeut regufauon of rnu.G:ic 1.0, 875,

882. 885 govenuuenl spon:iorslup or muistc ~n. 817

mus1cal8C.'hol3rslup 1n, ?20 nahonahsm 1n, 655. 680

N:i,ism m. 8.56 ru.uelcenth·century pohtical reformr.1n.

679 80 1wemie1h-c-en1ury, 904 Cerohwi,.. Ceorgc.861. 893 .,, musico!.897- 98.9 18. 965 inOuencc or, 870. 871 musicais !lnd popul:tr so1·1g8 of. 773. 859.

86 1 62. 873. 874. 908. 922

ln dex

Chcr. lV .• 591 Clinka. Mikha,I. 673-74. 712,835,837 globo] culture. 765. 959 60. 966 68. 972. 99·1-95. 1008-9 Clorin. •IH. 50.59.61, 161, 184.4 15.42 1 Cluriá. Poulen<:. 880 Clono t1bi rn111r04, 275 Cluck. Chns1oph Willib:tld, 492 ancient Crcek rnflucnce$ on. 21 1nfiuenoe of. 492

opera• or. 327. 395. 409. 454. 482. 492 93. 19a. 631. 1,66. 732 ,.,,orl,;.$edit,on, ?42 Cod Blt•"Am~nM. lkrlm. 86 1 Co Do1rn. ,l/ost1;. 760

Chcni, 173 Cher:srdcllo d:i Faren1.e, 132- 33

Ch-üsrto/VtrttJúk-$. Tire, Cúrig:haoo. 985--86

C.l. llill. 905 Ci<irml&hkchi. Pucxlui. 702 Cio.so11e, C:iv:tlli, 322 C1bbons. Christopher. 369 Cibbons. Orlando, 276 g,0-.e.367. 368. 403. 435. 440 Cilbcr1, IV1Jl13m S.. 681, 716. 717 C1lleop10. O,u.y. 908. 908 Cilm<>re. P:urick S.. 645, 756 CmaStt'ra. AI.bu lo. 954. 96tl

gioma d• "'8"º· Un. Verdi. 696

Ciono.112. 1'19 Gi"~'Ultno J ilrw. Vcrdí. 695 Ciraud. Albcn. 8 19 G,rl Cm:y. Cershw1n. 86 1 G1rô. Ann.:i. 414 G1robnlà. Signora. 323 Gt$e!lr., Adam. (,70 Giuliu C.,ar<. Handel. 453. 454 . 4S5. 461 C1Ustu11. Ludovico. 509

Cius1infani. Vinceiuo. 246. 254 Ci,~ M)" ff<&<1rds to 81"00dway. Cohnn. 713. 777 Gl.u-eanui. Heiuncb, 159. 203. 2 11 .306 glasnos1, 959 Clasper, 1lobcr1, IOOI

Cbs•. Ph1hp. 967. 978--79. 980-81. 987. 998-99 Cl3ztm()\', Aleksander. 709. 713

Crérry. André ModeS1e. 488. 720 Gn:y Alburn. The. OJ Dang-er Mouk. 1000 Cricg. Edv•<d. 681

922. 962 Uonocpochap c:ussiemnin {Quc:çhua proce:s,loual}, 236, 2J6

EJhngtoo·s ad~pt.ttlon of, 872 ms1n.1men1:il mu.s,cof. 749- 50 (JU0131lOllS from. 985

recep11on oí. 760 Criífllh. ll. w.. 773 Griuuu, F. M. n;m, -163

as uuvreSJrn>, 454- 55

Gross~ fiigt, 8ee1hov,en, 581

novel, ,nd pbysoí.576. 599. 631. 633. 642 poeiry or. 433. 737 Clar.1Schumaon a.nd. 602 6tud_y or pl:mu,. 5()5

CroSY..Ct:orge. 857

Crand~ symphoniefune'bn• t!t :n·arnphole.

.t,'h.iuud baH. &t buso o.a1lo:1tu ground bass ,ria$, 371 . 360 Cn11u::w.11Jd , Mallhías. 882-83.883

Coldm.in. Edwm Franko. 920

Cr-.rn1.Arny, 97-4 CrofHfrui,, O-no, 945 Cl'optto/Wro1h.111e. Steiobeck.857 Cnnc(ul Oc.ad, 1hc, 915

C.,1Jm31l. Mm. ??l

Grauu. Carl Hcindch. 494. •l?S

Coldman, Richard F'ranko, 920

CrJ\1pncr. Ch1·ls1opli.437

Coldman B,nd, 920. 92 1 Coldom. C,rlo. 482. 509 gollanhung. 70 7 1. 885 Col;jov, O,v,ldo. 1OOS- 6.1006 CoU...-.ggºsCok•·Wolk. Ocbu••Y· 794-95 Colovln.A. Y.. 801 Comberi, Nicolas, 226,227. 23•1. 258 C.,mes.AmbnioC.rlos. 699. 715. 890 gondoher dong. -i 13 Cone wirhd1eifind.{film), 674 Con1.ag.:i, traMesco. duke of ~bn1ua. 3 16 Con1.:iga. Vinccn,o, dukeof>.fanm:a. 316. 319 Gounga fam.1ly. 153. 253 Cood.1htlJodornJ1heUgly. 71,e(Mm).9 19 CO<HI Vibm1iuns. Bcach Boys, 915, 948 Coodo10n. Bcnny. 858. 868 C•ogle. 995

Crea, Sch1&111. 112. 145, 161, 177 Cre:ner Do,n.,logy. 48 Crt'att'r Pt'"l'"Íecl Syiilem. 16. 16 Crtc<:c :md Crctk sculemcms(map), 10

CoJden Coci·ereJ, Th~. lhmsky· Kors.iko,•. 713

Corb:1che\', Mikhail, 959 Cordon. Mtdiad. 966

Gordy. Bcrry. 916 C~m. Lt1crei1a, 230

Cospel,53 $OSpl'l mmw:. 758. 865. 9 11. 9 13. 916

Cossee. l'ronçois •Jo,eph. 51 4. S 18 Cothicarch iteclUn:.84. 92, 12:-t 1'19 CotbjcVu,ccs, 137 Çtm~rdommenmg. Wagner. 687 92

Gonschnlt, l,0uis ~lore~u. 606. 62 1-22. 627. 656 Coud11nd. Claude. 223 Counod. Charlu infü1ence 9f, 743 oper!l..11,oí , IU4, l l ~

symphor:11e.s uf, 741

gonrd ircc. 946. 9;6 8'"'ilS riuni.s. Les, Coupcrin, •123 4

CroptU$, Wcrncr.857

CrondtJ.1tuedt$ ,\fons. Herlioi, 646

Berl1uz. 635 Crnnd;.Alcssandro.334,335. 337,339

Crcek mu&1c,<m<'iem, •I, 5. 9- 19, 837 8:,byloni:rn , níluenc;:t:-lf, 8. 15 etbosduc1ru.1e.13 14. 19. 20.25. 159

heritage o-f, 20-21 ms1rumems in. 9-10 Í UlCt'\'aJS iu. )3 mytholo~i and. 11 Pa.nch inílueneed by, 946 Rcn;aiss.ancc music rn0ucnt'Cd by. 143.

144 .154 -55.208.251.258 3un iving cxamplee; of, ) 8 19

m theatncal perform:u1ots. 307. 309-1 O.

327 1heory. 11 - 13. 15- 18. 20. 38-39. 145. 158. 313 Grcck mu:síc. coutewµu r.uy. 919. 950. 951 Cn:-gori.:in ch:mt, 28-. 45. •l U 66. S« olso çham ,ddilion.s 10, 60-6 11 eh.:1r.:1c1cri11tica of. 52- 53 .:tS t.boralt:' SOUR'.t". 2 17

churth mc,dc-.s in, -40 43 cominuing prel'ltnoc o f. 65-66 c1·e~ti<>11 o,f, 29 3 1, 876 ge1lrc and foruls-Oí. 53- 60 l:11eroomposen; iníluenced by. 742. 791.

comple1c ,,·orks t dnion. 720

Coreu1·smflucnceun. 389, •105 d:rncc su,tcs of, 403

CrandOJ"Op,y. 912 gr,nd opero. 647 69,701.704

••Mnson, 465

Cr:m:ados. Enriquc. 802, 804 gr:rnd c:oncc.-10. &t sac1'td <:ou«110

llnnc,oçk. Hdb1e, 965 Handel. Ceorge Fr1derie. 408. 432. 449-61. 450. 4<$0. 1008 h1og-r.tpliy of.450- 5 1

Cn.se[Jo.. !.a. Scarlatti, 382

C(ic1hc.Joh.11rn Wolfgang,•on

CüJJ D•IJS"~of J 933 (fJ,n) . 873

63 1 Ceyer. l.udw1g, 684

Cradm,ud PamaMum. Clemenh. 60G

Crad11,ad Panws,11,n. Fux. 233.333.S21. 524. 551 C r:1111ger-, Pe n::y. 774,777. ?20

llam burg, 393 <>p<r3 ;n. 291 , 395, 449. •150, •152 H:immcrincin, O.sc.:ir. 11 , 773,860,917.918.

gr.md mote l. 3(,2

C,ere,I, R;eh~l'd. 8 19 G1!1'1Jsalemml!l1berara. T:isso. 3 19

Cewandh:uas Orehe~:tr;l ( Leiplig). ,.67. 627,

Cr11dual o fSt . Yncu:. 34

Croduah•. Uyrd. 225

Crcgury BrothçrS. 11,e. 999 Crvtc:Jit11a.111 Spuml"(Jdl!. Schubert. 599.601

Cocbbcls. Joseph. 884

C'<,JJ~'1( Vati(Jlion.s, &r;b, 44 l, ) 001

gétrtue Mus1c·Mt1-SUr, l>tr. 435

Cr,wl•nd (2lh11m). 966 Cr,dual.31. 35. 37 38.42. 44. 48. 50. 57. 88. 94 99, 101 Crndual (lin1rgic.:tl hook) . .14. 5 1 Cro1.duál of KJustcrilc~tbcrg, 34

Cn:gory 1. Popc:, 30.J/

Cr,sey. Ctrord. 982. 100,1 Cnsi. CmHa. 660 Crupius. M,mun, 821

Cer5hwm. Ira. 86 1.861

Ccrva1se. Cl2udc. 272 Ccs3m1kun.snvcrk, 683 35. 69•1. 718 Gaangder)uriglinp, Siockh:austn. 948. 956 Ccsualdo. Cario. 255. 256

Goya. Francisco. 804 CoJY$Cai. Crannd<>i, 80•t

inílucncc o r. 496. 545. 583. 607. 805 inMnuueuLaJ mmtic ot. •159-60 operas oi. 395. 45 1. 452 55. 461. 486 0raJOfl0$0Í, 407. 455-59, 537. 624. 4•15. 666 quot;itions frum. 9S6

rece1J1;oooí.4SO, 460,461,470 71

gru,1gc. 973, 992

rcinu:ition -oi'. •lG0 rewur'.kitlp Ly, 458-59

Cu.)d!ig,;1. C!lt<lllfü•, 492

Sebuenbc,g'c :trriwg1.•mcut~ of. 823

C,wmny.11. Comes. 699. 715

Guórdamdo.s rncu.s. 275-76. 276. 329 G\1ard1, Pranocsco. 415 C\1~nr11, Ann~, 253 Cu:.rini, Ciov:inni &111i.t1,1:t. 245 CuaruC"n. C mseppe Ba11olun1eo. 384

H•ndel and lloydn Socie>y (80"011}. 646. 6S0 Hnndd Fcsti\·al (London). 645. 6-1S Handl. Jacob, 236 llandy. IV. C.. 843. 900 Hono1·er. 395. 451-52 Hunslick. Edturd. 73 1

A115

843,862.883 84. 899.907,927,930. 932, 980, 984 "h2rmony or rhe ,;pheres," 13, 39 Har-old~,i lral~~- Berlioz. 634 35. 732

h,rp.1 75. 267 Cclts. 71 doublc -ac<ioü. 590-91.625 26 Creek. 9 Jewish, 24

mcdiev,1. 80.131. 136 Sumerfon. 6 harp mus1c. 3~2. 377 li::1rp1uc1u,rcl,26S. 26•).364, 468, 500 as cuntmuu U:tlilnuncnt.30 1.415

rumngof. 157 harpsicl1ord lllll!iic Amcric;au, 956

Engli•h.372. 516 17 Freoch. 363. 423-24, 431, 880 Cerman. 403- 4. 440-4 1 442- 43. 459. 541.5/3 h•lían. 343- -14. 508 9 oí Rnme.i.u. '428 Sp::anii.h, 804

HaJ'J'1g.10. Nt"d, 7 17 l larrington. David. 967 Harri,. Charles K.. 758-S9. 86 1. 862 llarr,s. Roy. 892. 893

Jlarnson. Ccorge. ? H H:.rrison, l.r,11, 954- 55

Cub,;duUna. Son,. 983. 983. 984. 1005

lmdbop. 909

Harc. Lorenz. 917

Cucldrc, f'ernand dc.896

1/ard l)ay,Nigl,,.A (nlm). 919

gt,tm. Lo. J~ntqu10. 258 Cuerrc de.s bouffons. &-t QucreUc des bouf'fon, Guerrcro. Fr:tneisco. 234. 235 Cucttel. Ad:1m. 963 Guidoniao ltand. 44. 138 Cu;do of Arcno. 34. 35. 40. 40. •l:H5. 8<,. M9

honl rock. 915

ll•rr. Tony. 717 Jfanm:mn. V1ktor. 7·1<,. 746

lford to E:cplam. the Strokct, J000

lfal'\·:&rJ Uni,•ç:r:ÜI)', 754. 926

11:lrdin, L.1111:m,866 lbrdy, Thomu. 521

Han·c:y, Jor1a1hau. 982 Jloshinm 11$herh.sh 'Jomo. Ross.i.341-42,j,,2

Harltm. Ellmglou. 872

lfaskcll. Hany. 305 Jfasse.JuhauoAdolí. 395. 468, 483- 84 .484 Jlassler. llans Leo. 237. 337

g11ild,. 69. 71- 73. 129,259, 393.588 Cu11l:1ume IX. duke ofAquH3inc. 7,.

C1111/oum, Tel1. l\oss,oi, 6S5. 657. 658. 663. 664. 668 CuirauJ. ~nl&I. 705. 794 g1111armusic, 342.377.494.509. 80,1, 911 - 16 g,,i>,rs. 331,869.912 ele<1nc.911- 12. 913- 14. 914. 914-15. 965 Guntl1er. Unul.i, 127 C,wt:mm, Strau.6,6, 787 Cum:lird~·r, Schocnb<rg, 8 13 Custon. Phih!-), 943

Cu1en.berg. )uha.nn. 162

hnnnonia,hJr-monfai, 12, 13 14 , 17 18,

159-60 Ho.mtonicEJ,nr.wnu. Ari!J.loxenus. 15- 16 -1:iarrnomcfluc,u-,1110n.- 883-8•1 lfonnoni~ nw.si~ odl1«oton A. Pcm1cci, 162.162 llomwn1C$, Pt(llemy. 39 llamum1tJth1\'. Adams. 980

Hiuprwerk, 398,399

/l(lnnonione$$t, Haydn, 537 hannuunun. 88 1 h:irmuny. 85. Setalsc>consonancc and

llaydn. Joseph. 407. 432. 462. 519. 521>-38, 521. 538

d1s.sonnncc: $pc~fi4: compo.sm <111d gt•nn~ in 83roquc mus1c. 302. 306

H.1us1umrnn, Elias Gou.lob. 436

l1:1u1 rns1rumen1s. 136. 265 lfawkins, John. '468

Hawd1ur-ne, N;ath.anjeJ, 588, 852 Jl3ydcn. Jlcnn.869

achü:\'euteut .i.nd rt'putation oí. 538 8-ich'smílucnccon. 46 1

b1ogr,phy or, 521 c.h:amber musii: uf. 522. 640. 642

Guthrie. Woody. 9 15 Cut?wiUn. Sebastian. S92

in big band ch:ins, 868

Gymnop,di,,, S01ic. 808 Cypsy music. &, Rom~ni (Cypsy) music

ln Fr.a.1"n';11 Flw1islJ tnusic, 196 in m1ddle ~1o · late c1ghtccnth ccntmy

cuncc:rcus of. 503

music.472-73 in nmeteenlh· cenrury mus ic. 5?3. 601. 61S. 620- 21. 648. 657. 672. 693- 94, 710,711. 713- H. 726. 734. 743 k:uneau's tl1e,or-y ,oí, -425. 429

humor of. 5Z6. 53<t- 35. 986 influence of. 545. 5'17. 563. 564. 565. 567. 568. 570. 630. 783 keyboard 60 03138 ande rios of. 536. e,,o

hab3nera. 622. 705 11iffncr, Sigmund. 550

98? mcHsma>ie.52,57 S9,60.61 62

Uaffntr Symphuny. Mo1.,;1r1. 550

neurnattc-52.59. 60, GI

lltm·, ~hcDer-11101. 919

in dghtcenth -cemury music. 526 4

cllutth nlusicof.536 37.583 composi1iQnul proccss oí. 527- 28 eonlr>CJ of.522.523

madng:ds of. 263

norntion of, 3~- 3 7 rcvcrcd tr.:1d111011. 67 set1tngs or. 274. 348. 384

H(lJl1.!>81$

Kussi:m lolk. 833

:IS M!l.!U>n. 4(>!'>

:.iH

11,té,y. J•cques. 669

ln s hnpe-n<01e 10ne.s. 650

oµcnu; ur, 536

Halka, Monmsz.ko. 715

in twcn1ic1h-c:cn1t1ry music, 780. 786.

•yfü1bic, 52 . 55. 59, 1,1

llalo (v1dcu game). 66

or,iorios or. 409. 528. 576. 624. 646 orch.., ra or. 502. 522. 533

793-94 . 795- 97, 798. 801- 2. 816.

A116

lnd ex

llayd n. Jol:i,<:ph (oonimued)

pmon• of. 520 23. 538 q1101a11ons írom, 985 reccpiionoí.518. 557. 627. 854 són.:tl3 fo rmas usetl by. 507 s1ring c1uanc.rs oí. 52'1, 525. 526 27.$27.

53l-36. 538. 542. 517. 58 1. 624. 640 ilyleof. 470.523 24,526- 27.594, 784 symph0Jl1t:s of. 506. 528- .33. 538. 550.

624. 790. 921 HarJn quarteis. Mo1.ar1.S4.7 hc,d, 908 liead·mohw:, 181

he:wy mernl, 973. 975 Hebnda On•.rturc. Mcnddssolrn. 637 llfidPnrosWin, Schnl>e1·1, 597,600

hc.igh1ed ncumc5,,14, 35. 90

Hciligc11krtu1.Abbcy. Au~tria. 66 lle1hgenstadt Test3.JnenL. Bcctbo\'Cll. 569- 70

lleine, l lernrich, 602-3 Heldtnl4!ben. Em. Str::msi. 738

UutmrrdeFronet=. \t1chclc1.144 L'l1114>in-Ju 1c,,ltfoJ, Str.mn,$ky, 836 Jfütoires na.Jurt!llés, Ruvel, 798

llu.;.,•hu. Arihur,558 llugo, Victor, 655. 68 1. 696,732,963

ldmrn:neo, Mouart, 543. 552 lfr' fo~·,· ,,.,., T:alli.$, 224 'Tm Not," P3n(la Ue.;ir, lil 1

bhllorla. 3 •10 -•I 1

Huguennrs. 220, 668 HuguttlDts. Ld. Meycrbcc:r. 654 . 65.f. 668-69.

hi$1oriography. 828. 876. 902 Hitcl,eook, Alfrcd. 919. 918 llitkr.Adolf. 856 UMS Ptnofort. Cilben.:ind Sttll iv:in, 71 6

677. 699 humaní•m. 1-17-48. 151. 158. 159.161.16'1. 200 201. 215. 227. 263. 309 10. 3 19. 341

l lohbc..'i, Thom:.s. 290 Hobokeu. And1ony van, 521 1loch Conscrvaroire (Pr,,nkfu n). 612 13

hum:,initari:rnism, -165

hocket. l l ?.1 21. 123. 133 Hofer, H:111$, 271 Hofl1mmn. E. T. A.. 580. j95. 602 l loffmann, Felicitas. -f&,f Hoímann.s1h.1I. Hugo rnn. 78?

Ho~'>nh. Cco,·gc. 644 l loganh. WIiiiam. 489. 837 Holbtin. H:anJ. 1he younger. 223

humor m music. 526. 534-35, 551, 986

Hmn1)l1 rey. duke CJíClou<:ester. 171

llundrcd Year•'IVar, 11 2, 1•5. 166 67.173. 188 Hung:iri:m muinc. 6)8. 64). 724. 725. 840 47. 876. 951. 981 82 ll1mgariar1 Rhaps.odí,:s, LlSlt.6 18 Hungary. 409. 581. 856. 901. S.ca!.oAu,uia· Hungory: Jlunpri:m muflc

lfong Up, Madonn:.. 997

lhad. Ho1uer. l O. 57 1

lm 1t•1mdt'rsd1ti11er1 Mcmat Ma•. Schuinann. 603.604 lmoge,, Dcbu•&y, 792. 794 l.and,cop, No. 3. C.,ge. 939 1ou1ationdoc:1nne. l3 1mna11on mass. 209. 2 l 1, 227.229. 234.St:,e

'"'º8"'"'Y

cd3o ma6,S unitalm:~ouult:rpomt, l•IS. 148, "Jmmortal Bdowd," 564

IS?.158.198

1mpe1•fec1 Cm111or) dwision. 11(,. Jl 7. 119 impresanus. 323. 324.373. 653. 717 /mptl'.SS1ori:S11111·isr. Monct. 767, ?67 unpre.. ,om•m. 68 1. 763. 767,770.771. 780. 7') 1, 796--97. 799 unpromptu. 606 hnprovi!.ltiuo

hurdr·o'Urdy.80. 80- 81 11,,., J•n. 747 48

ín African Americnn musie. 759, 775.

llelltucl. Lupus,219 hc1mola, 129. 175- 76. 2•l'1.3 l8

Holbome. Andt0n}'· 272 l-lolderm3n(I, Carl \Vilhelm. 6?2 lloliday lnn (Mm). 861 Holb c:11dcr. F'riedriel1, 873

lhLS.1, Kowd. 920-2 1

Hende,.•on, J.'ie1oh+r-, 868

HolAI. C u íi l :av. 752. 804. 805

H1m'uk6, Ovoi-:\k. 748

Hendrix.Juni. 914 15. 938. 967

band m11sicof, 77'1, 777. 920 lloly Ronun Empirc. 29-31.30, 69. 290,291. 393. 561 m,ps of. 39·1 Hotyrn·nuywith 1.hc V.,win,St John, cind

H.1w10 Swmp. S1t113. 975. 976

m :u1eienc cuhutts, 8 Lr1:u1<"1emC~é<'Oõ". li m Baruque mu!r,ic. 347- 48. 439. 457 and ba:Ho contuwo. 301

llenri IV. kif.gof l·'ran«. :t90.3 12

llcnry. Pierre. 9,17

Henry-IV. Sh,~espeore, 701 llcnryV, kn11,ofEngl,nd. 167 Henry VI. krngof Engl>nd. 167 llenryVIII. kingo!Engbnd. 214. 223.223, 260 llcnad. Fanny Mcndclasohn, 608. 61 J . 6 11-13,64•1 Licder or, 604 pansoop ur. 648 riano music of, 606 pia uo trio of. 6~2-'13 reecption or. 623 llcns~I. Wilhehn. 6 11. 6 13 llerbert, Victor, 112 Herder.Joba.nu G<iuíri~J von. 5?7. 7l2

llerman. \Voody, 83 1 JlcmutScmg3. Barbcr. 927. 92-8 Hc:rrrn::i.on. Bcro:uJ. 9 19 lie1ero phouy. J 1. 78

hexachord. 43-4•1, 44. 138. 25 1 henchord (twelve- mne 1hcoty). 823

H1d•lg,. Ju•n. 375. 378 lueroglyph1e$. 8 Hieronymu, de Mor:wfa, 103 Htgdon. Jeuniíer. 1007. 1007

H,ldcg.,rd of Bingen, 64 65. 65 llill. l.,uryn, 997 HilJcr. Joh.iruiAdarn. 467. 490 H111dcuu1h. Paul. 882 8'1. 892.90 1 927

band music of. 920 c.mign11ionof. 926

in0ucnce oí. 885. 9 19 Jlint$ for Yo1.rng Compos<r, 0Jlt141n1mtnrot Mus1c. Marsh. Si4

hip bop. 763. 772. 970. 973- 74, 992. 997. 1009 H1ppol.J1Ht Anc«t', Ramc:au. 42.5. 426. 427. <128. 429 30. 491.791

A117

lnd ex

llunter. Albert:.. 863

hymn. 7.12. Sceaboehorale

865-68

Am.rican. 649-50. 6.52. 817. 850-52. 896. 899 aac1cn1Crtek, 18

or Reci:hovcn. 564. 566 ;md d1:tnt, 32

donors. M:asaccio, )49. ISJ lu,mt 1.nlUie- u1akiug. &t' :uuatcur mug1ci;u)8

By,.:imine, 28 e arly Chn511an. 24-25, 31. 43

l..u c3rl}' rns1rume111al mm;1e. 264. 270. 279

and music Humi:Quarld. n11:, Huglu:s.5S8 IJom.t ! Swttt llomt1!, Bishop. l,04. 615

English, 805

llomt'nOJC a f't~t·rwoCoreto U)f('O. lle\1.1elr~s. 892 llomer, 10.319.322.57 1 l'h"'"""º'"';· 182. 186. 206. 208. 229.S« ois., M1.sso I. 'homme(lnné emrics homophony. 145, 157 in 8:1roque mus ic. 300-301 mt1ghtc~nLb~ceútury mu81c. 469. 1l?6 in ftfteemh cenHuy musie, 158 in Kcnais.sancc nnu;ic, 172, 18-8, 198-99.

212. 219 20 homo&exu.ahty and g~y eultme, 451. 708. 745. 898. 906. 928-29. 939,973 Hon<~g<r. Ar~rnr. 878. 878-79 "hook."758

fauxbourdon sctlm~of, 180 o f HilJ~g:ard. 66 in Jcwu~h :ec:rviccs. 6'19

omce. 56. 60 panphrases of. 20?

Protes1a1u. 495 Rcvoluttoniuy.574 75 in R.om:in limrg>•. 51, 60 Hrnn and Fu.gumgTuni!". Cowell. 8% Hp1111 ro Sr. Cecil1a, 8 r1UtfJ. 928

/lymn10S1. Mogiws. 107 hymnal•. 650. 805 flrnuw1, S10.::kh:mscn. 956

IIJP"I"''"'· Varese. 893. 89,, 894-95 llyp"aeolbn mode. 159

1lopkm~. John, 222 Hom ntM$.$lffl0, J)irker, 754

HypOOorian mude, -to--t2 llypodori:i.n,octa,·c.specics. 16 17 Hypo1on1~n onodt, 159

Ho r:icc. 5~7 born

Hypolydi:in mode, 40- 42 Hypolyd iao oc1a,•e .$JJt"Ctü, 16 17

Crc:ck. 9 pl'ebi&lOl'ÍC, 5

llypomixolydüm mode. 40 42

Hypophrygian ml.>Cfe. 4H2

tn conceno c:idenr:is, S l7 orF.ngJi.sh polyphony, l07

in founccnch-cc.n1ury music. 136 1n ltali..invocal music, 24S.309 in )3"', 776, 907 9 in Jewi,:h liturgic;il music.3'1 1 i n nineceenth-ceniury muStc, 611 or o,-g:inum. 86. 88. 9 1 92. 96

590-9 1.594 d'ludy. Vuiuu1. 742. 790. 877- 78. 8i9 /nfluem:;eof Peo.s,w1 M,,s,.c oa Modern Afo.s.Lc. Bartól. 842 l11harrnQ,11q11"~ Ri.s&el, 970

limoceul Ili. Puix-. 78

lnnsbnick. 323. 325 /nrubmck. ich nw.5s dich lcuscn. l:s.aac. 199. 200.

2 18.259 foscope. Copia nd, 899 lns1im1 de Reche~he ~ t C,«>rd1n:11ion AcouisUquco/Mus1que ORCAM). 970.

98 1. 982.1004 im;1mmç ntal families. 1(,7 in~tnamc:nt2l 111u&ic. S" U-bu ~eyLo:.n:l nrns ie~

ln C. KHey. 976 lrt Cc:,11rol A.su.1, Borodin. 746 ln 0.hom,y, Cook. 77$ ln m,monom hylon Thom.os. S1rav1nsl-y, 839 ln Nomine. 274-75. 372 lrt l•tummt. T,wc:oer, 955 lri ihe Su·cl'I Ry-arid B_r. Wcb6téT, 758 lnc.:.i nmsic, 235

inc1den1.:tl muiuc UÍ 8eed10\'Cll, 576 ar Debussy. 79(. of Mendds..,hn. 608. 637

of P111-e<II, 372

llypoplu'),gi{ln ociave tf,cci<:s, 16- 17

i ·i,100-roM~~ntd-t l'opptt,. Monieverdi.3 16.

Hol Sc\•en. 866 1lonctenc fanuly, 354

ICctoKiek(hrio/You, Poner.661 JC.,r Rh,mm. Ge..shwrn.861-62.862. 870. 908 HJ,i11g. 941 -•12

319. 325 lnde,galcmtd. ú,. Rameau. 428. 42.9. 430. 681 indc1crminacy, 763. 924,935.940, 942 ~15, 950-51, 957. 985

Homid l'>og, k 1ber/$1ollei-, 913

lbena.J\JbinLt, 80•1

lodi:'.l :and lndi.:rn rnus1ç W rupc3u colomc8. 3 lJ

Baroquc. 301. 342-50. 3S4-56. 372-73. 376-17. 384-89. 396. 39?-104. 4 11 .4 15-24. •128. 43•1- 35. 438-43. 459-60 e1gh1centh ccnlUI')'. 499 518. 523 36. 545- 52.565 68 cxçlusicm from carly Christ1.'ln 6Crvice&. 25 fourtccnlh-ocutury. 135--40 mcdiev:..J, 82 83

793-99, 806- 11. 813- 15.8 17- 18. 832 37.865 74.878 79.882.888 89. 907-10. 927. 93!H7. 977-90 mstrume1Hi11on :111d otthes1ra1100 ofbtbop eCtmbos. 907 oí Berlio,:. 646 Berlioz·s lr,raLise on, 632. 635

ofbig bands.868 70 of Brnekne:r, 73'1- 35 ofcoun,rymusicgroups, 91 l-12 ofC.abriel1. 284

of ll ,ndcl.454 ofllaydn. S02 ofMal1ler. 78•1 in m1d c1gluccnth ecntury musíc. 503 of Mome\'e rdi. 3 17 onfoun.554 1n n1ne1ec1,uh- cemuty 111us1c. 625 of Pen;1chcu1, 92 1 of R,:uneau, 429

u,mrs, Hit>(fdm), ·n~

lbien, Henrik, 61:U

Howa.rd. Hugh.387 "l/011d7" Symphon,. Sehiekele. 986 Huut rhc Wc:-1i A'las Wcm <rahn). 8?4

ldealaud Vit'w oflht' ú1y. sclwol uf P1cro deUa

nlm m11sic, 919. 967. 975

oí1'hy1tnn· .and · bluesgroups, 9 13

Fr:mcesco. JSO idéef,xe. 6:l<O-:H . 6.H. 635. 734

in~1 m mcnls u.:;ed m rock. 9 1'1. ? IS

Rimsky-K<Jrsak.,v's trc.atisc on. 713 in roei. anJ ruU. 9 13

m<1« ln. 932. 940

m&1rnmcnts. See ol.so kcyboavd mr.trum cnts: percus.sion; string insrmrnen1s: wlnd

ins-1rnmentS:$pttificin.s1mmenr, 1n a11('1c,n Crccce. 9- 10 :mc1em Jew15h, 2•1

R..ro<111c:, 384-85 L-onsonsof. 260. 267.268. 272 73. 275. 346,372 continuo. 301. '1 15 iu c:ôlrly CILri:sti;&u diurclt, 25 cigh1ccn1h (cnt1,uy. 500 503 eleetronie. 947--49 founce mh ·c~nHII)', )36. 137. 138

"blgh" and "low." 136. 265 mcdicvol.77 78, 80 82 Mdopoti,nian .6-7 n1uette1Hh-cer"itury. S90-91 parodies or. 986

1wcn1ieth• t:ent,1r)', 774-77. 781- 87.

130

ao SC\'Cnteeuth l'Cntmy muSJc. 304. 3'13

of Sm,'insky. 832. 838 or Vi\'o1ldi.<l 15-U, \lfwi,.ad c:1lsemb1ta. 920

1n ).fc1r:.will.n ílervicéiR,

III Trccc:nlo musíe,

ecmury musac. 964 65

oí ,alsa çnkm.bles, 9 16

ofSeh0<nberg,8 l7

1;p llrifie t'Ol11puJ.·1trc. 111.íitro,,uinl.t. u.11d

oí 6ilcn1 fllm :içcompammt:m. 17.i in Sp:mish mu$ié, 376 in 1wcnuc1h

ofRosa,ni. 657

gt•nf\l$

ninetecmh ·cennuy. 568-75.576-85, 606-22. 625-43. 663- 64. 724-29. 732- 33. 734-35. 737-39.143. 74• 47. 754 57 f\enai,..nec.152.157-58, 16 1.264-85

rotary valve. 59 1. 591. 625 l lot l~h·e. 866

Hontture, Jean. 355

rhy1hm1ç O:l'tranm1lion of. 932. 978 sou nd ~cu rding-s, 769 1r:id11ton.:i.l mu.!lle. 8, 963 twc:ruy &rs:t ceotury. 994.1009 /nd1(lt1 Suite. M:tcOowdl. 75<1 1ndoneiian m u~ic. 954 indulgcnccs, salc of. 2 1S lndu.srl"ial Revolution.S59, 560. 562-63. 589.

or Kc\'Uclt.:i-ti, IS'll

497

prebis1oric. S Renms,nce, 265. 267 69 li\ Roman Emplre, 19-20 1re2tise.s on. 265-66 twenllt!tlJ•Ct"tllury.809-1l. 895. 91l6 ,m,bulalion. 266, 273 ,28 1 lnUgrult:$. V.irtst, 893 nll~l'rncdiu, 309,309,312.320, 327

uttc:nucrto eigh1eemh-temury\'C~I. 480- 61. i185 n incleenth·century instrumental, 7:26. 729 lul~ma1ioua1 Comp0$él'.S Guild. 893 11\lcn1ational musical styles in eigh1een,h «nmry. <152. 463. 4M i n Germ:lll Baroque music. 432. 434--35.

