WTO Publications catalogue 2016/2017

WTO PUBLICATIONS CATALOGUE 2016/2017

Who we are The World Trade Organization (WTO) deals with the global rules of trade between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible.

Using this catalogue This catalogue lists all titles published by the WTO as of June 2016.

Prices are subject to change without notice.

New information on WTO titles is provided on our website at www.wto.org/publications.

Find out more Visit www.wto.org to register and receive free alerts when new titles become available.

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To order WTO Bookshop www.wto.org/bookshop WTO Online Bookshop http://onlinebookshop.wto.org General enquiries /orders publications@wto.org /sales@wto.org Telephone +41 (0)22 739 51 05

Contents 3

About the WTO

7

Trade topics 8 Agriculture

9 Anti-dumping, subsidies, safeguards

34 Services 41 Technical barriers to trade

13 Environment

45 Trade facilitation and customs valuation

22 Intellectual property

Contents

32 Sanitary and phytosanitary measures

12 E-commerce

20 Government procurement

1

28 Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs)

27 Information Technology Agreement (ITA)

49 Trade finance

50 Economic research and trade policy analysis

51 World Trade Reports

53 Global value chains

99

Trade monitoring

57 Trade and employment

103

WTO accessions

61 Trade policy analysis 67 Trade and poverty reduction

109 Supporting development

and building trade capacity Civil society

119

WTO history and building

71 Statistics

127

Resources and apps

79

Dispute settlement

131

Sales information

91

Legal texts

70 Tariff negotiations

Contents

117

69 Trade and public health

2

About the WTO

Annual Report 2016 The Annual Report 2016 begins with a message from the WTO Director-General and an overview of 2015. This is followed by more in-depth accounts of the WTO’s areas of activity over the past 12 months, with a spotlight on all the major events of 2015.

NEW

Annual Report 2016

WEB

1. Introduction Message from Director‑General Roberto Azevêdo Understanding the WTO

Spotlight:

20th anniversary of the WTO

See page

8

A brief history

6

Spotlight: 20th anniversary of the WTO

8

4

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard 10 Rue de Lausanne 154

2. A year in review

The WTO celebrated its 20th birthday on 1 January 2015.

2015: a snapshot

12

Our year

14

24

ISBN 978-92-870-4073-2

Spotlight: Nairobi MinisterialGeneva Conference2120 CH-1211

3. Membership Joining the WTO

2016

2 2

Annual Report 2016

Annual Report

Major events of 2015

Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 email: enquiries@wto.org 22 Website: www.wto.org

A global membership

28

Spotlight:

4. Trade negotiations

20

5. Implementation and monitoring

Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

Fifth Global Review of Aid for Trade See page

126

6. Dispute settlement

116

The WTO aims to help developing countries build their trade capacity and allows them a longer time to implement trade agreements. Hundreds of training courses are organized each year for officials from developing countries.

8. Outreach

9. Secretariat and budget

ISBN 9789287040732

166

The WTO Secretariat has over 600 regular staff and coordinates the activities of the WTO. Most of the WTO’s annual budget consists of contributions by its members.

Spotlight:

WTO Open Day

How the WTO is structured

178

WTO Chairpersons (as of 31 December 2015)

179

Membership of the WTO (as of 31 December 2015)

The WTO’s fifth Open Day took place on 14 June 2015.

Abbreviations and further information Download the app

Rapport annuel de l’OMC 2016 ISBN 9789287040749

180 181 182 Annual Report 2016 World Trade Organization

PRINT-1068-OMC-Rapport2016-20160512.indb 2

Published in May 2016 | 188 pages CHF 50.-

136

The WTO maintains regular dialogue with non‑governmental organizations, parliamentarians, other international organizations, the media and the general public to enhance cooperation and raise awareness of trade issues.

140 156

12/05/2016 12:21

7. Supporting development and building trade capacity

Public Forum 2015

See page

100

WTO members bring disputes to the WTO if they think their rights under trade agreements are being infringed. Settling disputes is the responsibility of the Dispute Settlement Body.

1068-OMC-Rapport2016-00-CoverPlanche.indd 4-1

The Fifth Global Review of Aid for Trade took place from 30 June to 2 July 2015.

Spotlight:

See page

12/05/2016 12:21

48

Various WTO councils and committees seek to ensure that WTO agreements are being properly World implemented.

Trade Organization All WTO members undergo periodic scrutiny of their trade policies Centre William Rappard and practices.

ISBN 978-92-870-4073-2

Spotlight:

The Public Forum took place from 30 September to 2 October 2015.

30

Changes to the rules of trade require the agreement of all WTO members, who must reach 1068-OMC-Rapport2016-00-CoverPlanche.indd 4-1 consensus through rounds of negotiations.

See page

Annual Report 2016

The Nairobi Ministerial Conference took place from 15 to 19 December 2015.

1

18/05/2016 13:31 PRINT-1068-OMC-Rapport2016-20160512.indb 1

18/05/2016 13:31

SEE ALSO

Annual Report app 130

Informe Anual de la OMC 2016 ISBN 9789287040756

About the WTO

Nairobi Ministerial Conference

4

10 Things the WTO Can Do The world is complex. The World Trade Organization is complex. This booklet is brief, but it tries to reflect the complex and dynamic natures of trade and the WTO’s trade rules. It highlights some of the benefits of the trading system, but it doesn’t claim that everything is perfect— otherwise there would be no need for further negotiations and for the system to evolve and reform continually.

WEB

FREE 2 ... settle disputes and reduce trade tensions

Before World War II, there was no forum for global trade negotiations, and no legal procedure for settling disputes.

10

11

7 9

7

7

11 20

10 20

09

08

20

20

07

06

20

05

20

20

04

03

20

20

02

01

20

00

20

99

20

19

4 3

6

Against developing countries

29

6 19

Against developed countries

10

20

More than 90% of rulings have been complied with by the responding countries, less than 4% resulted in sanctions by the complaining countries.

31

13

8

20

29 12

19

17

14

10 16

11

9

6 13

7

11

5

9 6 7

10

7 7

11 6

3 4

09

08

07

11 20

06

10 20

05

04

20

20

03

02

20

01

20

00

99

20

20

98

20

97

20

96

20

95

19

19

19

19

20

The average time taken in panel proceedings is 10 months.

In other international organizations or even national courts, the time taken can be two to five years.

19

24

10 6

21

Sources: WTO dispute settlement data; Raúl A. Torres, “Use of the Mechanism by the Latin WTO Trade Dispute Settlement American Working Paper ERSD-2012-03, Countries — dispelling myths and breaking down barriers”, WTO February 2012.

Staff

13

Integrated Navigation Radio from Canada.

Horizontal stabilizers from Italy Titanium sheets from China

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries’ wing from Japan

exhaust nozzle, And there’s a turbine engine titanium sheets from brought in from Mexico just the first three made in China. Those are up from a glance telling examples that show – with each through US Customs records American workers import necessary to the in places like Everton.

7

Complaints against developing / developed Annual number of cases countries

Rolls-Royce Trent engine from UK and France

Unit from Germany There’s also a Valve Control for keeping their that – passengers can thank tolerable limits. cabin air pressure within

10

7 12

10

5

... were brought to the WTO from 1995 to 2011.

Less than half resulted in the establishment of dispute panels.

A large number were resolved through discussions between the parties and never reached the panel stage.

Engine exhaust nozzle from Mexico

System There’s the Integrated Surveillance Navigation Radio, Processor and an Integrated from Canada.

19

7

OvER

400

DIS PUTES ...

98

Surveillance System Processor from Canada

16

17 19

97

Automated passenger doors from France

18

10 24

96

‘Made in … where?’ aircraft may be 12 The Boeing Dreamliner with essential imports made in America, but other places that sourced from so many where to begin. it’s difficult to know

By developing countries By developed countries

23

5 36

14

95

10 cosas que puede hacer la OMC ISBN 9789287038333

Dispute settlement is sometimes described as the jewel in the WTO’s crown.

It’s the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and the WTO’s unique contribution to the stability of the global economy.

WTO dispute settlement focuses countries’ attention on the rules. Once a verdict has been announced, countries concentrate on complying with the rules, and perhaps later renegotiating them — rather than declaring war on each other.

disputes

10 40

32

14

Sometimes the exchanges between the countries in conflict can be acrimonious, to conform to the agreements but they always aim and commitments that they themselves negotiated.

19

ISBN 9789287038319

19

19

After the war, the world’s community of trading nations negotiated trade rules which are now entrusted to the WTO. Settling their differences by talking and by agreeing on rules is vital for reducing tension.

Those rules also include an obligation for members to bring their disputes to the WTO and not to act unilaterally.

are more active in WTO

Complaints by developing / developed countries Annual number of cases

19

5

they can also bring friction: more trade increases the possibility of disputes.

In disputes have erupted into the past, such serious conflict.

But today, international trade tension is reduced because countries can turn to particular the WTO, to settle organizations, in their trade disputes.

Published in 2012 | 54 pages Free

10 choses que l’OMC peut faire ISBN 9789287038326

have huge benefits but

Developing countries

The annual number of disputes countries are active, reflecting has declined overall. Developing their increasing participation However, their share of in trade. disputes — either in initiating being complained against complaints or — has fluctuated over the years.

there judging who is right or wrong. is a clear basis for Once the judgement has been made, the agreements provide the focus for any further actions that need to be taken.

The increasing number of disputes brought to the WTO does not reflect increasing tension in the world. Rather, it reflects the closer economic ties throughout the world, the WTO’s expanding membership and the fact that in the system to solve their countries have faith differences.

19

About the WTO

Closer relationships

Well over 400 disputes have been brought to the WTO since it was set up in 1995. of tackling these constructively Without a means and harmoniously, some could have spiralled into more serious political conflict.

The fact that the disputes are based on WTO agreements means that

the big-ticket items: That doesn’t even get to engine, the the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 UK and France; the testing in wind tunnels in wing; Italian the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries’ France, and from horizontal stabilizers, doors from Sweden, India, other critical components long list.

South Korea – it’s a very

as the The Dreamliner is as cosmopolitan workers American American people. Boeing’s their jobs depend should love imports, because upon them.

February “Made in America?”, 21 Source: Greg Rushford, www.rushfordrepor t.com 2012, Rushford Report,

25

DVD: The WTO in Video

Published in 2006 | Trilingual CHF 60.DVD: La OMC en video DVD: L’OMC en vidéo

This trilingual two volume collection includes four videos produced by the WTO Secretariat. Developed as an introductory training tool, this DVD provides essential information on how the WTO system works, the evolution of the trading system from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), how trade disputes are solved through the dispute settlement system, and a tour of the WTO building. Includes To the Heart of the WTO, From GATT to WTO – Achievements and Challenges, Solving Trade Disputes and A Students’ Visit to the WTO.

ISBN 9789287033376

ISBN 9789287034182 La OMC en pocas palabras ISBN 9789287034205 L’OMC en quelques mots ISBN 9789287034199

WTO in Brief WTO in Brief provides a starting point for essential information about the World Trade Organization. Concise and practical, this short brochure is an ideal introduction to the WTO. WEB

About the WTO

Published in 2003 | 8 pages Free

FREE

6

Trade topics

Agriculture

The WTO Agreements Series Agriculture

(3rd edition)

Third edition

WTO Agreements Series The WTO Agreements Series Agriculture

This new edition provides an introduction to the WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture, outlining its key principles, the work of the Agriculture Committee, and how disputes have interpreted WTO law on agriculture.

The publication includes the full text of the Agriculture Agreement as well as the decisions taken on agriculture at the 2013 Bali Ministerial Conference and the 2015 Nairobi Ministerial Conference. It is the latest title in the WTO Agreements Series, which aims to assist understanding of the WTO agreements.

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH - 1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland

' + 41 (0)22 739 51 11 7 + 41 (0)22 731 42 06 @ enquiries@wto.org  www.wto.org

FORTHCOMING

200

Table NF:1

ng developing countries)

WTO Agreements

Series

ISSN 10204768

150

50

2014

2015*

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2003

2004

2005

2001

Market access notifications

2006

2002

* up to 10 April 2015.

Details of what has to be reported

2007

1995

0 1996

NF Follow-up to the NFIDC decision

The notifications that each member has to By the submit largely depends first quarter of on 2015, more than it made. Many members the commitments 3,500 agriculture notifications had only have to submit been a limited number. submitted to the All have to submit WTO for review (see two: 5). These Figure Tables DS:1 on domestic notifications provide support and ES:1 information on export subsidies, on the agricultural even when they policies implemented have WTO members not subsidized. Some by and are publicly notifications have available to via a database be submitted periodically, known as the Agriculture often every year.

This depends on Information Management System the frequency and (http:// the agims.wto.or deadlines set by g/), in the three the committee. Some official WTO are languages only submitted when (English, French and a specific measure Spanish). is introduced, or is about to be introduced, for example on export restrictions.

34

To be published in July 2016 | 144 pages CHF 30.-

100

2013

Table ER:1

Tables ES:1 (export subsidies), ES:2 (total exports), ES:3 (food aid)

1997

Export subsidies

ER

(NFIDC = Net food-importi

in

ES

Domestic support Tables DS:1 (domestic support), DS:2 (new/chang ed exempt measures)

Export prohibition and restrictions

WTO since its creation

250

DS

Market access Tables MA:1–MA:2 (tariff quotas), MA:3–MA:5 (special safeguards)

Figure 5: Agriculture notifications submitted 1995 to the 300

1998

MA

Negative Effects of Programme on Least-Devel the Reform oped and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries (NFIDCs) (Table NF:1)

at a glance

1999

of notifications

2000

Figure 4: Types

to report how they have used these, in some cases annually, in others when a measure is used. When members began implementin g the reform (1995 in most cases), they had to describe upfront how each tariff quota would be administered , for example whether imports would be allowed in “first-come, first-served” or if import licences were to be used, or some other method. For import licences, members had to say who would be eligible and how the licences would be shared out. If the government changes the method, that has to be notified each time (ad hoc). After the end of each year, the member has to notify the quantity actually imported under each tariff quota (known as “tariffquota fill”).

The legally binding commitments on market access that members have made are listed in the legal documents known as “schedules”.

The commitment s cover tariffs, tariff quotas and special safeguards.

Members do not have to notify their legally binding tariff ceilings to the Agriculture Committee — the information is already in the “schedules”.

However, they have to inform other WTO bodies about the tariffs that they actually charge (the “applied tariffs”, which can be lower than the binding ceilings) including the Market Access Committee, and for their If a member periodic Trade Policy can use the special Reviews. safeguard (temporary tariff protection in response If they have tariff to a trigger: an import quotas and the surge or a price right to it must use the special fall), notify the levels safeguard, then used to trigger the they have safeguard.

This allows its trading partners to Agriculture

35

ISBN 9789287041098 La série des accords de l’OMC: Agriculture, 3ème édition ISBN 9789287040237 Serie de acuerdos de la OMC: Agricultura, Tercera Edición ISBN 9789287040244

Agriculture

• Export prohibitions or restrictions (Table ER:1) • Implementation of the Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible

8

World Trade Report 2009 Anti-dumping, subsidies, safeguards

Trade Policy Commitments and Contingency Measures

9

The World Trade Report 2009 examines the range of measures that governments may call upon in trade agreements and the role that these measures can play when governments face an economic crisis.

The Report provides an economic, legal and political economy analysis of the key features of different types of measures and illustrates the benefits and costs associated with such measures.

WEB

Published in 2009 | 196 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287035134 Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2009 : Les engagements en matière de politique commerciale et les mesures contingentes ISBN 978928703514 Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2009: Compromisos de política comercial y medidas de contingencia ISBN 9789287034564

‘All things considered, this report will earn a prime spot on my bookshelf. Not only do I foresee myself consulting it when I need a clear explanation of a contingent measure or a summary of the literature on the effects of these policies, but I also plan on making it mandatory reading for all of my graduate students who are searching for a research topic. This report is a great guide for those empirical questions that are in need of answers.’

Thomas J. Prusa, Rutgers University, Journal of World Trade Review

World Trade Report 2006 Exploring the Links between Subsidies, Trade and the WTO

Table 2 Share of major markets in L rank 1 2 3 4 5

eU (15) United States China thailand Japan

6

India

7

Chinese taipei Korea, rep. of Canada

8 9 10

Singapore

All other products 14.6% Textiles 1.7% Chemicals 1.8% Other semimanufactures 3.5%

Agricultural products 17.4% Clothing 19.9%

Source: wto.

