Place, Nations, Generations, Beings: 200 Years of Indigenous North American Art

Place, Nations, Generations, Beings 200 Years of Indigenous North American Art

Katherine Nova McCleary and Leah Tamar Shrestinian with Joseph Zordan PREFACE BYÂ

Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel ESSAY BY

Ned Blackhawk and Summer Sutton

Yale University Art Gallery New Haven

Publication made possible by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Jane and Gerald Katcher Fund for Education, and the Nolen-Bradley Family Fund for Education.

First published in 2019 by the Yale University Art Gallery P.O. Box 208271 New Haven, CT 06520-8271 artgallery.yale.edu/publications Published in conjunction with the exhibition Place, Nations, Generations, Beings: 200 Years of Indigenous North American Art, organized by the Yale University Art Gallery.

Yale University Art Gallery November 1, 2019–June 21, 2020

Copyright © 2019 by Yale University.

All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers.

Tiffany Sprague, Director of Publications and Editorial Services Christopher Sleboda, Director of Graphic Design Jennifer Lu, Editorial and Production Assistant Copyeditors: Zsofia Jilling and Madeline Kloss Johnson Proofreaders: Laura Napolitano and Stacey A. Wujcik Set in Ginto Normal and Noto Sans Regular Printed at GHP, West Haven, Conn.

ISBN 978-0-89467-982-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2019936360 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cover illustrations: Marie Watt (Seneca), First Teachers Balance the Universe, Part II: Things That Fly (Prey) (detail, front cover) and First Teachers Balance the Universe, Part I: Things That Fly (Predator) (detail, back cover), 2015. Reclaimed wool blankets, embroidery floss, and thread. Yale University Art Gallery, Janet and Simeon Braguin Fund, 2018.181.1–.2

6 Director’s Foreword

49 Catalogue

8 Acknowledgments

50 Place

12 Preface: Belonging to the Trail Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel

78 Nations

15 Note to the Reader 17 Entangled Pasts, Collaborative Futures: Reimagining Indigenous North American Art at Yale Katherine Nova McCleary and Leah Tamar Shrestinian 37 Spaces for Expression: Art and Knowledge Sharing at the Native American Cultural Center Ned Blackhawk and Summer Sutton

120 Generations 160 Beings 192 Photo Credits

PREFACE: BELONGING TO THE TRAIL Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel (Mohegan) The Quinnipiac Nation belongs to the territory now known as New Haven, Connecticut.

According to Indigenous scholar Lisa T. Brooks (Wabanaki), a nation cultivates and renews such “belonging” through connective acts of kinship with the land, waters, plants, animals, spirit beings, ancestors, and living people of a place.¹ The Quinnipiac people forged connections to the neighboring Mohegans as one way of strengthening their belonging in Connecticut and protecting their Northeast woodland home from colonial expansion; for example, in 1775 Solomon Adams (Quinnipiac and Farmington) married Olive Occom (Montauk and Mohegan), the daughter of prominent Mohegan Samson Occom. Like many eighteenth-century Natives of the region, Olive and Solomon Adams sought to further broaden their tribal bonds in the Northeast: they joined the Indigenous Brothertown Movement in upstate New York, where they could live with extended tribal kin, free from immediate colonial encroachment.² Other nearby Native nations survived by staying put, including the Eastern Pequot, Golden Hill Paugussett, Mashantucket Pequot, Mohegan, and Schaghticoke. Some members of these

I wish to thank Mohegan Medicine Woman Gladys Tantaquidgeon and Nonner Jayne Fawcett for passing on oral tradition regarding Northeast woodland basket designs, Mohegan Archivist Emeritus Nonner Faith Davison for her Quinnipiac bibliographical material and research in the Mohegan archives, and beloved Schaghticoke elder Trudie Lamb Richmond for first introducing me to the history of the Quinnipiac and their sachem, Shaumpishuh, in the 1980s.

I am also indebted to Lisa T. Brooks for her descriptions of the notion of Northeast woodland Native “belonging” in her masterful book, Our Beloved Kin (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2018), and for allowing me to cite her.

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Native nations expressed their sense of belonging by painting meaningful designs on baskets and other items.