448 49,469 in nine1een1h centUI')'. 707. 709 rn Rena1.ssance. l35. 141 . 144. 1S2 • .154.

161, 172. 174. 178 79.187. 968 1111wtm1e1h ecmu1y. 966-68 in

twentrhrlot«.nHlry, 1008

lnlnuet. 769. 960. 995. 998-99. 1002. ]008-9 lm.::rpn:1<u1011 0/Drecmu . Freud.8 19 1nttJ'\')I, 15 incon.:tnJmori. 809- 11 utlou.at lon. 53 imonn1ione. 280

íutruductiuu, 507, 529,567.726 lnlrodl.l~,YEmy()n CQmpos1i1Q,i, l>lll'OÍI. 48, 50. 54.56. 60. 61. 63

Koch.506 7

lnuh$. 98•1

tn\'Clll1on. 826. 813

uwersion. 194·. 820. 823,829.934 lo,usaito,., VarCse, 8?3, 939

~,o

JNl"-O- ~ non piir dJ$$t, VCt1unldo, 2$$. Zj6

Joma.n modc. 159

iPad. 995 lphigenio in Brooklyn. Schiekde, 986

A118

lnd ex

ln dex

/phigt:nu: t:n A11l1dt, Cluck. -192 lpl,ig,:1w!4'11 Ta u.nd4', Cluek. 492

fa&et6m I n, 856

iPLouc. 995

mop e,. 1650..180

iPod. 9'15-96

mt:díc-va.1.69

fo 1.Jt1ec:nth-«n111ry,

Schickele"su&eof. 986 113

lppolHu d Anc:ra. Tracua. 191

narionalism in, 655- 56. 680. 698. 676

lraui:m 111u.sic. 963. 1009 lraq, 6. 994

oine(een1h-ccn1ury, 584

lri.sh Amerie:.n music, 863 ln.dt music. 6 16

Rcna1s&ancc. 152 53. 190 St\·en, eenrh-ctn1ury. 2'10, :t91, 380 Sp:anish posscssions. 373

Iro.si, R/,opsodus. Sunford. 752

1wcucietb-ccu1u.ry. 904

hc. missa«•. 49, 60

/n.s,h Ttmr.Jrom Ca11ni.,Y/kny. Craingçr, 77~ lr,•ing, \Váib..iugtun, 588

1, ·s D,-lun:ly. Purier. 86 1

l.saae, ll~nm:us . 196, 198 99.20 1. 2 12,226.

iTuoea, 995- 96

259. 829 in0ucncc ur. 202 b.a.1,.d1n. queen orCct.s1ilcaud Uon. 189.

$1TI(IQlh, ?65 S1r:1vin.sky'" use or, 831 lbird SlrL'3UJ. 954 1r.11dirion 't.'S, innov3rion in, 907. 909,96 1 WeiJrs 1u;-eof. 88 1 Jaz.x ~l Lincul1l Cc:111cr. 961 J= Smge,. 11\e (film}. 872 /enep1tiH1,,~. IJ\1snoys. 190-9 1. 192, 198 Jeonie wrrh Jhl! lighr Brown Huir. Foster. 605.

hu11hot. G1.ll.1nt. 716

h-anov. Lcv. 707 h·<s. Charles. 813. 8•11. 817-51.848. 967. 985. 1008 Blleh·g 1nOucncc on, 46 1 hiogr2phy of. 848

60S

JcfícrsouAtt"pbnc. 915 Jch•n d.. Mms, 11 4. 115.

K1ng(f.nJ.I. TI1e, Rodgers3nd lla mmc~tcm.

Jusquiu D«pre,. 195. 200 208. 201. 205 biogr:.aphyor. 201 c•reer oi. 152-53

Kmg David. Honeggcr, 878 79

l.t1d)',

K'mg Ko"g (Mm). 873. 873-7•1 King l,rmr. ShalesJ>care. 955 King Uúr<>.'1:rtu~. Bcrlioi. 633 King Oh,·tr"a Crco lt Jau: Band. 865. 866

Lady c,g,. 997

K,ng's 111eau'< (l,ondon), t53 Kingston. Se~n. 996

l..adysmtth Black Marnba1.o. 966 l.ognm.-mw. S1rou1, J31. 331-32. 38 1 la Cuerr~. Martin Je. 365

d,an.sons ... 202. 273- 74

mílueuceol. 227. 234. 237 l.u1herinfluen<:ed by. 2 16 m:ts,esof. 206-7 rnoms of, 204 6 a4 pcrfonner, (,5- 66

117

ta Poupl1111trc.AJc:xandtc· ka.1l-Joscpll le

Juba. 774-75

Ki1~ luitr, EruSI Lttdwlg.818

laL 124

Jubilcmu~. c:rnil1~muli, 89-90. 90-91

Kirkp,me k. ll>lph, 508 Kis,, 970

l,0lar1-t. Odibes, 704 Labndc. Michcl- Hiclutnl de. 362 l.,uu.ir1inc:,A1fuusc-}.hrie J c:, 733

juhilus. 58

Ocbu.ssy's mflueucc on. 796

lslnm. 67- 68

rnflucnceor. 853 54,915, 919. 937. 955.

Je,u,i,, 228.

L'isl,j•J~""· OclJu••Y· ?93. 793-95. 796 Jslt<>/tlteDead.. TI1e. R.1ch111::ininóff, 799

9S•I j;au:and r.1g1ime dc:mt nl$ u.seJ by. 777

1corby1lu.rl, 1 11. 118 . 1 18- 19 . 1'1 1. 182.932

isorlly,hmicmotf!I, 118- 19. 121. 14 1.168.

170. 172. 180. 18•1 lsr.:iel, stnc1cm, 8 Israel, modem, 687 I,m,I in Egypi. H2ndcl. 458, 459 1Sl3mp1ta. 83.

J38 ísnmnom hwntomcht, V', Zs.rlino, 155. 230. 250 ltalian music.Stealso l1ali.1nopcra

B•ruquc.312- 2?. 328- 32.343-46. 34749.35 1. 379 80.404- 5, 411 22, 432. 467 c1gl1tecnth ·centmy. 4?5, 512-13

mcdicw,I. 80 nineiecnlh-cen ltuy. MS Ren•i.,:once, 229-33. 245-56. 308-12 Trc:ccu10. 130 35 1wenocch-«:nmry, 809 11, 919.936 ·37,

956 ltalian opera Amenean pcríormauc-ci of, 674 8~roq1.1e. 290 bclanco, 61(, dlÜ("rnin.t1iot\ oí. 323. 356. 395, 434,

485- 86 e.1rlyCl;aMUc:.al pc:nod, 477-84 c1gh1ccn1h -cc:n1Ury, 41 1 13,414.421.

451. 452-55. 536, 552-56 ninctccnih cemmy. l,56-l,6. 677,682. 695-701. 876 opcrabuffa.H?,478 80.552 5S operHeria, 477. 482- 84, 492,542. 543. 553.554-55

t1g_htt<:1Hh C(l\1\lr)', 463

l.and,. Stefano. 321 t.,ndini. l'rnnc«<o.113. IJ/, 13l -35. J34. 137. 141 . 198

Kl,wirrswck XI. S1ockhau$cn. 94'4 KJf'i"" gf'isdid,.- Xcm:r.rte. SchUb, 339

Julm~ 111 . Popt-. 230

11(.-:{JUU. 9l.S 66. 1005

Klimr, Cusi;w. 695. 786. 786 Xnabcn 111undr'rhum. lk5. Brcnumo/Arnun.

Jachon. M,chacl. 916. 970 J•copo d• 8ologna, 132

Jcw1sh music

Jullien. Lc,ui,. 626. 628. 628, 756 Ju.ly Re"oluiíou. 667 Jump},rnC'row. Rice.676 jlmkcr, Carl 1.11dw1g, 566 JupimSymphony, Momt, 551, 551- 52 Jus, Lady c,ga. 997 jus, inromuion. 157. 301. 946,954 55

Jacques de L1êgc. 87. 115 Jacqut:l de la Cunrc. Eltsaheth·Cl:tudc. 363.

365.36.5. 366,367.504. 506 Jo1gcm;um. Carl. 725 }oh,. Do,. li<oscl. 612 13 Johrcsu,i.m, n~r. Maydn. Sce Scosons. nit, lloydn Jamc, 1. kwg oi England. 368 fom e• 11 , lnngor Englond.369 JanAtek. l.eot. 780, 796. 805-6.811 J:mcquin. Clémcni . 257, 258 Jap:au and J:avaue8c mus1c, 681. 90JI. 9 19.

955. 963 M. 1009 Javanesegamdan music, 951. 955. 963. 1009 Jay Z. 1000 )3", 759. 763. 764. 772. 776. 856. 992 cb ..,c,I mn•icand. 777. 879. 918, 964- 65. 100? cool. 967 Cupland·s~Lieof.89? Oebussy's iníluenceon. 796. 868 corly. 776 77 l~uropc;m pcrforrn:mccs of. 869 flL~icm. ?65

Cushwio 's use uí, 898 mtcrwar pcriod, 865- 70. 874 Krenel:'s useof. 880 post·World War li. 903. 906, 907 10, 921 - 22

6J6. boi

l..ainberr, Michel.357 f..amé'ntod.-lla nmp1. Monteverdi, 329- 31.3,10

!'Jcn1itrsdwk. T ork. 471

78 J,u:r, l>cbu,sy. 791, Jcurd 'C<Ju, l\avcl. 196-91, 797

scven1cc.n1h ccnnny.3 12 27,319.

t: holJo.no m 1llgt>n, Hossmi, 657, 658 ltaly. S« ol.so hali.an mus1c: Juh;m opera

orN:iai.1"<"11,. 22. 2•1, 47

R:wel', 1.Jlleoí, 799. 878 J'CCC RI ll't! Jld-8,

1001

,arly. 23-24. 38, 45, 60 kle,mcr. 965-66. 1005 umclccntb~century. 6'4 8-49 sc,·emeemh ccnmry.34 1 -42 6Íxtecn1h -çcn1ury, 213,239 h.,.e,llu:lh - .;entury, 879,919,978

Jewa :inri•Semirísm :md, 685,687.8 11, 8 14 ,

856. 879. 880. 885 i ll Argcoüna. ) 00S As hktna.n and Scphardic communities.

239 apuls1ou from Spam. 189. 23•l lloloc>t'8t>nd. 904 in ninc1ec:nd1 -cent111)' Eun,pe.608 jingtcs, S Jo3ch11n. Jos-eph. 628. 725 Jo3clurn Quanei .6'10.640 Jo:.in. dowager q11i::cn of Engbnd. 171 Joltann Emit, prin1.'1:ofWr:im,1r. '433 Joh3nntedc C3rfandia.92,115

John,dukeofBedíord, 167. 171 John. Elton. 963 John CJ.uyso.-1om, Saint. 25 John r.om~ltis.f mf'now, Byrd. 277 John of LW1emhuurg. king of .Bohcmia, 120

Joho•on, 8,11.8~ Johuson. James P.. 86'1

Jolmson, Philip. 984-85. 985 John:son. Robert. 865. 911: ]olson, AI, 872 J9mm<:lh. Nicwl0, ·191 jnnglcurs, 71, n , 7'1.

°"""'·

Kol""'"·806

Kammt"nnusik. Htndcm1th. 882 K:1:rst!ld1. Geo1'g. 398 K!ir1t1atorthea1er (\fie-nu:t). 490 Kdr'ol<ooo,,.,,d, Ja,,ãtek.806 Kc iscr. l\e inhard, 395- 96. 452 Keller. }.fari2Ann!I .S2l Kc.nnedy. Roht'r1 F.. 959

Kc,my G. 965 Kemuçky liarmony. ()49 Kepler, Jol1aunes, 13. 289

Kcrn,Jcromc. 773. 8S9.860. 873. 874. 962 kenlednm,s. 72. 136. 267.26?. 2?3 keyboard in~tn1mcn1s.Sttt al$osptt1fic f)'Pf';j

cJghtcen1h -ce01ury, 500

mcd,cv.,I, 136. 138 nc n.ai~s;mc;c. 269

tunmgof. 157.30 1 kcybo.ard musie. s~ álsó clav,cbord~ hilrpsichord mus ic:org:m mus ic; pianot·oregori.CJ

Lamb-t11. 11ndclt:mc. 357

lmh:imde, 12. 12 Klangíarbenmdod1e. 82?. 954:

]tn, d11 Robin lrl d.i lfon.o,i, AJ:11n J e 1ft ._blle,

l'(.'CllJ)lfon o(. 898. 90 1

music;1J53nJ. ? 18

380--8 1. 382

Jellli..s

Ki8$M<. Kat<, Port<:r. 917 knhara, ~- 11 , 12. 12, 786. 946

symphonic poems of. 734 l\'eS. George. 818

rdórm of.490-9 1

Jrulián Sym-1)l1ony. Mc;ndelssohn, 635- 37,

230. 23• }í'.3ll$ Cfuist S11pt'r$tor. IJoyd Wc.bhcr. 962

ShoSlakovith.887--138. 889

lhc hc de, 126 la kue, l)ier-re de, 195

Juda1sm, 4. 23 24. Se-e alio Jcw1sh mus1c Judos .\lntcob,us, 1-hndel. 458 Jud:i.s Pncit. 975 Judtiwm, 1t1 dtr Afotik. Das. Wagner, 687 }ui~. IA), Meyerhcer . 669 julitt Lcm:11. TI1c, Co1udlo :md Bn.>dsk.y Qu3rtet, 963

L!:iíc:ub11my:t. 966 lsidon: of Se"Hle, 3 J

l.od.rin ,h., Oorlt. \Veill, 882 l..ol(r ,\foc:f1~1h uflhe Mtscnik Di$1ricr.

Kmorlu~k .an1hology. 773 Kih.sky. Fcrdrn:rncl Job:mn , 568. 577. 996

Jcnucus. Cl1.irlc11, -157 /<1ul/o, Janáéel. 806 J<p•ht. C.rlssuni. 336-37 Jt:romc. S.aint. 25

Js,nh ..imA1lt1rpifcc. Crilnew:ild.88.~

s~(;ood.', C.,,rshwin, 86 l

Joyce. Jsu.1cs. 857

Jcnkin$. John. 372

233 -34, 243

Konkd. Jol1anJ1a. 623

1..adie& 8 r.t,t;~ Bancl , 77'4

Kinks. 1he. 9 14

N:\."tpltouur, 164.2"12

Jcanrc:naud, Joan. 967 Jef(e,t,;(>11, TI 1,m1:1$, •165

1..achmann. Hcdwig. ?88

Jo~cph 11 . lloly Roman cmpcror, 165, 5•M, 55·1 Jo$}1ua, Jfauclel. 458

91 7

A119

597 Knoben Wunderhom. lk-t. Mahlcr, 783 Kn-1-Ckerbocktr Hohdoy, \Ve1II, 882 Knon'iUe:Summero/1915, &rber. 927 lfodJ, Hcmricl1Clms1oph. 472 .506 7. 508,

513.514,5 16, 517 Ko<:lu:-1. Ludwagvou.54 1 Kodály. Zoltln. 840. 84 1. 876, 885 Ko koschh, O•hr, 816. 818 Kolisch. Cenn1d. 814

Kollwitz. Kátl.t.e. 857 Konch:,Jo,•sky. Pyorr. 886

Komo.ktt, S1ockhiuse1,. 935 Xonuu Punl•it. Stockh:1usen. 935 Korean W:i.r, ?04 Korg. 999 Komgold. Erich Wolfg,ng. 718. 873. 871 Koro Surro, Lo. llarrison, 955 koto, 896. 951 Ko,-orusqor,, (~lm). 979 K~ut~riana. Schumann. 608 Krc:mcr. Gidon. 983 Krcnek, Ernst, 880. 884, 892, 933 Kwu!.$pi~t. S1ocl:h2usen. 934-35

b1<>sr~p11y ur. 134

"Laud1111"c..adenoe. l.33, 135.176

1.>ndlcr. 629 Landow~ka. Wanda. 880 J..ng. D,v,d, 966 Lang. Josephu>e, 601, 623 1,.ng L,,ng. 1002 Laugc.Juscph,541 l:mgucd' oc. 73

lan1,"l1cd"oYl. 73 l..3onc:r. ]O$cph. 625, 6-52, 112 Lau.aky. Paul. 970 l.:11•son.J<>n:11han, 963 Lassus. Or1.andc de (Orl.mdo d1 Las..~o). 238

biogra1,J,y uf. Z38 chanson& of, 258 complete worh edirion. 720 mfluence of. 283 l.iedcr oi. 259

madrig,I• of. 253 moCCIS OÍ, 237, 283 reccpuon or. 240 l,ast Emperor. The(fllm). 964 l.JrinAmcricJn l1ld C:tribbc=in mus1c. 621-

22. 776. 875. 890-92. 898. 918 . 954. 1002, 1005.S«ol.so,pecifictoimtn.es J 3111\ Americ:.n independeMe inovemen1s,

588

Kricgér. Ad:tm. 396

Kris,oJJnachi. 7,0m, 965 KronosQuartc t. 965. 966. 967. 96?. 1004

ll.,roquc, 304. 342 S0.363. 397-403. 404 eigh1een1h-<:enn1ry, 472-74. 494 .500-

KuLrick. St>nley. 9S1. 9S3 Kuhnau, Joha11n, 404

501. 503. 505-6.508-12. 536. 837 Reu..a1s:sancc. 270. 273-81

K11Uel'\'O, Si bel ius, 806

La11 oo~Americau mus,e. 9 16. 973 buvb, 85G. 901 l2udo (pi. l2ude). 80. 130 Lot,d<llt Dommtrnt, Manch1courc, 163

Lauds.5 1

Kmufon (f1hn). 979

/,ouro (hlm). 919

Kh<,l0<1nshchino. Mu.sorgsky, 710

K11n.s, de, Fug,. O«. Bach. S.-, An ofl'11gru.

Khrushchcv. N1k1ta. 985 lGc k$rnrter. 996

'Jllt', l\.1çh Kun,15,,1w;a, Alara, 955

l.auren1s.Ar1hur. 918 J..wes. Wilham, 369 l.aw.s, Plato, "1 . LS9

K111d oj li-íut.' <Uav1s aJbum), 'JOY

K.ü sd , Mclclu()r, JY6

l..a)"

recepuon or. 874. 885

Jorw1sp1~U ouf. Kn:uek. 880

Kinde.rtcenfn, Schum~nn, 606

samphn,gof. 991 So&tic:':s u:sc: or. 809

Jon,on. llcn.161, 292 Joplin. Scou. ?7S. 775-76. 777. 795. 862

Kmdmorenlir.dr.r, Mahlc r. 786

K\111, re13, 966 KU1nc11ov. Nfkoby, 708

King, M»1rn Lu,htr. Jr.. 906. 9S9

Kyrlc. 48. 50.60.181. 18·1

oJ lht A.fapJ~ l.tCIJ. C.:brke, fJU~

Lc Bruu. Cbarlé.s, 296. 296- 97. 300

l,e Fr>nc. M•nin. 165. 166.167. 175. 187 Lcjcune. Cl•udc. 223. 259

lnd ex

A120

l nd ex

l..c Vau. Luuis••1.;J lt-;ad $hee1, 908

lich1. Stockhauaen. 98 1 L,,·hlbog~n. s~ari~liv, l

Lca:b'Ue uíAmt'nt.anOrclu:stra.s. 1001 l.e:1gl.1e oíCornpose:1"$, 893 I...bc1<ohl!. Wolf. 736. 737

Uchtensteger, Ccorg. 434 Ued ~'tlt\dt•r Erdt. Dó.S. Mall.ltr, 787 Lieder. 19?. -t ?•I. 596 60•1 utlkc:1lao,·c:u.S?6

I.A:eer(Jç la ViévHle, Jean Lauttm.36 1 Lccl.lir, Jean- ~fanç. 422 Led Zeppehn, 915. 964

ºº"

lmorgy, 2 7

Luuvam. 163 l<A't:fúrTl'lrri>OJYmgt!t, TI1r, Pl'okof1ev, 886

Ambrot;ian, 28 By,.:intine , 28 early Cbnsllau. 24

Jewish. 24, 45 Old l\oman.28.31 Rom,n, 29- 31. 45. 46-51. 60 Suum. 167 I.Lw,gr o/Ss.. John Ouysouom. Tn\·ener, 989

l..et'ch~Wilktn.son. O:mM.137

o!Brahm,. 729 30 of Jgaae. 199 o(M:ihler. 783

Lcgrcn~1. G10\'a:nni. 380 l,ehâr, Fran,, 772. 777. 873 Lc,L<r. Jrny. 913

oí Sehocnbcrg. 816 o!Sehubert, 597-60 1, 62 1. 622, 729. 730

liiuus.20 Lt~Yrpé)or Orarono. McCannty. 963 IM·(ldu \'mrd.,t, l,. Maehaul, 120

Lctpiíg

uí C. Sc:lu,m::urn, 603_.I

l.1,')', 147

Bach m. 437-38. •142-% , 4'18 Cewandhaus conccns. 467. 627. 63 1 puhli:-.hí.ug in. S92 Lc1p1.1gConserv.11ol)', 608,612

leóomonves. 683. 689-')0. 691. 694,695, 703, 734. 738. 752. 787. 809.825.873 74. 972. 986 l,emb;ich. 1:r,mi von. 685 ú:mmirlkái,1en 's Rerum. Sibc:Uus. 806 l.cfü1u, Nikobus, 737 ~ 01.

Lorentú, 149

polyphomc, 2S9

uí R. Schum:um. 602- 3. 622. 730 orW,gncr. 685 ui Wol(. 736-37.739.8 11 U<dercinafohrend,n Cese/1,11, M,hler. 783 Utderoh,1t Wone. Mendel&&ohn, 607,609, 622-23.642 Llt'.'derkrt>is. Stt sung cydes

Utooen,mr Kij,!. P,·okoí,ev, 886. 887 Ufcforrh<:1,11,. A. Clinka.1,73-7~ lig,ou,c,, 92. 92-93. 93, 96, 103. 117

Lm:.S)'mphuny. 1to1.ul. 550 Li112t. Fr1ni. 593,619

biogrophyor. 6 19 Chopin ;md. G15 chorai un~1c of. 733. 739 CSS.'l)'$ of, 596

influenoeor. 709. 712,734.742, 745. 75 1. 783. 793,801.804. 807. 613. 898 Lt<'dt-rof.604

Ubt>rdfOJ1"oonrmpuncJ1. Tinc.tori5,. 1S4-55

reception oí, 739

úbtrd.(t·1riuuq11urtusXIX rnt1Ac1CUJ cun11cma. 163

sympl,om(' poem.sor. 639. 732-33

1.ibcrn6lrob.s, 51, 60 libc~I ar15. 38. 70, 148 libem:wned, Rusgwm dall'istJfo d'AJcmo.

Wo~o,c,· :ond. 685. 687. 730 :t$Wa1,ri1tman, 72 1

Hbrecto. 307

eonueoptrJ, 48·'1 f"'neh. 35<,-57, 668 Cem>Jn.596. 671,665.824. 881 haloau.380.412. 478. 482-83. 484. 492. ;;3 ;5, 696. 699. 101 nmc:1t:cnlh-ccn1Ury. 655 or:itorm, 336. 384,458 Homan. :iZ 1. j;jf> nnssi.in. 707 Ve.ne1 i.an. 322

Lichnowsky. Karl von. 564 65

l.uerc.riu.s. 1'17 l1ofosrunuUs. Hindcrnitb, 881 Ludwig JJ. ki11g o( B:ivaria. 684 -85

Lib'\u: de la Palric Françai.se. 877

pin songs or. 648 aspiani,;1, 588. 592. 6 1?. (>27 p,:mo u\us,eof.606.6 18 23. 722 progr~mmus,e,·1ewtd by. 731

J,ibmango . Pi:molla. 965

Lub«k. 397. 438 Lucas.Ccorge, 911- 12 l.llce>,323 lucfo d, ÜJ:ttHMnnoor. Donizclli. 655. 665 66. 677. 699

lottu J.f1fü,,. Verdi. 698-

Leveller,. i90 Lt,·i, Hcnnaun. 68? i...,,,uho•. Hobhc&. 290 l..evnes. 24

c•..,.. ,1. 320.320-21

Fr:1nco Ae.tmsb muslC: Netherb.nds. 1he Loyola. Sainl lgnauus. 228

lulbby. 729. 825 Lully. Jean-8ap11s1e, 357 boography or. 357 1nOt1em.·euf, 36 1,37 1, •1-03, •123 m01et..~ or, 362 o~m• ur.356 62. 377. 378. 390. <128 29. 430. 791

Ullc. 173 Lmcolnsh,rePO$y, Cramger, 77-4 l.lnd, Jenny, 6b0. 675 l.lndberg. M,gnu,. 966. 982 LJ11Jt'r1bcwrn. Der. Sclmben. 598.601 l,.indsay. Vachcl. 852

l,e6-'iC.r l>nxology. 5,1, 56 l.esstr f'erfee1 System. 16 ú(s Danu (radio progr.un). 858 út's Volr. Pom:r, 861

l,owCmonocies, 69. J5i.167. 18?, 220. 290. &eabu Bdg'ium: BurgunJy.Juchyuf:

Lorn:u:, Juhn, 896

l,enr,47, 48

LcsA.i·,s f'lori$S3nts. 378

l.ornax. Alan, 86S. 896

Mlnnesmgcr, 79 roek ,nd roll. 913 orSchum3nn. 602-4 1roubadourand 1rouvtre. 75. 76. 83

Lombardu.• rJ1y1lun.&t Scorch suav (..Qmbardi, 28 London. Sn: also English or Brhish music

IJgtir in rhe Pí.(lUa, nw. Cuet1el. 963

1-A":opold r. lloly Rom:m e m peror. 323 ~rner.Al:mJay. 9 17. 962

lob,'TUSemu. Nicola. 482

l;i/o<npin. \Vngncr. 619,686 87

Frcnch, 362

Uget1.Cyõrl(Y. 141. 951. 953. 981,98 1 82. 98<1

11'11mgrod Symphony. Shos1.1kov1ch. 888-89 Lennon. John. 9 14. 915

Leny•. 1,,11<, 88 1,881 l,:o 111, Pope, 29,30 Lcouardoda Vmc1. 152 -53, 2<14, 2,/,f 1.eoncavallo. R\1ggcro, 699. 702 Leoninus, b5-66, 93-91. 96 Ú'OIIOf'O, Fry. 675 Lcopold. pnntc of Anhah. -i3l,

Lloyd Wcbher. Andr<-w. 773. 962 63 IA>bgf.sa,1gSpnphony, Mtndelssohn, 635 Lobkowin.. F'ntm Joseph von. 568, 996 Luç.itdli. Pic:tru, 413 Lockc. Mauhcw. 369. 370 Lot'-''t.Carl. 60'1 lot':we. Frcd~rick. 9 17. 962

IO\'CSouglJurglmdinn, 175-76 (ourtecul11 -ccntury. 12•t. 126

lirer:uu~ a11c1ent Crct:k and Rom:m. 147

l\crlio1.·s tisc of. 63 1. 633 eighu;enth-ccntmy. 4 1O fuurieenth-ccntury, 113. 130-3 1 nineteenth century. 588. 593. 595. 680 SC\'emeemh~eennuy, 292 su:1een1h-ce111ury. 161

s,,,u••• u•eo(. 737- 38 twcnucth· ccnml)', 857. 886. 904,956 l11hc>g~pliy.592 L11hu.ani:1, ~!'Jb. ~U4 lurle)oJmr'l1)<mts, Cohan. 772-73 hmrgic-.nl books. 5l. 162.&i'otso1P-·c-ific1)Pef

lilurgit.i..l dr:am.i, 63- 64. 307

J.C. Bach ,n.5 15 <igh1e<ólh·«n1ury. 410,463,478 H,ydn in, 52 1. 523. 533. 537 mt'd1e,•:d. 69 Mo2~n rn~ 54 1-42 musicais Ln. 772 O(><•·• in,29 1,412,45 1,452- 55, 478. 488-89 1.1u.l.Jhc cuoccrts til , 373. 434. 466. 494,

628. MS puhlishon.i, in. 163. 372-73. sn Lundon Ploül,annonk. 625. 626. 627 Londqn eymphon1ce. llaydn.533.550 London Symphony Orehes1~. 964 ú,ml! Ran&~r. Tht!. (tclevision show). 664 u,,.,1,a.,ld. Vw,cr. 982 long. ?2 .101. 1IG-17 Lup< de Veg-.,, Félix Aroun>, 161 Lord Nelso,~ M:i.ss, ll3ydn,536 IA>rd ofrl1e Hmgs; Symphoray m Su Mcweme,ns. Sho«. 972 U,,d ofrloc Ri,og-,. 1loc (í,im).7 18. 972 Lorenzcrn. Am.brog,o. JSO LosAng•les, 814 Los Angeles Philh:mnonic, 900 Lmr v, rl1eS1a.rs. We1U. 882 l.ouili, dukc; oíSavay, 177 LuuJs lX.lit•gorf'nmcc:, JSI Loni&XI. kinigoíF~nce. 191. 201 Louis XII. k.lugon·raritc. 201,2 11 IAoisXIJl . ld ngof fr:1nce. 35'1.389 LuuisXIV. kingo(fr,nce. 29 1.3SZ. 352-57. 362. 363. 368. 375. 393. 409. 423. 876 Louis XV, k1ngof i:r;rnce, •122 l..ouis XVI, kingofl-'r:rnce, Sb0-61 Lou1sXVII I. kinguf Fr:iuce. 667 l,011is Philippe.. kingoí,he l~rench. 667,619 Loui5 che Pious. 69

tonality in music o í. 306

Lulu. Berg. 827 Lüneburg. 397 lme. 7.1.11, 13(,. 157. 158.267. 267. 30 1 lute mus n'.'

&roque. 304,342. 349,363 66,504 llenao66'n<e, 24S. 246. 270. 273-7,J. 280. 281 lure Player. Th4!. C:war.aggu,. 246 lutesong, 161. 241 . 26 1 62 Lu,hec. Mmin. 161. WO. 2 14.215. 215-20. 228. 210. 445. 635.669 Luthcr.1.n chur<"h mus1c.$er- c.hurch mus1c, l.urher:in l.uth er:m lirnrgy. 2 15

l.ucosl>w,k,. Wuold. 944 l,u.rat>:1-l'mn, l.age,1, 953 1,yJi•n modc, 40-42, 845, 979-$0 Lyd1:1noct:wespcc1es, 16 11 Ly,1eh. Jall\c:S He1H)'· 670 l.yons. 152. 163 lyrc

Crcek, 9 1O, 11, li Sumerfao. 6- 7. 7 lyrie opera. 70'1

LJrtc Attl!l. Gnc:g. 749. 749 l~-ncS11óre. Ocrg. 827 l,,mcal lntcm1aw. Hemc, 602-3 Ma. Yo-\'ó. IUUZ i).bc l)onald,

lle:uher. 1003

Macbt·th. S1raus11. 737 M1:1cDc:nnot, C:ih. 919

MaoOowell, IWwa,d . 754 M;açluiu1,C\1ill;a11111ede, 113. 119-27, 120, 124.14 1 hiography. 120 "'"'º'· 12 1-24. 122-23. 180. 181. 186. 967 UlOUOpl1onicSUll_gSor, )24.126 motctt of, 12 l

Maple L<afRag. Joplin, 775. 775 76,862 march, 757

fo r h,nd, 756, 757,761. 772. 847 oílkrg. 825 \ltircnrio. l.uc.i. 254 55 mariaclii muliic, 892 Mori<i de Bm:nosAirés, Pia~ola. 965

polyphonio$0ngsof, 126-27. 137, 138

~tann.de· ~:fc:d1c1.312

receptionof.14 1

Mnri:i 'rem.i oíAttstrfa, 375

reputat,on<ií. 127 M::u:hfa,·elli, Nie<:ol0.16 1 Mackey. Socvcn. 961. 987 ~facMilbn, Erncsc. 890

Madama Buu.tr,ftr. Puctinl . 68 1. 702, 703, 703. 963 Made in Arncricu. Towt'r. 989 M,donn,. 970. 997 Madcid.478 m•drig:,I. Ili. 132. 245 C0lll'CJ1E:d.