Table 3 Duty free imports originatin

95-2004

1995

1996

39.6

36.9

20.5

34.9

21.5

37.3

22.8

34.6

23.5

31.1

24.7

33.4

26.4

32.8

4.9

25.6

10.7

23.8 8.7

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

30.6

29.2

24.8

22.7

6.5

6.4

3.1

17.8

2.9

5.1

4.0

5.0

3.0

3.3

4.9

2.7

3.6

4.9

2.6

4.0

3.7

13.5

4.7

3.8

2.7

3.4

3.5

1.7 2.8

4.2 3.5

2.4 2.5

6.1 3.8

1.5 3.8

3.5

2.2 2.0

4.1 2.0

2.5 1.8

7.7

3.4 1.9

3.3 2.2

0.9

1.2

1.0

4.8

2.7

0.8

2.5

1.5

0.8

2.6

2.2

1.0

4.9

2.8

2.0

0.9

1.0

1.6 1.9 Note: India’s trade 1.4 returns do not provide a full breakdown of Source: UNSd, Comtrade oil imports by origin data base and wto. which leads to an under-reporting of

3.1 2.2 1.9

this picture is somewhat modified if one includes services trade.

Market

1.5 1.2

New Zealand Norway Switzerland United States Source: wto.

33

g from LDCs in developed m

6 102 8 497 10 404 9 296 7 414 7 165 8 477 10 496

arkets, 2003

Number of tariff lines

MfN total

australia Canada eU (15) Japan

4.2 2.9 2.9 1.8

1.7 1.1

its imports from ldCs.

China is not the only developing country market to increase also done so, while in importance. thailand India and the republic and Chinese taipei of Korea have roughly have developing countries maintained their shares. as markets is also underlined the importance of by the fact that they the exports of 17 ldCs. account for more than 50 per cent of

26

achieving duty-free and quota-free market access in developed ldCs has been an aspiration country markets for of the international community all products originating from yet to be reached, despite for some time.33 to date, the increased impetus however, this objective arising from the Millennium in terms of duty-free has imports in major developed development Goals. the status quo country markets is reported in table 3.

In contrast to other developed countries, Japan and the United share of ldC exports States maintain positive (table 3). for Japan, duties on a significant however, 90 per cent attract an ad valorem of the dutiable figure equivalent duty of is imports of oil, which less than one per cent. that six ldCs (Bangladesh, further analysis of the US situation Cambodia, lao, Maldives, shows total imports, also account Myanmar and Nepal) accounting for 37 per for 92 per cent of total cent of the dutiable imports.

Fuels 36,0%

Ores and non-ferrous metals 5.1%

DCs merchandise exports, 19

3.9

with imports 5 686 8 292 10 115 8 204 6 559 6 517 7 809 10 123

Imports (million dollars)

ldCs dutiable 0 97 67 1 350

with imports 655 1569 3517 776

59

521

0 1 167 1 911

818 1421

509

dutiable imports 0 1 19 89 3 0 47 581

ldCs

world

84 366 234 984 992 010 376 941 18 439 39 765 96 177 1 196 833

total

per cent duty-free

123

100.0

739 13705

100.0 99.2

1563

50.9

31

99.9 100.0

81 121 10489

RECENT TRADE DEVELOPMENTS AND SELECTED TRENDS iN TRADE SeleCted trade deVelopMeNtS aNd ISSUeS

Published in 2006 | 306 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287036599 Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2006 : Le commerce des ressources naturelles ISBN 9789287033536

96.7 61.6

paragraph 42 of the Ministerial declaration of the 4th wto Ministerial objective of duty-free, quota-free market Conference states access for products paragraph 68(h) of “we commit ourselves originating from ldCs”. the programme of action to the Countries states that for “Improving preferential ldCs, which was endorsed at the third UN Conference on least quota-free market market access for access for all ldCs’ developed products. this will apply ldCs by working towards the objective paragraph 34 of the of duty-free and in the markets of developed International Conference developed countries on financing for development countries.“ that have not already (Monterrey Consensus) done so to work towards developed countries’ states that “we call exports, as envisaged the objective of duty-free on in the programme of and quota-free access action for the least for all least developed Countries adopted in Brussels”.

27

i

according to 2003 data, 27.6 per cent of total ldC exports for 61 per cent of this remain dutiable. developed total and accordingly countries account developing countries figure for duty-free account for the remaining access into developed 39 per cent. the countries is 72 per cent, duty-free access into which is almost identical developing countries. to the figure for

product group, 2003

(Percentage share)

Market access issues

the growing importance of developing countries as markets is an important policy conditions. ldCs have historically been development in terms dependent on preferential of trade markets. developing market access to developed countries, in contrast, do not have extensive country for ldCs. Some ldCs, non-reciprocal preferential however, obtain reciprocal programmes market access through countries. an example trade agreements with of such a scheme is the association of South developing trading agreement, east asian Nations which includes Cambodia and their preferential and laos.

B

(c)

In terms of market concentration, the eU(15) and the United States absorb the majority of ldC exports (table 2). In 1995 their share was almost 60 per cent. By 2004 this figure had dropped to 52 per cent, but the dramatic increase in ldC exports to China has resulted in the top three markets (China, eU and the United States) accounting for 69 per cent of total exports. table 2 also shows the importance of developing countries as markets for ldC exports. Six of the top ten markets are developing countries and developing countries accounted for 41 per cent of total ldC exports in 2004. In 1995 this figure was only 32 per cent.

32

the poor quality of trade data for ldCs prevents a thorough developing country markets. analysis of the composition In general, however, of ldC exports to as is the case for ldC by oil. It is the principal trade overall, export import for China, thailand values are dominated and India, the three largest developing country markets.

LDC export profile

ldC merchandise exports have three distinct characteristics diversification of export – a narrow range markets and low technology of products, a lack content.32 of over the last decade fuels have sharply increased their share in ldC merchandise for 37 per cent of the total value of all ldC exports. In 2003 they exports (Chart 9). the accounted year were clothing second and third largest and agricultural products. categories in that the latter category was the most prominent Chart 9 category in ldC exports in 1995.

LDC merchandise exports by

world trade report 2006

export performance of the ldCs as a group.

In contrast, the 13 value account for less bottom-ranked ldCs than 1 per cent of total in terms of export ldC exports. Many and given their lack of the latter posted of size, the countries negative growth rates with positive growth aggregate figure. Such rates did not have much diversity in the export of an impact on the profiles of ldCs calls prescriptions about for extreme caution ldCs as a group. in generalizing policy

(b)

B

world trade report 2006

i

RECENT TRADE DEVELOPMENTS AND SELECTED TRENDS iN TRADE SeleCted trade deVelopMeNtS aNd ISSUeS

WEB

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2006: El comercio de recursos naturales ISBN 9789287033543

Anti-dumping, subsidies, safeguards

The World Trade Report 2006 focuses on how subsidies are defined, what economic theory can tell us about subsidies, why governments use subsidies, the most prominent sectors in which subsidies are applied and the role of the WTO Agreement in regulating subsidies in international trade. The Report also provides brief analytical commentaries on certain topical trade issues.

10

A Handbook of Anti-Dumping Investigations Anti-dumping, subsidies, safeguards

Judith Czako, Johannes Human and Jorge Miranda

11

This handbook covers areas arising in anti-dumping investigations as embodied in the relevant WTO provisions, providing an exposition of well-sourced information, explanations and guidance for grasping the intricacies of anti-dumping proceedings.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Published in 2003 | 564 pages CHF 150.HB: English ISBN 9780521830423 eBook ISBN 9781139180658

‘The growing tension and attention to anti-dumping procedures illustrates the need for a concise and authoritative guide. These WTO Counsellors have done an enviable job of fulfilling that need.’ UN21 Interest Group of the American Society of International Law

E-commerce in Developing Countries Opportunities and challenges for small and medium-sized enterprises E-commerce in Developing Countries focuses on the relationship between electronic commerce (e-commerce), development and small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs) and on how some SMEs have used e-commerce to promote, market, service and sell their products nationally and internationally.

developing countries opportunities and challenges for small and medium-sized enterprises

FREE

10

11

E-commerce in developing countries Opportunities and challenges for small and medium-sized enterprises

What restricts smes from making fuller use of e-commerce?

development of e-commerce.

The development of various types of e-commerce depends primarily on the existing structure of an industrial sector and how it fits into a given sectoral value chain. Additionally, the difference of cultures and business philosophies across developing countries has also been seen to limit the applicability and transferability of the e-commerce models designed by some developed countries.

Case study Business development department, thailand Thailand’s Department of Business Development (DBD) is encouraging SME operators to seek new opportunities via e-commerce while introducing the DBD Registered symbol to ensure security for

Although SMEs have numerous reasons for engaging in e-commerce, the security concerns of the customers remain an important impediment to expanding e-commerce services and business.

Probably, the biggest drawback is the reluctance of customers to provide online information about their credit cards.

Ensuring both trust and familiarity through a wellfunctioning website has proven to be one of the major e-commerce success factors. In the same vein, the growth of broadband has created a greater need for users to protect their security and privacy in an “online” environment. Both individual users and businesses report that computer viruses are the “malware” they encounter the most.

Security continues to be a problem for online businesses as customers have to feel confident about the integrity of the payment process before they commit to the purchase.

The potential of e-commerce can only be achieved given adequate infrastructure. In most developing countries, this constraint presents a major obstacle. Smaller, low-income internet markets in developing countries, particularly in Africa, have been unable to attract sufficient investment in infrastructure. Combined with lack of competition, this results in bandwidth cost that can be up to 100 times higher than in developed countries.

peruvian government, fibre-optic initiative The Peruvian government has announced that it will support the deployment of a national fibreoptic backbone for broadband access, Andina reports. The announcement followed the passing last week of the Law for the Promotion of Broadband and Construction of Optical Fibre Backbone.

Telecoms regulator Osiptel will oversee the rollout, and ensure access is competitive, whilst the Agency for the Promotion of Private Investment (ProInversion) has been tasked with selecting a company to carry out the installation. Osiptel is understood to be drawing up technical criteria for the network, which will link all provincial capitals, and have connections to all districts.

Further, the broadband bill ensures net neutrality, making it illegal for an internet service provider (ISP) to block, interfere with, discriminate against or restrict the right of any user to use an application, regardless of origin, destination or nature.

online shoppers.

Deputy Minister of Commerce Siriwat Kajornprasart revealed that he has assigned the DBD to support Thai SMEs in doing business via e-commerce. Due to the huge growth and increasing popularity of e-commerce, he said that Thai SMEs should consider expanding their businesses online in order to find new opportunities and reduce production costs at the same time. E-commerce can also help enhance the potentials of Thai companies to compete in the international market.

Source: Thai Financial Post published on 6 August 2012

In most cases, these countries remain outside the reach of fibre optic cables and must turn to satellites for international – and sometimes even domestic – connectivity. This happens even in spite of significant improvements brought about by technology.

Another area of concern is the lack of technical skills which keeps SMEs from realizing their full e-commerce potential. Many developing countries do not have a workforce that has sufficient training in ICT and mobile technology. This greatly disadvantages many SMEs that may be seeking to diversify or to branch out into e-commerce.

Published in 2012 |16 pages FREE

Making sure enterprises possess the required set of skills and capabilities to use relevant technologies productively is key to securing the economic benefits of e-commerce. Many entrepreneurs in developing countries, and especially in least-developed countries, lack the necessary capacity or awareness to take full advantage of ICT (see Chart 5).

ISBN 9789287038647

Even if entrepreneurs in developing countries have access to mobile phones or the internet, they may not know how best to leverage them for their business operations. In some circumstances they may even fail to see the value of investing in the technology required so as to be able to take advantage of the opportunities of e-commerce.

Chart 5 enterprises with their own website, 2006-09 (in %) 90 76.7

80

Le commerce électronique dans les pays en développement ISBN 9789287038654

70 60

Source: TeleGeography, published on 25 July 2012

50 40 35.1 30

45

44.8 37.7

29.2

22.8

20

20 10 0

Source: World Bank Enterprise Surveys

El comercio electrónico en los países en desarrollo ISBN 9789287038661

E-commerce

E-commerce is generally presented in very positive terms but along with the potential benefits come potential problems for developing countries.

The adoption of e-commerce in developing countries differs greatly from one country to the other. But many face a number of similar obstacles to e-commerce. These mainly include a lack of financial, legal and physical infrastructure for the

Case study

W orl Eas d tA Eas Pa sia ci & & te fi Cen rn c tr Euro al Hig Asi pe h-I a nco La oE m ti th n A CD e e m Car er ib ica bea & M N idd n ort le h Eas Afr t ic & a So uth Asi Su a b-S ah Afr aran ic a

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e-commerce in

12

CITES and the WTO CITES WTO and the

Enhancing Cooperation for Sustainable Development

Enhancing Cooperation for Sustainable Development This publication illustrates how the relationship between CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and the WTO has evolved into a leading example of how global trade and environmental regimes can support each other to achieve shared objectives.

A World Trade Organization and CITES co-publication.

Environment

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13

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or may be affected by trade. The inclusion of a species in one of the Appendices results in the application of certain trade requirements or restrictions under the Convention, which are intended to ensure that the species does not become or remain subject to overexploitation (and possible extinction) through international trade. The Conference of the Parties, the supreme governing body of the Convention, takes decisions on the inclusion of, transfer between or deletion of a species in Appendices I and II. The Conference may also adopt annotations certain species listings to which specify the ‘specimens’ covered by the Convention.

Published in 2015 | 16 pages FREE ISBN 9789287040602 La CITES et l’OMC: Renforcer la coopération en faveur du développement durable ISBN 9789287040619 La CITES y la OMC: promover la cooperación con miras a un desarrollo sostenible ISBN 9789287040626

CITES trade-related measures serve as the core regulatory system of the Convention; prevent opportunities for illegal or unsustainable trade; promote compliance a conservation risk that is lower than with and enforcement of the Convention for wild-taken specimens. They are and facilitate action against therefore treated like non-compliance. Such Appendix II measures, whether specimens, whose reflected in the trade is described Convention’s text or in the paragraph decisions of its governing below. In addition, the Conference of bodies, have been taken in an the Parties has open, transparent, evidence-based recognized through relevant resolutions and multilateral process that ‘ranching’ (i.e. the removal of certain and forum. They have eggs from the wild, been adopted with a view subsequent rearing in captivity to promoting the conservation and the return of certain and sustainable use objectives newly laid eggs to the wild) of the Convention. as a management system for some species, such as crocodiles, Appendix I to the Convention includes has proven to be a ‘safe’ species that robust form of sustainable and are threatened with extinction (i.e. endangered), utilization. These resolutions provide guidance which constitute about 3% on how Parties may of the approximately propose the 35,000 species transfer of certain species covered by the Convention. from Appendix I to Appendix II Examples include for ranching. marine turtles, great apes, tigers, certain parrots, sawfishes and certain orchids. Trade Appendix II includes in specimens of these species which are species must be subject to not necessarily now threatened with particularly strict regulation extinction (i.e. non-endangere in order not to endanger but may become so, d) further their survival. which Accordingly, constitute about 96% the most restrictive the approximately of CITES trade measure 35,000 species covered provided in the Convention is applied by the Convention. Examples to such species – include most CITES-listed a general prohibition on international and timber species. fish commercial trade in Trade in specimens Appendix I specimens taken from of such species is subject to strict the wild. regulation (as distinguished from the ‘particularly strict’ regulation Non-commercial trade for Appendix I specimens) in wild-taken Appendix I order to avoid utilization in specimens is allowed, but this requires incompatible with their an import permit (which survival.

Commercial serves as a sort of ‘prior or non-commercia informed consent’ l trade can occur to the anticipated Appendix II specimens in export) and an export that are taken from permit. These documents the wild (or bred in captivity or granted by national are artificially propagated) Management Authorities on condition that such trade is on condition that the specimens legal, sustainable and were lawfully obtained traceable. An import permit is not and their trade will not be detrimental required for trade to the survival of the in Appendix II specimens. Rather, species. the import of such specimens Trade in Appendix I simply requires the prior presentation specimens which are bred in captivity of an export permit or artificially propagated or a re-export certificate. for commercial purposes present Under CITES, national Scientific Authorities must determine that exports of CITES-listed species will not be detrimental to the survival of that species.

The CITES Strategic Vision: 2008-2020 contains general guidance related to sustainable use, including the recommendatio to base non-detriment n (or sustainability) findings on the best available scientific information. At its 16th meeting in 2013, the Conference of the Parties adopted a resolution containing specific guidance on how to make nondetriment findings.

Although the Convention does not specifically refer to quotas, it does require the Scientific Authority to advise the Management Authority if the grant of export permits for specimens of Appendix II listed species should limited. Quotas can be be used to maintain an Appendix II listed species throughout its range at a level consistent with its role in the ecosystems in which it occurs and well above the level at which that species might become eligible for inclusion in Appendix I. Appendix III includes species which any Party identifies as being subject to regulations within its jurisdiction (for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation) and as needing the cooperation of other Parties in the control of trade. Such species constitute about 1% of the approximately 35,000 species covered by the Convention.