For the Mohegan people, the Trail of Life symbol is one such design (fig. 1). It depicts the region’s rolling landscape, punctuated by small dots (representing people) and sometimes by leaves (representing woodland remedies). This symbol reminds us that, when we are at the bottom of life’s trail, healing plants, ancestors, living people, and others can lead us back uphill, for all beings are interdependent. The Trail of Life is also known as the east–west Path of the Sun, which reflects our journey from birth and sunrise to our passing into the spirit land and sunset. A third name for this symbol is the Great White Path, which describes the swirling trail of our pipe smoke, as it sends prayers to the spirit beings and ancestors among the stars in the Smoky (Milky) Way. Thus, sun, sky, stars, land, plants, ancestors, and living people are intertwined in this symbol, emphasizing the need for connective, and reciprocal, caring for the health of all. The late Mohegan Medicine Woman Gladys Tantaquidgeon and her niece Nonner Jayne G. Fawcett explain how the spirit of our baskets is reflected in these painted symbols: “To the Mohegan, designs and life are more than simple representations of nature. There is a spiritual force that flows through all things, and if these symbols are true representations of that force, this spirit should be expressed in the designs.” ³

1.

2.

3.

Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 17, 20, 173.

Samson Occom was one of the founders of the Brothertown Movement. W. DeLoss Love, Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 353–54.

Gladys Tantaquidgeon and Jayne G. Fawcett, “Symbolic Motifs on Painted Baskets of the Mohegan-Pequot,” in A Key into the Language of Woodsplint Baskets, ed.

Ann McMullen and Russell G. Handsman (Washington, Conn.: American Indian Archaeological Institute, 1987), 99–100.

Exhibiting such spirited Northeast woodland basket art is not new to Connecticut. Our Mohegan Tribe’s Tantaquidgeon Museum, in Uncasville, has showcased baskets and other Indigenous objects since 1931, making it the oldest Native-owned and -operated museum in America. This institution was originally built by Chief Harold Tantaquidgeon and his father, John, and curated by Gladys Tantaquidgeon. During Gladys’s long life (1899–2005), visitors to the Tantaquidgeon Museum included faculty and staff affiliated with Yale University. As a young woman, Gladys knew George Grant MacCurdy, Curator of Archaeology and Anthropology at the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History from 1902 to 1931. His widow, anthropology scholar Janet G. B. MacCurdy, maintained a friendship with Gladys, and I sometimes accompanied Gladys on visits to the MacCurdys’ home in Old Lyme, Connecticut. Harold Conklin, who taught anthropology at Yale and served as the Peabody’s Curator of Anthropology from 1974 to 1996, enjoyed visiting Gladys at the Tantaquidgeon Museum, as did Lyent

Russell of Yale’s Department of Physics, who shared with Gladys a special love of painted Northeast woodland baskets.

Just as Gladys helped Yale scholars understand baskets and other Native objects, our tribe’s ongoing collaboration with Yale is evident in our participation in Place, Nations, Generations, Beings: 200 Years of Indigenous North American Art. It is our way of continuing to cultivate that relationship through a connective act. As tribal people, we realize that presenting Indigenous concepts, like “belonging,” represents an untrodden trail for many museums. We therefore honor this exhibition’s attempt to illuminate such philosophies through Native voices. It constitutes a firm step on a better trail, for Yale and for Native people—a more collaborative path, open to Native philosophy and spirit, that may lead to a brighter hilltop overlooking a more interconnected space of active belonging to Quinnehtukqut (Connecticut), Turtle Island (North America), Mother Earth, and our universe.

Fig. 1. Trail of Life symbol

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Place Place Place Place

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We’ve always known our way of life comes from the place or land. . . .

We know that place includes land and waters, plants and animals, and the spiritual world—a peopled cosmos of influencing powers.

—Leanne Betasamosake Simpson (Michi Saagiig Nishnaabeg), scholar¹

Most of the art in this exhibition was collected between 1870 and 1930, a period marked by the violent dispossession of land for Indigenous North American peoples. Settler policies and genocidal acts, such as mass relocations, massacres, and imprisonment, forced Indigenous peoples from their territories and attempted to sever their relationships with their lands and waterways.

During this period, Yale scholars took part in a practice known as “salvage anthropology,” collecting and studying Indigenous art and objects to preserve supposedly disappearing societies.

Yale-affiliated collectors—such as William P. Sargent, who gifted hundreds of objects to the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History’s Division of Anthropology in 1937—similarly viewed themselves as part of the movement to “save” Indigenous cultures.

In actuality, their efforts aided the process of cultural genocide, often removing funerary and sacred items from their nations.