301.3 17.329

ÍOllnecnih- «:rH\uy. 132.132, 138. 2-45 oi Monoc,·ecdi. 294. 2'17-300. :ll6. 329-3 1

M:1ri:a Thcrcs.::i. Holy Roman Emprc:$..'i, 4-09. 540

Manan ,·enera11or:i. 80. 169. 181. 204. 206 Manç Antoinclle, quecn of f'ra11oe, 4c} E, 533 mQne$ dr lo h,mr F1fftl, l., n, Cucic.iu, 878 M:innL Bfogm.305. 341. 38'1.403 Marlowe, Ctll'mopl,tl', 16 1 Aloniag<•ffigaro, ·1~,. Mo,an. 5S3. 554 MarriagcofM:n:urycmd Philulugy. ~(.in.i;;rnu1'

c,pclla.38 M;ir-sa1is. Wyn1on. 961 i\brsh. John. 524

marrtaawns mófftY. ú . Buulez. 936,

957

of P:iles1rin:.. 230

Mar1enol. M~t1rice. 947.....18

oevt!Jlle(.'n1l1- el!ntury h11.h:a.u. 3d 1 sixieenth·cenrury English, 26 1. 263 six-1c:en1h-ccntu1)' Cerman. 259 si.r1t"elllh-cer\1ury l1aJlan, l 6I. 'l-11. 245- 56, 260. 263. 309. 692 solo,3 11

M:1nh:1 :.1nd Ih~ V:-inJelb.-11. 916

nrndrig:.il com~dy ( m:1drig:.iJ cycle). 308

MuJrig<Jr1 gumuri er amofl»i.1{00.1ew:-rdi. 330 m:i.drigali5ms~ 254 - 55 Mu<1t.-o, EI. M;W.u. 279 M:'lctcrlinek. ataurice. 796 Mogic 1'111Jt>, TI,e. Mo1.an. 556 ~hgmfu::.it.1 ?4.384. H-4 Magn,o, Lfbc,Oota"'· 93-94. 97. 110. 198. 226 Mignne. Ren,é. 857 M3hler. AJma. 827 Afahler. Cuso.v. 781- 87. 783 a.8<:onducwr. 687. 782---83. 811

iníluencc of. 783. 767.8 13.824, 980. 990 Liedtror. t.01 . 783. 790 quotattons from. 956. 1001 reception or. 790. 811 symphoni« of. 766, 762- 81,, 795. 852. 886 M:lhler. W,Jhbrurd Jo,cph. 565 Mokrop,,rosAffair, Thc\ J:t ntu~tk. 806 Mal u~ m1d-a p<rt')1t•fW. C~ra. 2•15 M:il:11e11:a. C:iMo. 117 Malibr.iu. Marl!l. 660. 660 61

M,llormé.Soéphane.695. 767. 795. 798 99 Mah·eui. Chri.stofanu. 312 roámellt.-,J.(Timios. Ld. Poulco<:, 879 80 M:mchi<:ourt, Pierre de, /63 Mingo,. M:trie-1.ouise. 426 Mannheun.513- 1~ Mono,~. Mnsscüe1. 704.118 Alanc,n ú.-scau1, Puce1111, 702 M:inl\u ts:aroque.:.!!, 1.316 ll,:it~ Ren:tiss~nce. 153. 214 women'$ ,·oçal c.nsembles in. 253

rnam1.w:n't Ju ro1. Lc. 83

A 121

M<H1tàrlUS Capdla, 38

Man1n. Jean ~Baptis,e. 3SS Marti11dta. la. Martini.218.279 M.inuu, Ciov:mn1 B:mis1a. 542 Mar11n1, Johannt,. 278, 27? Morryrdom.of&,1m $.<b0-$t1Q.rl, T'ht, Debu,sy.

796 Mary 1, quecn orF.nglond. 223. 225 Mary 11,quceo of l,ngland, 369. 370 M,ryofBu,g<111dy, 174, 189, 190 Masacctu. l-i9.15 1. f51

Atusodo Books. Zorn. 965 Masc.igni. Ptc:tro. 702 uoashuv. 993. 99 7. 1000, 1004-5. 1007. 1008 M:i.son, Jim,971 Mason. Luwdl. 650. 651. 652

Muom, Gn1l1:.. 323 ma~quc, 3 (,c}- 70, 378 Ma,qorcof(),plocors. Th,. Loc~e.369 M:iss (churchscrvt«). 47

chan,s íot, 57-60 fo r Chris1m:1s.50-51 ÍU CUll\'CDl:S. 6,t De11dsrhe ,\lm<. 216 Jew1sh hturg,c:il infiuenee on, 24 Ordinoryof. 49.50.59 60 Pro per of. 4<J. 57- 59. 60 1trucrure oí. 47- 51 texc ieuing in. 52-53

mass(musieal genrç), 18 1 Seecilsotntries mlderi\l..s.sá: Requiern: spttific composf'rs and trorl.·s

uf &eh. 118. •16 1. 646 &roque. 333. 376. 383 84. 396 of lkaeh. 755

or H<e1ho\·en. !>(IS. ~lS3 uí Bnucu, 928

e>nnos J\,mus. 181 82. 184 86, 193.191. 196-?7. 206. 227. 229

A122

1n.ai;.s

lnd ex

ln dex

(coni:mued)

cydea. 181

in f-ngl>nd, 224, 225-26 Fnnc::o· Flein111h. 192- 95, 196- 97 of Haydn. 536-37. 583 imir,11ion. 20?. 21 1,227,229. 234 of Jmsquin. 20(>-7 of Uesus. 237

of Maehau1, l 13, 121- 24. 181. 186, 967 mono. 193 o!Momt.556 oi Palcsirma. 229 33, 735, 736 paraplm1~c, 227. 229 polyphonic seuing•. 180-86. 235 of Poulenc. 880

ofSchnbcn, 648 Spani,h. i34. 235 1ypesvf. 208- 9. 211

\ lç1~tcn; mgcr1>, 2 59. 692 melitm u, in Buf\'tlndL:an chanwn, 176. 178

m cha01. 52. 57- 59. 60. 61. 183 in Oond org•num, 69, 95- 97 infounecn1h·ceu1ul) music, 126-27.

132. 137 1n liahan \'ot:il 1nu.sic. 245 in polyphonic oonducHl$. 100

u.1Trtttn1o mu&1c. 133 Mcllan, Cla11dc. 314 mélod 1c. {,(M mdudrt101:., 6 7 1 mt"lody. 11.SetoUo&pet.,fo.:romposerso,ad g,,nra in ancicn1 Crcd: mus ic. 15. 19. 20 m B:m1q,1(' muaio. 429. 440. •152 ín 6urg\lndlan chal\S(ln. 176

ch2n1. 29. 3 1. 42, 52- 53. 55.56. 58. 64

mnsscyde monophonic::, 60

mFr:utL"U· Fle uüshch ánson .1 90

poJyphonic. 18 1

uta.&S-S-Ongs. 886 Maaaenc1. Juka. 70•t 7 18. 790 1tt6lodie8 of, 60'1

M:issrne. 1.éomde. 809 Mu,er of 1he Femalc H~Jf l..engtbs.258

m.nihema,ics :md musie. 13.39. 68. 1<18. 290. 950 MalhtSderMaltr, ll1nde m11h, 882 84 Monn. l,t, symphony, lfaydn. 532 M~IÍll.&.27.5 1. 5?

M•urd, Vi<tor. 698. 698-99 .\fá ,rio.a,. Smei:ma, 7157 --48 Munu, S1r.mr1$ky, 837 M:.ximili:m 1, Ho ly Rom:m emperor, 198 Mo.t'mHl1C1,1 / Surrour1dcdbJll"Courr Afusici-lJ,1s

ond ln.stnam,,u.s, l\urglmu1ir, 't67 Maximilián l i. Holy Romanemperur . 230.

283 Maximilian fr;uu. eltc1oroíCologne. 563 M:u:imili:mofH:tpsburg. 189. 190

M•y<r. M,redlé. 878 Mayer. Michael, 717 Maz.ilnn, Jules. Cardinal. 352. 356

in halian opera. 477 in middle·10 - la1c cightccn1h·ccntury mus iç, 469. 472-73. 476, 49.f, 526 1n 11rne1eemh -«mury mus1~. 593. 599.

607. 630. 635-37. 648. 657. 664-65. 683. 696. 703. 7 10. 726. 729. 743 m parlor &-0ng6. 605 ms1.xteemh-cenn.1rypolyphony, 231 m Tre~nlo mu.sic. 133 1roub:tJ..,ur :tHJ 1ruu\'l'r-c- ao,tgs. ?6- 77 in 1wentic1h ~c:em ,1ry music. 800 801,816,

'ª

8-13. 990-9 1 ofWagncr, 690. 691 mcl08, 11- 12 Met1down Festh·.,t, 9<,G

mcmorU:aliou rn :,nc1ent cuhurCIS, 6. 20 in 3nc1en1 Creece, 1O of ch2m, 31- 32. 36.55 1u M1ddle r\gea.82. 264 in ninctcclllh ccnt111')', 618

McCarrney. Paul. 914. 963

or organum, 91-92 in twcnhcth ccntury. 773. 86.S Mendelssobn. Abraham. 608 Mendelssohn, F.:mny.Su 11ense1, F':mny Menddssohn

McKinley. Willi.,m. 811 McNid1í.tl:.t. Stt\'(:, 971 McPhcc, Colm, 954

l{endclssoh11, Ptllx. 608. 612 B.teh PaS1>1onoondutted by, 461 bingr:1phy .,. 608

J.fo..uppo, L13:11, 732 uiaturka. 6 16. 617

me,n - ,one remp,er.imenr. 157-58. 301-2

Wa&'tler·s am,ck on. 687 Zeltc r and, 6-4 4

Mendeluohn , i.\toses, 608 Mcugd bcrg. Wdlcm . 8 ) 1 men,s\1r;,1100 canon. 194 . ZI 1 mensuration sign.s. l M, l l(t-17. 121. 12?. 193 lfrnud a11lique. R:wd. 797 Mcntc.l. Ado.lph von. 433 ,.,,,., l.o. Debussy, 792. 795. 956 Mcrcier. Plu liJ>pc. 4S0 Merina.n. Ethel. 86 1 1/eny IVtJ<>w. The, 1,châr, 772

692. 722

a.~. Wagner. 685.

Clara Scl1u111au u a nd . 602

Mohcrc, Jc-an-Uapostc, 292,356 1\loliner, Je:sn.195 tl'lOUlt"U I form. 935 Momt,us mu.sicoJ1,r, Schulx:n, 606 mon.ai.te rics

chaut pcríorm.:111:,ec iu. SS. 66 car ly. 24 limrgi~I d ram:i perfo nnance in. 63-M manuscrip1 product 10n. 33

med1cv.1l. 84

Officc pcrform:tnc:c m, 5 1 ,sçhool.s m,68 lropcoompasitmn rn. 6 1 mo11do delta lima. li. lfaydn. 536

!/i.ua L·hammc annl!. Ock.:il1.:m. 182

Monç1. Cia11dc. 68 1. 767, 767

Mil:m AinbrOStaH lilUl'g)' lo. 28 corn-cnts i n. 335 mcdi(:v:'11. 69

,l-fi,s<1 L'hc:m1meo-n1'11!. P.'.llesuin.-i, )82 M1.sso L'homm~o.rmésuptr•'C><($m11s,eolt.s, Josquin. 182, 206 Musa O m agnu mmytitrium. Victon:.. 234 Misso Pooge lingtia. Josq\líu, 20? Mi.ssrl prolati.onum, Oc:-k<::ghc:m. 192-•J,;, 19·1. 198.211 - 12

,\tuniu:sz.ko, St.aui$1.iw, 715

Mce-opo1ami..'l. 4, 6 8 Me.ssfaen. Otw1er, 141. 930. 95'1. 957 ;mc1t"nt Crcek inOu...nc«;s cm, 2 1 Dcbuasy'$ ui.fluente ou. 196 inílucnce o(, 934

Milrodo. The, C1lbc:n and Sulh"an, 681, 7)6 Mikrokopnos, 8:'ln ók, 843

o p.erA UL 380

lf1..tlW 11uJu:bu rr,i~Mic. 8 1b 4tr. 396

m<)o,;,phony (tc1etul'e). 11. 70 80. 82. 124 25,

rc:ecption or. 957 wor'ke;or. '930- 33. 934, 93S. 948 ,11.,.,.o1,,

Haod,I, 457-58. 458. 459.537.

545. 666 Slrauu . 789-90 .lle1<»1~se1sS. Xcnakl,, 950. 951 MmSta,,o. P,mo, 412. 463. 482-83,483, 484 Jlt-tamorph osc:11.

Me,licl)vio, O..eopoldo. ?03

melric modulation. 937. 938 mm ical psal ms. 2 13. 220 22, 291. 496 Mç tropoluan 0[)(:r.i (New\'o rk}. C.77, 715, 7 17. 782,979, 1002

fou rtccnth-cc:n1ury, 131

ordu·s1r:1s rn. 389

Ren.a1s:s.a.nc:c, 153. 190. 20 1 se••cntecmh ccnmry, 380 symphonu:·tõ m , S 13 M ilsn. Edicr of, 23 Mil!u . Lms. 279 Afiles J)o\!ls ot C.Omt'gl-t lloll (albnm}. 909 Milcy, Bubbc.r ,870

Mill,• ud. D•rius, 878.8?8. 879. 9 18 band mus1c of. 920

M1.sso L'homme>o.nnt'. Ou Fav. 162

M1ssoS.lofo«o1pol,. Du f,y. 182. 184--SS. 193. 198

87 MüwlyJ1om m-odc. 40-42

, migr:tti(m of. 89'2, 926

Mücolydu 11oe:u, cspe~ics, 16 17 Mocquerea\l, Uoin,\ nd,·~.37

Mexicc,2nd Mexic:m nmsic, 235. 89 1-92. 899

j:auand rah,'1tmc clementsused b), 777.

mod:,I jm. 42.. 909. 965

Mcycr. F,di,.,, . 1001 Mc:ycrbter. Gi.acomo Chopm and.615 iníluence oi. 669.684.686. 687. 701 . 715 opcr.isor. 63 1. 654. 667. 666-69. 686. 691. 699. 704 mc:17,0 caran<;rc:. 553 Miehclwgdo, 152. 2?3, 293 Michcle1. Jul~s, 14-4

898 rcccptum of. 901 S:uie·s influence on. 809 .Alildo7Symphony. H3ydu.533

mu,ical plays in, 78. 307 8. 928 performance prac:hcc:s, 13S--tO po lyphonyin,84-110

profcsston :al IUU!HCIU.Uli m. 71 75 'frccc,uo OHL&ie m, 130 35 vc:rnacufa r song-6 in. 70-80

935

126. 310-11 Monroc'.s Up1own llouse. 90? Mon,Soinu-Vit.101rt:. Céunne. 710. ?70

Momc. Phihppede. 253 Monte-&qtneu, Ch.arles- 1..oms, baron de. 464 Monteverdi, Cl:mdio, 288. ,l/6

.r.

b1ugcapl1y 316 church rnuaic <>Í. 282. 333 anílucnçe of. 3-t l. 837 m2dngal$ of, 294. 297-300, 316, 329- 31 upcnuluf, 304.JO!. 3 15 19. 325. 327. 45,1 reecplton ur. 350 Sd,Uti ioJJuen<cd by.337. 339 Montc\'crdí, C1ulio Cesarc. 298. 299 Montpellier. 72 Montpel1ic r Codcx. 103.105

Modcn,. l,con. J•I 1 Modem Jrw«ririan ofAtrou:l'Ol i\1115k, Thl", Lcech -Wilk11l.son. 137

Mood fod,go. Ellmgiun, 870

Modern JauQllM'tCt. 909 modernis m :md modem1s1s. 71 1. 178- 80.

momlsandmus ,c. 13 14 . 20 21.25.3':1. 143. 148,216. 258-59. 482-83. 644, 6-15.

minim. 11 4, 162 m1mmah5m, 763, 780. 957. 9511. 972, 915-79. ?81-82. 984. 987.1002. 1007

d~ncc music u1. 82 83 EuJ'opean soeiety iu. 67-70. 11 1- 13 ins1rumem s in . 80-82. 136. 138 l..atin.soo.gs iu. 70-71

modcs .Uodtdtt•oftunt~rd 'iluen.sLtt's. Mes.si:ien. 93-1.

347

Mod.ena. 13 1

microphonc~ 858

ch :mt in, '18-66

orloug). l 16 . foror}1er

'1itor11~. scc

monody. 21)8. 3 10 11. 3 12 15, 317. 333,

Millr.r. Clenn. 869 MUl,Collegc. 879. 926 Milton. John, 13. zn. 537 Milyok()\':1,,An1onin.2, 708 mini:uures. 33

M;ddleAges.3, 46-141 S.•taúo,p,,c,fic

uiode (dl\'l$101l

~lonk. Thclon;ous. 909. 967, 1001 Afonko.nd lhtCtH, Tht. 83rber. 927. 928 Monn. M:t11hi.as~org. 823 mouóc110rd. 40

Miller,grm. Josquin. 202. 204. 207 8. 273 74

M1crologus. Cuido oí Artno, '10. 86

mkropolyphouy. 953. 982 m1crotonal 1l1us1c, 811 . 983

184,

Missa soJc:mru$. Beethoven. 578. 583 Mi,.al, SI mission.:i.ries. 28. •I7. 235 mu:cd mcdui workJJ. 946. 948. 958. 970 72 tnaxed paralld and oblique otgàtlunl. 86-87,

Mc u c rn icb. C.lc mcn8 vou. 577

Ars Sublll ior, 127 29

Mtl$1trUnjtrl'OII N,m,lwrg.

Musa Dt:pluse,1pl11s. Ockeghem. 193. 206 M-.ssa Fonuno desr~mro. Obrccht, 197. 197 lli.ssa Clona t,b, tnmta,11. Tavcrner, 275 J.li$$ú fl,·rtulü d u.t Fetrúria~. Jos(flur\, 206 J.l,ssa 111 rem,,.,re bd!1. Hayd.n. 536

Moldou. 7lie. Smernn:.. 141

Migrwri. TI:iomali'. 701

conductor. 62G. 631. 6-16 influcucc or. 746. 752 Ltedçrof.604 on me..iningof music. 609 or.iloriu.s of. 646. 651 ord,estral mu,,c or. 635- 38. 639,651 organ mus1c:Qf. 847

Meor. C.ild:t. 960

lo,. Mcudd...,lm. 608, 637, 642 372. 608,637. 1005 M,gluy foc. lhc. 707, 709-14. 746-47

iUi

:1sp:un1er.636 p:a11s<.>ngs ur, Mts paan<> mus,c of. 606. 607 ps:tlm scttings of. 6-48

Alidsumm.:rNigh.t'i l>rcn.m. A, incidcnml mu.i;iç

Miua Alma rniemplQrii Ma ter, Powcr. 186 M1$$(t ApmtoJCf..rum, C 1v.an,{mi, 274 .l{1S$a A~·l'M1Jna, Fi:\'in, 209, 2IO. 2 11 MISSO t,,wi.s. Bri.w:o. 928 .\11.ssQCop111(11 nonymous), 163 Mi.sia Cap111, Duns-1.iblc:, 183 !f1$SO Ccrpw. O brtd\t, 18-3 M,s,o Coput, O.keghem. 183.183, 208 Missa C1ti11s1,"1S mm. Ockcghem. 193

Mendo. Cl, ,.d io. 279 80. 280. 282 lle,colin Alix. ll ilcy. 976 MesomcJc:á-ufCrctc:. 18

Mcek. Naded1d• vun. 708. 745. 792

Mci, C1rol3mo.3 1O Melnmgen coun orthesir.J, 722

560. 589. 596.

605. 622. 62&-27. 653- 54. 667 m Rcninssance. 146 1n SC\'en1eenrh cenmry. 29 1, 373 MJOI. 969. 99? Mid1, u.symphony. H•ydn. 532

MimrWíresofWindsor. The. Sh;1kcspc:m :, 701

compos1'1$,gmN!i, ond Jopics An< No"ª· 114- 27

637 ,\l<fi,u,f,k Boirn. 702

u:t JÜnetcend1cc:nfury. 559.

Mids11mmer Ntsfi-r's D~m.A. Sllak.cspc:m:,

measur<", 30 3

Mttrt.stilk u11dgitlctlid1e l'oJtf'I. MendeJssohn.

•160. •163. 465,478.490 in Middle Ages. 70

M.:ry IV.-Jow U'l(l./t;, l,d1:ir , 777

cham bcr music of. 642 oomplc1c works cdulon, 720

mc:dinni . ~:j Mediei fama), 152. 153,198,253. 3011-9, 3 10. 45 1

m iJdlecla,:;i. 111 eigl1tec;nthuntury, 409, 410-11 ,458,

A123

11\111itnus. l l 6

Minnclu;der, ?9. 259 Minuesingcrs. ?9. 259 m1nstr-tl&(mcdiçv,l). ·7 1 72,83, 174 mins:u-tl show, blarl..-fJc-e, 605. 675- 76. 677.

717. 777. 841.852 M1111oo·s Playl1ou.8e, 901 m;nuç1, 367, 31,8. 554. 798 mmuc:l .and lno forrn • .508. 531, 53-1 Alimn.11011$ Mandc,n,i, Tit(', B.2rtók. 843 Miro,~. Kavel, l'li Mi$('duconon ofl.ouryn /hl/, Th,e. ll ill, 997 Mi:u;rabk$. ILs. Sc:hUnherg. 963 M1..Soigo1<, SchOnb<rg. 963

854 .876. 885. 886. 892-93. 919. 924 25. 98 1 82. 992. 1003. 1006. 1007.S«olS<>,pwfi<rom,,_,-, modes, By1:in1ine. 28, 45 rnúdes.cburcJ1.29. 40 113 .41. 45. 159.306.

333. ?91 atnhcntic a nd plag:tl. -t0-4 1 uamd of, 12--t3

in nmc1ccn1b · ce1\tuty nms it. H2 in Hen.iiss.-.nce music, 159. 160 in 1roub:1do uraud 1rom•Cre music. 76 ,,iodes. ,·h)'1b"11c. 92. 97.100, 106 modc&ofliml'tcd tra111;~111on. 930, 932

~1 oog, l\obert, 9•19

Mo,·alc•. Cm1óbal Je, 231. 235

684-35. 907 Mura.ri, Ja:sou, J00 l

Mor:1,v1:1n mus1c, 805 6 Moravfans in Amerfoa, -196, 497 AltJrdt'T. Hoffn11ngdttrFm11i'.n, Hindemi1h, 882 Münl.tr, Huífr11111gdtrfrm14'.11. Kukosd1ka. 818.818 Morc llon La Ca\'e, fr.a nçoill, 4H Mi)rike. Eduard. 737 ltll'Jri.squt. Lá. S u&àlO. 2n Morio . l..andgrave of Ilesse. 338 Murley, TI1umas. 260-ú l

\ lorricooc, Ennio, 919 Morut1U.~J(1U\'Ot1s v<>y.

Machaut, 126

mod1l'ied si rop h ic ronn, 5 \J7 '18. 60 1

Mon on.Jf',lly KQll , 776. ij(),)

modt1la1ion, ·• 25, 4 73

Mor.t1n. Kar l Joseph Franz. 52 1. 532

by ihird.601. 745 Mokc. Couuillc: M.irie. 632

Mo~e in Epuo. Hoi.$in i, 657

11oscow Conscrvawy. 707. 708. 799

A124

lnd ex

1nu1c1.&:ea/.sr, motel, tl1irtccnth -ccnlu ry A~N<:wá, 114-15, 118- 19

ofBach. 44-4

biblical. 337.3•11 o( Bruckn<r. 735-36

Burgundiau. 1?4. 1?9..jj0 c:ha.nging mcanmg, oí ttnl\, 172 ehorale. 337 r1flet'nlh-«llluty . 172

Fnoco Flenush. 196. 219 grand.362 of H.tndd. 45 1

tS-Orhy,bnuc. 118 19. 121. 141.168.170. 172.180.184 of Josqum. 204~ ori........ 239 o fMachaut, 12 1

lnd ex

srnngq,111nct, of. 5·12. 547. 624. MO ••yleof. 470.594. 784~

l.ue•nrne:1ccmh ·c-c,muygcnres. 716 17

!Uyh 8'licdiveriil)' oí, 546 47. 553 -55. 730,

mi.xerl medi:i worlc., :md perform:incf :11,,

784. 834.852. 985 sy,nphonies oi. 542. 550- .,2. 624 MP3 files. 997. 999 ~!TV. 970 nmd:nu:~.2'13 Muclich. lhn.s, 2J8. 250 mum~dtPottict. la. Aubcr.655.668

M11ffa1 . Ccorg.39 1. 403 Muhammad. 67 Mulily, Nic<>. 100 1 Mü.Llcr. WLlhclm.597.60 1 Mumch

Calltolk cbun:h mu.sic in. 337

opor• in. 395. 396

~for:1,1~1\. 497

\ htra1l, Tristan. 982. 100~

pctíle.362

mu," 1.'lttoneu ft', IA, Couperin. 505 Mmm:. Klimt. 786. 786 m\isied rama, 684.Sttol.so Wagner, Fbch:.rd Mutiü:fora M,J!ru: 1'hroJi•r. Rochberg. 955 Musi4;fqrPn,,gu .. l968, Hu,s.a , 920- 21 Mu,-1cforS1nng11. Po1rcic1s,:10,1 011d c~re.do, ll,1rtók, 840. 843. 844. 845-17. 846. 85•1. 91H6 M<0•1<forlh<Ro,.1,.,.,,...rl<,. Handd.450. 45U59 Mu,1< fol'lh, C-Opfond. 89?

p<>lydivral. 283- 84. 333. 337 of Poulcnc. 860 s ixtct:oth-ccntury.112. 224. 225-26. 234. 235 rno1~1. Lhu·te~11111 -ct-oh1t')'· 85. 100- 1 07

e;irly. 101 - 3 fr.mconfan. J06-1 hockets m. J 19

l,i«. 103-7. 1S7 ~rform:mce.:md ncu:11 i1>nof. 103 6 rhydur1 m. 116 Motown, 91 (,

mollu ma$&. 181

Moulin Rougc (Paris). 706 Mo1--e111enu. S1rttvU'l.sL1·, 839 Mo1.:1rahic ch~m. 28 Mozart.Ann:. M:iria. 541

Mom,. Leop<>l<l. 539 4 2. 541. 556 Momt. Nannrrl. 539-10. 541. 542.542.,11? Moun, Wolfg:tng Am:tdeus, 407, 1l32, 462. 519.538 57.Sll. 512. 1008

ichaevcmcJlt and 1'eJmt311on or. 556 57

J. C. Bach'li iníluc ncc on.5 15 J, S. Bach'a inílucnceon, '161 boob'taphyof. 5•10-41 ch:imbtrmus•eof. 547,640. 6'12 ;is e hild prod1gy, 538- 42

d mrth music oí. 556 CQmple1e W()rks t:d•hon. 720 concerlqs of, 503 írcelani..-e mu8ic,:m. 542 44 llaydn'a i nnutlll..'f: ou. 521. 5'15. 547 lnunoror. 551 inílurncc or. 563. 561. 566. 568. 570. 607.

783. 787. 789. 837 .is ~13son. 46S m:nure .s1yle or. 54-4-45 11\u&1cal eoutr.tSti oí, 475

operas or. 395. 482. 490. 552 56. 575. 62 1. 666.674.6'>9. 71S.837 p,:ioo ooncer10.s o(. 548- SO ptauo lllUSIC uJ. ~41,:,<IJ. !>4J -4 ( . ó2Z. tMU

reeeprionof. 518. 557. 627. 854 sc:renadc-.s ;md divc:r1trnc:n1os oí. 54 8

son,;11a fol'm ;i.s uscd by. 507

T!t,,.,,.,.

Mu$iefor Wildemess l.aJ:e. Sch:1for. 984

Mu~u: l..tutm, l'Ju. Vermcer, 286 ,llt,.,• ofCloange,. Cagc.9•11- 42 Mu:ncofchc:Ch.am.ber. 351, 357 Mu.!lic ohhc:Creal Sttible. 354, 355 Music oflhe Roy,! Chapei. 354. 362 music thtory. S.-e thcor}', music

mu.:sic ,·1de~. 970- 7 1 Mu,.,o ,n,h1riod11. 39 40. 85. 86. 86 87 musie, he<>. 138. 138- 40, 160.193 Mu$ieagt!tuUcht, Virdung. 265 nius1c.a humana, 39. 3?

med;ev.l. 63- 6l. 78. 307-8. ?28 945. 946 oper!l ~bridgmems :md bul'lesquei, 65 675 s pcct.iclcwor·k&.327. 97 1 musicú!,W:, les, Bcllil\i, 762- 63

Cagc, 943

mus1cology. 720. 828. 876. 992 Musil:all$t.htm Wquum. Schim. 338 Mo'1kol"'loes Opf«. Bach. S« Mus,ooJ 0/feru,g. Bach musique concrõ1e. ?•11, 964, 1005 Musique d'umeubfrmenl, S:at1c. 809 musique m~urét. 258 59,359 M11sorg.sl-y.11odcst. 709. 710 block con=i.tructiun ur, 712. 802. 832

lníluc11« oi. 791. ?95. 806. 890 opm,of. 710. 712. 718.887

Near fas1 .~uciem . •I map. 6

"Ncartr. MyGud.1017u~c." Adaw.s. 650. 651 Ncefc, Chn~t1an Cottlob. SM nc~ soul, 997

Nine lnch Nails. 967

m11c1ccn1h ccntury music, 559 161.Setolw

spetifa-c comp,o.wt. gttira, o,•d ,optc.s

nni\•ers.uy p:un,n:ige oí music, 924, 925-

27. 986 87 Nonh J\tlinric TrcM)' Orp nh.orion, 90CI No11h~rNr,r1l1u.1csi (íilm). 9 19 Norwcgia.n mu&ic-, 68) , 749- SO Norworth. J3cl,;, 772 Nosenko. C:uherine, 83 1 not:11ion. 8. 32. 8S OÍà!,'l'tmcOl$.J6-/

nncicm Crcck,9, 10.18 19,3 1

Ani No".:., 113. 11 1- 17. 1-t l &hylonl:m. 7 8. 8 111 B:n-oqut nrnsic. 303 "blac:k".ind "whhe." 117.162

d1,11t. 32-37. 39. 45 eolo,•tt•n••.117.118. 127 28. 128 oompar1son of &y&1em.s. I 17

neo expressionuun . 954

b:tnd musit:. 755-57

cliambe-r numc. 576. 578-83. 624. 639-43.

m\HMion. 44 Jf]'bunnylo:ssshcsmil.:lh, ~torley, 260 lly01J K.i11tudty Jlom11. foi;ter, 676

•coclass;c,s111. 763. 780. 798. 804 . 831. 83(,39. 840. 856. 857. 877 78.891.926

chorai music. 562. (t2'1. M3-5 1. 730. 733.

Nevl uJ1,c er~. S

él,urch muQ1c, 6-<18 -50

lute aongti, 2~2, 262

MySpoc.. 996. 998 Mf't<?·(flo,a,y) Sonms. 6iber. 403--4. 595

neoton,luy. 763. 838- 39. 845. 877. 882. 921. 927 Nero. 20

opera. 562. 575- 76. 653-75. 677. 682- 715

O(uma11c.Jf. 35-36.36. 37- 38, 70, '96

ord1es1ral music. 57~75.576-77.

Nobooxo. Verdi. 695. 697 98 Noch Bat~. R.ochb<rg. 955-56 /tlar.h chr. Herr, \.,,rfnngt>r m1ch, 8:u::h, 727 KâJhc:rn,i, V. E.. 748 lfoked City. 965

Ncthcrlands, du:, 373, 930 Neircbko, Anna, 677 NeueSar.hlu:hJml. &e NewObJC:-tll\'ll)'

or rhythmie modcs. 92 93 ......... 90. 101.341.3!5. 346 sh,pc no,c. 1,49 50. 650 t>blntur<. 262.268. 285 1e'!lmim, 239

Nan1e5. Edici of. 290 N:.plea c1ghtceul h éc:niury. 1 11 13. 478

oper• 111. :'123.380. 111-12. 478. 658 f\cmussancc:. 190 st,·culcéotl1- cemo.l')'. 380 Tr«cnto polyphony, 131 vilbnella in, 25S

Nai,>0leon.&t! 8011.aparte. N:apoleou N~poleorl 11[, cmpcror. 679

Musu:a rro,ualpma 311thology. 162. 260

nmon. conc,ep1 or. 562. 587- 88. 594

OIUSl<•I. 763. 772 73 çarly 1wen1icth -«ntury, 772-73. 775

N.11ioual Conk1Yato1y oí 1lu!iiC (New Yurl..).

f\ap.s1cr. 996

Hollywood. 86 1. 873

748 •19 N:rnol\al Pe.aet Jubilee (Bos,on). 756

mtcrw3J' period. 859 60.86 1. 874. 876

fl;:i110nalWu.mcn's i\fusic Fesuval. 974

trnc 1wentie1h ccmurv. 962 63 post- World War li. 9 Í7- l9. 92 1- 22 rc\'iv-.i.ls or, 962 ofWc1ll.88 I 82

11:mon:1hsni~653. 655- 56 narionalism .and m11ic;inal style-s. l,78. MlO 62 .,iuthenticity and, 680-SJ in cigh1ce nth ce,11t,uy muslt, 454,463. 4

489. 490

music.il flg\ires. 34 O

655-56. 663. 671. 673-74. 685. 687. 688. 695 96. 704. 710. ? 18. 721.740. 747- 52. 754. 756. 760- 61. 790- 91 schol.:irsh ip :rnd, [.!O 1U k

\ºCl.11t!'Clllb

Neu.el eitschnji fiJr Mu.$Jc (music joumaJ). 602 Ncumchacr, l::nlmann, 113 ucuincs.34. 35.36. 37-38. ?0.&~also notativn New Bnrom ( hymn tune). 649 50. 650 New De,I. 856. 87(~77. 893. 896 New En1;l.aud Commvato1y. 754 New G,rman Sehool. 730 32. 739 New i\tus,w. (journal). 893. 896 Nt.w M11$itol lt(som·c~s. Cowell, 896 Nl'!\tJ ObJec::tivity (NeueSac:hhcl1ke1r). 880. 882 New Orlc:rns jmin. 771,-77. 81,5. 874. 9IO 01,1er.:i iu. 67-4 New Orleans J3u &nd, 176 New \V:we. 913 New World. Stt Amc:ric-.a.s. colonieiç in: sp,cific wu11rries

NcwYork

Ct'U1Ul)' UlUl;IC.