Examples include several tree species, such as the Coco de Mer palm tree, the Dorcas gazelle and a sea cucumber species. Commercial or non-commercial trade can occur in Appendix III specimens taken from the wild CITES recognizes (or bred in captivity or artificially the right of Parties propagated) on condition to adopt stricter domestic measures, that such trade is legal which go beyond the and traceable. A non-detriment Convention’s provisions. Although sustainability) finding (or the Convention is not is not required for trade subject to any general reservations, in Appendix III specimens. it allows Parties, at specified times, to enter specific reservations with regard to any species The traceability of included in the CITES CITES trade is ensured Appendices. through a system of permits and certificates used to authorize, accompany and track a particular shipment.

How WTO rules leave Some Parties have implemented broad scope electronic permitting systems, and for natural resource a CITES e-permitting conservation toolkit was developed to provide standard guidance measures to interested countries.

CITES Parties submit Under WTO rules, annual reports to as confirmed by WTO the CITES jurisprudence, Secretariat on their members can adopt ‘trade’, which is defined trade-related measures as export, reaimed at export, import and introduction protecting and conserving from the sea (for specimens natural resources, subject taken in the marine certain specified conditions. to environment not under These measures are the jurisdiction of any state). These necessarily discussed not records are then incorporated at the WTO. And those that come into the CITES Trade Database up for discussion are not necessarily raised which can be accessed as matters and searched via the of contention, much CITES website. Approximately less formal disputes; they are often one million permits and included in WTO certificates are currently notifications and may be discussed issued each year and the CITES among members in trade database now dedicated WTO committees. contains over 15 million records of legal example, a total of For 37 notifications submitted trade. during the 2011-2012 biennium refer to CITES as the Before being traded, basis for the living specimens of notified measures.

Appendix I, Appendix II or Appendix III listed species must The transparency be so prepared and shipped generated by WTO as to minimize the notifications of risk of injury, CITES measures has damage to health or been a highly effective cruel treatment. This tool to foster is one of the first the harmonious relationship times that animal welfare between CITES and concerns have been the WTO. WTO notifications are recognized in an international convention. central to ensuring as Guidance on the transport much certainty and predictability in trade of live specimens relations as possible. is contained in a Easy access resolution of the to information about Conference of the Parties a particular measure which, inter alia, recommends that may affect trade gives traders use of the Live Animals a clearer view of their and Perishable Cargo opportunities.

In addition, WTO notifications Regulations of the International allow members to discuss Air Transport Association the measures in question, as well as the CITES guidelines and to resolve or defuse for the non-air transport trade concerns that may arise, of live wild animals and plants avoiding a formal dispute. in meeting the Convention’s transport requirements.

However, certain measures taken to achieve environmental protection goals may, by their very nature, restrict trade. In

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Harnessing Trade for Sustainable Development and a Green Economy International trade is a key component of sustainable development. This brochure looks at the workings of the WTO and how the multilateral trading system supports countries’ efforts to realize sustainable development and a green economy. It examines the contribution of trade to sustainable development and refers to green economy measures. It discusses how WTO rules and monitoring mechanisms help ensure such measures are not disguised protectionism. The brochure also looks at WTO efforts to help developing countries maximize the benefits of participation in international trade.

ISBN 978-92-870-3808-1

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland

Tel: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax: +41 (0)22 731 42 06 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

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Harnessing trade for sustainable development and a green economy

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Proposed Rio+20 message multilateral trading Reaffirm commitment to promote an open and equitable rules-based all countries in the pursuit of system that is non-discriminatory and predictable and benefits sustainable development. the multilateral trading system Sustainable development and open trade go hand-in-hand and the sustainable development helps create the enabling environment for countries to realize and green economy vision.

Rio and Johannesburg The contribution of trade to sustainable development was recognised in Rio in 1992 and Johannesburg in 2002.

Principle 12 of the Rio Declaration emphasized the importance of open trade and of avoiding trade protectionism, while Agenda 21 committed governments to promote an open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system (see Box 2).

The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation reiterated key messages from Rio and urged support for a successful completion of the work programme contained in the WTO’s 2001 Doha Ministerial Declaration.

Sustainable development in the multilateral trading system The objective of sustainable development is emphasized in the WTO’s founding charter, the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WTO (see Box 3).

In a separate 1994 Decision on Trade and Environment, Ministers also addressed sustainable development. They acknowledged the outcomes from Rio. They stated that there should not be, nor need be, any policy contradiction between upholding and safeguarding an open, nondiscriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system on the one hand, and acting for the protection of the

Box 2. UN pronouncements on trade and sustainable development economic system that would lead to “States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international better address the problems of environmental economic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to should not constitute a means of arbitrary degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes trade. Unilateral actions to deal with or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international country should be avoided. Environmental environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing should, as far as possible, be based on an measures addressing transboundary or global environmental problems international consensus.” (a) To promote an open, non-discriminatory “Governments should continue to strive to meet the following objectives: - in particular, the developing countries and equitable multilateral trading system that will enable all countries living of their populations through sustained to improve their economic structures and improve the standard of of developing countries;… (d) To promote economic development; (b) To improve access to markets for exports growth and environmental protection and support policies, domestic and international, that make economic mutually supportive.”

At the WTO’s Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha in 2001, WTO members strongly reaffirmed their commitment to sustainable development. In launching the Doha Development Agenda negotiations, members asked both the Committee on Trade and Development and the Committee on Trade and Environment to act as forums to identify and debate developmental and environmental aspects of the negotiations, so sustainable development could be appropriately reflected.

Trade and growth Trade openness leads to a more efficient use of resources and stimulates growth and income levels. This supports conservation, sustainability and efforts to eradicate poverty.

Published in 2011 I 24 pages Free

recovery possible: an economy that is more open is more resilient because it is less constrained by the limits of domestic demand.

Trade plays a key role in helping the environment, in part because it serves as a channel for green technology transfer. Openness to trade provides access at lower cost to a greater variety of imported goods and services involving environmentally friendly technologies. It also increases the size of the markets for producers of final goods and suppliers of components, thus raising the returns from innovation for those involved in the production networks involving green goods. The ability to market innovations globally makes it possible to increase specialization and provides incentive to produce green goods requiring intensive research. These benefits of more open trade highlight the importance of the Doha Round negotiations which aim, among other things, to reduce barriers to trade

ISBN 9789287038067

in environmental goods and services.

Trade promotes production efficiency via specialization, exploitation of economies of scale, technology transfer, and enhanced competition. Openness helps countries compete by not only offering new opportunities for sales (i.e. exports), but also making available to producers the widest range of inputs at the highest quality and lowest prices (i.e. imports). While the link between trade, growth and sustainable development is clear, different studies present varying perspectives of the extent to which trade

Mettre le commerce au service du développement durable et d’une économie verte ISBN 9789287038074

awaiting picture

openness impacts growth.

While openness to trade exposes countries to developments in other economies, including the risk of trade and financial contagion, it also makes faster

the field of trade and economic endeavour “The Parties to this Agreement, Recognizing that their relations in full employment and a large and steadily should be conducted with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring the production of and trade in goods and growing volume of real income and effective demand, and expanding accordance with the objective of sustainable services, while allowing for the optimal use of the world’s resources in and to enhance the means for doing so in a development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment levels of economic development,” manner consistent with their respective needs and concerns at different Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization

Agenda 21 (Chapter 2, paragraph 2.9) open, equitable, rules-based, predictable “…This will require urgent action at all levels to: (a) Continue to promote that benefit all countries in the pursuit of and non-discriminatory multilateral trading and financial systems the work programme contained in the Doha sustainable development. Support the successful completion of Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable

environmental measures.

Box 3. WTO pronouncements on trade and sustainable development

Rio Declaration (Principle 12)

Ministerial Declaration...”

environment and the promotion of sustainable development on the other. Ministers also decided to establish a WTO Committee on Trade and Environment, which promotes international governance on sustainable development by identifying the relationship between trade measures and

Development (paragraph 47)

Aprovechamiento del comercio para el desarrollo sostenible y una economía verde ISBN 9789287038081

(Preamble)

development, as stated in the Preamble “We strongly reaffirm our commitment to the objective of sustainable and safeguarding an open and nonto the Marrakesh Agreement. We are convinced that the aims of upholding of the environment and the promotion of discriminatory multilateral trading system, and acting for the protection sustainable development can and must be mutually supportive.”

Doha Ministerial Declaration (paragraph 6)

7 6

Environment

IV. Contribution of trade to sustainable development

14

World Trade Report 2010 Trade in Natural Resources The World Trade Report 2010 focuses on trade in natural resources, such as fuels, forestry, mining and fisheries.

The Report examines the characteristics of trade in natural resources, the policy choices available to governments and the role of international cooperation, particularly of the WTO, in the proper management of trade in this sector.

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ResouRces II – tRADe In nAtuRAL

2010 world Trade reporT

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proximity and including geographic by physical constraints, er systems across in electricity is limited e electricity. Furthermore, pow better use of International trade nly neighbouring countries trad trade in electricity can result in international infrastructure requirements. O and importing thermal export peak power interconnected . Importantly, us future needs, hydro generation to countries must be (e.g. using flexible d variations and of current vers complementary resources the balancing of annual deman power during off-peak hours), acity. and the pooling of reserve cap resources exports

Figure 6: World natural 4000

by product, 1990-2008

(Billion dollars)

Fuels

3500

Mining products Forestry products

3000

Fish

2500 2000 1500 1000

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

1999

500

1998

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2010 : Le commerce des ressources naturelles ISBN 9789287037091

dollar value might be large.

1997

ISBN 9789287037084

1996

prices.

umers to obtain real

PI for all urban cons

1995

Jan-2008

Jan-2006

Jan-2004

Jan-2002

Jan-2000

Jan-1998

Jan-1996

Jan-1994

Jan-1992

Jan-1990

Jan-1988

Jan-1986

Jan-1984

are deflated by US C

sed in current US dollars Nominal trade flows are expresby changes in exchange flows and and are strongly influenced This is especially true of prices. rates and commodity st component of natural fuels, which represent the large, making up some 77 per terms as resources trade in dollar terms trade and 18 per cent of resources in general tural resources Having defined natural and mining cent of world na products, fish, fuels ise trade in 200 8. the sum of forestry of descriptive total merchand present a variety products, we now ources trade in these products. statistics on international first shown at the world (a) World trade in natural res data are Merchandise trade y product y broken down b of natural resources level, but are then progressiveldetailed picture of global The dollar value of world exports 1998 and 2008, a more by increased more than sixfold between and region to give individual countries of trade S$ 3.7 trillion, thanks in on which rising from US$ 613 billion to U trade flows. Tables prices for primary in a statistical appendix, of large part to steadily rising product are provided maps showing a variety gher oil prices in particular also contains illustrative commodities (see Figure 6). Hi n world natural resource resource-related indicators. helped push the share of fuels i ), up from in the exports to 77 per cent in 2008 (US$ 2.9 trillion ugh prices resources are used 9 billion). Altho natural of Two definitions slightly broader 57 per cent in 1998 (US$ 42 rply in recent years, they statistics, with one product for metals have also risen sha merchandise trade the 2008 showing country and ace with fuels, and as a result than the other. Tables narrower have not kept p es trade use the minerals and non-ferrous shares in world natural resourc forestry products, while shares of ores and other cent includes trade fell to 8.2 per definition that only use the slightly metals in natural resources cent (US$ 360 billion), geographic region 9.6 per tables on trade by agricultural raw (US$ 308 billion) and so below that includes all ares for these products were al cent and broader definition sons of data availability, respectively. Sh of 8.3 per materials. This is solely for rea at the world or regional their respective long-run averages is minimal and the difference 13.3 per cent. level.

US$ 53 exports rose from fish global of e noted.

The value verage should b n in 2008, while exports Some grey area s in product co ch as coal, crude oil and billion in 1998 to US$ 98 billio to from US$ 52 billion In addition to raw fossil fuels su roup also encompasses of forestry products increased lue of fish owing dollar va natural gas, the fuels product g electricity. It may seem US$ 106 billion . Despite the gr f these product s in world refined petroleum products and (see Box 1) and refined and forestry exports, shares o m 8.6 per cent to 2.6 per requires natural resources trade fell fro odd at first to count electricity .9 per cent, respectively, since their production fuels as resources, output is cent and from 8 .5 per cent to 2 of fuels and mining inputs, and the final even faster growth substantial capital her than simply extracted due to the produced by human activity rat owever, fossil fuels are products. from the natura l environment. H we may still the share of their raw form, so prices also boosted rarely consumed in commodity represent Higher from 11.5 y generation to chandise trade consider refining and electricit ssing necessar y to allow natural resources in world mer nt in 2008 (see Figure 7). the minimum amount of proce per cent in 1998 to 23.8 per ce in world trade jumped of fuels these goods to be traded.

Meanwhile, the share

2. Natural resource trade related indicators

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2010: El comercio de recursos naturales ISBN 9789287037107

Jan-1982

Jan-1978

Jan-1976

Jan-1974

Jan-1972

0

Jan-1980

20

iate crude oil prices Note: West Texas Intermed k of St. Louis.

Source: Federal Reserve Ban

1994

40

Published in 2010 | 256 pages CHF 60.-

Jan-1970

Environment

60

B. nAtuRAL ResouRces

80

1993

oil price

crude oil price Real (CPI deflated) WTI price Average real crude oil

100

1992

Nominal WTI crude

120

1991

140

but should it also be a natural resource? water, and uranium, Box 1: Is electricity such as coal, gas, puts, it is perhaps from natural resources other natural resources as in d be counted a s a Electricity is generated arguably shoul ? Since its production requires considered a natural resource as a manufactured good. However, electricity before they can be traded or resources more natural to view electricityprocessing must be applied to most tc. Electricity a lso some ansformed coa l, natural gas, e for hydroelectric natural resource since tricity can simply be seen as tr water in rivers used consumed. In this respect, elec are normally untradable (e.g. flowing that allows energy resources national borders. tangible and can generation) to be traded across it from other goods. First, it is in where water is sual properties that distinguish e of hydro energy, Electricity has a number of unuquantities. (An exception is pumped-storag r during high demand periods in small very in d released late Also, it must be only be stored during low demand periods an demand more efficiently.) pumped uphill into a reservoir electricity to balance supply and tricity is classified additional like a service than a good. Elec As a result, order to generate making it more countries. all by it is consumed, systematically produced at the same time that statistics, but it is not recorded trade or inaccurate. as a fuel in international n electricity may be incomplete ade statistics o merchandise tr ing on the type of or peak-load c apacity depend. Examples include assified as base-load capacity rge fixed costs Generation facilities can be cl has low marginal cost but usually has very la but is usually much more flexible of international fuel used. Base -load capacity r plants. Peak c apacity has high marginal cost generation. Patterns me hydroelectric and nuclear powe Natural gas is often used for peak-load y that a country possesses. So in output. erating capacit scheduling of terms in ome extent on the type of gen ctric power (Canada), resulting trade in electricity depend to sies of nuclear energy (e.g. France) or hydroele international trade only during e countries export large quantit r cost per unit. Other countries may engage in er days) in order to maintain th small but the large volumes of trade but lowemeet air-conditioning demands on hot summ trade could be quite the volume of electricity times of peak demand (e.g. to grids. In such cases, stability of their electricity

1990

real crude Figure 5: nominal and

el) er barrel and 2008 dollars per barr 2009 (Current dollars p oil prices, Jan. 1970-oct.

imates.

Source: WTO Secretariat est

55

Trade and Climate Change Climate change is one of the greatest challenges facing the international community. Mitigating global warming and adapting to its consequences will require major economic investment and, above all, unequivocal determination on the part of all policymakers. This publication uniquely examines the intersection between trade and climate change from four different but correlated perspectives: the science of climate change, economic aspects, multilateral efforts to tackle climate change, and national climate change policies and their trade effect.

A World Trade Organization and United Nations Environment Programme co-publication.

WEB

Steve Charnovitz, George Washington University, Journal of World Trade Review

Published in 2009 | 166 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287035226 Commerce et changement climatique ISBN 9789287035233 El Comercio y el Cambio Climático ISBN 9789287035240

Environment

‘In collaborating with UNEP, the WTO Secretariat leverages its own expertise to produce a thoughtful presentation on the complex issues that lie at the intersection of two regimes.

With this Report in the public domain, governments may now find it easier to acknowledge and address the trade dimension of climate policy. ‘

16

Trade and Environment at the WTO Developed to assist public understanding of the trade and environment debate in the WTO, this document briefly presents its history and focuses on trade and environment related issues within the Doha mandate, the effects of trade liberalization on the environment, the relationship between multilateral environmental agreements and the WTO, and a review of trade disputes involving environmental issues.

Environment

ONLINE ONLY

17

Published in 2004 | 84 pages Trade and Environment at the WTO ISBN 9789287034908 Le commerce et l’environnement à l’OMC ISBN 9789287034915 El comercio y el medio ambiente en la OMC ISBN 9789287034922

SEE ALSO

Trade and Climate Change 16 Harnessing Trade for Sustainable Development and a Green Economy CITES and the WTO

14 13

Trade, Development and the Environment The book explores the relationships between trade and the environment, and trade and development, which have become increasingly complex. The need to reconcile the competing demands of economic growth, economic development, and environmental protection has become central to the multilateral trade agenda. In this volume various commentators debate the role of the World Trade Organization and other institutions in addressing these challenges.