Disconnecting a people from their material history—from their art—also disconnects them from their ancestors, their culture, and their belief systems.

The fact that Yale’s campus was built on Quinnipiac and other Algonquian-speaking peoples’ territory implicates the University in the separation of Indigenous peoples from their lands. As a result of colonization and assimilation, there is no longer an organized Quinnipiac Nation. Surrounding nations, including the Mohegan and Pequot Nations, maintain relationships with the

1.

Leanne Betasamosake Simpson, As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom through Radical Resistance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017), 22.

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lands in and around New Haven, Connecticut.² Yale’s collections once included hundreds of works by artists from Indigenous nations in present-day Connecticut, including many from the Mohegan Nation. In 2018, after years of discussion, the Peabody returned more than three hundred Mohegan objects in its collection to that nation; Chief Mutáwi Mutáhash (Many Hearts) Marilynn Malerba noted the healing to be found in the objects’ return, saying, “With the return of these sacred objects, wholeness has been restored to our Mohegan people.”³ A hickory wood-splint basket with designs that express Mohegan understandings of the universe (cat. 1) is included in this exhibition (as is a maple burl bowl by Justin Scott; cat. 83) to acknowledge the Mohegan people and other Algonquian speakers as the continued and rightful custodians of the land Yale occupies.

Through their designs, materials, and histories, the objects in this section speak to Indigenous nations’ and artists’ connections to place, which persist despite colonization. For example, Cherokee artist Peggy Scott Vann’s i-hya (river cane) basket (cat. 2) affirms Cherokee women’s ties to their ancestral lands.

Cherokee women like Scott Vann have long transformed their environments and shaped their landscapes through their use of i-hya, collecting it by rivers and burning woods and grasslands to coax the plant to spread. Burning rejuvenates canebrakes, making space for new growth. Taking care of the canebrakes in this way allowed Cherokee people to grow enough of the 2.

3.

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Relationships with the land look different for different nations and may include harvesting and hunting, visiting ancestors’ graves, taking care of culturally important sites and sharing stories of these locations, or a number of other ways in which Indigenous peoples may choose to maintain relationships with their lands.

Mike Cummings, “Peabody Completes Transfer of Artifacts to Mohegan Tribe,” YaleNews, March 26, 2018, https://news.yale.edu/2018/03/26/peabody-completes -transfer-artifacts-mohegan-tribe.

PLACE

material that they could harvest i-hya not only for basketry but also to make medicine, instruments, tools, and building materials. Scott Vann wove this basket using a technique known as “double-weave” shortly before her death in 1820. In the 1830s, the United States removed many Cherokee people from their homes, forcing them west to lands with different resources. Postremoval, artists had less access to i-hya and limited ability to care for canebrakes through burning. Some artists were relocated to areas without river cane, while those who stayed saw it become scarce due to settler-induced environmental degradation. Many artists adapted, using new materials to make works such as the white oak basket in this section (cat. 3); others continued to weave with i-hya, going to great lengths to harvest it. In recent years, programs supported by the Cherokee Preservation Foundation and the Cherokee Nation’s Natural Resources Office, among others, have helped revitalize canebrakes and reintroduce burning practices.

In her basket Our Lands Are Not Lines on Paper (cat. 5), Shan Goshorn (Eastern Band of Cherokee) wove together a historical settler map of Cherokee territory and a photograph of the Great Smoky Mountains, which are located on Cherokee lands.

With these images, printed on paper splints, Goshorn created a single-weave basket that exhibits a traditional pattern known as “Mountain” or “River” design. Her work asks the viewer to contemplate the incompatibility between settler notions of land ownership and Indigenous understandings of belonging to a place. The Smoky Mountain photograph and the Mountain/ River design on her work speak to the abstracted mountains also woven into Scott Vann’s basket. Despite settler encroachment and the fracturing of Cherokee communities, these two baskets, made two centuries apart, reaffirm the continued relationships between Cherokee women and their homelands.

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Though the objects in this exhibition may reside in Yale collections, they remain tied to their homelands and nations.

They belong to those who wove, carved, and shaped them; they belong to those who used and cared for them; they belong, still, to the thriving nations from which they come. As emissaries of their respective nations, these objects speak to not only the violence of settler colonialism but also the resistance and creativity of their artists.