351 52. 377 78 in -6i:<1ecnth -ccnlul)'music, 161,2-1 1

735-36. 739

583- 84. 625- 39. 663 64. ?24-27. 732- 33. 73<1- 35. 737- 39. 743. 744-50. 754-S5 piano mutitc. 565 67. 578.606 22. 729.

743. ?49. 777 ,ong,. 576. 578. 596 606. 622. 671,. 665. 706. ?29-30. 737. 713-1'1. 746. 755. 758 59 N1Ao. EJ. Adams. 1006 N'in,:in:t. 973

Nuou. l\tclwrd. 959

Fr;mconi:tn. IO•l-7. 109. ) 16- 17

h'raph1c. 937. 942. 944. 950-51. 951. 952 mdc,crmin,:icy and, 944 lt.ilianl'ret-enlo, 131

nott>. 15 n01e· :1g:,mst no1c org:1num, 88 89 notes méb"lllt6, 35 1). 3(,2 No-11!.f or1 a St:tmdul {í1hn), 979 Notl:er Balbu.lus . 62

Notre D.ame t\-Olyphony, 91- 103. 108. 109. 116. 118

Ni,xon m Cln.n<i, Adams. 980

N0t•tmberSreps. Ttltmüsu. 955

J'lO('fUrne, 6 16

Noyc: ·s Hudde. Bnt1e11. 928

nutSe.809-11 . 893

no:.:ed,Figoro. t..c. Moi:m.S~A!a.rriogu,f figaro. Tht'. Moz:l.n

Nor• ai s110 C1mo111,. hcopo d.a 8o1ogni. 132

M,ag,s. Oebu..y. 795 96. 807

Nm1awúma'pietâ. l..andini, 133,1.15 Non sofre Santo Mo-ria (taut,gi), 80

nuclearwc.apons. 90•1 nuc:vo tango. 964-65. 1005 m11ct frouk et &ombre. Úl. Lassus. 258 N1m kom.m. d.cr Tfr,dtn Tlt.tlofld. ll.aeh. 445. 447 Nun J:omm, d(( He1de-n Tlrilond. Uuxtehl,de.

NQciurn~.$.

Debussy. 795- 96

non-We&1t-ni musie&, 906. 960. 992. 1009. Ser al-5osptdfit co11n1n~ a.nd N'gt.Dtl$ Au1cnca:n composers mflucmced by. 893. 896. 922. 924. 946. 954 55. 972. 98 1 101eracc1on6 w1ih, 96fr68

402. ~02-3 Mm komm,derlfoden Jlnla,id, Lu1hcr. 211, 217

B:1nôk in, 840

Kronos Qu:,ncr :ind, 967 auund rt-l'-0 rdiHE,"8 or. 769

N11ptrroson1mj10~. Ou

bc:Lop ln. 907 ('.llbnrçt.$ in. 1001 D,·ohik in. 74!H9 pzz in. 870 72. 961

Mahler in. 782 mu&tc3l, tu. 859- 60. 88)..jj2_962-63 opero in.674. 715. 782. ?78 79 opcn:tla tn. 7 17 orcheslr!l$ rn. 753 .salsa m. Yl b

312. 313.

651.?28.743

b,md ooncen, in. 920

m insm!l shows in. 675-76

in n ineteenth·cenrury llllliic.616.617,

,\lto,.,al Offenng. 8acl,. H 1. 441. 448. 983 mu3u,•.al thc<11cr. &e al.so bnllad opera;

e3rlY""e>mc,h-ttnn11y, 772 English 8.iroquc. 369-12 Prern:h venue.,, ?06

NATO. 905. 959 Naitgtuy Manctr(I, Herbcn. 772 Na:un. Ba.nolomt:o.412 Naitsm.687. 81 1. 814. 840. 856. 873.875. 87?. 880. 88 1. 882.-85. 902. ?0•1. 933 NBC Sympl1ouy Qr(")Jcscr:a. 858 Ncar, llolly. 974

Nc"1on. John~ 650 Nibclung,mliccl. 688-89 N1com;1chus. 39 Nit-1is.ehe, 1-'nedrich. 738 Nighr ond Dof. Poner. 861 mghtdub,. W6. 716. 870- 71. 907 N,gluo/llun-,,,.. Amos. 100 1 N1ghto118al«l ,lto1mlam. Muiiurgisky. 716 Nigl1rTroffic. L:111$ky, 970 Ntghr Watdt . The. Holborne. 272 N'ijinsky, Vacbv, 831. 834

1mcrw:,ryt1u'&, 856---58 po,1 ·World War li. 901-5

oeo l\utnUUtCi&n1, 763. 780. 883, 951. 957. 958. 963. 989- 91. 992

Noqof'IOl$1 (Ctlm). 979 N:tr\'ácz. l uyadc. 273 74,275.276 N;.shv11le, 912,962

mins1rel sliuw. l1l.:1d:-r:.ce: nu,1$1c;,I; operem,

Nali\ eAmc:nc.ans.680 Náli\'c lns1rumctJli, 999

Nf'w ·Engl.n.nd PMUm·Stnpr, Rilhn~'3. •196, 497 N'ewnu1n, Alfrçd , 874 Nt:wmjn. Johll Henry, 752 Ne~·too. la.aa.e. 290. 425

orche.s1r;il mu,$icof. 7-46- 4 7 Mu.ssohm. B.t-mto. 856

m,1si~ insrnamcnt:1Jis, J9. 39 music.a mundana.3?, a?.Se1:also ~harm1Jnyof 1l1espheres'" ffl\l!lt~ rt-WI, 138 i\lU.$1CO $On. L.:indini, 131

Mu.sical Fund Socie1y (Philadclphia). 625

906. 923. 954 no1:ion$. [,('$, U)\1perin, 423

1~ .

.\fo.SIC'lrl.'tM.

1n 1wcn1ic:1h-ccnrury nwi>ic. 78 1, 199-808, 8.%. 851 - 52. 877. 890- 92. 893. 901.

A125

NewYorkCiry 8~llc1.83 1 Ncw York PhUharmomc. 625. 753. 782. 917 18

nondicgc ticmusic, 872

nonrcpc1ition. 813- 11. 815. 818 uoun~1rugrad:ahlc: rhythuus, 932 Norfolk Rhapsodit-$. Vaughan WUhams. 801

Nonno. llellini. 655. 656. 660. 664. 664-65. 666. 674. 67? Norrn:Ul -Nt:rud:t, \Vihna.640 Nonh. Ale,. 9 19 Nonh, kog<:r, 37-t Nor1..h Amt:r1C'.a. See al~·o Amcrie:.s, t.'l>IOnies ln: C:tn.ida~ Uni,cd Srn.ces

ballads in, ·194 ludu:std.tl Rcvulutiuu iu, 562-63

n11(>1•t mu-S1ch,, ú, C-aoemi. 31 1-12

f':ay.180 Nun:mberg. 163. 259. 393. 395 Nurr.uy. Th'°, Musorgsky, 74(,. Nuii:rad·er, Tht', Tch:.ilovsky. 70?. 872 l'iympJ,ea. &i~riaho. 1004 O Koni&ollrrVIJ/k,r. P,n. 988.98$ Omag,w,n.mysurium. Victoria. 234 Oqr,am '" pulchro e$. Cral)di.334.335 OSupenna,,. Anderson, 97 1 VU t-lt, u:h mu$1d1ch ffusm, 1 18 Owrtm. Weber. 673

m..no. Verdi. 697 Obcrwcrk. 398

A126

lnd ex

oblique neumc, 38

oboc. 355. 502. 625 Obcccl,1.Jacub. 195 97.196 cJreerof. 153 innut'UCC of. 202 ma..., .r. 183. 196 97 reccptton of. 212

Oceit:.n bngo~ge. 73-74 Ockeghcm. Jt':tn de (Okehrllt'm. Joha.i1ocs).

190 95.191

ln d ex

Oprllo nvrn, 51:hcin, 337 etpt'r.i , 288,307.408. &r<1lso 11l,n~tro; t,wc:ifiç eampr,sert and operus

Ame,ioau. 675. 775.898. 899. 900. 951. ?78- 79. 980. 985- 86, 998- 9'). 1006-7 Argcntine, 954. 1005 llar<>que. 1005 Br.:.11ili:m. 7 15.890

190 Du F,y , nd. 178. 198

choru,cs rn. 428-29. 49 1. 552. 665. 668. 669 C1.eeh. 714 15. 805 6 Engh•h. 451. 488-89.674. 683. 115. 831. 837. 929, 955. 957

l,omel;ind of. 152

cui.cuilile [males u1. 482.553 -54. 701

rna,,muí. l a3. /83. 1?2-95. 206. 208 períormcr. 65-66

cxecrp,s.654.675. 717 18 furc:numers oí. 256. 263. 307-12 Prench. 356 62. 365. 378. 428 30. 484 88,49 1, 492,562.633. 657. 658. 665. 666-70.674.683. 703-6. 718. 796. 879-80. 930. 1004 Gcrmao1. 395. 434, 489 90. 540. 543. 552. 556. 575-76. 670-73. 682.1,83-95. 715. 787-90.8 17-18. 819. 824-27.

biogr.iphyof.19 1 cl1;i.usous or.

.t.S

rcccpt-.onof, 21 1- 12

Ociondrt. Y.rêsc. 893 ocl:ttomcsc:desnd coUcction. 621. 7 13. 714.

833. 838 Ocbussy'suse or. 791.195 Mcssi.acn',i; UilC or. 930. 932 Sc,•i3bil,'s uuof. 801 S1f'!lvtüd:.y·~ u~e or. 832. 833. 8'35. 8'H. 838 ()CICI. 608. 642. 837

880 8 1. 882 l lu np ri.?n. 8 43 halian (Stt ltalian opc:ra)

ôd.:forQ11t'l."nAttne's Binhday. Handel. 452 OdeforSt Cecdio',V.y. ll•ndcl.545 Odefc,r$t ~c,fio'J.OU_r, l'urccll ,372 Od,iofoy. Schiller. 584

683 or~nono comp.ired w11h. 336

Odington. Wahcr. 157

p:asdchc. 1005

Ody,sq. Homcr. 10.319.571 Ocr.J1pu.s-A Mudc.·Dat1et: l>rornci, J\mcb, 916 O«J,pu,/tt$. S,,pi,o<le&. 309- 10 OfTh~tJ 1Sv1g. Ccrsbwa.n, 861 Offenbach.Jacques.(172. 705. 716

p.11,h. ?15. 951. 989 public pcrfonnanee,;. 291,296.32 1 23 rcfonn mo\'C:tuc:nts m. 327. 490-93. 860

Offm.onum. Cubaidulina. 983

orrcr,o,y.49.50 51,57. 59 Omcc.50. 51 chonts for. 54-56. 57. 88. 93 in l.'011\'CUtS. 64

polyplionic scu-iugs or, 1êl 1ex-1 seuing in, 52-5:-3 OJJra.. d<S. Yacesc. 893 Oh. Dem Colde" Shpp«,. Bland. 852 Oh!Su.sonno. fos-1er, 605,676 Okegh:un, Joh:mne,. Set Ockeghem, Jean de OKch Rcoord•. 865. 866 Oklahmna, Rodgcf'6and l l:1mmcn;:1c1n. 9 17 OlrJ f'<Jk, til H<Jmf', F'oistc:r, 676 Old !fali M,nuscnp,. 168. /69 "Old Hund,·ed1h.· 221. 240 Old l\oman ch.am nnd limrgy. 28. 3 1 Olh•er. Joe • King." 865-68. 866. 871 Ofo,n J\ccords. 974 Olympic 11~ea1er (New York). 6 75 On Mu.sic. Aris1ides Quintilianus. 38 lht>Tuu:ri, lkru&tew. 918 011 the Tron.snugrorion of&mLs. Ad3ms, 1006 O" 1he Wo1<,fron1 (r.lm). 919 Ondes M:tr1eno1, 947----48

o,.

Uuc U 1rt-"CllUU.

'l'J {

1lh)etce1nli -e:(ntury ÍUrJCtions of. 653--56,

of cpics. 71 of Jcwish 1nt1s1c. 24 mus1c lhe r:,cy :md, 35-36 oí orgauutn. 9 1 92. 93. 96

1roub.11dour songs, 74 75 o ntto rfo. :{3'>-:i 7

t hurusc:a in, 457 c1ghtcentJ1-c:cntury. 1115. 451. '455 59. 461. 495 of Elgar. 752 oíHandd.537. 6Z4. 616 oíllaydn. 528. 537. 538. 624. 641, orHunt:ggt:r.878-79 of hei.. 848 ofLim. 733 of Mendels.sohn. 641). 65 1 oíMilhau<l. 879 ofS,ue. 809 seven1ee,uh-ccumry. 336-37, 363. 384 Orr.hP.wgraph h?. Arbc.au. 27 1 ordu:~1ra. St"< aUo mttru1Jltmta11on aud orchc.s11"{11ion ciglueenlh-ct:nwry. 502-3. 522,533 fll'Cnel1 8:aroqu-0. 356. 351,389

German 83ro-que. 442-43. <1<14

h,li2n llaroquc. 390 91. 415 li, niue1ec::n1 h·cemury. 625-26 o,·cbcsir,I coneeno. 390. 416. 421.142. S12. 843. S.:-ealsoconeerto orche.,rol s,me. 403. 443.459. 512-13. 797. 872. 89?. Stt alio suitt•. 83roquc O,·Jer of1hc Goldcn Fleeee.186 Ordin:uyoíthe Matu;. •1<>

-rcscuc· gcnrt', 488, 552.562.575

11,..,i,n. 682. 706-14. 886. 887-88 Sp,ni,h. 375. 715. 804 twentteth-century. 957. 981 rwcnry Ítl'61C:cnuny, 1004 S

in Uniced Suues, 674-75

Opér" (Poris). 626. 667 Opero and Dmma. Wagner. 683. 684

opéro bouffc. 1,83. 705. 716 opeo·:, bul'fa. •177. 4 78- 80. 553-55. 660-61. 662 63. 663. 70 1 o~racom,que. 487- 88. 665. 666-67. 1,69- 70. 705 Optm 111,,rula,o Fumegam~Ú:tn3.SSJ. /63. 266 Oprn ofchc Nobiliry (l,ondon). 412. 454 55 opera sena, •t77, -182- 8•1

of Hssse. 483-84. 486 or ).lozart. 542. 543. 552. 554 55 o(1'racn.a, 491

opern - ballet. 428. •154. -t92 operen,. 683.? 16. 718. 772. 859.873 Opmecr. Pctru$. 201 Oppenheim, Mori11. D:1niel, 611 Oppenhcimer. Max. 828 Oppeuhe1u1u. Roberc, 1006-7 opu•. 3<17 Op.,$ J?10. Scoçkh.11.1 .stn, 956 or31 Lr:tdilion ;ind 1ransm1si;:1on

Ongo.l.:.u, Cowell, 95'1

oíAfrlc:mAmtrl.e:m mus1c. 759. 862,863

Ono. Yoko. 9·15 OPEC. 959

:mriq11iiy,4.5

uí di.u,. 31-32. 57. 67

1,1o lyphomcsettlngi.uf, 121 2'1. 130.168.

170. 172. 174. 180-86 Onlo nnu1t1rn.. Ht1deg.ud. 6•1. 65

ordtts. 423- 24 On!ste,. Euripidcl. 19.19 1.'0ifeo. Mon1everdi. 304.3()1. 3 16-19.318 Oefro. R()ssi. 323. 356 Oifro,d Cuod,«. Gluek.109. 492. 498. 732 Orfr. C.irl. 885. 90 1 org-au

83roquc. 398,399

organ \'c~c. 3'13 organ.al voice, 86 urg.:uuc1sm. 595

PaCJjika Rond.fl', llarri5on. 955 P""~v,11ma. S.·f' p;w.inc P:tduu. 13 1. 515

org.inum, 85- 69. 157 clauimlae and. 97 Dcbu•sy ;.,nueneed by. 791 ílond. 89 90 n<>1e-:1g:iins1·nore. 88-89 No1re 03me. 95- 100 O')!elbachl,u,, Bach. 439 40. 44 1

J)3d\1ana. s~-e p~,·:mc

Original Dixieland Jazr 8and. 776 O~andu/111wso, Anu~1u, 161 omamc.ntation, 303 <1

111 cham. 38,57. 59. 61. 88.89-90 m e1g111een1h-cen1ury mu.sic. '420. ~23.

135. m. 483.186. m. 490

m founecmh -«murymue1c, 138 1n nine1cen1h-cennuymusic, 616,659,

661. 665 lu ae,·enteemlt <:cruury muii<:. 30·1 5. 305. 310. 312. 3•12. 3$7.361.362. :163. 380. 381. 388. 402-3 U I $1.!t:1ê<:nlh •ct:nhuy UllJSiC,

253, 266.

273-74, 279. 281. 309. 3/ I

79.83 P:t.leoJhlucc.ave pa11U lll!i,.~· 5 Palcs1rina, C10\·anni P.ierluigi da, 16<1, 229

33. 230. 735. 736 biogrophy or. 230 complete works «1111011, 720 inílu,nce n r. 233. 235. 240. 333. 383. 495.648 38 l)errorm<;r. 66 polyçhoral motçls o i'. 211:i P:.11:wicioó, C;il'ló, 395

796 Pan.s Qu3ftels. Tele-mano. 435 Pans symphonies, l liydn, 533

P>rker. Ch,rlie. 908. 908. 922. 938 Parker. Horauo. 754. 847. 848 parlor •ong. 596, /,0•1- 1,. 622. 8H Pom<J4'.Su.s, Cff' 1lu· Apolh;:oi&$ ofCo,...JJ1, Coupcrln. 423 parody mass. S« 1m1mion mass

l'arry. lluben. 75 1-52. 801 Por.;ifol. W"1!J«r. 685. 692. 752 P• ,1. Arvo. 967. 983. 987 88. 988 p•nbooh. 163. 242. 242. 2•16. 258 Pmeh. llmy. 21. 946. 916. 954. 955 Pa"ll-t'1ua anthulugy. 276. 277 Portid.s, Cri6cy. 982 paroita. 3,13. 3•18. H2. 727. 955-56

Pam4'1o.. R1l.'.L.1u•dc-uu. d82 Pompoon()s No. 1, Cinas1er.1, 95'1

Purtit;, ~"Pl'(I '-'ium.-ona, Fn.a1t.'()ln1IJ1, 349~ 3<19

Pampluli Palact: (Romc). 292. 292

pansong. (i.<f (i- 4 6 Pasiôn &eg'l.it1 San Marras. W. Golijov. 10-05.

Oronteo. ec..,. 323.326. 326 27 Orphk ª"" ;:rift.:r$, OífeJ1bo1ch, 705 Orpheus, 1.isn . 732 Orphe.u~. Stravuu>ky, 837 Orsu. Ot'$U, cor' Signon' (c.,rnivJI son__g), 199, 199

Panda Bcar. 1-11 Pandora lnrcrnct Radio. 998 l'ongel1nguo.gJ011o.&1, 209

Or,11$. sc1\'llt'AtT1du &:1gm:ur. Buurgcoi&. 221 Ord1uJox Ea:.-h:ru diurcbes, 27. 28. 45

Panl.Qmim~ btminerist.s (fllm). 773

<h JU~h. Brucknc:r, 735 os1in:ito. 2 75. s,.•.al$D lusso ostin.110 ut 1wt'nltetli-centul')' mus-1c. 807. 830.

833 34. 835. 837.838. 839. 850. 852. 885. 891. 979. 980 Os1rogo1hs. 28 Oullu. Rossmt. 657

Otello. Vcrd;. 696.697.699. 70 1. 1001 O,h,dlo. Shake.lpc:are.70 1 011. H:ius. 203

OuomanEmpm:. 145,409.544.856 Ouont, Handel, ;153

mntt('tmh ccntuiy. 742 1n Nonh 1-\mcr1ta, 1'96, 497

overdot11ng.3 61 . 362 ovc:1111.rc:. 358. Stt aJso F'rc.nch O\'tnurc:

Ull\'f!'J1Utt. &t f're11cl1 O\ '(nu rc:

CÃ>t:rThrl'l'. Cllhan. 772

$iM0111a

ar 8ec;h1wçn. 575

cightccn,1) cemury, 438 -40 nmetecnt h-century. 7<12. 847

of Mendds..,hn. 608. 637. 639 ºP<'ª· •29. 492.512, 556. 654. 663 64 ofRimsl.j•- Korsako\', 747 Owen. Wilfred. 929 Oxío,·d. 70 Oxfo1•d Movcmcm. M8 "Oxford-Symphony. Haydn. 506 Oft<miomotrbeba.,110$, f:ntin:i, 244

scven1een1h-cenmry. 304, 34Z-5U, :S6;S,

U1.àwa, ~l'IJI. '11:,0

376 77. 384. 397--403 si.neemh- ccnmry, 274, 28.5 1wentie1h -cen1ury. 8•19-~0. 930

Pachdbd. Johann. 397. 438

prdude o rgan mlSS, 2'M. 3 114 .347. 348. 363 o rgau music

l'aUi.1lmalu:d, Wallher nm der Vogdwc1dc:,

Re\•olmfon rn, 560--62 Schota Cantorum tu. 742 .silcn1 hlm in, 773 Universal Expositiun, 76..t 76S. 791.

Ul twt:nl1eth-cc:1HUI)' U)USIC. 843. 845

O'1rT01cn (lilm). 899

por1,,i,•e. 82. /31. 134.134. 136.175. 269 ~......... 82. 136. /36.138. 267.269 regai. ·117 tuuiug of. 157 organ chorai e. 274. 348.401. Steols.cho ...Je

l':u.k. N:un June. ?45 P.nne.John Knowles. 751 754. 761 Pau:ie. Thomu . 465 Painl.illcr, 965

pllbli•brngin. 163. 592 Rena1s&.1nte, 152

m $!avie fo lk singing, 345

lllGll'llmem. 301,333,4 15 1nJew,5hservices. 649 medie\•.tL 82

.. &OOil(lilUO

P:,gnnini. Nicolõ.588. 602. 618. 627. 6'.H

P.r..ge, Chl'ls1opher. 137 Pagliacc1. L:011ea\·allo. 699, 702

A127

l'u<ifi< Z31. Honegger. 878

p:inpipcs. 9 J)3Ul01t'11Jllt!'$. (,?7

P>1"'")'•27.2?-3 1. 112.1 27. 153. 177.234 papol chapei. 201. 230. 234 Pop1trons. Schumann. 608

Par1,u, sopro pã.ssac.agh, Fi-esoob:r.ldi. 3<19

1006 pameagha, 343, 3<8- 4 'I. 377. 820. 964-65. 984. St4! a.lso chae:ona. ch:iconn,e paHameuo. 272, 36-4 pa&s.ime1,70 ~mico. 275 p:t11.1i.1tmcno moderno. 275 P~$St0H,

34 1

oí&eb,441. 446. 448. •161. 648. 1005 ofGolijo•. 1005

Pttrod,•. Satie. 809.809 Paradi>elv,1. M,hon.13. 292. 537 Poro.di.s( Loss, P<;ndcredn. 989 l'<iro.di.$Odtg4.Albf"i· l'r:no.134 ParoUd fo•P.J, Phn:,rch. 57) p:u--allelorbl'3uum, 85- 86.86. 11 0. 79 1

Pa..uioruuflheSoul (Desc:u1e.s). 296

p,r:,phrasc. 1 70. 172. 62 1 p.irapbrase mass. 207. 227, 229 P•ro.g,. Alíons,o. 320

Pasu. Cmdina. 660 pa&ri.;:hc, 1005 l'as10r. Tuny. 717

Parigi. C1Ul10*320

pas1oral. 243 ,14

P.1ris. SH 0l50 F'rench mu.sic Afnc:m Alnnlcan mus1c m. 774

pastoraldcama., 308 Pa.srom.l Symphcrny. Beethoven. 576-77.577, 632

ballet in. 831. 832 36. 886 caharcts an,d clubs in, 706. 716,879 Consen~11>1re in, 5H. S62.612. 613. 741 , 742.143. 792. 893. 930 P.colc Nicdcrmcyer in, ?•12, 7'13 dghte~nth-century. -110. •163

jmiu.869 mcdic\·al, 69. 70. 73 M01.~l'l in, 5 '1 1 mu.sic a nJ J>Oli11c5 m. 817 No1r"e Da.m..: cad1edral 111, 91-92. 92. 93, 97,149

• .,• ..,. "'· 323. 428. ,184-88, 492. 562. 626, 6~~- 1)66 /0. 103 -'l,'/0~. /Só

o-rches1n.l ,nus1c rn. 5 14 pubhcooncens in, 373, -t22. 466-67.

741-<12

orCraun. -i9S uf Penderedci. 95 1 of S<hü12. 34 1

ofTelemann, 434

pa1noral 1hcmci, '109 p3SI0Urtlle. 73

Pis:1.1ory. Ouc.:i. 840 Porl1u1rl1eNtwAlu.s,c, Tht. Wcbcr-11.828Porhétiqu" Sona1:1, Rec1ho\'cn. Sl,6--(i7 />c,rJ1é,iquc Symphony. 'rc.b..:a.il.o\'sky.

745 46 patro,lage Ar;ib nilen;. 67- 68 &roque. 332. 351. 352-57. 361-62_368. 369 70. 372. 380.384.393. 413. 422. 126. ·133- 31, 45 1- 52 e1gh1ecnch-cenmry, <lb!;I, 4YO, !>00. !) 19,

520 23. 544. 563 65 mcdicvnl.68 69. 74. 79. 103.120.121. 127. 129

lnd ex

A128

pa1ronagc <cononutd)

mnmcmh ccnrury.568.576.588 89. 6 12. 667. 684-85. 704. 708. 745,754. 792. 996 Reuaimnce. M6. 149. 15 1- 53. IM . 16667. rn. 186, 198. 224 26. 23~. 2a 1

lnd ex

pcrfonn.mcc hi6to,y nnd rcççpnon Q( Amcriç:an \ ('rn;u;ul;,r lllll.$-iC, 76 1 oí lketho,·en. 584 85, 628, 824

ui Brahms. 722. 739 o(chant, 66 ur elassic mu~ic. 557 OÍ C3rly motel&. 103

scvcntc:cnlh-ccntury. 290.29 1 ofTrc:1.'(:nlu ulus ic. 131

ol,arlypolyphony, 110

1went1eth·ttntu ry. 876, 92•1. 925- 27.

oí early twcnhcth-cent~•ry mustc. 81 l

948-49. %1- 62. 986-87 1wen1y-Íl~l«"ntu1y.67?. 996. 1002 Paui. Adelina. 660 Paul. Jean, 602. 63 1 P:iul.S:iim, 22. 24 Pai~ Ili. Pop<. 228

Paulin, G.aston. 773 pavanç(pavan, padouana), 262. 27 1, 2 72.

2?3. 349. 364 Poi•aned"Angltrl!n-tand GolhMd. Cervaise,

272.212 Pavant" pourune m/anr~ dt/unlt!. Ravd. 7?7 Pà.\'Orl.S. Calhords. Almauu a,id Otl1er Yl-011 Ae,rs

(llolbomc). 272 Pavlov, lv:i..n, 766-67

o( e1ghté'en1h-cen1ury mns1c, 430-31. 461

orroum::cmh ccnrnry mus.ic. 141 oí Fram:o-flernu;h mus1c, 2 11- 12 ví late 11111e1eenth-oe111u,y music, 760 61 uílatc 1wcn11elh~ceutury mm.te, 991 92 o( medieval song.s nnd dances, 83 uí mid-dghtecnth -cc.nlury• music. 518 .;;ímid tigl11cemh ccnnuyvo~l music,

pulitic-:,I e iniun1iil:a11c-Cl~:uu:I. 90 1 2

1wen1i~t h - e,en1ury, 774,799,840,858,

oíl\e1la1ssancemus1c, IM. 187

Cub,n. 9 16 gamelan, 791. 951. 966 rncdie,•~I. 8 1-82. l36 Mesopoumfan . 7

ln nlne1ccn1J1 century mu.8ic. 625 Par1ch'a invcnrinn&. 9~6 prt his10ric. S Rcnaís.rwncc. 267

oí 1:nxtcc:n1h century in.sln1men1.al mus1c.

285

or 6ixt('cmh-«nm,y ~Cr('d music. 2'10 uí :nxtcc.uth-«n1u.ry secul.u 15ongs. 263 oí rwe:1\ttcth otnru,y modt:rnisl works. 824 uf 1we1H1etb-oe11cu1y popufar 11lus1c. 874,

921- 22 of rweutic1b-ceotu1y pbl)l- war mmnc. 957

olVcrd•. 701 2 olW>gner;,n,. 722, 739 orwoinen composel'$. 612-13.623 perfonn;uu:e pràCllCe

oi bel c,n10 opera. 660 6 1 oi bh•••· 863-64 oí chince ind indetcrmrn:uc .-ous,c.

oí eigh1eemh- un1ury Freneh 11111.sic. 423 or c 1gbtcc.udl ec,uuryopcra. 486

Pe1n1cci. Ou .wi:mo, 162- 63. 200. 244. 270.

conlro\'crs1c.s ovu. 305

ofeigluccmh «tllt11yora1orio.s, 457. 457-58

ur E.tig'Jisli tixtteuth -<:cu1ury voea.l music, 261 flg\lred ba.ss re.:ili1,:1rion. 30l, 305

in rwcn1ic1h-century music. 893. 939.

oi lrouok. 245 olJm.865--{,8

perfec1 (m:.jor) dw1s1on, 116,117 perf'c:ciion. 104. 117 Ptrf«·r Srnmgtr. Tht. Z:ippa. 964 períormancc.-in. 4H5 , 957, 971

Pesaro, 154 Petcr. Johan:n Fnedrich, 497

/><t,rwid ,1., Wolf. Prokofiev. 886. 901

oí early ins1nrn,tnt3I nmsie. 264. 269 oí early motctl;. 103

944- 45

olcham, 52- 53, 55

oí íounecnt11 ~century mu&ic. 135-40

p-crf;stro1k3. 959

859, 863- 72. 869. 870- 7 1. 873. 882. 907 10. 91•1 16. 936- 39. 949,967 Pergolesi. Giovanni Bati i~la. 168. 175. 480 81.481. 836 Pen. Jaeopo, 21. 288. 308-9,310,3/0. 312. 3 12- 15.317. 806 p~noJ A72 1><:rood1<ity, ~62. 472. 4?6 Pcronm••· 93. 91. 98- 99. 108. 967 P1~i,rn $.-1, Cc.w,.ell, 95•1 Pcrtlcbet11, Vrnceul, 920, 92.J. 927 r,<:rspecrive, 1<19 Peru. 235. 375. 376 Pel'Ul,'ÍO, 131 ,,.•. 108

P,-:rerCrime-.s. 8rincn, 929 Pe1er. P.aul.and Mary. 9 15 Pctcr thc Vu1cr-.3hle. abbot of CJuny. 33 Peti))~. }.fa.rl1.1s. 707 ~til moic1, 362 PclÍI$ Violou s. 356. 357 Petrarca. Francc"° (Pctn~h}. 245, 248--49,

"Turkish.- 533. 552 946.9? 1

Pholomtl. Babb;11 , 949 50 philo6-0phe,. 464-<15 plulusophy

o( modemi$t musie.:il sryles. 839. 854 ur ninctccuth-ct'ntury music. 65 1-52 o(oioctccmb ccncuryopcra, 711 18 or nine1~cn1h-cenwry ~ongi;and pi.ano mus iç, 622- 23

498

oí ,&e\·e,ueemli -cemu,y music. 306. 350. 377 78.390 oí seven1een1h -cenrnry o ptr:ri, 327

676. ?49. ?91, 968

Boroque, :354--55, 3?3, 393. 433- 34. 435- 38

Phili~ P:wlliou (Bmssels). 9.f8. 950

159-60 or 8oe1luu.:;. 39

or Uu.ssia.n mus,c. 706- 7

Peinn lhe Short, krng of thc: t·r,mh, 29 Pe})usch, Jvhann Cl,r illloJ)h, 489 pt"reu.ss1on. Se~ also~pt'-t"ific lfpe& :mc•ent Creek. 9 ,mcícn1Jewi.sh. 2,t

ofVivald1 v,ohn ooncertos. 420 ptrlormers. profess,ionJI in anc:icnc Crcet't', 12

173-7-1. Ili. 175.1 77 Philippe de Virry. S« Vi1ry. Pl,illpp< de Pluhpp,nes. thc, 373, 766 Philips Corpor:i.1ion, 769. 9 18

anc1cn1 Crcck, 1O 11 . 20. 68. 70. 147.

Pearl J:im. 973

Debui$y"S inílnence on, 796 pen lato me ac,a.le and co1lcctton, 605. 6S0.

77-78 ufV«di oper,.698- 99

med;e,.,.). 71 75. 83. 129 mntiecmh c::cumry.559.588. 602 3. 612- 14. 615. 617. 6 18. 62 1- 26. (,27. 698- 99. ?22. 732. 751. 756 operuingcr&. 322 23. 324 25. 380. 411 12. •153. 454-55. 484. 486. 553. 654, 660-GI. 675.1,83. 698-99. 767 puhhccuóC'ept oí. 295 Ren,;..,,ncc, 151 53. 246. 253. 254. 309 in Se\'e11te<:nth ccnh 1ry, 295-96

Pears, Peier, 928 29, 929

Pdli. Cesar. ?81-85 Pcr,dc,.ccki. Kriys,tol. 920. 925. 950 -,5 1, 951. 957. 989

~ouud ttcordingt :i.nd. 811. 858 of uoub3dour ind 1rou, Cre i<lngs.