A World Trade Organization and Kluwer Law International co-publication.

PB : English | CHF 52.ISBN 9789287035882

SEE ALSO

World Trade Report 2010: Trade in Natural Resources 15 Harnessing Trade for Sustainable Development and a Green Economy 14

HB : English | CHF 100.ISBN 9789041198044

Environment

Published in 2000 | 288 pages

18

Trade and Environment Building pathways to sustainable development

to s t ay en w pm h t o pa el g ev in d ld ble TRADE i and Bu ina ta ENVIRONMENT us

s

The creation of the WTO in 1995 marked a crucial step in the history of multilateral trade, helping to open up fresh avenues of dialogue on how trade interacts with the environment and how to ensure that trade and environmental policies work hand in hand. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the interplay between trade and environment.

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Environment

WTO members have the right to adopt traderelated measures to protect the enviro nment

19

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Commerce et Environnement: Ouvrir la voie au développement durable Comercio y Medio ambiente: Abrir vías para el desarrollo sostenible

The WTO’s dispute settlemen t system has shown that WTO rules provide ample space for environme ntal concerns to be accommod ated.

Even if a measure undertake n by a WTO member is found to be inconsistent with basic WTO rules, it may be justifiable if it pursues an environmental or health objective, for example, and if certain conditions are fulfilled.

“WTO Members have a large measure of autonomy to determine their own policies on the environment (including its relationship with trade), their environmental objectives and the environmental legislation they enact and implemen t.”

“US – Gasoline”, Appellate Body

Exception from GATT/WT O rules Article XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) number of specific instanceslays out a in which WTO members may be exempted from trade rules. Article XX (b) and (g) allow WTO members to undertake measures inconsiste nt with the GATT if these are: (b) necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health; (g) relating to the conservati on exhaustible natural resources of if such measures are made effective in conjunction with restrictions on domestic production or consumption.

In addition, the introducto ry paragraph of Article XX has been designed to prevent the misuse of trade-related measures. An environme ntal measure may not be “applied in a manner which would constitute a means of or unjustifiable discrimina arbitrary tion between countries where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on international trade.”

These additional safeguards seek mainly to ensure that protectionism is not introduced through the back door.

What are the enviro nmental policies covered by the exception from trade rules?

In disputes brought to the WTO over the past 20 years, the WTO’s Dispute Settlement Body has found that a number of environme ntal and natural resource protection policies fall within GATT exceptions.

Examples include: Paragraph b exemption s Policies regarding: • protection of dolphins • air pollution • the reduction of health risks linked to retreaded tyres

Also in the same case, the Appellate Body accepted that a policy covered

by Article XX(g) applied not to turtles within US waters only but also to those living beyond its national boundaries as there was a sufficient nexus between the migratory endangered marine populations involved and the United States for the purposes of this exemption .

Paragraph g exemption s Policies regarding conservati on of: • tuna stock • salmon and herring • dolphin stocks • sea turtles • clean air The phrase “exhaustib le natural resources” under Article XX(g) has been interpreted to include not only “mineral” or “non-living ” resources but also living species which may be susceptible to depletion, such as sea turtles. To support this interpretation, the Appellate Body noted in the US — Shrimp case that modern international conventions and declaration s made frequent references to natural resources as embracing both living and non-living resources .

“The words of Article XX(g), “exhaustible natural resources”, were actually crafted more than 50 years ago. They must be read by a treaty interpreter in the light of contempo rary concerns of the communit y nations about the protectionof and conservation of the environment.” ”US – Shrimp”, Appellate Body

The WTO Regime on Government Procurement Challenge and Reform Edited by Sue Arrowsmith and Robert D. Anderson

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

'Beneath its somewhat ordinary title is a work of extraordinary depth and quality…. (It) stands as a considerable accomplishment in public procurement research and insight. ….Perhaps the most impressive aspect of this treatise is its advocacy of a new approach to regulation…. (The author’s) thorough command of the material and exceptional awareness of implementation concerns are a rare confluence of the theoretical with the practical…. This book should be the standard against which all future studies of the WTO on procurement are judged.'

Robert E. Lloyd, US Department of State, Journal of Public Procurement

Published in 2011 | 892 pages CHF 200.HB: English ISBN 9781107006645

Government procurement

The WTO Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) is becoming a pillar of the WTO system as a result of important developments since the Uruguay Round.

This collection examines the issues and challenges that this raises for the GPA, as well as future prospects for addressing government procurement at a multilateral level.

20

Government Procurement Agreement

pr om ot Op in e g ni go ng od m go ark ve et rn s a an nd ce

Opening Markets and Promoting Good Governance

Government procurement

GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT AGREEMENT

Government procurement accounts for an average of 15 per cent or more of a country’s GDP. The WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement covers government purchasing of goods, services and construction work valued at US$ 1.7 trillion annually. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into how the Agreement came about and what it embodies.

WEB

FREE

The GPA embodies three general

principles

Non-discrimination Parties to the GPA commit to opening markets covered by the Agreement to the suppliers of goods and services of other GPA parties.

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE

Transparency The GPA establishes minimum standards for the legislation and new procurement opportunities publication of procurement covered by the Agreement so that potential suppliers are kept fully informed.

Procedural fairness The GPA includes specific requirements, such as independent national review of complaints, to ensure that all potential suppliers are treated fairly.

Accord sur les marchés publics: Ouvrir les marchés et promouvoir la bonne gouvernance Acuerdo sobre Contractatión Pública: Abrir mercados y promover la buena gobernanza

Supporting economic development

The GPA contributes to economic development and growth by: • ensuring that domestic producers have access to foreign markets • increasing competition and transparency in domestic procurement markets, which in turn helps governments to achieve best value for money and to make better use of public resources • encouraging foreign direct investment and transfer of new technology from abroad.

GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT AGREEMENT

NONDISCRIMINATION

Benefits of the GPA Promoting trade The GPA provides access to procurement markets currently estimated at US$ 1.7 trillion annually. The rules of the Agreement ensure these markets remain open to competition from suppliers from all GPA parties. As new countries accede to the Agreement, the overall size of the market increases.

Based on their needs, developing countries acceding to the Agreement may be allowed transitional measures, such as the phasing-in of market access commitments.

Improving governance TRANSPARENCY

Help for developing countries

PROCEDURAL FAIRNESS

The GPA provides special treatment for developing countries, allowing for transitional measures to support the development priorities of these countries (see page 5).

The revised GPA is the first WTO agreement to explicitly address corruption by requiring parties to conduct their procurement activities in a way that avoids conflicts of interest and prevents corrupt practices. This requirement is reinforced by specific transparency provisions in the GPA and procedures whereby a supplier may challenge a breach of the Agreement and/or related domestic legislation.

1.7 trillion The GPA provides access to procurement markets currently estimated at US$ 1.7 trillion annually.

4

21

5

Edited by Robert D. Anderson, Nuno Pires De Carvalho and Antony Taubman Gabrielle Marceau is a counsellor in the Legal Affairs Division of the WTO Secretariat. Her main function is to advise panellists in WTO disputes, the Director-General’s Office, Secretariat and WTO Members on WTOrelated matters. Dr Marceau is also Associate Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of Geneva, Switzerland, and has published extensively on WTO matters.

Competition Policy, Intellectual Property Rights and Trade in an Interdependent World Economy Edited by Robert D. Anderson, Nuno Pires De Carvalho and Antony Taubman

Marceau 9781107085237 PPC.C M Y K

Cover image: the stone statue of ‘Justice’, by Luc Jaggi (1924), situated in front of the main entrance to the Centre William Rappard, the headquarters of the WTO in Geneva. The statue was donated by the Swiss Confederation on 28 November 1924. Photograph © WTO / Pierre-Yves Dhinaut.

Cover design: Sue Watson

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

FORTHCOMING

To be published in mid-2017

Intellectual property

This volume examines a range of issues relating to the inter-relationships between competition policy, intellectual property rights and international trade and investment flows in today’s global and knowledge-based economy.

It surveys the field systematically and yields practical and policy insights that will be of interest both to scholars and practitioners, including those working in national intellectual property offices, competition agencies and international trade policy administrations, in addition to universities, think-tanks and other organizations.

A History of Law and Lawyers in the GATT/WTO

How did a treaty that emerged in the aftermath of the Second World War, and barely survived its early years, evolve into one of the most influential organisations in international law? This unique book brings together original contributions from an unprecedented number of eminent current and former GATT and WTO staff members, including many current and former Appellate Body members, to trace the history of law and lawyers in the GATT/WTO and explore how the nature of legal work has evolved over the institution’s sixty-year history. In doing so, it paints a fascinating portrait of the development of the rule of law in the multilateral trading system, and allows some of the most important personalities in GATT and WTO history to share their stories and reflect on the WTO’s remarkable journey from a ‘provisionally applied treaty’ to an international organisation defined by its commitment to the rule of law.

Marceau

Competition Policy, Intellectual Property Rights and Trade in an Interdependent World Economy

22

The Making of the TRIPS Agreement The Making of the TRIPS Agreement

r e h s al d d h d al w y s e al t, y. g r s e r ut e

Personal insights from the Uruguay Round negotiations

Personal Insights from the Uruguay Round Negotiations Edited by Jayashree Watal and Antony Taubman

The Making of the TRIPS Agreement presents for the first time the diverse personal accounts of the negotiators of this unique trade agreement. Their rich contributions illustrate how different policy perspectives and trade interests were accommodated in the final text, and map the shifting alliances that transcended conventional boundaries between developed and developing countries, with a close look at issues such as copyright for software, patents on medicines and the appropriate scope of protection of geographical indications.

Watal and Taubman

Intellectual property

The Making of the TRIPS Agreement

Personal insights from the Uruguay Round negotiations

23

Edited by Jayashree Watal and Antony Taubman

Published in 2015 | 480 pages 20 colour photos | CHF 70.-

WEB

ISBN 9789287040664 La genèse de l’Accord sur les ADPIC témoignages personnels sur les négociations du Cycle d’Uruguay ISBN 9789287040268 Forthcoming La elaboración del Acuerdo sobre los ADPIC: las negociaciones de la Ronda Uruguay desde una perspectiva personal ISBN 9789287040275 Forthcoming

‘This is an enlightening collection, offering a range of perspectives on the talks, with anecdotes mixed in... to show how personal relationships worked to produce the serious substance.‘ Peter Ungphakorn, Intellectual Property Watch

Promoting Promoting Access Access to to Medical Medical Technologies Technologies and and Innovation Innovation Intersections Intersectionsbetween betweenpublic publichealth, health,intellectual intellectualproperty propertyand andtrade trade Medical Medicaltechnologies technologies––medicines, medicines,vaccines vaccinesand andmedical medicaldevices devices––are areessential essentialfor forpublic publichealth. health.Access Accesstotoessential essential medicines medicinesand andthe thelack lackofofresearch researchtotoaddress addressneglected neglecteddiseases diseaseshave havebeen beenaamajor majorconcern concernfor formany manyyears. years.More More recently, recently,the thefocus focusofofhealth healthpolicy policydebate debatehas hasbroadened broadenedtotoconsider considerhow howtotopromote promoteinnovation innovationand andhow howtotoensure ensure equitable equitableaccess accesstotoall allvital vitalmedical medicaltechnologies. technologies.

Today’s Today’shealth healthpolicy-makers policy-makersneed needaaclear clearunderstanding understandingboth bothofofthe theinnovation innovationprocesses processesthat thatlead leadtotonew newtechnologies technologies and andofofthe theways waysininwhich whichthese thesetechnologies technologiesare aredisseminated disseminatedininhealth healthsystems. systems.This Thisstudy studyseeks seekstotoreinforce reinforcethe the understanding understandingofofthe theinterplay interplaybetween betweenthe thedistinct distinctpolicy policydomains domainsofofhealth, health,trade tradeand andintellectual intellectualproperty, property,and andofofhow howthey they affect affectmedical medicalinnovation innovationand andaccess accesstotomedical medicaltechnologies. technologies.ItItcaptures capturesaabroad broadrange rangeofofexperience experienceand anddata datainindealing dealing with withthe theinterplay interplaybetween betweenintellectual intellectualproperty, property,trade traderules rulesand andthe thedynamics dynamicsofofaccess accessto, to,and andinnovation innovationin, in,medical medical technologies. technologies.AAcollaborative collaborativeeffort effortby bythe theWorld WorldHealth HealthOrganization, Organization,the theWorld WorldIntellectual IntellectualProperty PropertyOrganization Organizationand andthe the World WorldTrade TradeOrganization Organizationdraws drawstogether togetherthe thethree threeSecretariats’ Secretariats’respective respectiveareas areasofofexpertise. expertise.

The Thestudy studyisisintended intendedtotoinform informongoing ongoingtechnical technicalcooperation cooperationactivities activitiesundertaken undertakenby bythe thethree threeorganizations organizationsand andtoto support supportpolicy policydiscussions. discussions.Based Basedon onmany manyyears yearsofoffield fieldexperience experienceinintechnical technicalcooperation, cooperation,the thestudy studyhas hasbeen beenprepared prepared totoserve servethe theneeds needsofofpolicy-makers policy-makerswho whoseek seekaacomprehensive comprehensivepresentation presentationofofthe thefull fullrange rangeofofissues, issues,as aswell wellas as lawmakers, lawmakers,government governmentofficials, officials,delegates delegatestotointernational internationalorganizations, organizations,non-governmental non-governmentalorganizations organizationsand andresearchers. researchers.

Promoting Promoting Access Access to to Medical Medical Technologies Technologies and and Innovation Innovation Intersections Intersections between between public public health, health,intellectual intellectual property property and and trade trade

WTO WTOISBN ISBN 978-92-870-3839-5 978-92-870-3839-5 WHO WHOISBN ISBN 978-92-415-0487-4 978-92-415-0487-4

WIPO WIPOISBN ISBN978-92-805-2308-9 978-92-805-2308-9 WIPO WIPOPublication PublicationNo. No.628E 628E

A co-publication by the World Health Organization, the World Intellectual Property Organization and the WTO. PAMTMI PAMTMIcover-Sept12.indd cover-Sept12.indd 1 1

WEB

Promoting Access to medicAl

I – MedIcal technologIes:

Figure 1.4. policy intersections between \

the fundaMentals

distinct levels

Policy intersections: from international

d. facTors shaping puBlic healTh policy

32

Published in 2013 | 252 pages CHF 60.-

technologies And innovAtion

Policy measures aimed at promoting access or innovation workforce.

Equally, promoting innovation can need to recognize that these two concepts entail better are intrinsically utilization of existing resources, leveraging access to intertwined. Merely to leverage enhanced access to the existing technologies, drawing on drug development skills stock of existing, proven medicines is insufficient. The and R&D infrastructure, and drawing more effectively on current pharmacopeia needs constant expansion to keep indigenous research and innovation capacity, so as to pace with the evolving disease burden.

The disease burden expand the medical technology development continues to evolve, with policy-makers pipeline. A recently turning host of international, regional and national legal and policy their attention, for instance, to the growing burden of non- instruments influences innovative activity. communicable diseases (NCDs) in the developing world.

New strains of viruses and the problem of resistance International legal instruments need to be understood of bacteria against current medicines challenge the through the prism of national experience with their efficacy of existing treatments. And medical innovation implementation.

Thus, a systematic understanding has historically failed to address major of the diseases that are intersections between these different layers of policy and endemic in the developing world. practice requires a more sophisticated understanding of how they interact and influence Shifting patterns of needs and requirements one another (see the – due not central column in Figure 1.4) – so as to assess how least to the constant evolution of the disease burden – international, national and institutional policies determine create an ever-changing set of demands both for new actual innovation outcomes, and how, in turn, practical and adapted technologies. Accordingly, the interplay experience influences the policy framework. between access and innovation can be seen in an integrated way, as a positive feedback loop between the health burden and the innovative response: linking 4.

The empirical challenge: an the identification of health needs; innovation in, and accessible base for policy adaptation of, technologies to meet the needs identified; and the implementation, dissemination and distribution Policy-makers dealing with the challenges of of safe and effective technologies medical of proven quality. technology access and innovation are more Innovation may aim specifically at numerous enhancing access: for and more diverse than at any time previously, example, where use of diagnostic and contend technologies requires with a host of policy, legal and administrative skilled clinical support or infrastructure structures – and this is at national, regional and international levels. For example, simply not available for many patients – then leveraging national regulatory authorities who seek to safeguard access for communities in resource-poor the settings may public against unsafe or ineffective medicines deal with entail creating new versions of the technology that can clinical trial data that may be protected by IP laws, be operated without such support and work or infrastructure. within a legal and policy framework shaped by multiple international and regional instruments.