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1

Artist Once Known Mohegan

Basket ca. 1860s Hickory with dye 5 1/8 × 12 3/16 × 6 11/16 in. (13 × 31 × 17 cm) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.145107

The faded designs on this wood-splint basket embody Mohegan philosophies and theories of life.¹ The motif of a red circle surrounded by blue dots and encircled by four domes repeats and wraps around the center of the basket. Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel, the Medicine Woman and Tribal Historian of the Mohegan Nation, describes the central red circle as the spiritual life force of the universe, the four domes as the four directions, and the dots around the central design as the Mohegan people.² This motif closely resembles the emblem of the Mohegan Nation, one of two federally recognized Indigenous nations in present-day Connecticut. —KNM 1. Gladys Tantaquidgeon and Jayne G. Fawcett, “Symbolic Motifs on Painted Baskets of the Mohegan-Pequot,” in A Key into the Language of Woodsplint Baskets, ed.

Anne McMullen and Russell G. Handsman (Washington, Conn.: American Indian Archaeological Institute, 1987), 95–101.

2. Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel, conversation with author, October 2018.

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7–8

Marie Watt Seneca BORN 1967, M.F.A. 1996

First Teachers Balance the Universe, Part I: Things That Fly (Predator) First Teachers Balance the Universe, Part II: Things That Fly (Prey) 2015 Reclaimed wool blankets, embroidery floss, and thread each 6 ft. 2 in. × 11 ft. 4 in. (188 × 345.4 cm) Yale University Art Gallery, Janet and Simeon Braguin Fund, 2018.181.1–.2

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“Our creation story is about Sky Woman, and she falls from the sky, and she’s supported in this new place that we come to call Turtle Island by a motley crew of animals. And so in our community, we refer to animals as our first teachers.” —Marie Watt¹ Together, these two textiles form an immense set of wings and depict a surreal space inhabited by the herons, snipes, hawks, and others who taught the Seneca’s first ancestor, Sky Woman, to live on Earth.

Dotted among the first teachers are myriad other things that fly: UFOs, drones, and hot-air balloons among them. The left wing, Part I: Things That Fly (Predator), shows a Reaper MQ-9 advancing toward the large eagle that is stitched into the right wing, Part II: Things That Fly (Prey). The smaller aircraft and birds sprinkled throughout both panels correspond to places Watt has lived as well as where the works

were made. The Boeing airplanes and Amazon drones, for instance, recall her home in the Pacific Northwest, while the hot-air balloons and UFOs are associated in popular culture with Santa Fe, where she led sewing circles with students and community members who helped embroider the textiles, adding their unique styles to the works. With these textiles, Watt draws on Seneca beliefs to reflect upon our twenty-first-century environment as both thriving and vulnerable. —KNM and LTS 1.

“Sewing Circles for SITE Santa Fe,” Marie Watt Studio, July 23, 2015, http://www.mariewattstudio.com/news /article/sewing-circles-for-site-santa-fe.

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16

Artist Once Known Anishinaabe

Miniature Canoe 1850–75 Birchbark with porcupine quills and dye 2 9/16 × 7 1/2 × 2 1/16 in. (6.5 × 19 × 5.3 cm) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.010768

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20–25

Will Wilson Diné (Navajo) BORN 1969 Casey Camp Horinek, Citizen of Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, “Zhutni,” Tribal Councilwoman, Leader of Scalp Dance Society, Sundancer, Delegate to UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Matriarch of Wonderful Family (Grandmother, Companion, Mother, Sister), Defender of Mother Earth Dwain Camp, Ponca, “Shongaska (What Horse, Same Name as Gus McDonald),” Descendant of Gus McDonald, Defender of Mother Earth, Native Rights Activist, Wounded Knee Veteran, Chaplain of Scalp Dance Society, Eldest of Camp Family Crew, and Craig Camp, Sr., Citizen of Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, “Zhaba Zhinga,” Gus McDonald Descendant, AIM Member, Vietnam Veteran, Wounded Knee Veteran, Alcatraz Veteran, Defender of Mother Earth, Lifelong Sundancer Tamara G. White Eagle, Citizen of Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, Great Granddaughter of Oscar Makes Cry, Hazel Headman, Citizen of Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, Granddaughter of Oscar Makes Cry, and Rose I. Kamdlekaule, Citizen of Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, Great Granddaughter of Oscar Makes Cry, Mother of Bruce A. Johnson Ann Marie Woolworth, Citizen of Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, Age 13, Basketball Player, Grandparents Are Woolworth and Madbull Enoch Kelly Haney, Citizen of Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, Artist, Former State Senator and Principal Chief of Seminole Nation of Oklahoma Brielle Turney, Citizen of Comanche Nation, Descendant of Chiefs Mugura and Aritka-papi 2016 Archival pigment prints from wet-plate collodion scans 20 × 15 7/8 in. (50.7 × 40.4 cm); 9 11/16 × 7 11/16 in. (24.6 × 19.6 cm); 9 7/8 × 7 7/8 in. (25.2 × 20 cm); 9 13/16 × 7 3/16 in.