Philip V. kmg oí Sp.iin, 375 P11it1f) ll1e Bc)1J, du'kc oí Btu·r1ndy, 173 Pluhp1hc Fur. dukeof Burgundy. 114 Philip1heCood , d okeof ll11rgundy.152, 152.

c1gl,tet"nl 1,-ç~nll•ry, 502, 519, 540

pécheut'$d,·perles. l.tS, 8izc;1, 704 1-1cd:.gog)', Sa: cJucatiuo, musie Pcdrau,. Luigi. 66Q Pedrell. F,hpe. 715 P<PrC,,,1 Suile, Grieg. 749. 872 pcn-10-1.H:er Me sbanug. 996 Pei. 1. M.. 962 Pélili-61er, Olyrnpc, 658 P4'lllos l't Mélisande, Debussy, 792. 79&. 843 Ptlltà$ und Mt!lis.orW.c. Sdauenberg. 8 l3 pirlltgnna, lo, imcnned1for. 308-9.309

of 8é\'tntc:cn1h-cenn11y mosic. 304 5. 305, 363,380.381, 388. 40•1- 5 of gii,:1etn1h-cenmry in:i.drig.,111, 245. 254

oí n ine1een1h-ct:nlu')' 1n~is1c, 580 or n ine1een1J1acentury songii, 6U4

uf org~num. 86-87. 97 oí SC\'Cnteen1h~ccnnuy Frcnch music,

359. 361

250,252.254, 618 275 Petn1SdeC1'1.1<>:, /06. 106 7 Pct1mhka. St mfo,~7. 83 1. 832. 832-33. 83.1 "Pct1\lshk• ohord." 833. 83J Pe,·el'3rà. l..àura. 253 Plw,uom ofth, o,,..,•• Th,. Uoyd Webber. 962-<13 1>bas1ng. 9?6 78 Ph,hdor.A.nne Oamean, 466- 67

l'hilidorfain ily, :S!,4 PbJhtJ li . kmgofSp:i1n. 234

Ph1hp IV. klrigoíSprni.373.J7S Phil ip IV (1h-c f'air). ldngoíFr.ince. 11 2

eightccnd1-cen1ury. •IM- 65

oi lvc•, 8•16. 850. 852 oí L;.,,, 62 l , 722. 732, 813 u!Momt,541,543. 545 47.622 of Prokofiev. 887 ofSchubcn . 606. 607 orScriabin , 801- 2 ofStr-,winsl)'. 837 PoanoSuue.S~hotnberg.8 14. 821.822. 823 pi:mu tno.565. 576,640, 642- 43. 728. ?48 p1a.nofortc. 500 Pimoll•.Ásror. 961. 964 65. 967. 1005. 1008 Prc,..o. Pablco. 770-7 1, 771. 809. 809. 832. 8.J6 P1éé1uu1, N1ccoló. 482. 492

medieval, 70 nineteenth ccmury. 692 U\'Cutcc1Hh-ccn1ury. 290. 296 rr:mscendcntalist. 852 phonogr,ph, . 766. 768-69. ?68.../,9. 855 Phr)·gi:i.n e:ide nce. 139 Pf17!P,m CóM. Ad:::uM, 979-80. 980

Phryg;;,n mode. 40-42. 705. 805. 645. 979- 80 Phrygi.an oc:ta\·e tµec1es. 16-17. 19 piano. 499.500, 500 50 1 nmeleen111-cenh11)', 559, 589-90, 592, 61 8 squ•re,SOI, 589,590, 592 p1auu conccnu

orouber. 927 oFBc.ich. 755 uf Bcellu;, en. 576 oí Brahms. 72'1. 727 ofC<,pbnd. 699 o/Cowell. 895 orcersbwrn.898 ofCri<g.750 ofl.i, 11, 733 uf McndclSS4)1m. 637

of Mo,an, 548 SO. S49 ofR,vcl. 799. 878 ofSchocolx:rg. 82 1 oíSçht1mann, 750 of1'eh,;kovsL7. 722. 7•14-15 orT1ppc11. 954 p1ar.u musie.S~tal.so J>i.auo sona1a c1gh1ccnth-çe.nnuy, 50? n ine1eenlh-century.S6S-67, S78, 60~22.

621 23,729.732. 743,749, 777 rwc1Hlc1b-ee1muy. 775- 76. 793- 94,

796 96. 799 801.808 9. 817. 821-23. 813. 895-96.8?9. 930. 931. 935. 940. 9•11 42. 954. 977 78, ?81-82 Piano Phas... Reich. 977. 977- 78 p1anu qu>rret. 642. 728. 899 pi,no quime<. 640. 642. 728. 128. 742. 755 piano tionala or 8:.irbcr. 927 ui tkethoven . lb:, b( .~ ( H,.) / 9. :.1$U. t,'J,'J.

of Brahms. 729 ofCage. 940 ofChopin. 1006

pO<tl)' ball,d. ;97 b:i.dorm, 79 c:horalc ICXIS:. 397. 443

Greekmusicand. 10. 12 13.15, 19. 147 fo r Liecler. •191. 597.1,02-3. 737 lyric.597 oíMachaut, 120, 121. 127. 141

madrig,I telCIS. 246, 2•18-50 medieval. 70-71 M,ddle Enghslo. 79 ,\ 1mnchcdcr, 79 n111ereen111-ce1111,')'• 593 by Rcnalss311cc womc:n. 25 1

picc-olo. 625

Ru.ssi:m.673

l'kt,irr:sorott Erhll>i'rion. Musorgsky. 746--17.

Jic,·cntccn1h -cent111)', 292 S1abrt i111, 688- 89 ,un·calíit, 93G

Enhghlenmcni. 4 1O. 469

74? l~ê(t~Ü('ll"()niqueNo. 3, L1gc1i. ?53 Piê~.Jd,.da~'4'Cin, O'Angleben.363.361 P,ita deda~'t'Cm. Jae1.1ue1 de la Gu~r~. 366.

367,504.506 picdi. 133 Piero Jdl~ fl"::lncc:sc:a. sehoo1vr, 150

symbolisr.695. 767. 791,792, 795.19899. 816. 819 TreéenlO, 131 rroub:,dour :i.nd rrouvêr~. 15 "Cni nlt'i\.l r é ,

259

P'u,rroJ hmcur,;,. Schut:nberg, 8 19 20. 936. 945

po11111,1f 11nh!Hi1,1n. 19 7,207,209

P;e,ism. 39?. •143. 495 Pio Ospc:dale ddl.t Pic1ra (Venicc).113-15. 4/5.4 16. 421 p•p<, 7, 112 p;pe,nd t>bor, 8 1,$1, 271 Pm,,.-s o[P.-n:ance. The. Ci1bert .:md Sulbv:m. 716. ?17 Pui"<o,. 1,o., Pcdrcll, ? 15

po11u1llism. 829. 936,943.954 Poisson Rougc. l,c (Ncw York), 1001 l'oland. 856. 90·1. 959 C:ubohc tmmc in, 236 37 e1gh1ecn1h-~n1ury, 409,478 ninertemh-cenml')'• 584

Piiton. Wõ1ht1i,892. 926 p11cl1 cl:.sa se t. U16. 825 Putsb11,:gf1 01,-cnw·t, Penderecki. 920 Piu~ IV. Pope. 228

rmsX. Pove.37 P11:,3rro. Fr~ncisco. 235 J>lag:al mt>des, <IQ.-1 1 pbinçha111.Se-ecl1~m1 Plwtu!at1d Cat'..it! /ri1.rod11c-,wn.w Prút'l1t·o.ll

A129

Polish mu.s1cninc:1e.trnh ccnrnry.615.115 twenu clh-cennny. 9H . 950-5 1, 9SZ.

989 Poll,h R"lmem. Peudcrcck1. 989 Polilic,, Arisrorle. li , 13. 14. 159. 875-76 pohllcs .ind mustc. Stt afsr, naliona.li.sm and u~1ioual stylcs: specafic co«,1P'td 111 anc1cn1 Crccce. 13- 14 eigh1een1h-cenrn,y, 409. 432-33. 462-63

íourtten1J, ..ccn1ury·. 112-14

Music«<.A. Morley.260 61.26/ pl.1insong 111:i.11-s. l 81 r1a1lc:r, ,\fitrn:r. 68·1- 85

late e1g:h1ceJllL 10 carly 1lu1e1ecu1bccnr11ry. :i60-63. 575 in M,ddleAges.67-<i9. 166-6?

Plonfts.. Tht. llol!t, 80~

nmctccntb ccntul)'. 587 88. 667. 673.

PJalét,

Rame.m, •128

Plato. 4. 11. 12. 13-14. 17. 20-21. 25. IH. 159.2 16.258.809,875 76.984 l'lo1•/Domcl, 63-6-1 ph1yer pi:ino. 766 Playfurd. Jolu,. 372 73. 772 plea,ure p rdens. 466. 466. 494. 123 plcctrum.9.11, 12 Plcyd.C,mille, 613,632 Pleyel. lgna, . .533 Pleyel. Marie. 6 13. 623 Plinytl1c Yuungc:r. 24 Plutarel,, 5?1 pode""· 996 P(H'm of EC$l().$~r, Scn:,1,,n, 80 l JJoi>m.u(tt•rromque, V:irê1:1e, IS'/!>, '141$ Pohnc Il3rmon,qut. 378 Pochcs. ArisrQllç, 12

Pac1iQufM11s11.·. Str;a,,in:sky. 840

679-80. 698. 707. 742. 790 an Rcn:nssance.14S-"16, 166-6?, 188- '90 iu Koman Emµirc. 23

se,·cmccnth ccntury, 290 91,310.35 1

51, 356-57. 361-<i2,3ó9. 393-95 1wemic1h- cenmry. 766,843. 856- 57.

876-77. 882- 89.893. 896. 899. 901. 915. 916. 929. 93~. 959-(,0, 98.3. 969 twenty-Ím;l·t.-cnluty, 993-9-1 Poli?iJno. Angclo. 308

pulka. 826. 975 Pollock.J,ckson. 909. 910. 9•13 polonaise. 6 16 Polo\•i.sw,~Doricts. 8orodin. 7 10 polyc-boral molet. 283- 84 , 333,335,337, ~IJ6.il'J~

polyphouy. 11. 84 85 .&ealsosptc-ificsenres Aqunanian, 70. 89 90, 109 An. Now•, 11,1-27

lnd ex

A130

polyphony (conh.nued) ArsSubnhor, 12? 29

Burgundian, 173-87 in Coumf!r- Reform:mon dmrch mu~ic.

229-33 carly. 84 li O. 987 English. 107-8.167-73 Fnnc.;.- Flemish, 196- 98, 258 h:ahah Treeen10. 130-35 MiddleAges. 82. 11 l

Notn- DaUle. 9 1-103 Pro«S1301 gcnl'CS. 218 20,222 23 Rc.:na1ssancc, JH, 155-57.829

ln dex

Prnctonu-&, M1çhael, 265, 337 l-1r.ag11(', 715 C:uholu:: ehureh mu!li~ m. 337 PriJbri,e Syu\pbony. Mo1.a1'l. 550 Pnno, Cio\·anni da. 13'4 Prurci.ca di mu&ioo. 2..tcconi, 26(> Pro.\'1$ p1-etalis meliro.

CrUg~r. 397 preclassi<'. mus,c, 471

ou-1 music's scpar.atiuu íron,. 596. 605. ?18,

721. 723 24, 753. 757 58. 7G 1 Oe-bus..sy's fnOuenct on, 796 lnln$1Te) S-008"6.

676, 15<)

tudte ruarkm. 973-75. 992. 1009 pop class,c.,1hybrids. 963 64. 992. 1001. 1009 •ong,, 757- 59. 761,772.773. 777, 85962. 870,874, 9 1H2. 9 15 synthegbc1'$ in. 9-19

tweutie<h-ecn<ury. 378. 763. 764. 712-77. 847.855 74,903.906.910 17.992 tw<"nty-tlr$t-cennuy. 997 world be;11. %ó Po'Kya11d Bt'.ss. Cersbwin. 898. 965 Porpora. Nicola. 412. 454,521 Porponno. '486 !)Ort:il,lc media rJl:tycr.$, 995- 96 portaltveori,'3u. 82.131, 134. 134. 136. 175. 269

Poner. Cole, 861.873.874. 917, %2 Ponui,,al, 145. 313. 371. 959 po•hiveo,·g ,u, 82, 136. /36, 267. 269 pos1 punk tt\i,•al. 997 pos1-1on:.I music, 779. 780 pustminim:aluun. ?78- 8 1. 992 1.1osm1odcnu&m, 476. 780. 957. 985- 86

Poner. Tommy, 908 Puulené, frau<is. 809. 878,878.901. 927 Pourbus. Fr.:rns:. J42 .../3 Poi,rWpiano. Uebussy. 795 Poiraqqa,si (film). 979

Powdl. Uud, 909 Powcr, Leonel. 181. 186 Procll('(I' mus,to, t'inck, 266 pr:aeludium.S",! prelude: ICH."C!lt:1 Pradudhun m E Major. Bw:tdtudc. 3?9--401.

400

propag:rnda, 291.352 53.356 57

Q11ampt1lchrut'.s. Dunstablc. 170-7 1. 208

Properol'1he Mal>$. •I ') . 50-~ I

Qu.11112. Joh:wn Joachim, 463. '164 quartel. Set piano quartct~ stnng quartel Q,,a.uwrpourJafm du tt-mps, Messi:'len. 930, 931. 932. 957

d.ani, for. 57- 59. 60 po lyphonac settmgs of, 172 prosul:.. 61

o( l)ebussy. 795 uí ll>clunaninofT. 199.800. 800-801 rhytlun tn, 303 s,xte<nth-ocn,u,y. 27G-77. 279,280. 285. 343

p<ipl1Jar mus1c. Su al.so spec,fic composers. perfonnU'f, ond g,nrt.:i

qt•.:Jdmphnn, 98. 98

preludc. 26.5.367. 614.Stralsochoralc prcludc oí Baclt.-139.139. 110--li.838 ll.,roquc, 343,344,366,368, 399--401

lroJJt' composilion:rnd. 61

pop m\leie.. 91 t . 910-1 1.S11•oleo rop1:1l3r music

Promf'lh~us. Scriabm. 801

Prosdoclmo de' l:~ ldomandi. 138-39

uíChopm.614 15

poly,;<ylisrn. 780, 789, ')58- 59. 981- 86. 989 91. 992. 1006 polyton,Ji<y, 763. 849,852,879. 891. 968. 985 pumod'oro, n. Ct-sii. 323 Pop< Mam,JI"' Ma.s. Pak8"u>a. 229 33, 231- 3J, 735, 73G

Q·Tip.100 1 qu.adrille. 627

prehi!>loriccuhures. mu.sic in, 3. 5

in .syn:'lgogue ~rv1ces. 3111 polyr-h}'lhm.89 1

Prokofiev, Sergey.886. 886-87. 90 1. 927 prolauon, 11G, //7, 11 9, 128, 1?3 Pt-omt!lhl'u,, l.is1:1 , 732

Pndudt. Clwrul.r. mui Fugiu. frand. 742 Prefode, Fugue.o.ndRijfs. Jkrnsre1n. 954 l~•ludeà "l'op1Y'll·m«l,d'1mfrume." Dc::hu$$y,

792, 795

Pro1tt11,tg Ve1 l, TI,~. T.avenu. 989

Protc6rnnhsm. Si:'í:! Rcformi,t1on Í'romst, M:ircd, 857 Prussio. 409. 463. 680

1>s.alm,23

Baroque. 333. 338 Byt..an1iuc, 28 c:1rly Chriettan. 24 25. 45. 51 fauxboul'don.se111n!'Of. l80 in Jewu:h.sen'lccr.. 23- 24. 60. 239. 341-42. 978 mc,rical, 213,220 22 ,29 1,496 ninclccnl h-ccntury seHings. 6'18

pr4lud1111. ht. luHU. 732 33. 733

polyphoni c &C)Hinge., 222-23. 283

pr~pal'ed piano. ~.M O. 946 Pre- R.aphaeli1cJi, 631 Presby1en:a11 churcb. 220. 290 Pre,ky. Eh•,., 913,9 19.922 l""')'Ç"I Is 1,ke• ,\lelod)', A, Berhn, 859 pnm:1 donna. 325. 453 p,·lwe. 820, 823 primitivism, 78(), 833- :M, 885. 892 Pnracelgor. KoroJin.109- 10 Princeton U1uvt"rsity. 926 21

prlllClJ)3) \'OICC, 86 pnncipl'. 11. M:ichi:n·elli.1(,1 pnntiug and pub)usluug

Ll,roquc. 372 ·73.376. 388,121,431.435. 452-53.~59 eighteenthwcenmry. 465. 521. 523. 544 JlUlcle~uthwccutury, 551J. 568. 592-93. 643. 651. 675. 7;9 l\c:naiss:ince.143.144. H S. 160-61.

162 63. 164. 200. 212, 242-43.244. 253. 257. 259. 270 ,wemieth .. cennHJ. 759. 772-73. 113. 858. 863 Proxde l\ome, 632. 7'>2 P,o Tool•, 999 Procusiono!, lves, 8"9, 849 Procession m PiomJ Sa.n Marro. Bcllm1. 282

program nn1sic. 595. Stt olso .itrecrions doc1rine: charac1cr piccc: r-hc1oric:

ccxt seuing cigh<«nth ocniury. 42 1. 428. 429. 537 nine1eenrh·cenn1ry, 571, 59ú. 630-35.

639. 72 1. 732-33. 734. 737-3?. 715. 784 6c,·cmccnth ccnn1,y, 377 jJ1x1ecn1h-c,en1ury, 25S 1wcr1titlh~ccntury. l "J:,, 1:1:,o, is::,1 ::,i,

888- 89 74 1 Pruienum J. Pddrnau, 9•l3

pr9gr.m TIOICS,

l\omau litu1·g,;•.SI, 51- 56.60. 88

h'lenrie1h,.ttnnny 1etrings. 837-39

psaJm IOUC$. 53-5•1 Psolnieri Do•·id·S, S<-httiz.338

Psolmt.&. Sonet$ o,id Songs, Byrd. 260 ps•lmody. 5(,-59. 291 psaher. 220- 2 1 1>soltery, 24, 80. 81, 131 psychedchc rock. 915 P,p,l,q (í,lm}, 919 11syclio~ualysui, 766.8 l9.857 Pcolemy, Cl:ludiu.s, 13. 15.39, 159

Pubhc EnerRty. ?7'1. 974 publishWg. S« prbltiug :rnd publisbJug Puce1ni. Ciaeomo Oebuuy's inOuenee on. 7?6 rnus1c;i] ad:1p1:uu,ns of opens hy. ?63 optrasor. 681. 702 3 rcccpt-ion of. 718 Puchberg, ,\1 ach.acl. 54-1 Pucntt". Tito. 916

Pue1·10 Rico. 766. 9 16 PuJcin~Ua. Sr rannsky. 836

pun~. 973. 9'92 Purcell, llcn1y,JlO

b1ography of, 370 complc1c workit edition. 720 dr.uuatic mu.inc of. 370-1'1.. 378 inOuence of, 152. 805 inSlrurncrnal lllUfiiCo(, 275. 372-73

odes or.372. 452 rCC<"ption or. 378 Pl,riurni. ,. rs~Uini. 664 Puritans. 220. 36?. •196

Purple llou. llendri,, 967 p11rpura d~fo rosa. W. TorrcJÔn y Vela6co. 3 75. 376

Pushkut.Alcks:indcr. 673. 707. 7 10 Py1hagoru, 11. 13. 15. 159 Py1h.agorcan inton.ation, 15 7

4uadnvmm. 38. 39

Quorretiudadel)'lhnti. Meuiaen. 934 Qucbec Ci,y, 890 Q11cc:nu/Spadd, 111c. Tth:.i.iko\•Sky.107. ?18 Q11emquenrum pre.sepe. 61. 63.63 Q,,ern qucriru i,t upulchro. 63

Querellc dcs bourfons. '130. •18·1-85 quidstt"p. 756 q~1il1õma, 38 Quin:mh, Philippe, 356 Qum1e11edu Hoi Clubde France. 869

Quwuli>tt. 20.147, 158. 159 quotinfon. Sr.t: borrowing. rcwork-ing. nnd quotation R::ibehu~. fi'r:u1"'c-.~. 16 1 r.:ice music. 913

raee n:conl.s. 863 ll.,chm•nmofT. Sc,gc. 780. 799, 799 80 1, 802 cm1grauon of, 892 n:.cepuon o(, 811, 854 Racwe. )cau. 292. 356. 492 R(ltfomiilO, llandd. 453

r.idio and r.idío s1.itions. 855. 851-58. 87-t.

899. 1009 .a.hcrnat1vt" roekon. 97,t classic:11 music on. 100 1 country UIUSl(.' O U. 912

"goldenold,es· on. 922. 997 nichc: aud1cnc::cs. ?97 ,s pa,ron, 876, 925, 948-49 Lr:msuHor r.ad1ofi. 906 ll><hohead. 1001 r.ag. 775- "U, ragthnc, 759, 763. '164, 772, 774- '16, 899 Debussy s u.s c of. 795 l\'e.s's use of. 852 ~fllhaud'i. use o(.879 Mrt.'ptrcoin:. 910 Strnvmsky·a U$C of. 836 Rc,gt•m~, Str.u•irusl..1, 836 luincy. M•, 863 Rau·, Progn,u. 'llw. Stravins~y. 83 1.837 Jlnhin. D,wid. 9 19 fuuneau. Jean-Philippe. 388. 408. 42&-30. 426 biography or, •126 oomplc1c worb cdi1ion, 720, 742 lt::&rmumc 1heory o(. 306. 425. 427- 28.

429 1mpact ur, ·127-28 u,Ouen cc of, 450,878,880 UUill'lllllt'U(al UIUSIC oi. 4'/,H

oper,s of, 125, 428--30. 49 1. 68 1, 79 1 n:ccptton or. '131 n:put3ti()ll OÍ, 431

Ranusdc Pareia, JbnolomC, 157

R(ltt (ftlm), 955 range. ,rn rtmzd.th'otl1L"S. 66'1 rap. 970. 973- 71 llapprt$t1Ua.riu11e diAnimo ..-1 di Corpo. Caw,heri. 312

Hop,odu espognolt. Ravel. 191 R,.,ell. John. 163 r:iulc.. 5. 7 Riuschcnberg, R.oben. 9il0 Ravd, Mauncç, 746. 780,79 1, 796-9'), 797. 1008 Otl.iuss)'s i onutnct uo. 796

inílucncc o r,

aos. 866

jo1ziand rag:Limc dcmcnls u.scd by. 672.

711 quou.tlons from, 956

reet1p1ionof.8 I I

styhshc syutbc11,1s of. 878 Rvumovsky, Andrcy KyrillO\'ich, 516 RCA Mark li Synthesircr, 918-19. 919 ....1;,,,., 678, 681 - 82. 702,705. 710.s....i..

A131

rdrnin, 75. 820.Seeo.1$u ritorntllo: vcrac rc-írain íonn ln :lrlSS,

380

,u b31lad,•a. 126 in b3lltue, 133 in bailete. 255 i u b•lleus. 260 Enghib (burd~1t). 169

m popubrsong.s, 604, 605. 758 rn mndc~ux. 126 li\ Sp:uusb rnu&té. 80. 243 1n irnubadour and irou\'Crc ~o n1,<1>, 75. 83 Ili \'11·d;ii5, 126 regai. 317 Regg,o. Godfrcy. 979 Rfgi'raa cacli laerare. l)unstable. 110. l 7I, 204 Rcg1>fo m'1crtinu-. Gan.i.llsi. 268 Re,eh.S<cvc. 967. 97G 78,977.980 8 1. 987. ')89 Reidta. Antoine. 6 12 Re1ehanlt. Juhauu Frii:drkh. 494 Reichard1, Louise. 60•1. 623 Reil,.'n or1'em,r, 56 1 La, wymplurny. H:.ydo. S33 Re1nhal"d1. Ojo.ugo, 869

N>l'lo?,

reili2.ition, hgured b3ss. 30 1, 305

Rca.son. 999

recavi1ulaiio... 50'1 . 529.531.548~ 19, 572. 637. ?35. 745, 785 receprion. Se, perf'onn3nee hisrory and rcc<:pl1Qn f\cç10. Mari(, 633 rcciml,, /, 1li. 62 1. 627 réeit.aliÍ r:ncsuré, 3S9 réc.it.1t1f simpfo. 359

recir:mon fornrnlas. 52. 53. 60 recila11ve. 288. 51'1" a(so spl'CJfu: ')Pª ln ehurch ..,.,;e. 333.341. 342 English, J7/, 371 72 rrenclt, 358-59, 428--29, 790-91 Cerm•n. 395. 445. 446 m lt:&hau Clutat::UL381

in hali•n opera. 412.153.178. 483 rh)'dun in. 302

sep:al'.ltl<>n fro m :i.ria, 321 , 322, 327 ,ec>1at1ve S1yle, 3 13- 15 .317. 326,329,806 in ehun:h music, 333. 33'1 rec.11a1n•o .a«omp:ignato. Stt .al't'omp:1n1ed l'Ccil31WC

rcc11atavo anoio. &e anoio reci,:itivo obb lig:110, 453 1153 rcciT.uiwJ scrnplicc. See sitnplc recir.)tive rcdting no1c. 53 rteí1Jng tQllC, 40, 4 2 reeordcr, /3/. 136. 267,267. Zi2- 73

rcc1131woscl"l."'tl.

Redding, O<is. 916 Rtd Sta~. 11,~. Scl1oc.nberg. 819

R«I Via/i,,, 'Ih« (ftlm). 986 Rtd Violm Ch<Kon11e, Conghano. 986 R,-J Vi<,lm Cori-:,rrtc,, Congli;mo, 986 Kdorm:.hon. 'l::.,6&, J4!>, lbl. lb4.'l l4 I!), 2'10. ?90. &eol.so e ht1rth nn1sie, Rcforma1ion RcformalHm Symphony. Mcudc:l.-s.-solm.635

Reis. Cl, ;rc, 893 Rqoi«!. GuhaiduJina. 983 R<ldche. S•11e. 809 Remcmbra.ntt~fThtngs Pasr. PrOttSI, 857

~mmiscence mQnves. 666. 686. 69 1, 699 Rtminm·mgm Ttmpu. Ell.mgion. 810 Rcnaiss.,n«. 143 285. &e<1Lso SfJf.'c,fic curnpo$e~ gcrirr.$. anel topu:."i ch:uuon.s in, 175-79, 190.-92, 202. 257- 59 dmrch Lnusic m. 167- 68, 110 ·72. 179 86.

192-95, 19(,-202. 2 15-'10 cuhure und art in. 1•16-51 á.s hjs.toricaJ period . l 46--4 7 111&tmmcn10.l mus1c in, 26'1 65 m•dng,ls in, 245-56. 260-6 l musie.al trt'nds iu. JS 1-60

l\cíormauon, 213 40 i;ccular song6 in, 169. 2-13--4'1. 257- 58, 260- 62 tcrn.t. 144 1heatrical mus1c in, 308-9 RenC.duke of Anjou. 201 Rc:ni. l..L~on. 963 Remi, Ann•. 323, 321 25. 32$ l\epm n,nd, 756 ttpertoin=. cbssical.SS9. 622 23. 624~627 28.646.6; 1 52. 719 20,739,761, 764, 778.779. 790.8 12, 858. 874. 901. 902. 922. 96 1. 978. 992 cl..,,e,of opc,·a.655. 666. G77. 682 class1csofpopular uiusicaridj.au. 761. 874,922. 961- 62 Repm. llya. 710 Rtpo,.,, 801~<1. 981 /kp.,Ww, Plato, 11.12. 13- 1• , 159,984 .Kcqu1c.m, jjb, b46. 6~ 1. ·130, '(43, "J'l.'J ,. 'Jj:S, 989 lttqJtifm, Ugell, 953 R,·quic:m. 'l'akcmh~u. 955

lnd ex

A132

Requi011 Co1t1id.:11. S,r.winsl.-y. 83 1 flres~ue" Of)el':i, 488.5S2, 562,575

Rt~P"''-''· Reddwg. 9l6 respond. 57

ln dex

891. 892,899.930, 932,937, 95•1. 983-84, 988 -rhythmcl1:tnges.· 862,870,908 rhythm t.ettioo. 866

res ponsonal performance o( chant. 52. S5.

rh}>hm-,nd ·blucs, 759.9 10. 913. 915. 965

57-59. 88. 93 rcsponso,y, 5 1,57 59.65 Restor:nion. 369-10

M.rri1mic: Elcmtnu. Arisloxc:nui. 15

Lo, Handel. 456 Re,,cell«<s ,,.,,., Du Fay. 178.178. 198

Ricc. Thom.:as O:inmouth .675-76

n!SllfTl!ZU)rn!.

((tal,Jol'Wmac.ft', t:I.

F'a lla. 80'4

rc:tnms1tauu. 507 rctrogradt". 194. 820. 850,934 rc1rograde irweri;1on. 820 Rert't.7\><t11rdu pn.nloris, Lc Jcunc. 25? R~do1irm fr, rhc Courtlu.mse />ar¼. Pancb. 946

RcvcrbN:mon, 996, 998 99 Revere, 1>:1ui, 497 Rc,·olutionsof 1848. 679. 684. 698. 7S3 Révuellat. Sll\'C-5trc. 892 ""'·· 70(,. 772.859.861,866.879

Reyn:aud. Emile, 113

rh•psody, 729,825 1-U,optoJ_.,. u1 Bfo~. CéNbw,n. 898. 918, 965 Rhapsod..ron a Thl!mto/Pagcm,m.

Rat:hmamuorr. 7?9 Rhemgold, n.,, IV,gner, 687 n, 689. 69/ ,hctonç, 60, 147, 148. 158, 159,297, 298,337,340,440,457,472, 551-52 nl1horiqu,desdi(1J.r. l.o, Ciohier, 365 66 rh)'lhm. modc~or, ? 2. 9.t 97, 100. 106

rbydun :wd mclcr,$.:,gfsu iyu<;op:a1to1l inAfncanAmcncann\u&1c. 759. 775 in:1ncien1 Cret:knmsic, 13. 15. 19. 20

inArsNo,•o. 111.116-19. 111

;nArsSubnlior. 127 29 in &roque mm;ic;:, 302- 3. :iM- M,. 3(,8

Rscc3rdi. Oomenico. 513 Rict, t:dw:ird f;., 717 R1cc. Tun. 963 nccre3rc(nccre.ar), 265. 2ê9, 280 8 1,343. 34;1. 345,349-50, 381. 401. H 1 Ritl,.:inJ, Micl,el, .16.f Ru:hard J (-L1onhcar1-). l.augofEnglaud.

79. 107 ltichonJCoe1wde·lian. Gré1ry. 488 Rich;:,.rdso11, Samuel, 482 Ri<ord,, Clullo, 697,70 1 Ric:ordi publi.shingflrm. 430. 654 IUt'd~r. \l1HltehnAugu!l.598 R.icm3ml, llugo, 137 Ri~mi. Wagner. (,69. 68•1. (>85. 722 Rict, F'crdin.u,d, 575 R,g:aud. Hy:u'.'mdu., . 352

Rigot,no. Verdi, 697, 698-99. 717 R,hm. \Volígang. 1005 1üley. Ter,y. 967. 976. 981 Rmu;ky· Korsakov. N1kolay. 709 oomplerions of 01her co1np<1sers• worl-s,

709,7 10.7 13 1nflue11teoí. 791. 792. 801. 831. 832-33.

835 upemor. 682. 713-14 ord, c!l'Ll'llll mus,cof. 747 symphomc pocrns of. 7311 Rinaldo. l l:mde1. 452-S3 Ri,ag da Ntbdungt'tl. Der. \tlagnn. 682. 684--

Robcnson.AnneWahcrs, 183.184 Robin:son, Smok<'y, 9 16 Jlohm.JQn Cruto,, Oefoe.4 10 Roch.l.i.1:rg. C<'orge. 95S 56. 989 9 1

opern rn. 3 12. 32 1 ur:'llorio 1 11 , 336-37, 455-56

Ru&&1an A,;soeianon of Prolctanan MU$ic1an&.

oréht'stras m. 390 9 1

Rumo.n Easrer 0 1erflln-.

p,p,cy ;n, 27, 29-3 1. 153, 1n, 201, 296

rock.763.7?2.865.907.913 16. 919, 92 1-22. 915. 965. 992

publíshrng in. 163 flt:\Ctlt<.:C1U}J- C<.:tl1\ll)', 380

747 Russi.an music ninclecrnlt -t.-entury. 6,t9. 706-14. 740,

<:laasiéóll h) brids. 964 nununalism and. 978 museoms for. 961-62 mche markc1s. ?13-75. 992 SdHckcle•s use of. 986

rouddJus. 108

(Ckvel,nd). 96 1 62. 962 RockAmund,hrQock, llaley. 913

R.ooscveh. Fl'ilnkhn De.l;mo, 893 Rorc. Ci~rfaoodc. 153. 226_ 249-52.2S0.