Patent offices, which face unprecedented workloads, must use the best possible sources of technological data 3. Building stronger links between when searching and examining prior art29 to decide on whether or not to grant local, national and global levels patents on claimed inventions. Procurement programmes have to contend with a host of rapidly Promoting medical innovation policy evolving factors, is a particular while assessing evolving disease burdens, challenge, as it operates at the clinical needs, intersection of several the selection of essential medical technologies, policy domains. The essential challenge efficacy, for innovation prices and availability, and regulatory and in the area of medical technologies IP aspects. can be expressed in Common to all these diverse challenges simple terms: is the requirement for a stronger empirical base so that policy choices are more likely to address practical needs. first, to secure the requisite Fortunately, the past resources (including decade has seen significant improvements know-how, research and product in the quality and development inclusiveness of data, as well as access to the necessary capacity, clinical trial expertise, regulatory infrastructure, information technology tools required to convert background and platform technologies raw data and research into accessible knowledge services for stakeholders. tools, and the investment of public and private capital) second, to apply these innovation resources most Technology is unquestionably an essential component effectively towards addressing unmet public health of public health (see Box 1.2): medicines, ranging from needs. antibiotics to antiretrovirals (ARVs), have been central in ensuring dramatically improved public Yet, meeting this challenge entails health outcomes; working on complex vaccines have all but eliminated the threat of certain intersections between different policy areas, applying diseases; and other technologies, such as medical imaging, a mix of incentives and market interventions, funding have led to transformations in diagnosis and treatment. and other support for R&D, infrastructure development, Such technologies cannot be taken for granted – they are and building a public research base and a skilled research the product of extensive R&D activities. Development of

instruments to individual projects

An overview of the policy framework of medical technologies highlighting feedback loops between the layers the interplay and between individual R&D programmes to international law and policy instruments.

Yields actual outcomes, in the forms of specific, proven and effective technologies for the benefit of public health

R&D programmes respond to extremely defined needs (linked to market, humanitarian improvement, health-related priorities)

Individual programmes and product-specific initiatives for research and development of new medical technologies Directs of firm’s or institution’s resources to specific research and development goals

Specific research capacities and targets, and resource needs, guide institutional policies Firms’ and institutions’ policies and strategies for research and development

Creates specific incentives and provides more targeted funding and other resources for involved actors to pursue innovation programmes

Domestic stakeholders engaged in the practice of innovation contribute to national (and, increasingly, international) policy innovation National policy strategies and funding programmes for innovation in medical technology

Provides the legal framework and foundation for more specific policies to promote innovation

Guides or determines policy choices taken at national level, within world defined policy space, with “flexibilities” to accommodate national needs and priorities

Overall policy settings are shaped by considerations of implications for specific domestic policy priorities National innovation policy, legal and regulatory settings (e.g. IP laws and their interaction with other areas of regulation) International policy formed by experiences and perspectives of policy-makers at national level International policy instruments and standards, international legal framework

International and national legal and policy settings ultimately guide choices and outcomes at the practical level, creating or otherwise contributing to the necessary incentives, legal underpinning and resources…

25/01/2013 25/01/2013 11:49 11:49

…but, in turn, the policy framework is ideally shaped by a broad base of expertise and empirical data gleaned from practical experience with innovation

33

ISBN 9789287038395 Promouvoir l’accès aux technologies médicales et l’innovation: intersections entre la santé publique, la propriété intellectuelle et le commerce ISBN 9789287039606 Promover el acceso a las tecnologías y la innovación en medicina: intersecciones entre la salud pública, la propiedad intelectual y el comercio ISBN 9789287039613

Intellectual property

Promoting Access to Medical Technologies and Innovation examines the interplay between public health, trade and intellectual property, and how these policy domains affect medical innovation and access to medical technologies.

Co-published by the World Health Organization, the World Intellectual Property Organization and the WTO, the study draws together the three Secretariats’ respective areas of expertise.

Promoting Access Access to to Medical Medical Technologies Technologies and and Innovation Innovation Promoting

Intersections between Public Health, Intellectual Property and Trade

WHO – – WIPO WIPO – – WTO WTO WHO

Promoting Access to Medical Technologies and Innovation

24

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

Intellectual property

A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement Taubman, Wager and Watal

25

A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement Edited by Antony Taubman, Hannu Wager and Jayashree Watal

Published in 2012 | 410 pages PB : English | CHF 80.ISBN 9781107625297 HB: English | CHF160.ISBN 9781107023161 eBook ISBN 9781139415934

A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement Edited by Antony Taubman, Hannu Wager and Jayashree Watal

The Handbook describes the historical and legal background to the TRIPS Agreement, its role in the WTO and its institutional framework. Topics covered include copyright and related rights, trademarks, geographical indications, patents, enforcement of intellectual property rights, dispute settlement in the context of the TRIPS Agreement, and current TRIPS issues. As well as the legal texts of the TRIPS Agreement, the publication also contains the provisions of the WIPO conventions referred to within the TRIPS Agreement, and subsequent relevant WTO instruments.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press copublication.

‘This handbook provides a clear and balanced introduction to the WTO TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement. It goes through each provision and provides a summary of the objectives, negotiating history, and WTO dispute settlement cases related to that provision.

The handbook also lays out disagreements over interpretation of various provisions in a balanced and honest way.’ Amazon customer

TRIPS Agreement

IP

WEB has progressed in parallel with Implementation of the TRIPS Agreement in commerce and with unprecedented dramatic changes in the way IP is used an IP system. The TRIPS Agreement is growth in the use of the international and integrated global system for obtaining important element of the increasingly platform for trade in knowledge products. exercising IP rights, providing a stable of the for use of IP are only one measure Payments of royalties and licence fees billion in payments rose to almost US$ 300 complex pattern of trade in IP. These (3.4 times) between 2000 and 2013, 2014, and increased more than threefold this merchandise exports. As Chart 5 shows, exceeding the 2.9 times increase for crisis. economic 2008-09 the during in goods trade was more resilient than trade

25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000

13

Russia

United Kingdom

China

Republic of Korea

China United States Japan

France

Last updated: March 2015

India

Germany

Brazil

Source: WIPO statistics database.

Canada

Acuerdo sobre los ADPIC: Transformar el comercio y la formulación de políticas de propiedad intelectual

Last updated: March 2015

share of filings in other countries has Chart 9 shows how developing countries’ cent today.

TRIPS Agreement to around 15 per tripled from 5 per cent prior to the Chart 9: International patent filing

activity by WTO members

Source: WIPO statistics database

10 20

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

00

13 20

dataset. and Development Sources: ITC, UNCTAD, WTO joint Organisation for Economic Co-operation source, International Monetary Fund, Note: Calculations based on national (OECD) statistics.

Number of applications (thousands)

Developed countries South Africa

12

European Patent Office Russia

Republic of Korea

Canada

European Patent Office

20

20 11

10 20

09

08

07

China

India

20

06

20

20

03

02

20 05

20 04

20

20

(Exports of royalties and licence fees (USD mn)

20 01

00

8

Germany

United States

licence fees received by

Russia

Brazil

3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0

20

Chart 6: IP exports: royalties and the BRICS

Japan

Source: WIPO statistics database.

IP, and developing countries in particular Few countries are net exporters of 6 shows, emerging and diversifying mostly import IP. However, as Chart Russia, India, China and South Africa) economies such as the BRICs (Brazil, of IP royalties and licence fees. are growing in importance as recipients

20 05

12

11

10

09

20

08

20

07

06

20

20

20

04

20

03

02

20

20

20

20

20

01

00

20

20

05

0

Source: WTO

Developing countries

13

130

20

180

20

230

94

280

80

Accord sur les ADPIC: changer la physionomie du commerce de la propriété intellectuelle et de la politique en la matière

Chart 8: Top 10 patent filing offices in 2013

Chart 7: Top 10 patent filing offices in 1995

19

Merchandise trade

fees

320

20

Exports of royalties & licence fees (USD bn)

Exports of royalties and licence

IP offices have risen sharply, from Patent applications filed in WTO members’ The geographical spread of this activity 1 million in 1995 to 2.5 million in 2013. has evolved and diversified significantly. proportion of applications filed by developing Charts 7 and 8 show the increasing s capacity in the developing world. China’ countries, driven by growth in innovative world’s busiest while developing country patent office has now become the protection abroad. patent seeking increasingly innovators are also

and licence fees Merchandise exports (USD bn)

Chart 5: IP exports: receipts of royalties vs trade in goods

Published in 2015 | 12 pages FREE

Patent applications on the rise

Facilitating “trade in knowledge”

20

FREE

TRIPS AGREEMENT

Intellectual property

The establishment of the WTO’s TRIPS (trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights) Agreement in 1995 changed the face of international intellectual property (IP) law and policy-making. TRIPS negotiators recognized that shortcomings and inconsistencies in IP protection can distort trade and impede its benefits. The TRIPS Agreement helps ease trade tensions about IP issues while leaving WTO members ample space to pursue diverse domestic policies. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the use of IP rights covered by the Agreement.

tr ad C e ha an ng d in po g lic the y- fa m c ak e in of g

Changing the face of IP trade and policy-making

9

26

15 Years of the

Trade, Innovation and Global Production Networks

Information Technology Agreement

Trade, innovation and global production networks

The Information Technology Agreement (ITA) commits participants to completely eliminate duties on IT products covered by the Agreement. To celebrate its 15th anniversary, this publication provides a description of the obstacles that negotiators had to overcome, the issues that remain outstanding in the implementation of the agreement, the link between the ITA and innovation, and the profound structural change that has been brought about by the reliance on global production networks.

9 789287 038265

WEB Figure 3.2. Average applied tariffs on IT products prior to joining the ITA %

Published in 2012 | 108 pages CHF 40.-

40

Figure 3.3. Pre-ITA average bound and applied tariffs of ITA participants

35

% 45

30 Original participants

25

Original participants

40 Joined in 1998 onward

20

Joined during WTO accession

Joined in 1998 onward

Joined during WTO

35

accession

30

15

25 10

20

46

Information Technology Agreement

based on WTO schedules,

participants with

eqpt

eqpt

Computers

Telecommunications

Semiconductors manuf

eqpt

eqpt

Computers

& software

Semiconductors

Parts & accessories

Telecommunications

Instruments & apparatus

Semiconductors manuf

Bound Source: WTO Secretariat, Notes: Only includes

Data storage media

eqpt

eqpt

Computers

& software

Semiconductors

Parts & accessories

Instruments & apparatus

Data storage media

& software

Semiconductors

Parts & accessories

Telecommunications

Instruments & apparatus

0

Semiconductors manuf

Pre-ITA applied Group a verage Source: WTO Secretariat, based on Integrated Data Base (IDB) data.

Notes: EU member states are counted as one. Only includes ITA participation. participants with applied tariff data available for any year prior to their

Sixteen of the top 20 importers of IT products participants in 2010 are ITA participants (see of applied tariffs Table 3.2 in average Section C). All that were on of the developed 6 per cent. India’s countries in on Table 3.2 joined average applied IT products was the ITA as original tariff highest participants; to, and the majority with almost one-third (36.5 per cent) prior of the developing that joined the ITA of products subject countries a 52 per cent tariff. in 1997 were from to Mauritius, which South-East Asia.

East and second-highe had the China, st average pre-ITA as part of its accession which joined the ITA imposed applied tariff, an 80 per cent package to the WTO 2001, was already per cent import in on certain duty the number two telecommunic ation importer of IT products in 2010. equipment. By contrast, Hong Kong (China), Macao and Singapore already had duty-free (China) Countries usually on those products bindings apply lower MFN before joining the levels than their bound. The Agreement.

Among developed difference between countries, the the bound Union and applied is often European had the highest referred to as “water” “binding overhang”. average applied or in 1996, tariff The existence of such a lowest, at 4.1 per cent, while Japan difference raises had the the ITA really reduced question of whether the tariffs at 0.1 per cent. Pre-ITA average applied applied tariffs of all the original or formalized de facto participants are below duty-free conditions simply 6 per cent, except for India and the Republic products. Thus, in those Korea. the average applied of tariff prior to joining the Agreement is a second benchmark that could be used Closer examination to measure the of the reductions degree to different which participants by the opened their markets participant categories result of the ITA. as a interesting reveals several facts. Latin American countries that joined the ITA after 1997 tend to have Figure 3.2 is similar average higher the average applied to Figure 3.1, but shows pre-ITA bound tariffs (see Figure 3.1), but lower tariff of each participant applied tariffs than for the latest available the other participants (see Figure 3.2). year before it Members the ITA. In aggregate joined as part that joined the ITA of their accession terms, and with exceptions, the notable have to the WTO tend ITA led to the a lower binding to elimination by overhang because of their bound most tariffs already reflected their 15 Years of the

Data storage media

Peru

Bahrain

Kuwait

China

Honduras

Ukraine

Guatemala

Nicaragua

Viet Nam

Saudi Arabia

Dominican Rep.

Japan

Norway

Egypt

UAE

Panama

Mauritius

Singapore

Morocco

Colombia

HKG, China

Macao, China

Turkey

Canada

Philippines

Australia

Korea, Rep.

India

15º aniversario del Acuerdo sobre Tecnología de la Información Comercio: innovación y redes mundiales de producción ISBN 9789287038357

5

The impact of the trade liberalization brought by the ITA

15ème anniversaire de l’Accord sur les technologies de l’information: commerce, innovation et réseaux de production mondiaux ISBN 9789287038340

Costa Rica

10 New Zealand

0 El Salvador

15

Chinese Taipei

5

United States

ISBN 9789287038265

III

27

27.04.12 12:38

European Union

ts the ng the to be d how he ITA n also global ntries

Information Technology Agreement (ITA)

at the ing its mation dable ration works e shift

15 Years of the Information Technology Agreement

Applied

CTS and IDB databases.

applied tariff data

available for any

year prior to joining

(see Figure 3.2 for

a full list).

actual market-acces s conditions at the joined. For example, time they Among ITA participants, tariff on IT products China’s average applied reductions the highest tariff in 2000, one year on both bound and the country’s formal before on “data applied tariffs are accession to the storage media and WTO, was on 4.5 per cent, compared software provided physical media” with the average category (see Figure initial bound tariffs of its An additional 3.3). on IT products element affecting of 6.9 per products cent. The other trade in these acceding at the beginning of lower binding overhang. members had an even was the 1980s and 1990s whether the value of software contained a carrier medium in (at that time a floppy tape) should be disk or determined based Duty levels by IT on the value of the floppy disk product category or tape that contained or the value of the the data The average bound software itself plus of the carrier. the value and applied tariffs the participants of the payment The latter would normally lead that to of substantially higher conceal the considerablehave been discussed import than duties the former. variation in the treatment that tariff different individual receive. As explained products On 12 in Chapter 1, the coverage of the product Customs May 1995, the WTO Committee ITA does not on Valuation adopted differentiate beyond Attachments the “Decision on Valuation of Carrier A and B. These Media Bearing Software the can, however, be products Data Processing loosely classified for Equipment”, which into seven categories: (1) the General Agreement continued computers and calculating machines; (2) on Tariffs and telecommunic ation practice of allowing Trade either method of equipment; (3) semiconducto rs; valuation. In 1998, WTO members (4) semiconducto r manufacturin g adopted a work programme equipment; (5) on e-commerce that included a data storage media and software moratorium on the imposition provided on physical (6) instruments and media; transmissions of customs duties on electronic apparatus; and (7) ,1 which was extended accessories. Appendix parts and in December 2011 until 2 1 provides more on these categories. details exporters 2013. These actions allowed software to avoid a peculiar situation in importing a piece of software contained which on a 47

Regional Trade Agreements and the Multilateral Trading System Rohini Acharya

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

FORTHCOMING

To be published in September 2016 PB | CHF 70.ISBN 9781316614013 HB | CHF 180.ISBN 9781107161641

Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs)

The book explores bilateral and regional trade agreements and examines how they are changing international trade rules. It offers an important contribution to the current debate on the role of the WTO in regulating international trade and how WTO rules relate to new rules being developed by RTAs. The work is based on what is probably the largest dataset used to date. It provides a deep analysis of RTA provisions, identifying which provisions tend to be more liberalizing than others, whether there are any trends that can be identified and whether RTA provisions are moving ahead of the WTO framework, thereby creating a dual system of standards for international trade.

28

World Trade Report 2011 The ever-growing number of preferential trade agreements (PTAs) is a prominent feature of international trade.

The World Trade Report 2011 describes the historical development of PTAs and the current landscape of agreements. It examines why PTAs are established, their economic effects, and the contents of the agreements themselves. Finally it considers the interaction between PTAs and the multilateral trading system.

WEB WOrld Trade repOrT 2011 II – tHe Wto AnD PReFeRentIAL tRADe AGReements

Map B.1: membership in PtAs in force, 2010, notified and non-notified PtAs, by country

Published in 2011 | 256 pages CHF 60.-

marked contrast to just over ten years ago, when activity within a region was dominant.