(24.9 × 19.6 cm); 20 × 16 in. (50.8 × 40.6 cm); 19 15/16 × 15 7/8 in. (50.7 × 40.4 cm)

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NATIONS

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale Collection of Western Americana, WA Photos Folio 184 Will Wilson began the Critical Indigenous Photographic Exchange project in 2012 with the intent to, in his words, “supplant” the work of Edward Curtis, a white photographer who took portraits of Indigenous people in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.¹ Wilson uses a wet-plate collodion process, the same as Curtis, but employs a radically different, collaborative practice.² The individuals in Wilson’s photos have the agency to choose their poses and clothes, and they write captions for their own images.³ Wilson gifts the tintype to the participant and, with their permission, creates reproductions of the image. Through this project, Wilson empowers Indigenous peoples to represent themselves on their own terms. —KNM 1.

2.

3.

Will Wilson, “About Me,” PhotoShelter, accessed July 11, 2019, https://willwilson.photoshelter.com/about/index.

“Re-Imagining Indigenous Portraiture: Will Wilson’s Critical Indigenous Photographic Exchange,” Aboriginal Curatorial Collective, May 20, 2013, https://www.acc-cca .com/research-page/archived-articles/re-imagining -indigenous-portraiture-will-wilsons-critical-indigenous -photographic-exchange/.

Wilson, “About Me.”

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86

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NATIONS

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66

Robert P. Tenorio Santo Domingo Pueblo (Kewa) BORN 1950

Bowl 2019 Earthenware with pigment h. 7 1/2 × diam. 13 1/2 in. (19.1 × 34.3 cm) Yale University Art Gallery, Janet and Simeon Braguin Fund, 2019.49.3

Robert P. Tenorio’s grandmother, Andrea Ortiz, and other family members began teaching Tenorio to shape clay when he was just ten years old.¹ He later attended the Institute of American Indian Arts, where he learned to work with processed clays and electric kilns. After graduation, Tenorio returned to his community and to the techniques his family had taught him. This bowl is made from organic materials, hand-constructed in the traditional coil method, and fired outdoors in an open kiln, using cottonwood bark as fuel. Tenorio says, “I believe I was put in this world to revive Santo Domingo pottery.”² —KNM 1.

2.

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GENERATIONS

“Robert Tenorio,” ShumaKolowa Native Arts, Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, accessed July 19, 2019, https:// shumakolowa.com/pages/robert-tenorio.

“Robert Tenorio,” Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian, accessed July 19, 2019, https:// wheelwright.org/artists/robert-tenorio/.

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Richard Hunt Kwakwaka’wakw BORN 1951

Sea Monster Mask 1999 Red cedar with pigment and metal 26 3/8 × 15 3/8 × 7 5/16 in. (67 × 39 × 18.5 cm) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.256928

This dynamic mask by Richard Hunt depicts a sea monster surrounded by three rockfish. According to the artist, the mask represents a moment in the story of this sea monster when he rose to the surface of the water and a duck landed on his head.¹ Masks like this one are often danced at ceremonies and during important events. This mask has a movable jaw that quivers and waves with the movements of the dancer; similarly, the wings of the duck move to evoke flight.

1.

168

BEINGS

Richard Hunt, email correspondence with Joseph Zordan, August 14, 2019.

BEINGS

169

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Artist Once Known Pomo

Gift Basket early 20th century Sedge root, feathers, clamshell, and abalone shell h. 3 15/16 × diam. 4 5/16 in. (10 × 11 cm) (without handle) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.017167

“You got to feed that basket. That’s what this Strawberry deal is for. . . . Strawberry is to dedicate all new things.