137. 111 Rrw;nkMCJlil".r. Dtr, Sm,uss, 789. 956 Ruspig1io$i, CiuHo. &e Clcmenc IX. Pupe Rogsclh. O:intc Gabriel. 68 1

RogcN. Cinaer. 861, ,f61, 873

Ro,a:1. Uug-i. 323. 'J.31. 156

Jfol.J~'tr.&eJl1Q1,t•n. lkrry. 91•1

Rossi. S:abmone. 34 l-t2 Ro!ismi. C1oac1uno. 6$7-64. 658 b1oi;rophy or. 658 Chopin :tnd ,6 15, 668 chureh music of, 648

RollingS1on,cs, 1hc. 914 Roma mu.sic. Sec Jlomani (Gypsy) music Rornan Qi1bt)hc Chul'th. See alio churth rt\U~ICC'Oh'g't)f'k~

Ceei1i:rn m<>,•emem, 648. 735 E;u,tnn Cliurcb a<paratt'd from. 21

ln Eng1"nd, 223,226 111 founee nth çen tlUJ, 111

11 2

Fr:wcc. 290

;nhJtly. 290 in se\'enteemh cenml'y, 295-96 tn

sixtecnch ceruury. 16•1

8olg:iri:m ron,, 845. 846 in Buq,'U.ndum ch.:mson. 175 76. 178 ioehant.36 37

ripieni$1..$, 444 nplt"llO. 3 1)0

Rom.:,n t:mp:ire, 4

in disco. 973

ripre... 133

in eigh1etn1h-«utury music, 509. S I) .

Rip l'an W'inlde. 8ristow. 675

111s1rwnetns 111, 19 20 mui;ie in, 19--20 p.ar111iot\ uf. 25. 27 rom:rncc. 315. 494,593.693 flomonct of •ht Rost. 82 roman,,ro, 2 75. 329 Romanc:~ue a rchileclure. 84 Rom:i.m. Fcliçc, 664 Kon-.ni ((;i,,.y) mus,c, 611, 70S, 724, 72S. 799,869.878, 986

Riso1o'Í,nc1110, 656. 680. 69S. 876

ln uu:dícv~l darice uu.1Sk. 82 S3 in m1ddk -rn -lalç e1gh1ecmh ~«ntury m11 51c,

'173, 484

in rninim:ilist mus:1c, 917 78 lo M 111t1el1cder. 79 in n incteemh -cemury mus ic.6 16. (;22.

726.129. 719 m Rcnn1ss-an« dance mus1c. 270 in rhythm-:ind-blues. 913 nab:uo. 616

,n.,,J.,, 916 in 6C\'Cll1Ctmh cennn')' frçnc.h opero.

359.361 in $Íineeruh -e~mury ~>olypbouy. 23-3 ~labn..•m,. óHH 8Y in rronb.1dour :ind rroovêre songs, ?7 1n twcntic1h-ccn1uty music. 826. 830.

833 34.837. 839. 843.845.8.S0.886.

R1sse1 .Je.an~Cl:mde. 970. 982 rire. 2 7 Rue u/Spnng. Th,_ Stro,•msky_ 83 1. 832. 833.

833 34 ntomello, 132,3 14 ,318 in church music:, 4-45 m d3 c:1po :m:t. 38 1. 483 in cighrccmh ccnmry cone<'nos. 5 15 16.

S18-49 po1S$ac.J.glia,s as. 3 48--19 11'1 vocal (ham.~r music. 329 rirornello form,391, ,t J()- 17, 419, •t21 - 22.

435. 439. 442.5 15-16.S/6. 548-49. 882 n«,modºUJ~e. ll, Mon1evcrd1. 316,319 Rivcr.:i, Die!(o, 857.89 1,891 Ko:1ch. i\1:tx, YOY

Rós, S;gur, 967 Rose.!a:.pnn-lemps. w!rtluft'. M3cb:wt.126 27.

Rodngo, lhudd. 451 Rocrich. Nil.olai,833 Roger, E.:s1ienne. 388

iu l11irtce'l:1tl1cemuty.84 JiomondtFam•d. 11 3.114.1 19

526

reudo form, 508. 531. 550. 738, 825

282

85. 687 92.885 Kinuccini, Ouavio, 308-9, 312

in f'r:inco-flem1sh music, 190. 227 m 1sorhythm1c motc1s. 121

Rom~o !I }t,lime. Counod. 704

~bo roçk Rock sud Roll H:iJI of F.ime :md Museum

963

Christi:anity 111. 22-23

Roui.ama. 90~

Ronum1ic;, l\omamicism. -t76.559. 569- 70,

581-85. 586. 593- 96. 622-23. 624 25. 651 52. 67 1.685 86. 767, 779. 780. 873.Sttofso nine1eenlh-

centmy music: spe<,ific compo$.:rs. gtn~s. and ropia Rombcrg.Signwod. SS<J. 873 Rornboltls, Thçodoor.JOO Kome

Robbins. Jerome, ~18. 918 iwbm J, diob/e, Mcycrbccr. 61,7, 666

cht,rch mnsic in, 30 31,230,333.343

Robcrtsbrldgc CoJe,, 138. 266

cigh1ecn1h -ccn1ury. 411. 413. -15 l

83ro4uc. 291

t¾•tnueth -cennuy, 799-802. 983. 985

Rus..,lo. Lu;g,, 809-11

Ron1toe,}11l1eue. Ber1ioi. 633. 635

rockond roll. 903. 911. 913- J.I , 919. Se,

Rodeo, C<>pland. 899 Rodgers. Rich>rd, 773. 917. 918. 922,962,

RlrnsL:y~KrJra.:1\::r,v.

7H 47

vocal ch;.mbcr mus1c 1n, 381- 82 ~nito o.nd J1,Jin, J)r4)kQf1cv, 886. 887. 901 RcmKoundJuJ1e1. Sb.:ikespeare. 567. 9 18

roudeou, 78. 125. 126.175./76. 190. 368

RocMinJg, H.1nJd • .f53

886

l.u Oucnccof.63 1. 697. 837

opcmoí,657 64.666.667.674,682 J.ccnc i;1n11:1urcsof. 658-S?. 699-70 "'"· 108. 198

Saac,3ho, Kaip, 982, 1004, 1001, 1006 Sad1". Han,. 259.692 sa.ckhtu,26.S, 267, 2(,7, 282 Sut•J'(h",!•p•lµ,11H11oe, Cab1'1eli. 28•1 S3cra,i. Fr.rnccsco. 324 25 5ac.r~d cont'Crto. 30 l . 333.-35. 397

13rge-,calc. 333. 337 40, 362 small-s<ale. 333- 31, 337. 339 Sacml Harp, Th,, 649. 652 Sgc.fNStJl'ltt. Milhaud. 879

Sodko. l\imsky· Ko,·sakov, 713 14. 7U saga, F.ri, Sihclim;. 806 Sógi,,t mir, u.u / «~lcJ1t1m Pfóde, Sd,ocnberg. 8H•- l 7 . SJ7

S,. Cecili:i Soe1e1y (Ch:,rleswn), •166 s,.Eri.iaberl,. Us1.t. 733 Saio, Fn:i,1cLSo/Asst.S1. Mes.sla.rn. 930 John Powon, &eh. •146, 646

s,.

$1. l,ukf Pt1$.$t01t, Pen(ierecki, 951 St. Mark'e C:uhcdr:11(V~n,cc).282. 282 84.

316,3 19.333, 347 St. Mnn;,I.Abheyof(l,imogcs), 89 S1, Muu/,.,. />o,siun. B,cl,. H6. 448. 46 1. 6•16,

ro1aL1onal form. 807 Ro1hko. M.ark. 943 Roubiliac. l..oms· François. 460 rouoded binary form, 505 6. 524

1005 S,. Paul. Meudelssohn. 616

Housc. Chrii;tophcr. 964. 987 Roussc:m, Je.2n-J:1cqt1es, 426. 464, 485- 86 row. 820_ 823. 827. 934_ 931

Sr. Pctc~b1.irg, "78 S,. Pcttrsbu,gC-O~eiv,iory. 707. 708. 713.

St. Pett!r'.i; Squ:trl! :ind lb.siliC.'.1 (V:i1ic:in). 295,

295- 96. 333

887

1\owhindsoo. 11wmas, 466

51. Petu&burg- Plulll:mnou1c Society. 625

Roy.ai Acadcmy of Music (l,ondon). •153, 4S4-55. 486 Roy3I College of Mus1c, London, 928 RO)Tlf'dtc,tl, Compêre, 162 Ró,.,, Miklós, 91? rubatu. 616 Hubmstcm, Anton, (128. 707. 708 lh,birt.slcin, Nikoh,y, 707 Ruckcrt. Fr,ednc.h. 786 Rnekp-0si1iv. 398. 399 Rudcl. Jnufrê. 1004 Rudulpb. Ard,duke. 568. 583, 996 rugg,cro. 275. 329

S,. Thomas Se hool (Le;png). 437 38. 438 Sain1-Georges.Joseph Bologne. Chevalier de. 515.518 Sa,nt -Safn,. Cam1lle, 658. 704. 734. 743. 773. 190. 877 Sakad3s of Arsoi. 12 S3kamo10. Ryuich1, 963 64 Sala.khov, Tair, 888 S:1lieri, Anron io. 56'4, 598, 6 l9

RuJe oJSr &'11tdi~. 5 1 ltus.oJka. Dvoi-ál.:. 7 15

Ru.slan gnd Lrudnufo. Chula. 673 R.ui poli, Fr.i~cesco. 45 1 Rui;sin.St:4: olso Russ1an mus1c:: So,•1c1 Un1on e1gh1eco1h-ec:n1ury, 409, 463 n311onahsm m, ó.:>:,. b/3 "1. b80. 11. 1 nine1een1h· cenmry. 680 fü:,·ol1111on an. 799. 836. 856

a-t"rfdom abolishtd m. 679. 706

Salom~. Strauss. 787 89. 788 Salomo, Rli.s. 87 Salonwn. Johann Pdcr. S23. 533

So/6,i M<,iro, EI. C.,planJ, 899 salsa, 903. 9 16 S>ltorello, 272, 635 sahul duriusc-ulus. 340. 340 Saliburg. 337. 396. 539-42, 543 S,bburg C01h<dml. 396 S:.m mar1irn,C1ov.1n n1 R:11h5l.1, 491, 5 13,513, ,') J~.!>31.!>42:

samplrng, l•I1. no. 974. 997. 1009 Sams. Jcremy. 1001- 5.1006 Sgm.Scm d Dalila, S.1in1·S.atnis. 704

A133

S.,n franciaco. 674 San Pctn;mio, Chtu~h of (Bologna). 384. 391 S.inhorn, D:i.,'ld, 965

San<tus. •19.50.59. 18 1. 184 S.nd, Ccorge.615 S.ndburg. Carl, 896 S.,or'A!,ssi<>, l.,11d;,321 Sanhago de Compostela. catbcdraJ of. 89 S.1mo Domingo de Silos, l:lenedictine mon.:t.SICI)' o(. 66

&ppbo.597 ,.,abandc. 3/,6, .167. 368, lH. 377. •103, '1<10, 45'1.555, 727 Sargcnl. JohnSingcr.68 1. 743

S.nre,Jc,n P•ul. 901 $.tmm ricc. 167~8 &,;e, Erlk. 658. 808-9. 8S7. 924 ,nfluenoe of. 878. 943 1a11; 2nd ragi11ne tle1t1e111S used by. 111 Sa1unla1Nigh1 r~~'f'r(fllm). 973 S.1Jt1gro/iu. GI.... 979

&mdud,.do Bro,il Milh,ud. 879,879 S.uJ. Handd, !S6. 457. 458 Saul. tt<aR•"-'ifolgçJ du mit.'h. Sçhütit. 339 40.

310

SavJ:t.gc. l le.1rhcr de. 137 S.uu\Jolphc, 591 s.x•••. 28 wcophon«, 591 . 869. 879 Say Ir /,qud- l'm Block ond l'm Pro1ul, 8r1Jwn, 916 &e-,1lcs. 15.SuoJw ocrnronic scalC' and

collcçturn: pcnl:uonic sc.nlc aud eullcc1io11; ~-lu>lc - h.me JK::lle ::itad c-olle<.1uJU m :mcicnr musie, 8. 13, 1(,- 17 IU IWCUllt'tb-ccnlUI)' mu.sic. 946 &aodiúavla. 740. &e o.lsú Firluisb music; Norwegian music $(.:irl.:mi, Aless3ndro. 381, 508 t:1111ausof. 381-83. 409.452

operas or. 380, 411 12, 454 Sc:.irlaui, l>omcnict1, 509

tnfü1ence of. 880 kcyboard musico(, SOS. S0S--9.510. 804,

810 quar:alion.s Cmm, 956 rt't:C'plion ur, 518 f-C;ll smging.

8G?

Sth:1effer. P1('rrc, 947 Sch:tíer. R.. Murr:iy. 983. 984 Sehcibc. Júha1inAdolpb. 449

S,heid1, S,mucl.346, 348. 397,401 Scl1ein, Joli:um Hermano. 337. 319. 397

Scl1eru, W~hhcr. -103 St#1("ru m~,slooh. Mo111cvt"rdl. 33 1

,cher1.o. 535. 617. 642. 825,888 Sd,cno: All ,h.: lf1uxA1vund g,id &d,. Jves. 8-19.

849 50 Schtrw fantgs,1que. S1ravm$ky, 83 1 .SChiekt•lc:, l'eter, IJ1S6

Sdueh.•. Egun. 818

Schiller. 11, ;cdrich "º"· 584,655.663. 696 5<:hlegcl, r,íedrkh, 5?3-?•I. 602

A134

lnd ex

Schht:.ssrn.ann. Hans, 782, 78.1 Scl1micdcr. Wo1íg;iog, 436 Schrrutt. Flort'nt. 77'1. 83,t . 920 Schneider. Mi ria, 996 Schnitgcr. Arp. 398. 399

S•hniuke. Alln:d. 967. 985 Sehob('r1, Johann. 54 1. 543 S•ho<nb<rg. Arnold. 808.8 12. 813-24. 81-1, 8U. 884 >8'n181.8 14.819 :nonal mu$iço(. 8 15-20. ? .. 5

B,u:b'a iuíluencc ou, 461 band music of. 920

biog,·aphyof. 814 compoSittun.11 tcchmques or. 728 emigmion of. 856. 892. 926

onllucn« of. 828. 83 1. 84 1,885.893, ?26, 933-34, 936,940,953,954, 9117. 990 h-esand.853

Uederof, 604 Mahler'sinfluenccc,n. 783. 787

as moderni11,t, 824 recepiionof.839 ion,i.1W(H•kc of. 813-J.1. 82J

1wd\'c•tonc work.s or. 820-23. 837. 857 Scboc::nhtrg. MaduJde. 81?

S•holo Canion,m, 29,877.893 SchofaCanlonun (Pans), 742

scholoroh;p, music, 461, 468, 476. 720. 725, 828,840, 841 - 42, 876 Scholasricism, 84 85. 97.1 48 Schonhcrg, Claudc:-Michc:I, 963 ichc:;n.: Mülltrin, 0.t, Scl1ub<:rt, 597 Sebop<"nha.uer. Arthur, 692 93 $chbpfimg. Du•. ll aydn.Sea-Cn•nrfon. Th~. Haydn Schttberr, FrJ,u..598, 599 hio1,rr.1phy of. 598 8 r:1h1n.s'.s ed hion.of, 725 c:hambcr mustc:of. 640 -41. 6S1. 956 cho1·al mus1cor. 649 complc1ework$edi1ion. 720

inílu,n« .r.707. 715. 783.848. 990 L,cdcr of, 597- 601. 600- 61)1. 621, 622. 729. 730. 757 ln:l!i$C.'iOÍ, (,<18

orches1ral uiusic o(, 629-30. 638. 639 pnr160Dl,'6 of. 647-48

piano musie oí, 606-7

Sc:humann's :.dv1Jc::.L7 or, 602 s1ylesyud1esu1of. 724 symphonics or. t,5 1 Schulu!rtiads. 597. 599

Schullcr. Cumhcr, 954 Schoman, Willi~m. 920 Sclmm:mn. Cbra Wicek. 603. 612- 13

bw1r,apby or, 602-3 8rnhm,s and, 725

dia,yof. 63a L,cder or, 603- 4 a.8 pa:uu1>1. :>'t'I.. 60Z -J pi:rno music of, 606,611 planotnoof.643 r<:c(ption QÍ, 623

ln dex

Schuman n. Roben. 592.. 593. 60.1 R.ieh-Cc.cllsd1.1Ít :and, 461 bwgr:aphy

or. 602

6rah1ns:md. 725 l\rahms·s edition of, 725 diambcr rnusic uf. 642 cQmJJlete works ed1t1on. 720 a, criuc, 5%. 632

influcnceof.643. 707,709,783 L,ede,ol.602-3, 622,730 on::hee,rr.il mosieof. 638 39. 750

or.

parli,ongi, 618 p1:lr\o nlu,Sit; or, 606. 608 11 uu Schul>ert's C~ma1on;ympbo11y, 630.

631 :symphooies

ar. 651. 726

Sch017, llcinrich. 220.337-41. 338 b,ograpby of, 333 complere worb edition. 720 mflueuteof.121. 730 :an<l Lassus, 239 l'a55iorn; of. 341. -t-tl>

n::<:cpliou or. 350

rh<ihirie::al r,gunit ut.ed by. 4.dO s.,cred concenos of, 339-40. 347. 362. 397 Schut7.. K.,rl. 520 Scl1wá11engeM1111. Schuht:ri,598

Schwnntner. Joseph, 921 Schwind, Mori1'l von, 59? 1um:nee, Si!t! o.lsu 1.cchnology audet\1 Creck. 13 in cigh,etnih ccntury. '423. 463. 469 m four1cc:u1h c:cntury, l J I, 11 3

M,ddlc Ages. 70 sert:.I music.ind, 926 in $C\'cn1een1h ceniury. 289-90. 297

Srol.ca t't1d1111ad!4. 39.85 soord:m1rn, 403

s-eore nornrlon. !.10, 104. 344, 34S. 3-16 Seo1ch $n:1p. 484. S11. 643 Seo1l:,nd Cah'lnism in, 220 cig:luccn1h-ccn1my, 409. 4(,6 Scolt. Sir W•her. 655. 665. 716 Scoirith Sympbony. Mendrlssohn, 635,65 1 Scri,bin,Alex,nder, 780. 796. 799.801, 801-2.808 rnfluence or. 852. 853,886.890 Scribe. liugene, 668,669. 701 Kripcc,rium, 33 Scrow:gni Cbapêl ( P3du.a). l 12

Scuhhorpe. Pc1cr. 966 Sro.,ons. 1h<. llaydn, 409, 528. Sl8. 537 Sn:cmd Buuk.:u/A,m:.s. Ouwlaud, 262 Second /111m'ca1u!. The. Copl3nd, 899 second pr;ic1ice (se,co11do pro.ric(I), 290, 2?7- 300 Secood Valtcan Counc1I. 66 Sccond V1cnnc&c School, 82•1 Se<'ger,Ch=irles, 896 ~cc:gc.r, r eu~. 'J I~ Seeger. K111h Crawford. 893. 896, 896-97. 902. 915. 933 <cguidill,. 705

SeikJos. F.p11opl, of. 18. 18 19 S<lafau:,aypok. Du Pay, 178-79.179, 182, 184,198 Self Pc,rtruH w1Úl Rnd1 at1d JW-q (and Chopm t.s olso:rhi'll), l.ige1i, 981

lt.ahan isubjc:cl8 of. 260 Mc.ndds.$4Jho $ i11cide,11:il 111u~ic, 608. 637 tnUSIC m pfays of. 308 operJric :.td~p1:uions <>Ípl:iys by, 372. 696.

semi-opera. 372. 378

pbysid:a1.11cd ::as musicais. 917. 918

$emibm·c. 104, (06.1 17.11 9. 128.131. 162

play•of. 292.567, 632. 633

70 1

-tih:ik11h:1chi. 955

scnufusa. 117

semiminims. 11 7. 162

ShaJl WeDo11et!?Cítlm), 873

~t1mumidtt. Rossini. 658 Stueé"a ralis Co t)\'('tlllOll, 680 Scne6mo, 453. 1l54 ~eql•c:n«. 111 11rg1cal, •I 8, 6 1- 63.Se,·ul.$<1 D,e$

ShanYr. l\av,. 978

IIYJI?:

s,aoo, Maltr

Aq'lmanian s<:rrillb,'1. 89 Church·~ climimuion oí. 228

oíHIIJeg>rd. 64. 65 s<qucn<c....,,...,,..1.386. 389,41 9,439 &qu,n:• li', 8erlo, 936-37. 937 seren:.dc:. 5 17. 5-48. 724 .erenata. 382. -113. 421. 445

Sgr Pcppec', /'..onelyllco,,.a,,~nond (l\c31lee .ilbum), 91'1 aciri!ll mu~ic. 763. 780. 839. 88S. 924 ,926, 933-36. 938. 939. 955. 957. 98 1, 985,

1002, 1006. 1007 sed es. 820.S."Caf.so row

Strm,sy. Cb·udrn de. 25? 58 $lM:t padrona. La.

Pergoles1, il75, 480-8 1,

481. 485,498 Servic..Anghc•n. 213. 224. 240.372. 496 Scss;uos. l\ogcr. 926 27 6C1. Sce piu:.h.-c.lass $CI Sc:1tlc, E:lhu;ih, 369 &~·en Clwnu'fer Pu•i:es. >.tc:oddssuhn, 607 &~"" W$r ll'onLsofCl11is1, Th,·. Schon, 341 &~l!tt Magmfica,A11t1phm1s. r àn. 983. 988. ?88 & ~ier1 Tur,es 1:leúld "'i Chi,ia,. Sb<:ng. 968 Scvcn Ycars· Wnr, 409. '463 se,·emeen,h eenwry. 287--405. s~ olso Bamquc: chu.rd1 a,ld aacn:d Hlusic. 332 42. 362 63.

371,. 383-84. 396-103 c:oluni.1J Amtrica. 373-17 EngUsh m,uslc. 368 73

Eu.-op< ;n, 289-91 French mus1e m. 352-63 Gnm.an mu:sic in, 393-105 instrumcnrnl music. 342 50. 363 68, 376-77, 334-91, 397-403 lt:.li:ln mm~ic in. 379- 92 uew g1yle8 in. 288-306 opera Jind it~ íorcnmncrs. 307 -27, 356

62. 370-72. 375. 380-81. 395 Sp;inish n1usic n"I. 373 77 1b('atrital mus ie.369-72 \'Oc:il chimber mus ic. 328-32. 362. 37576. 381-82, 396 Sex PiS1ols., he. 973 Seymour, Jane. 223

,gh;1pe · no1c s inging. 61 )- 50 Sl1.a.rp. Cccil. 804 slrnwm. 8 1. 81.131. 136.265. 267. 355 shee1mu.s,c.593. 675. 358,859.863 Shditro.zadt. Rim$ky-Korsakov. ?'17 Shrng. Bnglu, 968. 968,984, 1008 Shcrba, John, 967 Shinong. llo, (Mm), 854 Sltore. Howard. 972 Shor, Jbdt 111 a fo4i i\Jadw~t. Adao.1s. 980 Shos111l:ovieh. Omitri. 887- 89.888. 927. 1

957. %7 r«<pHon of. 888. 901. 957 ShOtQ Boor.

K.eoro lu\d l hr:t.\m~t'i:l('>U\. 860.

860,917 Shroud orTunn. 182. 184.181. 186 S•b• hus,Jean, 73•1. 780.806. 806 8.850 n:-cep11on ur, 811, 8S·t sidc dn 1ms, 267 Si'!/lntd. Waguo,. 687 92 siglu ,ginbring, 43, 45 Sigi.l:imund. kingoíHung.ary•, 180 Sigisruuod 11 Aug\1St, lr.ing of Pulaod, 236- 37 S1gr.\ol. Emile. 633 Sill,.-:rm:tnn, Cor1fried. 398

s~1~..-.rílppl4'-s o/rl111' Moem. Sulwtmck. 949 Siktr wddm. Towc,·. 989 Simon. Paul.%() Simon Boc,on,gro, Ver<f;, 696. 699 sunple bu1.:uy form, 50ia sunplc rccnauvc. 453, 457,48 1. 483 Sina1ra. Fr;mk.858

,iufo uia, 314, 321.343. 42 1. •154, 503. 5 12. 513- 14 Sin/on,o, Berlo, 956 S1t1funia mdm, Chi,•ez, 892 S tt1JMl0 r'(lfll(ltlht-0.

CM,\'C:7.. 892

Smfomma, J1mâtck. 806

Sirigjo_rfi,Uyun,q (Ãxl, Syrd. 225 il1..ngmg inslruehon, 304. 699 Giu&tir,g SclJOOIS. 496 s ;ng,picl. 433. 489- 90, 670 of Moxan. 510. 543. 552. 556 S1r(,ies. Debussy, 795 sirnr, 91 4, 915 Six, l.cs. 878 Si.r Ftmta&td CHI aPótrn. ~r11tomus Compum. l., nsky. 970 64 Cuppr.-rSqua«s, Andrc, 975 Sk,•Jtl1f.'$<J/Spam (D:r.v1.S;'11l,um) , 909

$")'$ librosd,l IJ,lphm. l,01, N:u-v:ic,:. 27~

.sfduer-. Gncg. HY

Síur.i:a Í3uuJy. 153. 201

Slcmghreroj,hf lnno«111$, The. 6'I sbve,y. 2?0.371. 679. 759

Slrnke,pc>ec, W;Jliam. 13.161, 737. 955. 1005

Sl<wo11k Do,1«s. D\•ofik. 748

$l«ping Beout7, 1h~. Tchaikovsky, 707

S.Chubcn'a nse of, 607

islow·- 11·11,vcnu:nt 1SQm1l:r. fnrrn, 507- 8, 511 ,

Stnvinsky'.s ugç uí. 837

531 su1all sacrcd e-0ucerto, 333- 34 . &ti al.so s:icrcd eonccrro

Smollralk, lon,•ky. 970 sm.at1phone&. 995 Sm.dúúkcTtt'TI &>ory, 2M:iny0Js. l000 Sm~lls úJ:-e T,w11Spi.rit. Nirv;ina, 973 Sme1:m:t. Bt-:di'J<:h oper.,eof. ? 15, 718,747.748 n:ccphon t>f. 76 1 syu,r•honic 1>oe11u of, 734. 747- 48,850 Sm1dt. 8eu1c. 863. 863. 871' Smuh, ~bmie. 863 Smid1sun. H;uriel. 630. 632 Smnh&0nhan Jazi Orcl1csrra. 96 1

Smokcy llob11'l&0n and the M1ratles, 916 ,moo1hj:au, ~65 Smylb. Etbe1. 715 Snow lf?uteorid dte&1,,er1 Owarfs (f1l1n}. 874 50Cfal ncrworking. 998 suci:.lism, 399 IW-C1~lu:,t ni::ahQrn. 886. 888

Sociéré N;uiorn1le de Musique, 741-42. 743 S,mety ror Priv.a1c Musical Perfonnances

(Vlen u,). 8 14 Socu:ry of k•us. Stt Je-6.tnt6 Socieryof the. F'r1endsofMus1c (V1enn:i),

625 So<·,,,i,.S.uie. 809,943 Sogno, 11. Co.,<llo. 963 Sair. L.r. ~ympbuny, H~ydn.532 Solc11mcs. Bcncdictinc 3bbey oí. 37. 38, 51 Sohdaritymo..•cmen1. 959,989

'" symphonies. 513,528-29, 531,571 , 630,632,784.888. 900. 92 1 in rweh·c 1o nc works. 823 Sonata pian · eforhi, C.abricli. 284 Sor1uta W ,xril \'ifJli110- pttSOt14'tCOrl d~eç-.,,dc. Marim. 341.348

son:it:i·rondo. 53 1,550.567 Sonataiand l111ulud1!$. Clge. ?40 Sonare patl1êr,q1,e. Bee1hO\'el\. 566- 67

Sondhenn. Slcphen. 918. 962 -50 fl g', &colsu $rc1Jir:grr1rcs

Afril'.'.an Amc:rie.an. 748 4<J

Americ.nan. 755. 847. 848,852, 92.7 Amcric•m popula r. 757-59. 76(>. 77?, 850,

859-62. 868.870. 911-12. 915 Enb~;•ho, Brillsh. 79. 260. 494. 596. 604-5. 772 Fcench, 73-79, 124-29,362, 494 , 743, 796. 798-?9 Gennon, 79. 218,259.396. 494,576 ,578. 596-60•!, 685, 729-30. 736-3?, 733. 816,819 20.828($..,,ul.1,;o Li-0d e r)

h>hao. 80. 130-35, ZH. 328-29, 413

medieval l..ilrin, 70-71 mcdic:v.il \ 'é macular. 70-80. 83. 385. 915 mlnS1~I. 676. 759, 852 parlor, 596, G04- G. 622. 847 Ren:11ss.1nce \'em:icul:tr, 161

Ru.s.stan. 7116 Sp:mish. 243 44, 329.375 76, 705. 804 Mrngc)'c:lc. 5?K

,,rB:.irbcr, 927 OÍ Bctdtu\'Cll, 591

solmb;ation.•U -4-". 44, .. 251. 649. ?79 soluconccrtoM 391 . 11 6.&-eobo cuocertu Soloepensoso. ~farcm:10, 254 solo madrig:tl. 3 11 sombl'l'ro dr. ,res pkos. EJ. F:11b. 804 Sumtr&t'l RJwpsody. Holsc. 804

ofCn11nb, 9'16 or Mahle,. 786-87 uf Musorgsky. 746 of S<ho<nberg. 8 19- 20 of~huben, 597-601

son,na, 265. 343. 408.&e(USo piano sonarn: trio sonaca: "iolin sona1a

or S1nlV1t\8ky. 839

oi De~ussy. 792 t1ghttenrh-centutJ, 413,421,422. 4'12.

459. 4 72-74, 503. 506-12.517,524 enist:mhl«-. 343 oílloydn. 536 of l l mde miih, 88-4 of Mo,•n, 541, 545-41.546 of PouJcne, 901

C('nnuy. 305. 347. 379. 384, 386-89, 403-1 solo.392 SC\'CnlCCnth

Vcnchan. 28-4 . 285 son.i1a d;i camer.) (chimber son:11:1), 3{M. 386

ofCordli. 387~8 so,1:ir:• da chiesa (clmrch sou:.13), 384. 384.

38(,. 460. 512 son;rl:a forrn, •199, 5 06--7,$16. 517, 813, 84~ ln conce1·co Ftr" tn0\'tmen1s. 548-'19

in opera, 825 illO\'C r1Ul"Cl,

637

A135

oí C, and R. ScllUm:ann. 602-4

S.ngof//emadr.rt<. 7~d~lm), 871

S,mgo/Roland, 71 S.n5 ofrhe N,b<l••,gs, 71 Sorigso11dDot1oosofDoo:II,. Musorgsky. 1•16

Songs o/S.,o ond Sky, S.:uhhorp<, 968 Scmgs wir}wui Worck 1lt'ndd$:suhn.Su lie<ler ohrn: Wone. Mcndcluohn &>Momtiul.o, IA, Belhni, 66'1 í!Qnonry. SN tcxturc Suruag. Hcnricll:t. 660 Sony. 769 Sophfa1ica1cd LüJy, E11iug1on. 870 Sophoclcs. 9. 307. 309 10,789 s-0pl'ano. 182

,ospiro, Un. Us,1. 618-21,620 ..iul. 916. 965 S-Ound mas.,cs, 893 95. 950 51. 953 Sotmd of M«scc, 1111:. Rodg<-rs aod H21nmers1ein. ~ l 7 S-Ouud rccurdUlgsaud rcproduct1un. 764.

7G6. 768 69. 771. 774,81 1, 855. 857-58. 87'1

lnd ex

A136

sound n:çordings ;ind rcpn)duction (continueâ)

ofbluc<andpzr.. 777. 863,865 66_ 872. 907. 96 1 cmnpn:ssion. 9?7. 999 ofcou1lt1ymusic. 912 CO\'(r-$. 9 13

digira l rechnologiu, 969

f1dd c,cordmg,.841, 841-•12. 865 oífi.lm nl USIC. 972 1.Ps and &inglei;. 906 oí popular mus:ic. 9l l of ragtunc. 775

ofroekmusie. 914. 915 uhiqu11y of. 960 SowidCluud, 996. 998-99

ln dex

I loffmann on thc mo6t romant1carl, 595 Hog.irtll un v:i.lue oí .im;ateur ch9irs, 644

colon,es of. 145, 235 36. 240. 290 9 1. 331,35 1,368. 371-75. 496. 766

Slcmhold.11,omas. 222 ~tile :.n11co, 233, 333. 350,383 8,t, 448,

JvesonAmer1c:rn18m ut mu!lic, 85 1 Jacques de Llt-ge ou Ars No"ª· I IS Junkcr(ln lke1hovcn'5 plnying;md impro,·isiug.i1tbc pi.no. 566 L<: Fr.1.nc on chc co,uen:inct anglo1sc. 166 Luther on oongreg.a11onal .s1nb'lng. 216 i\l;,c Don.aid on :i golden :igc fo r cb$s1c.1I mus:1c. 1003 Marah on 1'3ydn 's rceipe fo r succcss. 52,t Mendclssohn on thc meamng <IÍ mus1e,

eigh1eenih·cen1ury, 462-6.~ utl'die,,~J. 69

,s1ile concit.;uo, 3 19. 329. 336

609 Mulutcl ín u1cmu1')' of Ockeghcm, 195 Montc\·crdi on his seoond prac1icc Sl)'lc,

source m,1sic. 872

299 Motullohi '$ dcscl'i1.11ion oíN.tec íc:s1inls. 235

sourcc readings

Moun'g depietiQn of eh:ar:tc1er :tnd mood .

SoundJ,"llrdcn, 973

Atirou oü a ocw lt,u,.nor>íc cooécptiuo. 156 Anonymons IV cm 1hc ,\l<rgnui l.ilwrOrgrmi.