The trend towards a broader geographical scope of PTAs is even more pronounced for those PTAs that are currently under negotiation or have recently been signed (but are not yet in force), practic ally all of which are crossregional. The advent of cross-regional PTAs may

Africa

5 to 9

10 to 19

20 or more

ISBN 9789287037640

Increased PTA activity, however, is not just found in the Asian region. Further afield, the United States has also become more active, concluding 9 of its 11 agreements since 2000. In this regard, the numbers of recently signed PTAs (but not yet in force) and of those currently under negotiation are quite telling as well. 20 Despite its dominant position among existing PTAs, the EU continues to widen its range of partners, with another 17 agreements signed or currently under negotiation.

Traditionally active countries, such as Singapore, the United States and Chile, continue to negotiate new PTAs (nine, eight and six respectively under negotiation or signed). In addition, a range of “newcomers” to the PTA scene are currently engaged in a substantial number of negotiations. This is especially true for the Gulf Cooperation Council countries (15 agreements, with the United Arab Emirates also currently negotiating

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2011: L’OMC et les accords commerciaux préférentiels : de la coexistence à la cohérence ISBN 9789287037657

29

-

4

36

-

-

-

4

1

1

1

7

12

-

3

-

-

1

-

1

1

0

4

7

1

3

-

-

-

East Asia

1990

1995

2000

2005

Number of PTAs

3

0

4

0

5 6

0

8

1

6

16

0

1

9

9

4

2

2010

0

5

-

3

7

17

-

7

2

5

1

-

Table B.3: Intra- and cross-regional PtAs in force, 2010, notified and non-notified PtAs, by region and time period Africa

1950-59

Intraregional

CIS

2

Crossregional

1960-69

0

0

Intraregional

0

0

0

0

Middle Oceania East North East Asia America

0

0

1

0

West Asia

0

0

0

0

Caribbean

0

0

1

0

Central America

0

0

0

0

South America

2

0

1

Crossregional

Europe

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Intraregional

0

0

0

0

1

0

5

0

1

0

0

Crossregional

0

1

0

0

2

0

3

3

1

2

2

Intraregional

5

0

1

1

0

0

0

2 0

1 2

2 0

2 0

1

0

Intraregional

12

25

10

9

2

Crossregional

2

11

1

12

10

8

3

1

Intraregional

14

0

0

8

3

4

17

3

5

0

5

5

1

15

0

28

16

10

10

12

9

31

21

Crossregional 1985

-

3

13

Crossregional

1980

-

-

1

Middle East Oceania

1990-99

1975

-

-

-

-

2000-10

Cross-regional

East North Asia America

-

-

-

0

1980-89

200

-

-

-

11

150 100

1970

-

-

7

16

1970-79

1965

-

-

19

3

Source: WTO Secretariat.

PTA activity has transcende d regional boundaries. The term “regional trade agreements” (RTAs) and “preferential trade agreements” (PTAs) are often used interchangeably in the literature, and the rise of “regionalism” is often referred to in order to describe the spread in PTA activity discussed in the previous subsection. However, one half of PTAs currently in force are not strictly “regional”, in that they include countries from other geogra phical areas, according to the regional definitions commonly employed in the WTO context (see Figure B .2). This development is in

300

1960

West Middle Oceania Asia East

Caribbean

-

13

2

0

250

1955

Central America

-

6

0

2 4

Figure B.2: Cumulative number of intra- and cross-regional PtAs in force, 1950-2010, notified and non-notified PtAs

0 1950

South America

-

0

1

Caribbean West Asia

North America

(b) Geographical coverage

Europe

-

0

3

Central America

an agreement with the United States), but also for Canada, China, India and the Republic of Korea (nine each), Australia (eight) and Thailand (six).

CIS

24

16

South America 1 to 4

Source: WTO Secretariat.

50

29

Table B.2 shows the number of agreements within a region and across regions for each regional group and partner group. Table B.3 indicates how the numbers for

Table B.2: “network” of PtAs in force, 2010, notified and non-notified PtAs, by region Africa CIS Europe 0

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2011: La OMC y los acuerdos comerciales preferenciales: de la coexistencia a la coherencia ISBN 9789287037664

reflect the fact that several prospects of agreements within a region have already been exhausted (Fiorentino et al., 2007).

B. HIstoRICAL BACkGRounD AnD CuRRent tRenDs

Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs)

The WTO and Preferential Trade Agreements: From Co-existence to Coherence

Source: WTO Secretariat.

17

3

1

26

11

9 0

4 0

1

2

0 1

1 2

6 1

Intra-regional

Source: WTO Secretariat.

58

59

Multilateralizing Regionalism Challenges for the Global Trading System Edited by Richard Baldwin and Patrick Low

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

‘This book offers an original and welcome contribution to the debate on the much-studied phenomenon of regional trade agreements proliferation and its relationship with the international trade regime. ...This book is impressive for its comprehensiveness, depth and empirical richness.’

Published in 2009 | 542 pages PB : English | CHF 60.ISBN 9780521738101 HB: English | CHF 130.ISBN 9780521506014 eBook ISBN 9781139180399

Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs)

Regional trade agreements (RTAs) have proliferated around the world in the past two decades, and now nearly all members of the WTO are party to at least one.

Besides tariffs and rules of origin regulating trade in goods, many RTAs now include provisions on services, investments, technical barriers to trade and competition rules, as well as a host of issues not directly related to trade. The geographic reach of RTAs is expanding, with transcontinental agreements spreading forcefully alongside intra-regional agreements.

Arlo Poletti, Antwerp, Journal of Common Market Law Review 30

Regional Rules in the Global Trading System

Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs)

Edited by Antoni Estevadeordal, Kati Suominen and Robert Teh

31

The proliferation of regional trade agreements (RTAs) over the past two decades has led to the relationships between regional and WTO rules or disciplines becoming increasingly complex. A major obstacle to advancing the understanding of RTAs is the absence of detailed information about their contents. Contributors provide analytical mappings of RTA rules in six key areas – market access, technical barriers to trade, contingent protection, investment, services and competition policy – across dozens of the main RTAs. Published in 2009 | 540 pages PB : English | CHF 50.ISBN 9780521759342

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

HB: English | CHF 120.ISBN 9780521760843

‘The volume makes a useful contribution to existing literature and will be of interest not only to a policy audience, but also to researchers.’

eBook ISBN 9780511903779

Alberto Portugal-Perez, The World Bank, The Journal of World Trade Review

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (2nd Edition) This revised edition provides an overview of the WTO’s Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreement and its key principles plus the full legal text of the Agreement. It also answers a number of frequently asked questions about the Agreement.

WEB

The SPS have an opportunity to comment.

Committee has developed recommendations handled. on how the comments must be for more the SPS (See document G/SPS/7/Rev.3 The transparency provisions of that information.)

Agreement are designed to ensure about know partners trading and the public have to act fast animal Sometimes, governments measures taken to protect human, SPS situation by emerging an with deal to requires and plant health. The agreement new SPS measure. sanitary promptly adopting a governments to promptly publish all be temporary, until other Urgent measures should and phytosanitary regulations. When to assess the sufficient information is available governments ask, they have to explain be permanent. When safety or whether they should must reasons for any particular food acting in emergencies, governments animal or plant health requirement. the WTO notify other members, through after the adoption must Secretariat, immediately All WTO member governments measure. When they an office of the new SPS Point, Enquiry an maintain measure to determine whether a permanent designated to receive and respond also consider any must they needed, is regarding any requests for information member comments submitted by other WTO that country’s sanitary and phytosanitary for copies governments. measures. Such requests may be on of new or existing regulations, information countries, relevant agreements between two Does the SPS Agreement or information about risk assessment ability Points restrict a government’s decisions. Contact details for Enquiry and safety the to establish food can be consulted electronically through laws?

(SPS plant and animal health SPS Information Management System Are food safety or animal and IMS – http://spsims.wto.org).

How do governments and the public know who is doing what?

a Whenever a government is proposing existing new regulation (or modifying an one) which differs from an international trade, standard and may affect international which it must notify the WTO Secretariat, WTO then circulates the notification to other are member governments. The notifications WTO web also available to the public on the . site’s Documents Online (http://docsonline symbol document search wto.org, SPS “G/SPS/N/”), or through the (http:// Information Management System notifications Alternatively, spsims.wto.org).

Point of can be requested from the Enquiry measure. the country which is proposing the Governments have to submit the notification is before a proposed new regulation partners implemented, so that trading 18

WTO Agreements Series

plant health levels determined by the WTO or some other international institution?

The SPS Agreement explicitly recognizes measures the right of governments to take health, to protect human, animal and plant are as long as these are based on science, and do necessary for the protection of health, foreign not unjustifiably discriminate among sources of supply. Likewise, governments animal determine the food safety levels and countries. their in protection and plant health Neither the WTO nor any other international body does this.

however, The SPS Agreement does, encourage governments to “harmonize” on or base their national measures guidelines the international standards,

examples fruit to prevent Regulation on treatment of imported pests spreading labelling of imported Regulation on quality, grading and

Fruit

sPs TbT

fruit

safe for human Materials that can be used because health so water not Requirements: no residues of disinfectant, contaminated volumes Permitted sizes to ensure standard and displaying Permitted shapes to allow stacking seriously can “Smoking health warning: Cigarette packets Government is health but damage your health”: the label’s objective it is not about food, so it is not SPS

bottled water: specifications for the bottles

sPs

Published in 2010 | 48 pages CHF 30.-

sPs TbT TbT TbT

ISSN 10204768 To summarize TbT measures typically deal with: • labelling of food, drink and drugs for food • grading and quality requirements • packaging requirements for food poisonous substances in food or drink • packaging and labelling for dangerous residues of veterinary drugs or pesticides chemicals and toxic substances in food or drink appliances plant • regulations for electrical certification: food safety, animal or health phones, radio for • regulations for cordless processing methods with implications equipment, etc. food safety to • textiles and garments labelling labelling requirements directly related

with: sPs measures typically deal • additives in food or drink • contaminants in food or drink • • • • •

food safety

• • plant/animal quarantine pests or • • declaring areas free from disease spreading • • preventing disease or pests to a country • imports for requirements • other sanitary (e.g. imported pallets used to transport

ISBN 9789287038036 Série des Accords de l’OMC: Mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (2ème édition) ISBN 9789287038043

testing vehicles and accessories regulations for ships and ship equipment safety regulations for toys etc…

animals) • etc…

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

17

Serie de Acuerdos de la OMC: Medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias (Secunda Edición) ISBN 9789287038050

Sanitary and phytosanitary measures

WTO Agreements Series

32

33

su

r un ing ne sa ce fe ss tra ar d y in re g st wi ri th ct o io ut ns

Ensuring Safe Trading without Unnecessary Restrictions

En

SANITARY AND PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES

Agricultural products worth over US$ 1,765 billion were traded in 2013. WTO rules help to ensure that these products are traded safely and that health protection measures are not used as an excuse for protecting domestic producers. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the key provisions of the Agreement and the work of the SPS Committee.

WEB

FREE

Transparency

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires: Veiller à la sécurité des échanges en évitant les restrictions inutiles

SPS Committee

To sell a product, the producers and traders must know the health requirements of the market. The SPS Agreement requires WTO members to notify the WTO Secretariat whenever they intend to impose any new or changed requirements that may affect trade. These notifications give trading partners the opportunity to comment on the planned regulations before they are adopted and allow producers to adapt to the new requirements.

Greater transparency in government procedures, including providing the reasons for food safety, animal or plant health measures, means that more information is now available to producers, traders and consumers. By eliminating unnecessary trade barriers, governments allow consumers to benefit from a greater choice of safe foods and from international competition among producers.

Chart 1: SPS notifications by WTO

The SPS Committee provides a forum for WTO members to exchange information on all aspects of the implementation of the SPS Agreement. The Committee reviews how countries are complying with the Agreement, discusses issues that may have an impact on trade and works closely with relevant technical organizations. The Committee also allows members to request the assistance of the Chair to help resolve specific trade concerns (STCs) raised by WTO members.

Chart 2: STCs raised in the SPS Animal health

Developed countries

Plant health

31

25

0

1600

Other

5 100

%

1400 1200 1000

Chart 3: STCs raised by WTO members,

800 600

1995-2014

400 200

Developed countries 300

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

19

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

20

12

20

18,000

Over the past 20 years, WTO members have submitted nearly 18,000 notifications to the SPS Committee. The share of notifications from developing countries has increased significantly over the years.

13

20

14

20

Number of issues

0

Medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias: Garantizar un comercio seguro sin imponer restricciones innecesarias

Committee, 1995-2014

Food safety

39

members

Developing countries

1800 Number of notifications

Sanitary and phytosanitary measures

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

Developing countries

Least-developed countries

200 100

0 Members raising the issue

Supporting members

Members maintaining the trade measure

382

Over the past 20 years, WTO members have raised 382 specific trade concerns in the SPS Committee. More than 45 per cent of these were subsequently reported as resolved or partially resolved.

Putting Principles into Practice

Edited by Aik Hoe Lim and Bart De Meester

Domestic regulation of services has a significant impact on the liberalization of trade in services. WTO members have agreed to negotiate a set of disciplines to ensure that such regulations are not unduly burdensome on trade. This book contains analyses and case studies from academics, regulators and trade experts exploring the scope of WTO legal principles to promote domestic regulatory reform and how domestic regulation is implemented in practice.

Aik Hoe Lim is a Counsellor in the Trade in Services Division of the WTO Secretariat, where he is Secretary to the body responsible for negotiating domestic regulation disciplines for services.

Bart De Meester is an Associate at the Geneva Office of Sidley Austin LLP. He previously worked as a Legal Affairs Officer at the Trade in Services Division of the WTO.

World Trade Organization

WTO Domestic Regulation and Services Trade Putting Principles into Practice Edited by Aik Hoe Lim and Bart De Meester

Lim & De Meester. 9781107062351 PPC. C M Y K

WTO Domestic Regulation and Services Trade

Domestic regulation of services sectors has a significant impact on services trade liberalization, which is why General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) disciplines are negotiated in the WTO. With the help of analyses and case studies from academics, regulators and trade experts, this book explores the scope and limits of WTO legal principles to promote domestic regulatory reform. Case studies discuss country-specific challenges and experiences of regulating important service sectors, such as finance, telecommunications, distribution, legal, education, health, postal and logistics services, as well as the role of regulatory impact assessments. The findings will interest trade officials, policy-makers, regulators, think tanks and businesses concerned with the implications of domestic regulation on access to services markets, and with the opportunities for formulating trade disciplines in this area. It is also a useful resource for academics and students researching regulatory approaches and practices in services sectors.

Lim and De Meester

WTO Domestic Regulation and Services Trade

Cover illustration: Š Danil Melekhin / iStockphoto.com.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Published in 2014 | 394 pages

HB English | CHF 100.ISBN 9781107062351 SEE ALSO

Services Profiles 74 Opening Markets for Trade in Services 36

eBook ISBN 9781139899703

Services

PB English | CHF 60.ISBN 9781107635340

34

A Handbook on Reading WTO Goods and Services Schedules This is a detailed guide on how to read WTO Schedules of Commitments for Goods and Services. The Schedules are part of the Legal Texts of the WTO Uruguay Round Agreements. They comprise about 27,000 pages of specific commitments by the members of the WTO on market access conditions. Understanding how to interpret the Schedules is essential for anyone wishing to glean information for academic, official, or business purposes.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Services

Published in 2009 | 146 pages

35

PB : English | CHF 45.ISBN 9780521706827 HB : English | CHF 115.ISBN 9780521880596 eBook ISBN 9781139200301

SEE ALSO

A Handbook on the GATS Agreement 37

Opening Markets for Trade in Services Countries and Sectors in Bilateral and WTO Negotiations Edited by Juan A. Marchetti and Martin Roy

Trade in services is an increasingly important part of global trade and, as such, figures prominently in multilateral, regional and bilateral trade negotiations. In this volume of essays, academics, negotiators and experts from various international organizations explore the achievements of such negotiations, together with the challenges and opportunities which arise and the motivations that come into play in such negotiations. The contributions highlight issues in important services sectors, such as distribution, energy, finance and telecommunications. Case studies look into the experiences of specific countries.

‘ (This book) is essential for trade negotiators and very usefully complements recent publications on the topic. ...These sectoral chapters are complete and of high quality. ... It provides an important historical track record on the process and background of negotiations, one which is often lost but which is of fundamental importance to understanding the agreements.’ Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Journal of World Trade Review

Published in 2009 | 784 pages PB : English | CHF 80.ISBN 9780521735919 HB : English | CHF 160.ISBN 9780521516044 eBook ISBN 9781139200110

Services

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

36

A Handbook on the GATS Agreement This handbook aims to provide a better understanding of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the challenges and opportunities of the ongoing negotiations. For those who are familiar with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), similarities and differences are pointed out where relevant. Likewise, for those who are familiar with the balance-of-payments definition of trade departures from the Agreement’s coverage are explained.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Services

Published in 2005 | 104 pages

37

PB : English | CHF 50.ISBN 9780521615679 HB: English | CHF 102.ISBN 9780521850711

SEE ALSO

General Agreement on Trade in Services Protocols 96 A Handbook on Reading WTO Goods and Services Schedules 35

The Internationalization of Financial Services Issues and Lessons for Developing Countries Edited by Stijn Claessens and Marion Jansen

The internationalization of financial services is an important issue for strengthening and liberalizing financial systems in developing countries. There has been considerable support for the view that internationalization can assist countries in building financial systems that are more stable and efficient by introducing international standards and practices. At the same time, there have been concerns about the risks that internationalization may carry for some countries, particularly in the absence of adequate regulatory structures.