Acorn in the fall for the harvest. Each time to bless that basket.” —Mabel McKay (Pomo), basket weaver¹ Feathered baskets like this one are often living beings that were not made to be displayed in museums behind glass, separated from their communities. As Pomo artist Susan Billy says, “The baskets are alive and need to be handled. They need your body oils, and your care.”² Likely made for the tourist trade, or as a gift to commemorate a special occasion or to help redistribute wealth within the community, the basket is adorned with bright yellow, blue, and green feathers, which are woven into its foundation, as well as with strings of white clamshell disk beads and iridescent abalone pendants. —LTS 1.

2.

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BEINGS

Greg Sarris, Mabel McKay: Weaving the Dream (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 147.

Susan Billy, in Sheridan Hough, “Phenomenology, Pomo Baskets, and the Work of Mabel McKay,” in “Indigenous Woman in the Americas,” special issue, Hypatia 18, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 103–13.

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Artist Once Known Anishinaabe

Birchbark Tray ca. 1840 Birchbark and porcupine quills with dye 3 1/8 × 13 × 5 7/8 in. (8 × 33 × 15 cm) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.029084

In the early nineteenth century, Christian missionaries promoted quillwork among the Anishinaabeg as an example of Indigenous “industriousness,” likening it to European embroidery, which was similarly encouraged for Christian women and girls. Missionaries approved of abstract designs, which they saw as neutral and not conflicting with Christianity.¹ While quillwork artists often altered their work to meet market and missionary demands, the resulting designs are far from neutral in meaning and continue to express Anishinaabe cosmologies. The X at the center of this tray, for example, may allude to the four directions (north, south, east, and west), which are vitally important to the Anishinaabeg, while the arched motifs near the handles that look like butterflies may reference, for an Anishinaabe viewer, Animiki (Thunderbird). —LTS 1.

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Ruth B. Phillips, Trading Identities: The Souvenir in Native North American Art from the Northeast, 1700–1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 177.

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Artist Once Known Dené

Moccasins ca. early to mid-20th century Moose hide, glass beads, and fur each 3 15/16 × 10 7/16 × 3 15/16 in. (10 × 26.5 × 10 cm) Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, ypm ant.205128

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PHOTO CREDITS Every effort has been made to credit the artists and the sources; if there are errors or omissions, please contact the Yale University Art Gallery so that corrections can be made in any subsequent editions. All images courtesy Visual Resources Department, Yale University Art Gallery, unless otherwise noted.

Courtesy Grandchildren of George Ahgupuk, David P. and Christine Sweeney, and the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 51 Courtesy the Richard E. Bartow Estate and Froelick Gallery, Portland, OR: cats. 71–72 Courtesy the Richard E. Bartow Estate and Froelick Gallery, Portland, OR. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cat. 26 Image courtesy Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

Photo: Meredith Miller: McCleary and Shrestinian, fig. 4 © Julie Buffalohead: cat. 81 © Clarence Cruz. Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 9 © Estate of Sally Cypress. Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 55 © Shan Goshorn: cat. 5 Courtesy Jack Cruz Hopkins, Jr. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cat. 60 © Richard Hunt. Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 73 © Estate of Sam Jacobs. Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 47 © Brent Learned, Graduate of the University of Kansas: Blackhawk and Sutton, fig. 5 © Cannupa Hanska Luger: cat. 82 Courtesy Estate of Maria Martinez: cat. 63 © Les Namingha: cat. 11 © Wallace Nez: cat. 86 © Estate of Wah Peen (Gilbert Benjamin Atencio). Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cat. 59 Text by Stephen Pitti, Head of Ezra Stiles College: McCleary and Shrestinian, fig. 1 © Ryan RedCorn and Bobby Wilson: Blackhawk and Sutton, fig. 2 © Estate of Fritz Scholder: cat. 43 © Justin Scott. Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cat. 83 © Robert P. Tenorio: cat. 66 © Dominique Toya: cat. 10

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© Kathleen Wall: McCleary and Shrestinian, fig. 7 Courtesy Jonathan Warm Day Coming and Christopher Gomez. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cat. 61 © Marie Watt: cover ills. © Marie Watt. Image courtesy Marie Watt Studio. Photo: Aaron Johanson: cats. 7–8 © Estate of Ma Pe Wi (Velino Shije Herrera). Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cat. 84 © Will Wilson, Artist. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cats. 20–25 Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library: cats. 30–40, 67–69, 77–80, 85 Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: cats.

1–4, 6, 12–19, 27–29, 41–42, 44–46, 48–50, 52–54, 56–58, 62, 64–65, 70, 74–76, 87–90 Courtesy Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History. Image © Percy Ulsamer: McCleary and Shrestinian, fig. 2