91 Arislotlcon J octrioe-0f im it.:11ion.14 Ar1 uc1 on Mo,1tt•\'erd 1'i: i:f:"OOud p r,:c1té~

Style. 299 Augu.s11nc on usefulnes:saud dau gcr.sof mus1c. 26 Bahbitt on composition as rcscarch, 926

B:.ich on music in Lmher!ln chureh Sen,.lt'C~. 441 Rttnólton J>CJSJlll musicand moden1 music. 842

s..sil 01) ps.alms. 26

83ttC\IX on na1ure 311d 1hc a.rt&, 470 Retrho\·en'.s lleiligen.s1:td1 'rest:imern. 570 8occ:tccioon mu.sic· m:tking.130

8t'OMCS on cooccrts a1 Pio Ospcdale ddla P1c-tà. 416 8urke on 1he sublime !lnd d,e be:nuiful, 539 C3ge on music ut dw pré-8~nt momcnt.911 CaJvrn ons1ng1ng psalms. 'l"l'I, Castiglione on rç.adingand períorm ing UlUSIC,

243

400. 27 Cui on 1hc M1ghty fivc. 709 d~11t11ig dé$l'l'tbed ui Rmnano:o/rl,t ROk. 82 Ocbu66y on tradthon and mnQ\'aho n. 79• Dd T~Jic:i on r-c.aching .in .im.lic:ncc, 991 Ocsc:ines de Vt:memilfe on powe.r of illGui.1111cLH:il musie. 278 Ovofál:- :.md Painc (ln J-\mcric;;m n.11t innal mui;.ic. 750-51 Frtnch wri1c.-s on nal\1~ ~nJ c,rpre.ssion.

361 Freseob:.ldi on instnun ent.1l expression.

346 Ciuat1ni3ni on womcn's \'Ocal ensembles.

254 lla1lshcl. and

LiM:i

~)n :.b~lulc \ º$. J)rogr.:un

UIUS!('. (J I

Hor·ínrnnn on períonncr's suho rd inatc r1Jle l(l(;QII\J.lóitr. 580

Spaldrng. Esp<'ra1i,1s, 1001 S1Hinish Civil Wir. 856. 892 Spam.sh lnqLUSillon. 233 Spanish mus1e

Bar• que.329, 348. 351. 375-77 e1gl1tc,:n1l1-çcntl1ry, 508-9. 510 mcdie,1:1I. 80

1.1mtltc:n1 h- centuJ'y. 715 Ren.ii5,s.11nce. 231. 2-13-·H. 263 Jicvcutecntl1-ceutury. 3?3-17 ""'cnticth -«mury. 802. 804 Sp~nísh-An, ertt3n War, 766

speci•s. 11, l i . 17, 19.4 1--42,43 sp.e1 ,alism. 982, 984, 1004. 1006. 1007

s p.llfa l m1ü>ic. 763. 893- 95. ?48. 950. S,e also au11pltón:tl mui1c

s11le moderno. 333 s1ile reeito11ivo. S« reci1.a1h·c &tylc S1ill, William Cra,u, 893. 900-901. 901

Srimint:mseh.

s~ V'>ioe exch~rnge

S11rling. Elh:abd.h. 6<t8 S,ockhausen. Karlheln,. 895. 925. 930. 935. 946 dc:t:lrUIUé UlU$1(: UÍ, 948, 956 l.ndc1crminacym works oí, 944 i11nueneeof. 982

opera.sof. 981

..,rlal ••ork:s or. 934-35, 936 Stollcn, 79 Stollcr, Mike, 913 STOAIP. 957. 97 1. 972 S101lcAge utstnunt"Ul~. 5 tuops. orgnn. 1:.Ja Str.:adella. Alcssandro. 382. 390 S11•:idiv:iri. Antonio. 384. 385 75 7

Nol.kér- B:1lUuJuí1 un wnttns t:equí:né~II, 62

S~culum mutil:!011, J:1cc11uu1 do liig.i,. 115

1Hr!u1lC,

On. Cl,re:mus. 3;nd 8a1•1oli on Jo.squa n, 203

Spt>et.h Songt. Oqdgc. 970

S1r:is.sburg. Courned \•on. 693

Paris Minstrd,;' Cui1d. 73 Perl'$ n:c11ath·e .s1yk 3 13 Pn;wda on Shosrn.kovtch, 889 principies oí reform oper:i., 493 Prusd\leimo deº Bddom:utd1 on mus ica

Sp,llbo11•d (ftlm). 946 S~m in aLmrn. Ta.Ub. 281 Specncr. Cbris1oph, 338 w. lfayd•. 536 spirim>I. 749. 759- 60. 772,898,900 Spohr. Loms. 626 Spo1Hon1, Casparo, 492. 63 1 Spotify. 998

S1rauss. Johanu. Lheddcr. 625. 652 Straus.s, Johtlnn, thcyoungcr. 7 16. 723. 72J.

f1c1•. 139 Qwm17 and Chabanon o n mcrging n:J.tional

slyle,. 461 Rou.!lscau on menta .,f lt.:iHan opcn, 485 Ru.l:i,80l0 0111he an of nu ises, 8 1O

Scheibe'1: critique or Bach's ,1yle. ,M9 Stboeubergou new mus1caud tr.a.djtÍOn.

815 ~humann on Sthuberfs C-major

sympho•y. 631 Schütiou eNect& ófThmy Yurt·W:sr.339 Str3\'lnsl-y on Rittl'ofSpnng prc mien::, 834

Tinc:1(>ris oo u,ustc úfh1s 1ime. 155 Türl:- onga'3nt &.tyl<'. ,17) Wagner (m ;anwork 1)( 1he fumre, 686 Z.ulino o n texl selllng. 250

Smm•ttso/Comu7M1,.si.c. 'n1e, 8cmoo, 912 Sousa, John Ph1l1p. 756. 75ó-57 mnrchuof, 757, 761.772 upcrctt:.sof. 7 17

Sous• l!and. 756, 768, 774. 775 54,u1hAfrie.an music. 968

s,,.,,..1.,,

S p.-ec:h~1immc, 8 1? - 20. 824,936,945 Spnr1g Symphuny. Schumarm, 638 Squ.irci.ilnpi Codtx.13 l. 131 squarc root íonn. 9•l0

S«.bor "'º'"· H•ydu. 536 Sta.bot mo.ter. Poulcnc, 880 Slcibarma.rc-r. Ros.sin i. 6 48 Stabre1m. 688-89 S,adpfe,fe,·. 3 93. 395 6tl.lff, mu5ic.11. 35, 45 S1aJ;11, Joseph. 886. 887-88. 889 StalJmg. C3rl. 874

Smnlrz.Johann.5 13-14, S18 S1:tmp:.. Caipn;,, 253 Srondc/,cn. Sclrnh<rl, 596,599.600 $landir1gSioAt. McC:uincy. 963 S1anrord, C1m 1,. v,11,.,.. 751,752.801 Stanton, PMl, 971 &.urU''art (f1lrn àerle8). 7 18. 972 Swr·Sporigkd &rnnt>r, Th1, 915

Scn,tl,tm RarmonY, Tht. 6-19

Starr. Pamcla, 153

Sourl1 P.:J'1fic. Rodgcrf :md l lanunct'$tcm,

Stur, Ringo. 9 14 SJo.rtútid.Stripes Pott"-'t!r. JJi~. Sous.i, 757 S,,..mboor Willi, (hlm), 87'1 S1c:fan. George. 76 7 S1cffani. AgCtS11no. 395 Ste1n, Johann Aadreas. 500 ~,embeck, John. ~,)7

917 So,minirde- Pot10 Raro. Cottschalk. 622 Sov1e1 Uüton, 856, 885- 89. Stealso Russi:tn

mus1c

11:iydn',s ('(lmT:ic1. 522

hve1Hit"th -ççn1ury, 959

553 Mutí31 on co1wenlngson.a13s into concc;no6. 39'.l Nonh q u puh1ic C<.m~rl$, 374

Stn;,n:zi poem. 294

Chn&t1an obSCl"'.tnce m Jcrus.ilcm, ca.

l\en3i.,•ncc, 189,233 34 scvcn1ccn1h·cer11ury. 290. 29 1. 373-71

495. 648

brealmp qÍ, 959

lÃJld W:u· and. Y04 .:., 11!>~ g-o\·er11t11N.1c reb'1.1l:uu>11of mus1t 111. 875,

677. 665- 86. 888 89. 901. 927 Spa.in. Secul.w S1,1.inish mu:sic

Stcmcr. M:..x:. 7 18.873 7'I

S1clla, fl'll nl. 975. 976 S1cphcn 11. Popc, :J.9

72?, 756. 1n. 985 S1r:1us.s, Rich.ard, 737. 780. 927 baud traiu;cnptiun.sof. 757

Sncçkít11'>8, W,lhdm, 722 s,,.,.1•1.:(JrN(Jmr.(J Oc-Wl', A ((1lm), 9 19

Srud,mr Jhnu, nu, Rnmhcrg, 859 Slunn und O.-augstyle. S32. 533. 53•l. S47 style brisê, 364 . 424 s1yle gal;mt. Sc:c gal.int s-1yle

S1ngi:,o. AlcS<>andro. 283 84 S1riggio. ;\le-.ss~ndro, theyounger.3 17

s.ubdonunant. -125

Strike Upsh, Bond. Ccr!ihwin. 86 1

s:tnng anistrument&. Stt. also spn,fic rypa :.mc,cm Crcel:-. 9 10 anc1t'n1 Jcw1sh. ~M

R::uvque, 356, 384-85 cxtendcd tecluuqucs for. 950- S l medieval, 80 8 1. 136 Mesópot.imi.m. 6-7 lltl\Cl('Ctllh C<'lll\UY, 59)

prelnscorit", S k<"n2iltsance. 267-68 1uninguí. L58 srringlTU:trte1 .. 499, 50 l 2

of l\abhiu. '?31

..,r lurbcr. 927

ofllaydn, 524, 525, 521,-27 ..527. 534- 36. S35. 538. 542. 517. 561.624.640 of ll uso.921 oí)>nlõek. 806

50)

of O,·oi·;U,,, 7•9 t1gl11ccntb- ccntury. 5 l7 ofr''ranek. 7•t2

ofLmosl:1wski. 944 of Me.ndeluohn . 642

ofMo,.n, 542,547. 624.640 nânc1ccnth-ccn1u1y. MO of llochbcrg, 990 ofSehíckel~, 986 ofScho••berg, 813,821. 823.823 ofSchubw.640 ofSchumann.642

carly wor-'k~ f~Í, 83 1 cm1gration oí. 892

ofS«gcr. 897.897 ofShos,•kovich. 889,957,967

ínílueueeof.839-40. 871,885.893. 9 15. 930,964,986.989

ofSmct:ul3. 747

sm:ill-ensemble wMk!s, 836 sympbqmt.11 uJ , l:IJ t wri1lngs of. 840

Sorayhorn. Billy. 870. 672 111'eamingaud1<,. 996. 998

or &eh. 440. 82 1 lkrg's ad,prn,íon, 825 eomponcms or. -f03 Freud,. 358. 366. 368. 423-21, 798 ofllandcl, 459 Ravel'$ .id11.p1ation. 797 Sutt~ be'Kllmasqu4!. Debussy. 795 Su1t~ ro1mdit,111e. Cla.amp:1gnc:. 890 Su,re FroriC(üSt. M1lh:rnd, 920 S1Jitc 1Jwrsd<ty. Ellinglon. 872. Sulliv:in,Arthur-.68 1. 716. 717. 752

quot311oJU írom. 956

oper.i, or. 831. 837 re«puon uf, 633. 634. 839 Rimsky Kof'83k0\' sinOuencc on. 113 senal works or.83'), 933

subs111u1edáusttl.:i, 97.9"7 Sudi:1km, Vera. 83 1 ~UIIC:, 8::trQqllC, 304, 343, 3•1?, 408, 19 l

sul poot1etlJo,579 Sullcr. Snlomon. 6<19

C0Jl«.'el'l3JIIC.

h•es and. 853 Jazz and n1gnmc dcments used by. ?77 ne-0cla.ssical worl-:s. 836-39. 857

.subject. 3'15 Subot111ck. &for1on. 949

of lleach. 755 ufBocohovén, 567.567. 576.578. 578--83. 581 /!2. 621 ofBcrg.827 olB•rodi•. 746 ofCrncr. '>37 38. 9.18 ofCmmb, 946- 47, '156. 967

ballclS .r. 832-36 b,ography of, 831 block ......,,.,io• of, 832-34. 837-38. 83?, 852. 893. 983-84 &uJaugc-r's dmnplunship of. 892 Ochussy"a mnucncc: on. 7W,

Slylcluthé, 363 64 , 366

of B:trtõk. 840. 843. 967

iníluencenf. 8 13. 824. 853,873,990 L«dcr of. 604. 790 Naiiaand, 884 85 opern, or. 787-90

lliu:.h'i. influencc on. -16 1

Sironi. Ciolio. 294. 325. 332 Stmctmvs, 80\lkt, 935

sm;«n. (,59 stn:tto, 1 •11

str-cet l'ries. 71 Stn:ppooi. Cmsc1)p1lla. 697

Oebt1ssy's influc nce on, 796

rectpuon uf, 739. 790.6 11 .854 $<:hoenbcrgand.814 ,ympho•ic poem,of. 734. 738-39. 841 âs W:ig-neria11. 732 S,rannsky, lgo,·.8 11.830 40,831. 925.1008

A137

ofWcbern, 629. 967 string quarte1 111blc. SOi. 50 1-2

Slri11g 4uiu1e1. 547, 610-4 1.641 scrings.cxtct. 8 13

S1rokt of Genie·Us. A. 1:-reelanee Ilellr:Jiser, 1000 Suokes, 11,e. 997.1000 stropluc form . 5(,.See al6<1 form

s1r-uph1c,·.1n.i 11on3, 3 17,329 Su·o:tZI, li:trb:1r'3. JJZ

bwg,•phy of. 332 c,mmsof-33 1- 32. 3<17, 381 Stroui, Bc:rn,1 rdo. 316. 332

ltl. 108. 108-9. 198 Sumcrfans. 6 7 S1mdoymlh< Porkwirh Ceorgr. Sondhe1m, 962 Sunle-.t$, Musorgsky. 746 S1ms1rl But1ln.lurl. Uoyd Wt"bbcr. 962-6:J S11per 1<'. lero.s0-lem/Sedfi,ls,r ,·i~111t(is/Dom.ir1tu. IOZ, 102-3. 107-6 &upel'itai, 182 Suprcmcs, Lhe. 916 Suprwnmn í:Sl tn(>r11Jl1bus bonum. L)u F.iy, 180 SurprtS4! Symphouy. Haydn. 533

S1unc:rís,currn:t1

•ur,~alism. 771. 857. 879 80.881. 936, 946 47 Su~,o. Tielm:m. 272 suspension. 237. 257. 279. 386. 38? Sll8811Uyr. fra.nzX.aver, 556 Su:-an lake, Tchaikov$ky. 707 Siçano/T1umd,.,., TI1<. Sibelius.806 Swcdcn. 478 Swe~l1nd.'.. J;in P1ecers1oon. 223. 258. 346,

348,397.401 Su.Yt"nqTodd. Soudhdut. 962 Swie1en, C(ltrÍned ,'3n. 537, 545

,wing, 8b8. 9 10.91 1 S1nns T,m,(f,lm).873 Sw1t:terla11d. 220 Syl.-1<1, Delibe,. 70•1

•y111buli.s111.695. 767, 77 1. 786, 19 1. 192. 795. 798 99.816.819 20 Sympt1Qt11á dom~rioo. Str3uss. 738 S)mphonioesC1.cro.1i. Schtu7. 339-40

Spnphun1c.• Mdamurpht.-.s&S afttr 111tmcs oj Carl Man(J ~'On Weber. 1I,ndcmirh. 884 symphon1e pocm, 732- 3 3 , 73'1 oí Adams, 'Jlfü oí Borodw. 746 orltoneggcr,878 oftiszt, 63 1)

lnd ex

A138

symphonic poern (contmued) o( R:u:hrn:wihoff, 799 ofSchoeu.berg. 813 ofScrfabin, 801 ofSibdius. ?31. 80(, ofSme1.~rna, 747

o1S1rau••· 737-39. 739. 841 Symphon,cSJ,,ici,,., M,cOowell. 754 symphomcsu11e. 746-47 symphorne oonceru1mc. 5 14 15

Symphonicfar11~1aq11I". lierlioz. 630- 3~. 6:14. 638. 65 1. 738

lnd ex

Synclnv1cr li, 964. 969 ~yncQp:aiion, 122-23. 129, 133, 17/;, 178,

233. 250,484.643. 749 ,uAfnéa.uAmeric:ui ,nusie. 759. 775-76,

864. 865. 900 in Brat.ili.i11 H1U11ic.8?9. 89 1

rn pJintmg. 976

popufar song. 862 Spitagmu m11s1ci1m. Pr:1e1ori11.s. 265. 265 •ynohw,er. 948-49. 961. 969.969. 999.1009 Syri,.6. 38 11\

321- 22.322 Tttt'hmqueof'Mx.\tuska!Languase, Thc. Me.s~incn, 930 i.::dmo.%4 tc<:hnology. &e: abo deciretuie musie; lndustnal Ren,lutton: St'1encc: Mund

$,:yrn.inowska, Mana, 613,616,623

rccordings.tnd l'eproducrion fou r1c:en1h •century. 111. 1l3 nrne1ccn1 b·ceJ1tu1')', 590- 91. 592. 668, 678- 79. GtlJ. 687- 88. 763

·rvam. 999

111 R<:n:1issi111ee, 162-63, 242-43 1wcnhe1h ccntury. 764. 765 66. 768--69.

Symphom.:pourim hommesei,I. Henry, 947

Spt1prw,u.cs o/lhnd lmuumems. Srr:win.sky. 836 symphony, •19?. 503. 5 12.S«al,osprnfic

Tca1roS:mCassi:lno (Vcniee), 321 1'ca1rv San CtO\'<lllnl Criso~tomo (Venice),

771. 855,857 58.874. 904 5. 960. 972

111 opern,307,313-15. 358-59, 370.37172, 382. 429- 30, 48 1, 183- 85, 493, 553. 659. 668-69. 694. 929. 10-07 in socred music, 234.334. 336-37. 33940. 195. 496.537. 929. 1005 iu ll:ixtccoth-et11ru1y m~drig;ah1, 245---4?. 249 52. 253- 55. 256. 263 1ert setnng. $te m,o 1exi dep1C1 ion. rexi cxpres1uo11 in Burg1.1nd1an dumson. 176 in ehan,, 52-53.57-60. 6 1

w Couuter· Reíonn.1t1ou <:hurd1 music,

229 33 in Enghsh polyphony, 167 m F'ranl'Q-F1c:mislt mu.s,c. 196. 199-200.

of 8c,·n$1Cin, 954

1abla, 896. 915 tahlatun::. 303 kcyboard. 346 lu1e. 262,268.285 ..bn,.81. 81. 267.267 Tdbor. SmeL:ma. 747-48. 850 Tobul1 •1ob,ll1on. McPhcc. 954 tabula rru;a. Pan . 988 T(lbul(lt11ro 110\'0, Sd1eid1. 346, 348

of Br:a.l11n~. 722. 724-27. 726-27. 748

T2e1ttL$. ld7

14)cvieion m•.uiic.

orllruckner, 639. 734-36. 735. 139 ofCloám.892 olCopland. 899 ofCcmgli,mo, 9a6

·r,glio111, ~brie. 670. 670

1emperan1r111s:. 157- 58. &euJso IU.llrng aud 1cmpcr:)mcm

in m,drig:,I,. 245. 247-51. 254-55, 26 1 or Monocvcrdi. 297-300. 319

Tcmpesr. The. Shakespc:are. 13. 1005 1cmpod'an;i,coo, 659,700 1empod1 maio, 65?.665. 700 Tcmp1:itions.. thc. 916 le rnpU5(pl. tt<mpora). ? 2. 104. 11 6 1cnor, 89 in Hurgun.d1.induinson, 176. 195 m fr:mc;o -Fle1111s l1 musie, 196 IIIOIC l. (0 (. (03, 106 -7, ( 18 (9, 12( in orpnum, 108, 157 tenMI. 75 Teresa or A\•ila. Saiu 1, 293- 94 'l'ermer\, Lev. 947- 48 1ermin.a1ion. 53

m mo1c:1s, 101 2

romp(t4,ttS

oi Bcach, 755 oi Bcerhovcn. 568. 570-75,576-77, 578. 580.583 84.62l.624.630.634.635. 638. 666. 683. 684. 686. 724. 726. 727. 734, 748, 768 69. 783. 7'84. 790, 809. 837

ofDvof:H:, 748 caghtc-t"nlh •ccutur)'. 467. 503,512 15.

5 17,542 of F'rand..-. 7'12 ofClas•. 979 ofCounod. 74 1

ofll,ydn, 50G. 523. 526-33. 530. 534. 538. 550.624. 790. 921 of lllndcoihh.882 84. 920 oi lve,;. 8H- i8. 850. 852 oru,,,, 732-33 of Lu1osl:1w11kj. 9-14

olM,hlcr. 766,782 86. 785. 956, 1001 of Mcndelssohn. 635-38. 651 ofMoiar1. 512.551-52. 624 of Pariy, 7S I or l1ersichert1, 921 of Prokof1c, 887 1•

or Raebmaruuutí. 799 ofSçhmt1kç. 985

ofS<lmben, 629-30. 638,651 ofSchumann. 638 39,639.65 1. 726 olShos,akovlch. 888-89. 90 1,957 ofSibdiu,. 806- 8. 801 ofS,anford. 752 ofSull. 900 90 1 olS1r>vins,y. 837-39 ofTchaikovsl-y. 708. 745-46 ofWeL<rn.829.830. 913 orz~;lich, 987 Symphtmy. A: Ncw E,1glo11d HaJ,daJS, ln:~. 852 Symphony ..Mal111-Sdultfalf'r. H mdem 1U1.

882~4.884 Symphonrof P,alms. S1rannsky. 837-39. 838 &yll..iead1csi..i. 801 S)'11llg0gt,C, 2•1, 239, 34 1,648-49

Tailldcrrc:. Gcrmainc:. 878. 878

Take Me Ou, ro dk: &,li Gánk'. NorworLhNon T1lier, 772 Tokemilsu, Tor11, 955,955, 1009 Take the A Tnun. [lhng10n. 870 mia. 932. 940 1alea, 11 8 - 19.119, 122- 23, 932 Talkiug Hcad•. 973 Talhs.11wmns. 22·1. 225. 284 1nfluence of. 752. 805 Tamingoflht>Shrew, Thf', Shal.:e!-J>e;ire. 917 To,1crcd1. Rossini. 658 'l'•n 01111. 968. 1005

t~ngo. 964-65

Tunnhamer. W:.gncr. 686 Tcwl qu-t,•wruy. Sermusy, 257.257 o>pc loop. 976. 976 77 oapo r.cordcr. 895. 906. 947. 918. 956. 976 T3rtuu, CiuS<:ppc, 515. 518 ían1slan. Richard. 305 T,sso. Torqu,10, 24!;,3 19. 321,322 T:wenc:r. Jultn. 989 ro~'t'mtr. O;wies, 955 Tavcrner . John, 224, 274-75. 955 T:l\'emicr, Jc:an lc. 152 Tel1.:uko\'slr.-y. Ptolr ll'y1cb. 708. 792 ballm or. 707. 872 biography or. 708 cooccrtosof. 722, 714-45 mflucnccof. 1l4. 837,848, 8S0 operas or. 707. 718 quot;11ions:fro111. 985

rteep11ou o,. 746. 760

twen1y-Í1C'$1·ccn1ury, 9-93, 991-96. 998-99 Ti:c:1m1 pn,1dpium (.a.nli1Jl11m), 51. 55. 55

Td11U1m. Rc1d1. 978. 989 Telemann. Ceorg Plulipp. 432,431. 434-35 . 437. 438. 443. 49•1 Ttltm~tMk. Stockhau8t'u. 956 1elcologit•I gcnesis, 807. 850 1elevi.sion, 906,912,997

s..., Film :anel tii,l-0vi11;i<,n mueic

Tc:rmin:1t(lr X, ?74

1e1·rorls1 an3eks, 959. 994

ocorachord. /5. l á- l/,, 13. 251. 82 1. 823 de..,end,ng. 329-31 . 336. 311 Tex Mexnmsic.916 Texie,·. Ully. 792 1ext deçbn1:1 1icm. 23 1- 32 IC'Xt depÍC..1iOJl. 20( -,8

202. 212 m Franeon1an motcti, 106 1n F'rcnch elun$ons, 257-58

or &hch::i.u t. 123

mus,que me-$urcc. 259

ofMusorgsky, 710 l.u Nutre Dame polyphouy. ~M 99 or P:11cstrln:i. 23 1 32 oF R.i,·cl. 799

m Rcl\ais$;mce ulu:lic. 145. 158. 164. 263 ofSdioenberg. 8 19 20 «:1fSehubert, 597 Trt=Ct'nto madnga.l. l32 n·ou.badollrand 11·ouvtresonga. 76 ?? oí Wagn<'r. 686 ofWolf, 737 Lcxture. Stealso hclcrupbony: bomu1.1 huny: ffi()l)OJ)IIOoy; polyphony in !broque musie. 300-30 1.328-29, 343,

363-64.456. ~57 m 6t1~"\mdlan mus1c, 175 1n cantus-linno.s misses. 182 incuok 169 111 CuurHtr Rdorn1.toou 111u$1C. 232-33 111 Prnnc,o· Fkm1&h mus 1c. 196

172. 179-80 1n &tx1:ccn1h•çtl\tury l1;al1an m:.idrig::ils.

245.216-H in 1rio son:,us. 386 Ul lWt'Tiflt'lh-ceotu.ry IHUIHé. 829. 834. 852,

893. 896 97. 945 53. 950 SI, 954 11aaíi, Ma11,3ene1, 70-1

by llocb. 446- 18 1n cantata.s, 331 -3l.38 1-82

11l:itcber, 11:irg:.~L. 960

·1e LJe11m,

in chor:il ml1s1c. 647

U1eatcn and O!JCnl bouS('S. publ1c. Si.'e afsu

te Dt"um. H:rndtl. 452

by Dowland. 262 by ~s,us, 237 39. 258 in Ucder, 259. 494,5%-601. 736-37, 786 ~Y Moulc>wJ,, 297- 300. 318- 19.329- 31

6ymphomc poema oí. 734

$fmphonit"-5 or, 708, 7-15-46. 845, 888 IM:rho1. Mb

1e'nmim nou11ion. 239

Tc:.itro No\·i:s:sim u (Vcuke). 324

Te.:11r0San Cario (Naplt&}. 658

133. 734. 742. 751. 807 1heme, 2 75.$t.?0Uov:.r1~oon., Theod.1ld11.s. bishop or Aren.u. 40 Tltcodurak1s. Mik1i. 919

ThcodoreTho,masOrchcsira. 753 íhc:odonc. Os1rogo1h rulerof llaly. 38 Thcodoslus 1, Rom:m empcror, 23 1hcorbo,JOO. 3 01 , 3•12 1hco1y. nmsic

ancíenl Creece. 11. 15-18. 20. 38-39. 115. 158.3 13 Babylotnaflj. 8

B,roquc, 306. 333. 340. 425. 427-28, <131

i11 Rco.a1ssauocd.mcc rnustc, 270 in Rcnt1i$S~nce music. 150.155- 57, 151},

ofWeelkes. 2Gl

tltematlc 1r.msíorm.aliou. 635, 639. 732- 33.

e1g1llt'c:nth-ct'utury. 472-74

of l.:issus. 237

1cx1expn:ss, on. 207-8. 306

ThCãtre Lyriq11c(Paris), 704

or Janitek. 806 of Josquin, 20•1. 206. 207 8 or Landi11I. 133 1)f L'\A:$US, 237' 239

in m1dd l<"-IO-la1c c igl11ccn1h-cen1u 1y musu:, 473

in six1«ud1-ce11tmy madl'i.gals:. 25 1. 254-55

321-23.372. 373. 380. 395 Thé!ltrcd'OrlE:ini(KcwOrlt=:1.ns), 674 Théã1re halieu (Paris:). 658,667

C:d1lei°!l;\'iewsun. 310 11

of B,<I,. H6. 448 or J••q111n, 207~ ofPt:ri,314 15 of Pun:cll. :rn ofSeLuo.. 310 in S<"\'Cntecn1h ccntury ana-s, 380

aevcntcemh cenh1ry, 291. 296. 319.

specific lhNlte~ ond cures

medic-·al. 38 45, 85 88. 89, 92. 11 4. 138-10.157 Ren:ai.$$:ance.155-57, 310 CWtmh4.'th t'!4lnlury. 821. 930,932.934

Th:ere Is o f'o1m tom fillt-<I u·ilh !Uood, 852 T hc rc mm. 917-48. ??O

A139

796. 798.8 11.829.835.891.8~3 95. 901, 933, 945-53, 954, 982-83 1im~, 11 6 Umdmcs

Cltissic 1m1sic in 1hc b1c eightccnrh cc:mury. 536--37 dh•trgiug lr.:iditioufs i u the l áh:r r\inc:1<:cn1h

c-cnrury. 754 55 1hee~rlyChris(i:rn ch\lrch. 28-29

early J>olyphony. 100-101 tl1e early 1wen1íc1b oi:ruu,y: 1hc tfaü1cal 1rad1t1on. 780 81 1lie c.;1r ly rwcnhelh ç('n1tuy: venwc,:ular mus1c. 772 73 Lhccndof1he millcnmum. 960 6 1 Eng1and and Hurgundy in 1hc:. r,r,cen 1h t'CUlu_ry, 168-69 Europe,n eocicty: 800 1300. 70 71 foortttni h·«:nwry F~l'\ce and luly. 126-27 fJ'ante. Euglaud. Sp:un. aud lhe Nt"'' \Vorld. 362 63 franco-Flemis h composen;. 1,t50- l 520.

208 9

Ctrulatl co,npose1-s w che latt Baroquc. 434 35

'Theresk,.,~. H:iydn.537 Thm R«J úo,, Tht (~lm), 851

imnn unental umsic. dghtee11d1-cen1ury.

'ílurd O>nsrn,C'lton m Mcrol , Cage. 939 Third D,y. 974 Tlurd Suca.111 Jatt. 954 Thirty Ycar• \Var, 290,29 1,339, 368.374, 396 Thu Is lt. thc Strokc:~. 997 Thomas. Amh ro1sc, 704 Thomas, Theodorc. 753-54. 756 Thom:u.Aquinas. Saint, 70.84 Thum,ou. Vu-.g,I. 892. 893. 898 Thore.1u, llcm)' O~md. 852 'fhornrnn. Willie Mae "Big M~ma.·· 913 1horoughb:1ss. See b:isso continue> Vu~«JCl1orolcs. frauck. 742 ThruMu.sicion.s, Mu1croí1hc Fcmalc 11, lf~ Lcngohs. 258 'ílu>t(Mustc1(ms. n,e. H::ayden.869 Thrtt Plttts ,n the torm ofo l'ear. S1u1e, 808 Thffl! Pfo,:p,s m Ntw F.ngland, lves.. 851 Thmptnnról"'"'· Th,. W<1II/Brech1. 88 1. 881 11u-rrii. S11·:winsky. 839 Thre11odyford1:c Vichms1J/ll1roih1mo, l>endereeki, 925, 950-51,9S2. 957

anventíon of opera, 308-9 h:ily. Fr:1nce :ind e:irly~e.igh1eem h -een111ry

1brough t.-omposed. :l45

tibia. 19,20 'Tid4!so/Mana.1ma11n, 'ln.-. Cowc:11. 895 Ticc;l, Ludwig, 595 llcnto, 377 Tfonto deOOlalío, 0.banilles, 377 T11gncr. Vikto r. ?34 Til/ Eulc1l8p1t:gc:.l's ltm,gt &r.:u:Ju. Slr:tuM. 738

T/1,T, Mockcy. ?64 tun brc 1n 8,roque nmslc, 363. 416

c1ghtccn1h-cc.nHtl)". i M. '152. 453

in 8cc1hovcn's liucworl:-s.579

ninc1«111h ecnwry. 653 54. 666 67.683. 687-88. 7/7-18

in ninc:tccuth-ccntury muilic. 63<1. 672 intwtntieth «ntu1ymusit, 791 92. 795.

514 IS

Europc. 428-29 lrnly :rnd Germany ln 1he l:ue scvcrncenil1 cen1my. 390-9 1 pu :and llopubr rmllliC l:H!:t\\'cc11 ll1c W:11'$,

8.56 57 l:t1e Rom:m1ici.sm in Gernrnny ;md A11.stri:t,

720-21 1oadrigàl aud scclllar wng ln tlie sixL<:tlllh

ccnoury. 244- 45 Meg,opotami:t, Greeee. ,nd Rome. 8-9 music;iJ 1as1e :tnd s1ylc m lhe: Eul-4,tl1temncnt. 472 73 musicand 1he Rcnaii;sancc, HG-"7

mus1c fo r <:h.amber :rnd churth tu thc: early &eYcutccnthccnnuy.336 37 ncw styles m SC\'euteenrh cenru1y. 2'90-9 1 opera and music;il 1he;i1c.rin thc bter n iuetecuth ctmtu ry. 716-l 7 Op(ra and mus1e.al tbcatcr 10 mid çcnnuy.

656-57 oper:i :ind \•oc:il music in thc e:il"ly Cl.:u1..11ic

penod. 490-91 postwnrtrossC11r-rcnt~. 906- 7

ndic:J moJeruiShi. 826-27 ~ \·ohuion and cl,~nge. 562 63 rise of instrumental niusic. 274-75 Roman limrgy :md ch:mt, 52 Romautic1sm 111 classic fonns. 626-27 $.1Crtd rnos)c ao 1hc Refonn:uioo, 226 27 60ngand piano mus1c, 588-8? rhe n\•e niy- hrsr oenrury, 'J9t,- 'J7 bél\\'CC U thu wan,:

dtl' cl:tS!lll'al 11·:idJI IOU.