A World Trade Organization and Kluwer Law International co-publication.

Published in 2001 | 480 pages

SEE ALSO

WTO Domestic Regulation and Services Trade 34 Opening Markets for Trade in Services 36

Services

HB: English | CHF 260.ISBN 9789041198174

38

Guide to the GATS An Overview of Issues for Further Liberalization of Trade in Services Following an analysis of the economic effects of services liberalization, 19 chapters on individual service sectors consider the issues which WTO members need to consider when framing their negotiating positions and objectives for the current round of negotiations and preparing their industries for a more open trading environment.

Co-published with Kluwer Law International and Éditions Yvon Blais.

Published in 2001 | 736 pages

Services

HB: ISBN 9789041197757 CHF 350.-

39

Guía del AGCS: Panorama de las cuestiones relativas a una mayor liberalización del comercio de servicios PB: ISBN 9789287036902 CHF 90.Guide sur l’AGCS: Aperçu des questions relatives à la poursuite de la libéralisation du commerce des services PB: ISBN 9789287035783 CHF 90.-

SEE ALSO

A Handbook on the GATS Agreement 37

Trade in Services

e

TRADE IN SERVICES

FREE

GATS commitments

Te

Source: I-TIP Services database, June 4

m em be All rs D ec evel on op om ed ie s ec D on cl omevel ud in ies opin g LD (not g Le Cs) co as un t-d tr ev ie el s (L oped DC th Econ e s) W om TO ie si s jo nc in e 19 ing 95 in

2015.

io n ib ut

tr

tran

sp or t Ed uc at io n lth an re d la so te ci d al

e m iti

Hea

t

M ar

en

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

is m re an la d te d na nc ia l

Number of members

Source: WTO Secretariat.

Comercio de servicios : El segmento más dinámico del comercio internacional

with commitments,

l

Figure 4: Number of WTO members by sector

ta

The sector most commonly included in WTO members’ schedules of

or

subsidies.

sp

Mode 4

Commerce des services : Le segment le plus dynamique du commerce international

Source: WTO Secretariat.

tran

Mode 3

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE

104

commitments is tourism, followed by infrastructure services (financial services, business services, and telecommunications). The sectors least frequently included in commitments are education and health services, reflecting the high levels of direct government provision in these services (see Figure 4).

Dis

Mode 2

29

48

110

52

Air

Mode 1

55% 10%

Figure 3: Average number of committed sectors, by group of WTO members

ne ss m un ic at io Con n st ru ct Oth io er n tran sp co or Rec mm t re unic O th at io atio er na n an l, d cu sp ltu or ra En tin l vi g ro nm

<5% 30%

le

Mode 2 is by far the most liberalized mode in terms of commitments

by WTO members. This is mostly due to governments being less likely to restrict the movements of citizens outside domestic borders (e.g. tourists). Mode 1 is not often committed, mostly because it is impossible for many services to be supplied remotely (e.g. construction services), while mode 3 is more open, reflecting its crucial role in driving the international supply of services, transferring know-how and improving the capacity of economies to participate in global value chains.

Figure 2: Share of services trade, by mode of supply

si

a branch overseas).

• Mode 4 covers individuals travelling from their own country to supply services in another (for example, a consultant travelling abroad to provide an IT service).

Out of a total of approximately 160 service sectors, WTO members have, on average, listed about 50 in their schedules of commitments, pledging some degree of market opening (see Figure 3). Developed countries have commitments in nearly four times as many sectors (some 110) as least-developed countries (LDCs).

But economies that have joined the WTO since 1995 have committed to a significantly higher number of sectors than the “original” members at similar levels of development.

Unlike in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), where tariffs are the only permissible to restrictions, the limitations attached WTO members’ GATS commitments cover a broad range of measures, including numerical quotas, limits on foreign ownership, and discriminatory

Services

In 2014, trade in services totalled USD 4,800 billion, representing 21 per cent • Mode 2 covers consumers or firms of world trade in goods and services. making use of a service in another However, this total does not cover country (for example, through services delivered via foreign affiliates international tourism). (i.e. essentially mode 3). The total trade in services is therefore estimated • Mode 3 covers a foreign company be much larger, even twice as large, setting up subsidiaries or branches to of as mode 3 represents 55 per cent to provide services in another services trade (see Figure 2). country (such as a bank setting up total

Bu

Mode 4 has the lowest depth of commitments, probably due to a number of sensitivities involved with the movement of foreign workers.

To trav ur el

in The GATS defines trade in services terms of modes of supply: • Mode 1 covers services supplied from one country to another (for example, call centre services).

Fi

How are services traded?

co m

WEB

Th

Over the past 20 years, trade in services has become the most dynamic segment of world trade, growing more quickly than trade in goods. Developing countries and transition economies have played an increasingly important role in this area, increasing their share in exports of world services from a quarter to one-third over this period. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the General Agreement on Trade in Services and WTO members’ commitments.

m o of st d in yn te a rn m at ic io se na g l t me ra nt de

The Most Dynamic Segment of International Trade

5

40

The WTO Agreements Series Technical Barriers to Trade

Technical Barriers to Trade (2nd edition) This fully revised and updated edition of Technical Barriers to Trade provides an overview of the WTO’s TBT Agreement, the full legal text of the Agreement, and the decisions and recommendations adopted by the TBT Committee since 1 January 1995. It is part of the WTO Agreements Series, which aims to assist public understanding of the WTO agreements.

The WTO Agreements Series Technical Barriers to Trade

Technical barriers to trade

WTO Agreements Series

8-92-870-3836-4

WEB

287 038364

41

Published 2014 I 152 pages CHF 30.ISSN 10204768 ISBN 9789287038364 Séries d’Accords de l’OMC: Les obstacles techniques au commerce (2ème édition) ISBN 9789287038371 Serie de Acuerdos de la OMC: Obstáculos Técnicos al Comercio (Secunda Edición) ISBN 9789287038388

World Trade Report 2012 World Trade Report 2012

Trade and Public Policies: A Closer Look at Non-Tariff Measures in the 21St Century

WEB

Trade and public policies: A closer look at non-tariff measures in the 21st century

ST MEASURES IN THE 21 CENTURY A CLOSER LOOk AT NON-TARIFF II – TRADE AND PUBLIC POLICIES:

World TrAde reporT 2012

specific trade concerns, 1995-2010 Figure C.4: New and resolved SPS (number of concerns)

1995-2010 Figure C.3: SPS and TBT notifications, measures per year) (number of notifying countries and number of notified

1000 50 800 600 30

200

400 20 200 10 0 2010 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 axis) Number of notifying countries (left Number of measures (right axis)

90 80 70 60 50

5 0

0 2010 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Cumulative Number of resolved concerns Number of new concerns

Published in 2012 | 248 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287038159

concerns, 1995-2010 Figure C.5: New TBT specific trade (number of concerns)

1400

45

1200

40

1000

35

800

30

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2012 : Commerce et politiques publiques: Gros plan sur les mesures non tarifaires au XXIe siècle ISBN 9789287038166

25 20 15

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

1999

5

Source: WTO STC Database.

Source: WTO I-TIP database.

except 2004, the cumulative number increases over time.

10

1998

0 2010 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 axis) Number of notifying countries (left Number of measures (right axis)

1997

200

10

1996

20

0

50

10

50

400

30

15

1600

600

40

100

20

Source: WTO STC Database.

1800

100

25

1995

0

(b) TBT

150

30

C. AN INVENTORY OF NON-TARIFF MEASURES AND SERVICES MEASURES

40

Cumulative number of active concerns

40 35

60

106

250

45 1200

Number of new and resolved concerns

(a) SPS

of SPS concerns

d A total of 312 SPS specific trade concerns were raise between 1995 and 2010. Ninety-five (30 per cent) were to the SPS reported as resolved by WTO members were reported as Committee. Eighteen (6 per cent) instance, that trade partially resolved – meaning, for products or by may have been allowed for selected measure in question. some of the members using the e for the remaining 215 trad No solutions were reported it is possible that concerns (64 per cent). However,

some of these concerns were resolved without the SPS these developments.

Committee being made aware of concerns in Therefore, the number of resolved a lower estimate.

Figure C.4 should be taken as

Table C.4 below documents the fact that disputes citing over time, either as SPS measures have not increased of all disputes. This an annual total or as a share

concerns mechanism suggests that the specific trade the rising number of may be functioning better than disputes and notifications in this area would suggest. concerns, only In the case of TBT specific trade but not on their information on initiation of concerns, , termination, is available. The data, shown in Figure C.5 initiations (but with indicate an upward trend in ; reductions between 1998 and 1999; 2002 and 2005 and 2009 and 2010).

Consistent with the measures-based information from indication that an notifications, there is also some is involved in raising increasing number of countries TBT/SPS specific trade concerns or maintaining 40 Figure C.6). A key measures subject to STCs (see are becoming element is that developing countries an issue that will be important users of the system – explored in more detail in S ection C.2(c).

These peaks are due to the filing of concerns involving two or more major a wide set of HS2 lines between of the SPS peaks, trading countries. In the case concerns, one the first is mainly due to two separate by the United on pharmaceutical products raised Australia and States, Switzerland, Brazil, Canada, Union in 1997, and others against the European dairy products raised by the European can also provide another on 98. The SPS peak in 2008 The specific trade concerns data Union against Poland in 19

by affected trade information on the amount of nt by the United States and C.7 shows the is mainly due to a complai ies, against Japan on meat, TBT/SPS concerns. Firstly, Figure initiated. The China, among other countr roducts. average amount of trade per concern import value of an dairy and most vegetable p figure shows that, on average, the quite stable since a “double initiated trade concern has been concerns, the earlier peak is also peaks at the end of For TBT and 2000. In 1999, 1995, with the exception of two peak” spanning the years 1999 against the European Union each decade. In the case of SPS concerns, the peaks 2008. As for TBT a TBT concern was raised including the United States , occurred in 1997-98 and in r by a large set of countries range of sectors concerns, there was a peak in 1999-2000 and anothe China and Japan, involving a wide 41 smaller one in 2010.

concerns is based Because the number of “resolved” TBT, the descriptive on an assumption in the case of with some statistics on TBT are to be interpreted

caution. Moreover, no direc t comparison can be made panel) and TBT between SPS concerns (upper concerns (lower panel).

107

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2012: Comercio y políticas públicas: Análisis de las medidas no arancelarias en el siglo XXI ISBN 9789287038173

Technical barriers to trade

The World Trade Report 2012 ventures beyond tariffs to examine other policy measures that can affect trade.

Regulatory measures for trade in goods and services raise new and pressing challenges for international cooperation in the 21st century. More than many other measures, they reflect public policy goals (such as ensuring the health, safety and well-being of consumers) but they may also be designed and applied in a manner that unnecessarily frustrates trade.

42

Trade, Standards and the WTO WORLD TRADE REPORT

2005

2005

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2005 ISBN 9789287033116

20 15

5 5

2001 0 2002

2003

-5

0

2004

2001

2002

2003

2004

-5

Source: Appendix Tables 1 and 2.

than those of Italy (16 per cent), France (15 per cent) and the United Kingdom (13 per cent) in 2004. Merchandise import growth was more uniform among these four major traders, with German imports only a few percentage points ahead. The relatively dynamic export and import performance of Germany in 2004 might be attributed partly to its close economic ties with the fast growing new EU members, and the global recovery in demand investment goods, which figure prominently for in the German export structure.

Europe’s commercial services exports (and imports) rose by 16 per cent (14 per cent) to $1114 billion ($1019 billion) in 2004, consolidating Europe’s moderate commercial services trade surplus.15 According to preliminary information, Europe’s receipts from transportation services rose faster than those from other commercial services and travel in 2004. The EU(25), other western Europe (comprising Iceland, Norway Switzerland) and South-East Europe and each recorded a surplus in their commercial services trade.

The dollar value of the merchandise and commercial services trade of the Commonwealth of Independent States again expanded much faster than global trade in 2004. Merchandise exports and imports were up by 35 and 31 per cent respectively, and commercial services trade is estimated to have risen by more than 20 per cent (see Chart 7). The CIS merchandise export surplus, which was already large in 2003, increased further in 2004. As this surplus of about $100 billion (f.o.b-f.o.b.) is substantially in excess of the region’s commercial services deficit ($15 billion to $20 billion), the resulting size of the current account surplus led to a sharp rise in foreign exchange reserves, in particular in the Russian Federation.

Chart 7 CIS merchandise and commercial services trade, 2001-2004

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2005 ISBN 9789287033123

(Annual percentage change in value)

Merchandise

35

Commercial services

35 30

Exports

25

Imports

30 25

20 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 -5

2001

2002

2003

0

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2001 -5

Source: Appendix Tables 1 and 2.

15

43

Preliminary information on the merchandise trade of Africa and the Middle East highlights the importance of oil market developments for these two regions. The sharp rise in both regions’ merchandise exports in 2004 was driven by markedly higher volumes of oil exported and sharply higher average oil prices (see Chart 8). The export strength in volume terms was due to an expansion of African oil production of about 10 per cent and a recovery of the production in the Middle East of about 7 per cent.16 Merchandise export growth of 31 per cent in Africa and 26 per cent in the Middle East was much greater than global merchandise trade growth in 2004. Although merchandise imports also expanded faster than in the preceding years, their rise was less pronounced than exports. Consequently, Africa and for the Middle East recorded a further increase in their trade surpluses. For Middle East, the surplus is estimated the to be in the order of $150 billion on a f.o.b.-f.o.b. basis in 2004.

10

2002

2003

2004

The euro value of Europe’s commercial services exports (imports) is estimated billion (€ 820 billion) in 2004. to have increased by 5.4 per cent to € 897

10

Chart 8 Merchandise trade of Africa and the Middle East, 2001-2004

(Annual percentage change in value) Africa

35

5

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30

Exports

25

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10 2001

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0 -5 -10 -15

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The merchandise export performance of individual African countries showed very large variations in 2004.

Exports of Chad are estimated to have increased fourfold under the impact of increased oil shipments, while the exports of Zimbabwe stagnated and those of Côte d’Ivoire decreased. Many of the established oil exporters in the region have increased their exports by more than one-third (Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Libya, Nigeria and Sudan). Mozambique also recorded a very large increase in its merchandise exports, above all due to a further substantial increase in shipments of aluminium. Morocco and Mauritius, however, recorded a rather subdued export expansion due to sluggish exports of clothing and fish to Europe. South Africa, the largest trader in the region, increased its exports in dollar terms by one-quarter in 2003 and 2004, most of this value increase is to price and exchange rate changes. due The sharp appreciation of the Rand in 2003 and 2004 stimulated South Africa’s imports, which rose by one-third in dollar terms and by about 15 per cent in real terms in 2004.

Partly linked to oil market developments, the regional breakdown of African merchandise exports continued to shift from Europe, its major market, to Asia and North America.17 Imports of the United States and Japan from Africa have increased by 44 and 35 per cent respectively. Imports of the European Union are estimated to have increased by 14 per cent.

Thanks to AGOA, US imports of clothing from Africa have per cent. A number of African countries expanded by 16 like Uganda, Ethiopia, Namibia and Ghana have nearly doubled their exports to the United States. Finally, Chinese imports of cotton from Africa increased by 192 per cent in dollar terms from $223 million to $650 million.

16 17

Estimates are taken fom IEA, Monthly Oil Report, January 2005.

In 2004, imports from Africa grew by 43 per cent (to $48.3 billion) in the United States, by 87 per cent China and by 28 per cent (to $8.7 (to $15.6 billion) in billion) in Japan.

11

RECENT AND SELECTED MEDIUM-TERM TRADE DEVELOPMENTS RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

The Russian Federation alone accounts for nearly 70 per cent of the CIS exports and 55 per cent of its imports.

Ukraine and Kazakhstan, accounting for 12 per cent and 8 per cent of the CIS exports, expanded their export shipments by 42 and 54 per cent respectively in 2004. These outstandingly high growth rates are linked to the strong price increases for fuels and metals, which figure prominently in the export structure of these countries.