876 77 "timc- pointli,-93,1

Tut1c81h<:~rAl't'A·Cl1tmgi" •• T11c, Dyhao. 915- 16

lnd ex

A140

ln dex

hrnpam,591

rrc:ble, 12(,

"Turkish" nnLS,c.533. 552. 553. 584.68 1

bands in. 755-57. 77'1. ?19-21

of l\ccthoven, 578

Tõu P•nAllcy, 759. 766, 772- 73, 1!59, 86062. 866. 871.911. 9 13. 9 18 Tinct0ris,Joh,3nnes.154-55. 165. 186. 190

rrehlC'-b:i.u p9bri1y, 300-30 1

Turrnsonaten. 393 IUtti, 390 Tm•àn throal ·Sfogtng. 960

churd1 111u.sie in. 649- 50

724,727, 729 eig'htecnth C<'ntury. 503 iojm,866-67

lmhnnahuh. 987-88

Tiv1,1eu. Mich:u:l. 954 hrad«. 359. 421 ·r,, th, Cift to//, Simpl, (hymn). 899. 900 T,11:.u.228

rocem. 265. 279 80. 343 44. 384 oíBach, 43? iu &roque ~uitet. 366 of Buxtchude. 399

of Franct. 742 of Prcscobald1. 3•13-H. 319--50 of Probcrt«, 34'1 ofRavd. 798 rhythni rn. 303 T0tt-ala manuilc>. V:iugh:m Wdh:imQ. 774

Trd>le Clef. n1e. P,c:1ssa, 771 crt'bleMdo«niutm:d style. l 26 Trccc:mo music, 130 35 Tn:11:rmml$l1á. Jopliu, 775

Betg's \<Se uf. 827- 28

criaogle.1.67 Trier. basilica or. 25

Coplaodº9 use or. 899 Cinas1era ·, use of, 954

lno (forui). 508. 531. 757. 798 iri.onfod, Don, n. amhology, 261 trn.> sonata. 38(,. •105

poSl•WorJd War 11 useol. n1. 933 Schoenberg's u..-ol. 8 13. 81 4. 820- 23. 837. 857. 953 Sd111ller s\1:sC'or, 954

uí s~,eh. 442 uí Bu.xtchudt', 1103

of Corclh, 386. 388 89, 58 1 uí Coupe.ri.u, '123 oíll•ndtl. 4S9 of llaydn. 536 rem itt or. 3?2 cripl:i.349

TQd}t'.$/J, f'>er, Crnun, 1195 tombeou de Co11ptri11. E.e. Ravél, 797 98

criplé rno1e1, l 02. 108 1ripl11m. '18. !06-7. 118- 1'1. ll:l.121, "'Tri$1:1n d1',ml,'"693.801

To,n)1J1l~t, Fieldulg.4 10

Tnmrn 1md I.,wlJi,. W::i.~n(ir. 685. 692 9'1,

Ton. 259 11.mad.a. 375 1onad11la3, 804

69.l. 722. 737. 789. 791 , 795.796. 807. 8 13 1ritoues. 3\•oidíng. 86. 138. 183. 690

lon~h1y. in11Jor-mmor, 306, 333,361,379.

Tm,mpl1e.sofOnana, The, Morlty. 26 1 'frr11mph of Ptt1.tt>, Tht, l.:awes, 369

388 89,392,405,408,425. 429, 503--4. 611. 779. 780 1onaric.1.<12 l l)nç clm,tc~. 895. 953

tunic. 425. 425

tonos ( pl.1onoi). 17.19.43. )61

Top 1/01 íftlm). 86 1. 673 1Up1cs. 54 7. 8S2. 985 Torelli, Ciuscppc.39 1. 416 17,421. 438.512 Tnrontn. 890 Toronto SymphonyOrche.str!l. 890 Torrcjóu y Vd:u.eo. Tom.:i.s de:. 375 Tortoi.se, Tht: llis Drtol'liso.ridJ011mqs. Young.

971, r..cu. l'ucclni. 702. 703 Tt»c:anim.Arturo, 783 10Srothí'J'(ll00. Cher:rrdello d3 firen1:e,

132--33 ,.,. 1.. ,...11 ..... 933 34. 938,957 Tnunc. 1:rançm8, 59 l TuwC'r,Jti.m, 989

Tr:1e1.32.32, 48. 59 1rad111oiu1.I mnslc. &e rotk ,nusic. uon-

We:s1ern musie Tracua. Tommas.o. -191 tragêdiç lyrique (rragéd1c: cn mu$iquç), 3S6.

49 1. 492 TraiJtde 11wnnoni4'. R:unc:m. 425. 426 l.ranscnphous. piano. 593. 62 l , 626. 65'1. 695. 8•17 Trunsformarw,1. $çhu1Jer. 954 lt:nlSll 1(11l,50 7 flUHàlO. La.

Vt'rdJ. 6:>Y. b8 I . b'J(, &"J"J '/U, /(J(}

1h~o.rist on Uormon1, H;une:m, 306 Trt:oJüc on ln.slnunenratu:m and órdu:stroticm.

Btrlio,. 635

colonial mosic of. 222. 290-9 1, 489, ,19,1,

",elve b>rb l11es, 863 6<1. 866. 900 1wel\'e-10nc nu:1hod.S«a/Jo serial music

trcslllo. 622

To1,-oow IV," 1M61l1 J.fotk. Meruli,. 280 lombeau. ?98

claSsté:tJ trad1twn in, 753- 55

trwmm.38

nobairltz. 73. 75 rromba marina. 267 trombone. 26S tropc, Gl. 63, 85.88, 100 Trv1Jbadour Songs. Mackey. 964 mmb:cdours. 69. 70. 73- 79. 83. 1004 Troubl,d lslaml. S1111. 900 TroiJt Q1111ue1, Schubcn. 6'10 Cl'OU\'êJ'CS,69, 73.--79. 107. 12-i ll't>l'a.tore. n. Verdi. 697. 699 Troy. FranÇ"ótid<'.J65 Tro)'>'M,

i.,. Bcd;o,. 633. 669

1n11npc1. 24. 72. 267. 2?3 mcd1cval.8I. 136 pi$tOn·valve,S90. 59 1. 625 rn1mpe1 music, 384,390 TsarSalum. Runsky-KorHko\'. 713 rnb•. 591 . 625 mb• (Rom,n), 19-20 Tumblr.995 Tu.ndcr. Fr:m2, 398 nming~nd i-cmpc:r.lmem in ancient Cred; musiç. 13 &byloniau sy1HCLLl$. 8 equal tcmp~ramcnt, l 58. 302. 440--4 1 just inronarion, 157,301. 9'16

S1r:ivmsky's use ur, 831

Wcbern's uscur. 828

.-wcntl<'ih -century music, 763-992. abo ,pccíjic,11m,wscn. gcnr(l, anJ 1upic:s

a«<,.ib1l11yin. 876, 929.972. 986 9 1 di'Crs11yor. 764. 777. 780. 855,901, 902. 901,- 7. 916- 17. 922. 923- 27, 953-57. 958. 960-61. 992 c.irly. 765 8 11 1,ybridõry in, 963-66. 979. 983-84, 987, 992, 1008

unerwar, 855- 902

,.... 958 92 mode.rnbm. 812-5~ popul,rorvcrnacular. 77 1 77. 817. 859 74, 910-17, 966-68, 973- 75 Pº"""''· 903-57 lw<'nly·Íu'!õt~c<'ntury tmuuc. ?93-1009 a«."eMibiluyin.1007 clll.6,!õl ç:1) tllU 51C, 100 (-7 di,•crsi1y oí. 1002- 4 íusiou!lm. 1000- 100 1 rmurc oí, 1008-9 poluical eontcX1. 993-9•1 1)oµularn1usie 1reüd$. 997. 1000

cightccmh «:nturyc\'cnrs, 465,466

governmern s pousorship of musie m. 876-77 úumigr•nlS tu. 753-5-1, 766. 856,863. 892. 926 mosie~I rheJiter in, 717, 772, 775, 860. 917 19. 962 63. 97 1 72

oaoonaliarn 10,721. 748-49. 75-1. 756. 893. 899 nfoe1ceu1h-ctntury c hoira. 645 ninttcen1h cc,uury c.:vcots. 588. 678 80, 753

opcr;, rn.489. 674- 75. 683. 775. 899. 900. 978-79. 980 p,rloroong• m. 596. 604 5. 847 (>u1mlar musu;,n, 77 1-77, 847, 85S-74, 903, 910- 17, 963- 64. 96<.. 973 75 tweul1ech· IX'ntury C\'t'Ull>. 765 66. 77 1.

856. 876 77. 893. 904 6. 959 60 Uni1cd S1-a1cs Marine Band. 75()-57 U1111<d Stota I li~ And•,·wn. 97 1 unwersities ns pmon,, 903. 925- 27. 986../l7 ris<'<>Í. 70 UntversicyorC3l1fornia {li Lo.sAngeks

<UCIA). 811. 926 Uni\'ersiiyoflllinoi.s, 927

Umven11yofZurich. 8-82

200 Mor,4. Zappa, 964

un mcasurçd prcludc. 3(.(,

Tu:oSketchQjc>rStrings. ~laçMillan.8•)() f"''cl, Cagc:. 943 2001, ASpo«' Od-"'"Y (l\lm), 738. 951. 953 2ManyDJ•. l 000 Tyera. Wtlh:tm H.. 774 T:i§Jnit. Ra,·ç l, 799.878

Urinamable, ThC'. lkckcn, 9S6

U111v1:n1ityoíM1cl11g:m. 927

f/pmmg, 'Thc, Oaumier.679

Ur.6-7. 7 Urban V1 li. Pope. 321 Urbioo. 244 Urquh.,n, Pc,rr, 137 Ui quc(l,d f~.r,,, -13, 43

Ubcr11,Anton10.See Porporino

Ug,n,. 8.8 u'l1ramodcmist.s. 892- 97. 901

Ulpm. loyre. 857 Unona;u ered Q11e$i1on. Thc. lvc-s. 850. 852. 854 1

Uno ,_porofo. Rossõn;, 659-61 , 661. 662-63. 663 uu.dcriconng. 872

Py1h~goreau. 157 Rç na15sance. 145. 157- 58, 164 $00rd.-1t1r.a, 403

Unfmished Syrnphony. S<lmb<n. 629,629. 630. 651

'1)1n.111goltfo. Syrnphooy. Mess,aen. 930, 9·18 Turk. o-nicl Co,tlob. 471 Turlí<'Tin Uu: SrnHi.·. 676, 753

649 50,675,677.7 17. 754- 5S. 756-59, 761. 775-76.847-54. 85968. 875. 892-901. 920-2 1. 925-27. 933. 937 44. 948 -50. 954, 955 56. 962-63, 96'1-68. 970-72. 975-81. 986. 989. 990-91

tcc:hnology m. 994 96. 998 99 Twichell. H:, rmony, 848 Twittcr, 995. ??8

me:m.,tone 1ernper.tm<'nl. 157-58. 301-2

"111ro,1dot. l'uccini. 6H 1. lOZ. 103

496-97 <vmpo..,,-, in. 496- 97. S88. 605. 622.

U n1on o( Sov1c1 Composc1'$. 886 U ru1eel f\àlioos. 'J0'1

UnifedS.ílr,,J/Popffries.1000 Uruitd S1atc•. S« also Afncan Amcn can

mus-1c

Valdcrr~.baoo. Et1ríquci de, 275-76 Valê1y. Paul. 767 ,•ais.:. la. Ra,·cl. 799.878. 956

Vart,c. Edgard, 853.893. 893 95. 90 1. 902, 939. 915,918 Oebus$f'!i in0ucnceon. 796 dcctromc mll!1é oí. 893. 948

;nn\\cncc oi. 9 15. 950, 953 Sullaud. 900 v:,r ,:Ul(Ul C.,'lMOrl:l, 347,384, 400--401

\•anaoous ~,·a1·1a11ou lorm}• .!64 . 2 75 77.

\'tm:ic:ularmussc. 764, 77 1.847 Vin.rn. Lo1Ji~. 667 V4',,. lo Jlamm,, Scri:ibin, 802, 80,1 ,·e1"$ mcsurésà ra.ut1quc. 259 Vcrs>illcs, p•loccof.353 54.353 55

e,( Rr.il11nlj,

of$chocnberg. 821. 920

ofScbubcrt,606 sixtecnth ecnt-ury. 28S ofStrausi. 738-39 V:m:.lions :md Fuguc on ;i Themc oí J-bndd. Brahms, 729 Vim<1non.s li', C3gc. 942-43 Vanatm1-u; on .i 111cme oí Haydn. Brahmi;. Var12UOll..i on :i 11lcme o( P2g~mml, Bt:ih.ms,

729 v:mdcvillc<Amcrican),677. 7 17. 716.

772-73. 859 v•udcnllc (f'lsend1), 487 88. 667 Vaugh•n Wllll am•, l\alph. 752, 780. 801- 5.

verse amhe nu;. 22-4. 372 verk- rtfl':tin futm.604.158. 866 67 ,•crsets. 274,274

Vt'rstich t"iner ;lnfomrng :urComposuion. Koch,

472 versus, 70

polyphomc, 8?-90, 99 lft•rt1gv (t.lm). 919 Vcsµcrs. Sl. 53. 54. 316. 333.335.337. 415 V,spro della Be1a VtT11e, Morneverdl. 316 Viadana. l..odovico, 333-3'1, 337

Viardot. L<n1Í$, 613 V1ardo1. Pauline. 6 12. 613. 623 Vicentino, ~u:ol.a. 226. 252.252

805 band tuLLStcor. 17-4. 777, <Yl:O recqHioooí.8 11 Vauxhall Card cni; (London), -166. 466 VC'ed,i. Ora,io, 308

\·ida bn°"'c, l,a. f'all.i, 80<1

11...Jró 1 m1osof. C:u-euu.302. 3. 3 11 12

vid:.a. 74

Vela.s((I, Domingo .Amonio de. 509 Velá1que1.. O,cgo. 313.375

ndto gau1e. 66 Vid..nmromn~ (Cr:.dual).34, 35.36 -37. 37-38. 42. -14. 41. 52-53. 57. 57.

Vcnezuel:1. 1().02 Vcmc:c. 28 1-84

e1gh1eenth-cenn1ry. 4 l l , <I 13-15, 478 m1crmenos ln. 480 81 kw-lslt rnutiiC m. 34 1

medie,·al, 69 opera ln. 321-23. 324-25.327. 380. 478 orcl\es1r:1s ln. 389. 390

polychoral mus1e 111. 263-8<1 pubhcopcn hou.scsin. 291. 319. 322 JJuLJ,shjng iu. 162-i.3 Rc:n3i&S~rncc, 190 S1. M>rk'sC.1h<dr>I in, 226. 282. 282--84. 316.319.333. 347 Schlio: w. 337. 338 Vem.Redt"mprorgen1ium, 211.217 Vimi Sam:.reSpiri11.1.s t'I t'm1udl't.t1i Sanctc: Sp1nrt.1set 1.nfundt!Vem C~otor Splntus/Sonc,, SpmroSMS-lt, Dun,rable. 169. 170

Vent;idorn. Bcrnar1 d<". Sei lk.rnut de Vcrm1.don1 Vc:nhm, Robe ri, 98-t-85 llmuundAdont.S, Rlow.37 1 1•épnut.eú1.e-nnts. U's, Vcrdi.669. 697. 701

Vcrdc.101. Philippe. 246 Verdõ. Cõuseµ pc. 697. 100? Livg,-•µhy of. 697 operasof.588.62 1. 659,666.669, 678. 68 1.686.695. 702. 704,7 17.876 quot:11ions from. 1001

1·eet'p1ionoí. 70 1-2 sl)'lcof.1,9'1 70 w.:,rk1ngm~1hods, 696 \'el'J!imo.68 1. 7U:.!

oí8ach.·H 1

l'erkJorre N0-cl11, Schotnbtrg, 813 Vcrlaine. Pn.uti. 6?5. 7'13-H. 767. 796

B•roquc, 304,343. 348 49, 350. 377

VcnnC'cr, J.iiu. 286

508

A141

Vict1maf' pa$chali laud1?.s. 62. 63. 218. 228 V1ccor Euuuaoud 11. kmg: oí l1aly. 680

Vic1orin. Tomás L11õs de. 234, 235. 210. 283

94 99. 10 1. 106 l'i4erur\tomnt-$ (organum duplum) . l..e,c.n1nui ,nd colle•gi"•· 94-99, 9S-97 Vidt<runronrnu. Pcrocuius. 98-99.98-9"9. 967 Vidm:in, CtO\':tnni Pao1o. 332 ,•1cllc.80, 811. //2, /,l/, 131, Vienn:, Scc1bovcu m. 563 68 l\r:thms in, 725 Burg1hciitcr in. 5'1'1. S·H

Cad1olie eltm·cl1 music 111. 331 churth mus1c in, 396

Cerm:tn oper:i ill. 490 H3ydnm,521.523

hahanopcra i n, 323,482 83 Mo1..:1n in, 544 á& musiccentcr.109. '133

orchcstral mus,c ul, 514

publicconcens rn. 467 Schoenberg in, 81•1 Volk:sg.irtcn in. ?2J V1cnn:i Opera. 782 Vlenn;i Plulh:i.rmonie. 625 VimntseNightJ (ftJrn) . 873 Vic1n.ar1; \tlar. 904. 906. 915, 94S. 947. -159 v1huda;md vihud:a m1.LSic. 21,H. 276. 279

Vill.1-Lobus. Hdtur.46 1. 89 1 1•111,n<i<o. 161. 241.243 44, 291 . 37&.496 ...,ua,:idfa. 255. 328 Vilbni. Filippo. 134 ,•illi. ú . Pucdm, 702 Vilton. ftJOÇOIS, 796 V1nc1. Leonardo. 47$, 479, -180

v,ngr. n•gn..rd.uurt·fn/o.n.r -Ji.tiu$, Mtssben. y:rn Vmo1· n11quu•meordn-. Coupenu. 42,1, 42•1 Vingt qt1arl'C Violon.a d\l Roi, 356. 357 viola. 268. 468

lnd ex

A142

viola da g:::un bn. 265, 2 <18 :.sou u i uuo i usitrum(:nt, 301

son.al39 for. 4'12 v;olin, 268. 282. 385. 385, 468 dt:clromc. 97J

idiuul.:atic wrhiug for, 304, 342 vtobncon«rto

or Ad•ms. 980 ofB,ch. 442- 43 of Barber. 927 oí Becrlu,vcn, 576 of Becg, 827. 827-28 of Brahms. 727

of ll1gdo11. 1007

of Mcndcbsohn. 637-38, 651 of Peuderecki. 989 ofSchoenbcrg. 821 ofShos1:1koV1c.h, 889 ofS1belms. 806 ofTcha1kc:wsky. 745

oíTorelli, 391. 392 ofViv.ildi. -1 l ?-19 viohn son:.ità

ln dex

conçeno, of, 391, •107, 409, 415- 21, 167, 503 CorcUi's in0uence on, 389

rnltueuce or. 42 1.122.138.139. 450 opcni:;. or. <11 1 progr.un mll.:!iC uf. '421. 595 quot.1tion1> from. 1001 recepuon or. 430-3 1 Vhticr. Chiude. 982. 984 1

V,:aana. Lucrt:uJ. 33 1l-35. 337 \'Oc.11 r:rnge of cl1an1 nu;IQd1c:~. 64 oí c.hurch modcs. 4 O 4 1 ín Frauoo Flt'.'nui.h mu~tc. 192- 93 in Rcnaiuincc music, 150. 174, 186.193.

212 .;;í 1roubadour and ITOUVtrt songa, 76. 83 Vogl, Johann Mi<hocl. $99 vcuce exch:inge. 98. 108 Vol:rn5. Kc-vin. 968

l'olksliedtr. llerdcr. 597 Vnllner. Johann Anrnn. 60,'t \\th:1, 133

wolt'-554. 652. 758 50. 86 1 o f Berlivi. 632 ofChopin, (11 6. 79 1 o í ll:ivel. 299. 878 o(J. Srrou.,, 723,772 of R. Strau51>, 789

w...,dmr. Ikr. Schub<rt.599. 606- 7 1Vondenorabo,~ the &o of Fog, Fncdneh. 59-1.

5~1 lfondmrfonra,,. Schuhen. 606-?. 621. 638 ll'c>,«km. Da,. Schubcr1. 597, 599, 600. 601 Wanhal. Joh;rnn l~1p111;1, 51•1, 518 W:.r of ahc 8uífoons.&,• Querdlc <lc~ bourfons

lf'or Htq11~m. 8rmcn. 929 Warsofthc Roscs.188

Wo1rs.aw Pi1~1. 901. 959 Washi.n~'lon~ Ccorgc. 465 Washinbrton Universi1y Band. 921 Wosu úrnd. rh~. EJio,. 857 Warrr A/u$U'. Hamld. 451 . 459 IVari'rPC146io1a(ljiPrSt. Afot1ht.1,;, Tim l>un,

968

U'ifulc Blood Cclls. lhe: Wlulc: S1npcii, 997 lf11i1.iChri10mà.t. Bc:rlin, 861 W1nu- L1gh1. PoUoek. 910 White ,H(ln Slteps. Volans. 968 Wlu1c:S1ripc!. the. 997 Whil<:fu!ln, P~ul. 868. 898 Wh11man, WaJt. 980 Who. rhe. 914 whole~1one scalc: and collec11on. 62 1. 673.

? 13.714. 79 1. 793. 795. 796 97.80 1. 930. 932 Widur, Cb.iir k11-~larit:, 892 Wtcck. ClaN1.Stt Schumann. Cbn Wic.ck

W,ed.. l'rtedrich. 602. 722 lf-'it'gcrilied. Bralun s. 729 Wiéuer. Jc.in, 8'!8 W1gand, B,tlthn.ear,538 Wilby•. John, 260 Wilckc.Ann:i ~fagdelens. 436 WIide. Oseor. 787 Wildcck. Mngdalçnn.338 ITTldflowt'r3, Colli1H1, 111 Wilhchi\ V, duke or B:w:sria. 238

of B:tcb, 442. 727

Voh~i~.4 10. 426. 463, 46-d

w~wrg:tlc ttc::iud:i), 959

Wilh4>r,,, T1,oll, MluJler.66'!

8uoque. 384. 386- 69. 403-4. 405. 422 o!Bart<>k. 843

Von Tih:er.Alben, 772 l'oodoo. D'Angclo. 9?? Voorbou1, Job:m1les.J98

Wilber1.Adri:m

VoJ'\'lge, The. Class, 979

Waters. Muddy. 913 Waucnu.Jc1m Antoinc, '109. •tlO \'(IAV formal. 999 wax q-linders. ?68

vuehi, 243

We;i.ver&, che, 915

m2dr;g,I• oí, 249. 250, 263 patroml of. 153 ps,lms of. 283 Willbun Ili, kingof England. 369.:i70

of Bcc1hovcn, 575 ofr-'i:and:. 7'12 oflve,, 850 tuue1ecu1b ceutUJy, 640

ofRovel. 799.8!8 violoncc::llo and \'ioloncdlo mus ic. 2<>8.30 1.

468. 829. 889. 891. 921. 937. 968 v1ol,and v1ol music. 158. 260.267. 268.268,

272-73. 275. 3•16. 372 V1rduu1-5. Sebas11:u1. 265 v;rct,i. 124 25. 126. 190 91. 198, 1124 Virga.Jessi:. Bnu;:kncr. 735-36 Virgil. 322,633,669 virgmal. 267. U,9 virg1nalists. 276 77,348 Virginia Minstrcls. 676

,·ir1uo1l1y m undcnt Creccc. 12 in .aneienr Creek music, 14 m Ar& Subuhor .sty1~. 129

ln &roq,oe "'"'"· 304, 324- 25. 342. 343, 388,391,399 101.403- 1.1 17, 438. 453-54 in cb:mt pcrform::mct', 57, 59 lo eigh1ee,u l1·~n1u1y musie. 411. 1186.

515- 17 in madrigals. 253. 25S

m mnc1ccmh CCJ\IUl')'lll\1$1C,SS9 . .S88.

590. 606. 607. 613-14, 6 16-17. 618- 26. G27- 26. 637. 732 ln Romau Etnpitt. 20

in rwcnric1h ccmurymusic. 907 1(). 914

IS. 922. ?2•1, 936-39. 98 1-82 . 983 in 1wen1y-fu-st -«nh11y mus1e, 1006 V1s1gotl1~.18

Vury, Phihppede. 111, 118-19. 127. MI Virnldi.,\n1on10. 288. '108. 413-22. iN b,ogr•phyof. 414

Weber, Aloysi:i, 543 R''adft't auf. Buxtdrndc. 397 \V.sçl3woíS1amotul, 236- ~7

W.igcu&cil.Cc:orgCl1ri:1tupla. 51 4, 518 Wagner, Co.sima, 685. 688. 722

Wagner, ~ichard.683-95.685. 719 ancient Creek influences cm. 21 band trauSCnptt0ll$ of. 757 b1ography oi. 684 85 harmony oi, 693-91 influenceof.695. 715. 736. 742, 751.752. 182. 783. 181. 789. 79 1. 1n. 793. 796. 801.8 13.860. 873 h·c:11'11 quo1ations of. 850 li breu o, by. 596 Uederoí, 685 Meyerbeer's iníluence on, 469. 684. 685. 687 Narism:rnd.885 operasand mt1sie dramas of. 327, 619.

621,623.678.682,687-92, 717,7 18. 722. 807 wrir;ngs of. 683 85 W%'11Cr. Wieland. 717 \Vogucri•ns. 720 21, 730- 39

Wd.n!r, Carl .Mana vou. 655. 6?1 .as conducwr. 626 OJ>cra, of, 490, 656. 1,70-73.1,85.1,9 1 \'tfcl>er. Constauzc, 540, 543

Webcm,Anwn. 813.828. 828 30. 85•1, 967 83ch'5 iníluenoe on. 461

onflu<ncc of. 829-30. 83 1. 926. 933. 9•13 Mahler's iu0ucncc: ou. 783 Schocnb<rgand. 8 14.824 Webster. 6e11, 870-71 Web!Her. Joseph P.. 7S8

W,dd,n~Mor-<h. Mcodclssobn. 637 Wt-clkc~.1111,1ma1t, :l6 I

lmm.inu;m ;rnd, 227

William of Ockli:un. 113 WtUlam Pole.earloíSuffolk.175 a,'illiam TeJJ, Rossini. Siv. Guillaumr r,.11,

Ro~sini Wilhams, Hank. 9 12

Wt~cndouck, Madtildt:, 6-85

\Vo1bsh, John, -152-53. 459

wet;ternswmg, 912

W:tlter, Bruno. 1'd'l. H3, 1:11 1 \V;i.h<'r, Joh.inn, 219 \Vnhhcr. Jolumn Jakob. 403 W:i.hhcr ,·ou Jc:r Vogc:lwcidc, 79. 79, 83

lti"hu.r 1/l 11M.1.-rSpeede. Dowlaud. Z62 K'1<rt 1, '/'lus /,odr?(hlm), 873 lfhircAlbum. 111;. 1hc Reade:~. 1000

Wexlcr,Jçrr)'. '11:'l

lt'ohl.tl.'mptnn!!OOl'itr. Do.s, &ch . SeitWtlf·

Yale Univm11y, 754, 8H. 848,882.926 Ya.nbe Doodl, Boy. 'n1e, Coh:m, 773 Ydluw Magic On:.hestr3, 963-64 Y<llowShork. 11,e. Zapp,. 964 Y1dd1sh nnu;1c. 863

r_.mpen-d Oo~·;(!r. na_., lbch Wolf. Hu~o. 782 l,icderof. (,04. 736 37. 739,758.6 17 n::cc:ptiunc>Í. 739 ss W:.gncrt.:in, 732 \llulfe.Juh.i. 1)66 Wollhcim. nic:hard, 975 v.umeu rnu.siciao.~.SC'.i:alsosp«ific11am~s

in.1nck111Cr-cccc.9.!I, 12 inancient NtarEast, 7

363.409. 413-15. 416 bel cinro dl\':)s. 660 61 in C-011\'C ll lS, 64-65. 33-1-35 c:igl11c;co1l1-ecntury,433. 465. 467, .f68, 50 1.S39 A0. 541.542

Y<Jr\gc, Nic.hobs. 162. 260 Youug. La Moutc, 945. 975 76 l'oungCfrl Pia_yingtli, /.ur,(anon.),268 You ·~ tlu:Top. Poner. 86 1

YouTubc, 995. 996. 998. 1002 Y11go,la,1a, 856. 904 Zacccm1. lu~vico. 266

Zadww. Friedrieh W1)hd1u. 450 ZadoA•1hr Pru~6J, Handel. -t52 1.:app a, Fr:Jillt.."e:SCO, 96-1 7:app!.1. 1-'r:iuk. 9 15. 964

z.,·lino. C,osefío, 155. 226. 230. 2-19. 250. 251. 263. 282. 298. 299

11ine1ecu1h · «mtuy. 589. 611 - 13. 623, 62S-26.610. 6•13. 648. 715. 7S4- 55 Renais.. nee, 253. 25•1, 309. 310 1wcnheth c;c-:nmry. 715. 754 -55. 774.863. 878. 896 9!. 945, 911. 974. 983. 987

ianudàs. 375. 804

twçn1y-fm~1 ·ccnt111)'. 100'4. IOO? wumcu's musjc movcmc:n1, 974 women·s r1ghrs. 680. 857. 906 Wonder, S1cvlc. <) 16 Woods-tock fesm~l. 915

\Voolt. Virt,mia. 857 Wor«.Slc r fragmenta. 103. 108

World W,r l. 766. 771 . 856 World War li. 887, 888-89. 902. &,al.<ó N:nis1n

c1ghtcen1h·ccmury. 502

W,nmd Dr.-.u~r~ Thf'. Adam.s. 980

mcd1cv.,l.8 I, 136

Woz:eck. lkrg.8 19.824 27.825. 956 lr'~kel'l, Tiu·. SmJ1h. 71S Wrigho, Fr:onk Lloyd, 857

ninctccn1.h .. cct1tury. 59 1, 625, 755 56

X FClaor. TI1f' (1cle,'is1()n show). 997 Xc:n;aki:1, b nnit, 950. 951

medie\•:,J, 73, 75 mcdic\'al ~clucauon or. 70

Wordl'ress, 995

Mc,u1H)l;unian, 7

tfluthen.ng lleiglus (fllm), 874

B2rnqu e,r,a, 320- 21. 322-23. 331-32.

World as Q'iU 0-nd Rtpresenrat,on. Th~. Scbope1~h.a.uer. 692- 93 world bca1, 9út, World r•eace Jubi.lcc (Boswn). 615. 756

ancicnt Crcek. 9

Wcn. Gbchcs de. 253 54 lt'mlie-r. Mu~enet, 704 Wt. ShaU Q1,vrcome, 915

Wnghl, Wtlbur and Omite, 766 W111fs1an ofWinçl1c:g1i;r, 86

Wilson. Woodrnw. 766 Wmcllcs1erTropet. 86 87 wind en.semblc. 831>. IJ03. 1120. 922 wind u:u11nunc:n1t, Sa: alto sp«ifu: 1:,pes :incienr Jewish. 2~ &roque. 30•1. 354-SS

Weiss, Adolph. 9J3 W,11-T,mp<redQa.,,.,., Tht. 8,ch. 440-41.448. 46 1. 545. 614. 622. 884 Wcllc,. Ors~n. 919 \\1trekme1s1er. Andreas. 469

prchi,;toric, 5 R("nai~s.ince, 267,285 Wink. C]Jns. 971 lti"a,1terrtist. Schubtn. 597,60 1 Wip,o. <>2 Wirf>aiu:tt t'im: SruJ,, Hindc:mi1h, 882 Wittgcn$tcin. Paul. 799

Williams. John. 972 Wilson, Roben., 974}

We1mnr Republic. 856. 876. 880

\Vnlscgg. Fram:. 556

wal~ing bass. 31l6. 837 Walk-urt. Di~. Wagner. 687-92 lflollr, l.a, Cai,lano. 702

COllRtCf!ltlllll of. 230

Wcill. Kurt, 881-82. 884. 892. 901

Wtse11dot1ck ·.L~de-r. W.igncr, 685 Wtsley. S:unucl Sebastian. 6'18 We,1. K;mye. 1001 Wcsl End Blues. Olm:.r. 866-67,867 WesiS1deSw'7. 8enmcm, 918.9/8

\Valker. Thomas.489

c.arcer ur. 226. 282

A1 43

Zasmgcr. .\fanh:ius. 273 louberflt>tt, l>it, Mo,,n. Su Mogtc 1-11.l~. 7'he.

.\fo1,..,n 2:uec:la. Mana.ri. 976 Zeji(() tQm(l .-(U SOCl\"I OCCfttti, Monrcvcrd i,

330. 331 Zelter, Ca.rl Fr,edrich, 461,644 45 Zcmllnsky. Afe.vander , •uu, 8 14 7.~mlin$l)'. M.:ithildc rnn. 814

Zen Buddlu&m. 9•IO Zhot1 Long. 968 Ziegfold. ffort-nz. 859 7.iegfeld Follie,. 859 Zit<!{lt'r. Mána. 840 Z,p Coon. Rice, 676 :ire 'ngalcru. L.c, Vinci. '4 78. 479. 180 Zolfony. Jol,0110, ~06. 501 loroa 1h, c...-,k ( l,Jm). 9 19 'l.orn,John, 965-66, 967. 987.1008 loroa.sttt, R;ime.1u. 428 Zu111.s1ecg. Ernilit, 623

Zwc1g. Stcfan. 885 Zwilich, fllen T.1.:ifíe. 987