Shipments from Armenia, Belarus and Turkmenistan are estimated to have increased by only between 5 12 per cent. and

Commercial services

25

Exports Imports

I

Merchandise

25 20

10

A

Chart 6 Europe’s merchandise and commercial services trade, 2001-2004

(Annual percentage change in value)

15

WORLD TRADE REPORT 2005

ISBN 9789287033109

I

Published in 2005 | 377 pages CHF 60.-

RECENT AND SELECTED MEDIUM-TERM TRADE DEVELOPMENTS RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

WEB

A

Technical barriers to trade

WORLD TRADE REPORT

The World Trade Report 2005 seeks to shed light on the various functions and consequences of standards, focusing on the economics of standards in international trade, the institutional setting for standard-setting and conformity assessment, and the role of WTO agreements in reconciling the legitimate policy uses of standards with an open, non-discriminatory trading system.

WORLD TRADE REPORT 2005

world trade organization

World Trade Report 2005

Technical Barriers to Trade

WEB Notifications The TBT Committee depends on “notifications” from WTO page document containing members – a onethe essential information about a regulation in the pipeline – to conduct its work. In 1995 – the year the WTO was established WTO members notified – around 400 trade measures to the TBT Committee (with 20 per cent of these notified by developing countries) while in 2014 over 2,200 measures were notified (80 per cent from developing countries).

A notification leads to a public consultation process normally lasting 60 days.

This is an opportunity for trading partners to provide input which needs to be taken into account by the member establishing the regulation. Figure 2 shows the rising tide of notifications over the past 20 years, in particular from developing countries.

Figure 2: TBT notifications , 1995-2014 Developed countries

Developing countries

Least-developed countries

Specific trade concern

s

Once a notification has been made, it may be raised for discussion in the TBT Committee (although most are not). These measures are referred to as “specific trade concerns” (STCs).

The discussion within the Committee consists of a technical debate among experts. The WTO member raising the issue explains how the proposed measure may have an adverse impact on trade. This may trigger further discussions between the members concerned and the potential resolution of the issue.

For example, a member may question why insufficient time has been provided to allow producers to adapt to the new requirements before force. At the following meeting, they enter into the challenged member delayed enforcement of may indicate that it has the measure to provide the recommended six-month transition period.

Since 1995, over 470 STCs have been brought to the Committee by both developed and developing countries (see Figure 3).

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Obstacles Techniques au Commerce: Réduire les frictions commerciales dues aux normes et réglementations

2,500

Figure 3: STCs brought 2,000

1,500

to the TBT Committee,

1995–2014

By developed countries By developing countries By least-developed countries By both developed and developing countries

50 45

1,000

40 Number of STCs

Number of notifications

FREE

TECHNICAL BARRIERS TO TRADE

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Obstáculos Técnicos al Comercio: Reducir las desavenencias comerciales causadas por la aplicación de normas y reglamentos

Technical barriers to trade

WTO members have notified over 25,000 draft regulatory measures to the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee over the past 20 years, covering imports ranging from food to medical devices. Over 470 of these measures have undergone detailed scrutiny by WTO members in the TBT Committee. But only a handful of these issues have resulted in formal disputes, proving the effectiveness of the committee process. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the TBT Agreement and the work of the TBT committee.

Re d st uc an in da g rd tra s de an f d ric re ti gu on la fr tio om ns

Reducing Trade Friction from Standards and Regulations

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WTO members notified 2,237 trade measures to the TBT Committee in 2014.

44 5

Trade facilitation and customs valuation

ment presents for nal accounts of the greement. Their rich nt policy perspectives modated in the ďŹ nal es that transcended een developed and e look at issues such s on medicines and ion of geographical heir views on how the overall Uruguay omic considerations role of non-state tive and procedural e TRIPS Agreement, ntellectual property. ed to an enduring a framework for s, the contributions ure negotiators. The ng effect of a clear ore the important, but ecretariat and above

45

The Trade Facilitation Agreement and its Relationship with other WTO Agreements Edited by Nora Neufeld

To be published in early 2017 ISBN 9789287041296

The Trade Facilitation Agreement and its Relationship with other WTO Agreements The Trade Facilitation Agreement is the first multilateral treaty adopted in the WTO since the organization was created. This book looks at how the Agreement is structured and how it relates to existing WTO agreements, namely the Customs Valuation Agreement, the Agreement on Rules of Origin, the Agreement on Import Licensing, the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the Agreement on Pre-shipment Inspection. The publication includes the full text of the Trade Facilitation Agreement.

FORTHCOMING

SEE ALSO

World Trade Report 2015: Trade Facilitation Agreement 46

World Trade Report 2015

World Trade Report 2015

The Report’s findings are consistent with existing studies on the scale of potential benefits from trade facilitation, but it goes further by identifying and examining in detail a range of other benefits from the TFA. These include diversification of exports from developing countries and least-developed countries to include new products and partners, increased involvement of these countries in global value chains, expanded participation of small and medium-sized enterprises in international trade, increased foreign direct investment, greater revenue collection and reduced incidence of corruption.

WEB

Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

The TFA is also highly innovative in the way it allows each developing and least-developed country to self-determine when and how they will implement the provisions of the Agreement, and what capacity building support they will require in order to do so. To ensure that developing and least-developed countries receive the support they need to implement the Agreement, the Trade Facilitation Agreement Facility was launched in 2014 by WTO Director-General Roberto Azevêdo.

The World Trade Report 2015 examines why the Trade Facilitation Agreement is so important, what its economic impact is projected to be, and how the WTO is taking a number of important – and novel – steps to help countries to maximize its benefits.

Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

WORLD TRADE REPORT 2015

ISBN 978-92-870-3985-9

I. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND TRADE IN 2014 AND EARLY 2015

Figure 7: Growth in the value of commercial services exports by region, 2011-14 (annual percentage change) 20

18

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takes hold in the euro zone as a result of the European Central Bank's current programme of monetary easing.

Any recovery in demand in the European Union would

13

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outweighs the negative impact on net exporters.

The extent of the recent slide in commodity prices is illustrated by Figure 8. World trade could also grow faster than expected if a stronger economic recovery

17

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North America

South and Central Americaa

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CIS 2013

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2014

have a disproportionate impact on world trade statistics due to the fact that trade between EU members is counted in global totals.

WTO estimates of annual trade volume growth and consensus estimates of world real GDP at market exchange rates from 2010 to 2014 are shown in Table 1.

Much attention has been paid to the fact that the rough two-to-one relationship that prevailed for many years between world trade growth and world GDP growth appears to have broken down, as illustrated by the fact that trade and output have grown at around the same rate for the last three years. A number of explanations

have been offered for the slower rate of increase in trade recently, including adverse macroeconomic conditions, the maturation of global supply chains, and the accumulation of post-crisis protectionist measures,

I. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND TRADE IN 2014 AND EARLY 2015

WORLD TRADE REPORT 2015

Published in 2015 | 158 pages CHF 60.-

among others.

No definitive explanation has emerged, but some stylized facts can at least be discerned. First, the ratio of world trade growth to world GDP growth (referred to as the "income elasticity of world trade") peaked sometime in the 1990s, long before the financial crisis, but has fallen since then (see Figure 9). Second, it is normal for world trade to grow slowly for a time after a global economic shock before faster growth resumes (e.g. the oil crises of the 1970s and early 1980s).

Finally, lower global trade elasticity does not imply a lower world trade/GDP ratio, which remains at or near record levels. These facts suggest a combination of cyclical and structural factors at work behind the trade slowdown.

ISBN 9789287039859

Note: Data are compiled according to the sixth edition of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual (BPM6) and are not comparable to figures from earlier years. a Includes the Caribbean.

Figure 8: Prices of primary commodities, January 2012 - May 2015 (indices, January 2012 = 100)

Source: WTO and UNCTAD Secretariats.

World trade continued to grow at a moderate pace in the first quarter of 2015 but the outlook for the second half was clouded by numerous of risk factors, many of which are on the downside. US GDP growth has swung from strongly negative to strongly positive and back since the beginning of 2014. Continued strength

Lower prices for oil and other primary commodities could boost global GDP and trade going forward if their positive impact on net importers of these products

60

50

Food and beverages

May 2015

Jan. 2015

July 2014

Mar. 2015

Jan. 2014

Nov. 2014

May 2014

Metals

Sept. 2014

July 2013

Agricultural raw materials

Mar. 2014

40 May 2013

targets going forward. China's growth may continue to exceed that of other major economies for some time, but it is likely do so by smaller margins than in the past. This suggests slower rather than accelerating import demand in China.

70

Jan. 2013

over time. The 7.4 per cent increase in Chinese GDP in 2014 was the smallest such rise in 24 years, and Chinese officials have downgraded their output

80

Nov. 2013

The outlook for China is also looks less certain than before, as activity in the world's largest economy (measured at purchasing power parity) has eased

July 2012

financial instability.

Mar. 2013

Economic conditions in the European Union were improving in early 2015 improving, but EU-wide unemployment remains high (9.7 per cent in April) while fallout from the Greek debt crisis threatens to revive

Sept. 2013

4. Additional perspectives on trade developments

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2015 Accélérer le commerce : avantages et défis de la mise en œuvre de l’Accord de l’OMC sur la facilitation des échanges ISBN 9789287039866

90

May 2012

and other regions also saw import demand slowing (see Figure 4).

100

Jan. 2012

2015, but remained positive. Some of the slowdown in originated in Asia, where import growth decelerated from 2.1 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2014 to -0.3 per cent the first quarter of 2015, but North America

110

sector.

Nov. 2012

in developed countries. On the export side, shipments from developed economies turned down while those from developing countries picked up. Overall, world trade growth slowed from 1.8 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2014 to 0.7 per cent in the first quarter of

120

Mar. 2012

Returning to Figure 2, we see that import demand slowed in volume terms in developing economies in the first quarter of 2015 while import growth was steady

in the US economy could buttress global demand and reinforce the trade recovery. Conversely, any shortfall in the US performance would leave few alternative sources of rising import demand. US GDP growth could disappoint if tighter monetary conditions and lower oil prices choke off investment, including in the energy

Sept. 2012

to interpret dollar-denominated trade data very carefully in light of the strong price fluctuations observed since the middle of 2014.

Fuel (energy)

Source: IMF Primary Commodity Prices.

24 25

SEE ALSO

World Trade Report 2015 app 129

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2015 Acelerar el comercio: ventajas y desafíos de la aplicación del Acuerdo sobre Facilitación del Comercio de la OMC ISBN 9789287039873

Trade facilitation and customs valuation

The 2015 World Trade Report is the first detailed study of the potential impacts of the TFA based on a full analysis of the final agreement text. The Report finds that developing countries will benefit significantly from the TFA, capturing a large part of the available gains.

World Trade Report 2015

The WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which was agreed by WTO members at the Ministerial Conference in Bali in December 2013, is the first multilateral trade agreement concluded since the establishment of the World Trade Organization in 1995. The TFA represents a landmark achievement for the WTO, with the potential to increase world trade by up to US$ 1 trillion per annum.

Speeding up Trade: Benefits and Challenges of Implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

46

Trade facilitation and customs valuation 47

A Handbook on the WTO Customs Valuation Agreement Sheri Rosenow and Brian J. O’Shea

This guide to the WTO Customs Valuation Agreement is based on the authors’ experiences of teaching its finer points to customs officials and policy-makers around the world. Covering the methods of valuation and the provisions on enforcement, implementation and dispute settlement, the authors give practical examples, explain interpretative decisions of national and international customs bodies, and analyze the history of its negotiation.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Published in 2010 | 288 pages CHF 120.HB: English ISBN 9781107000841

‘Excellent. I recommend this book for all Customs administrations worldwide. A very useful tool for all officers involved in valuation. A reference copy in all Customs Libraries will be a very good thing.’

Customer review, www.cambridge.org

Trade Facilitation Agreement The Trade Facilitation Agreement is the first multilateral trade agreement to be concluded since the WTO was established 20 years ago. Once it enters into force, the Agreement is expected to reduce total trade costs by more than 14 per cent for low-income countries and more than 13 per cent for upper middle-income countries by streamlining the flow of trade across borders. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the provisions of the Agreement and its potential benefits.

WEB

of w rs flo de e or TRADE h t sb FACILITATION ng s si cro a a E s AGREEMENT od go

FREE Box 1

Trade Facilitation Agreement Facility

Chart 3: Notification of TFA categories

• Update on technical assistance and capacity building arrangements for Category C provisions • Notification of definitive C implementation dates for Category

5.5 years

provisions

• Notification by member of technical assistance and capacity building arrangements with donors for Category C provisions • Notification of indicative C implementation dates for Category provisions • Notification of definitive B implementation dates for Category provisions

• Update on technical assistance and capacity building arrangements for Category C provisions

• Notification by member of technical assistance required to implement Category C provisions

definitive 2.5 years • Notification of dates for Category C

4 years

3 years

2 years

implementation provisions

1 year

TFA entry into force

• Notification of definitive B implementation dates for Category provisions • Notification by member and donor of technical assistance and capacity building plans for Category C provisions

• Notification of commitment categories for TFA provisions • Implementation of Category A provisions • Notification of indicative B implementation dates for Category

• Notification of commitment categories for TFA provisions • Implementation of Category A provisions • Notification of indicative B implementation dates for Category and C provisions

Developing country

1 year

provisions

TFA entry into force

Least-developed country

The Trade Facilitation Agreement Facility (TFAF) was created to help developing countries and leastdeveloped countries (LDCs) implement the Trade Facilitation Agreement. It became operational when the TFA amendment protocol was adopted by the General Council in November 2014. The Facility acts as a focal point for implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement and aims to support developing countries and

• providing project implementation grants related to the implementation of TFA provisions in cases where efforts to attract funding from other sources have failed. These grants are limited to “soft infrastructure” projects, such as modernization of customs laws through consulting services, in-country workshops, or training of officials. the Agreement The TFAF complements efforts by • maintaining an informationregional and multilateral agencies, sharing platform to assist with the bilateral donors and other stakeholders identification of possible donors to provide trade facilitation-related • providing guidance on the assistance and capacitytechnical implementation of the TFA through building support. the development or collection of Several major international case studies and training materials organizations - the International Trade • undertaking donor and recipient Centre, the Organisation for Economic match-making activities Cooperation and Development, the • providing project preparation grants United Nations Conference on Trade in cases where a member has and Development, the United Nations identified a potential donor but has Economic Commission for Europe, been unable to develop a project for the World Bank Group, and the their consideration, and is unable to World Customs Organization - have find funding from other sources to pledged to assist WTO members in support the preparation of a project implementing their commitments under that proposal the TFA. The TFAF aims to ensure no WTO member is left behind.

LDCs by: • helping them to assess their capacity to implement the TFA and their needs for assistance to implement particular provisions of

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Accord sur la Facilitation des Échanges: Faciliter la circulation des marchandises à travers les frontières Acuerdo Sobre Facilitación del Comercio: Facilitar la circulación de las mercancías a través de las fronteras

Trade facilitation and customs valuation

Easing the Flow of Goods Across Borders

48

Trade Finance and SMEs Bridging the Gaps in Provision Trade finance and SMEs Bridging the gaps in provision

Trade finance plays a key role in helping developing countries participate in global trade. Easing the supply of credit in regions where trade potential is the greatest could have a big impact in helping small businesses grow and in supporting the development of the poorest countries. This publication takes a detailed look at trade finance and emphasises the importance of multilateral agencies working together.

Trade finance

WEB

49

FREE

NEW

Summary

Published in May 2016 I 44 pages FREE ISBN 9789287040701 Le financement du commerce et les PME: Combler les lacunes en matière d’offre ISBN 9789287040718 La financiación del comercio y las pymes: subsanar las deficiencias ISBN 9789287040725

• Up to 80 per cent of trade is financed by credit or credit insurance, but coverage is A lack of trade finance is not uniform. a significant non-tariff barrier to trade, particularly (but in developing countries. not exclusively) • Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) face the greatest hurdles in accessing trade financing. In some large affordable developed countries, up to a third of SMEs face such SMEs account for 20 per challenges. cent of US exports, and 40 per cent of EU exports.

• Globally, over half of trade finance requests by SMEs are rejected, against just multinational companies.

7 per cent for Global liquidity tends to be concentrated within the biggest and their clients. institutions • SMEs in developing countries face even greater challenges in accessing trade finance. estimated value of unmet The demand for trade finance in Africa is US$ 120 billion of the continent’s trade finance (one-third market) and US$ 700 billion in developing Asia. Bridging gaps in provision would unlock these the trading potential of many thousands of individuals businesses around the world. and small • Gaps in trade finance provision are highest in new “frontier” countries for trade, opportunities are increasing where trade as global production patterns evolve.

• Trade financing gaps arise due to a mix of structural and development factors. of the global financial sector The disinclination to invest in developing countries after the 2008-09 financial compounds this problem crisis as local banking sectors are often not equipped to fill the market gap.

6 | TRADE FINANCE AND

• With so many businesses deprived of the support that they need to grow, action address these trade financing is needed to gaps. This was highlighted in the UN’s Financing for agenda.

Development • Various steps are already being taken to tackle this issue on three fronts: first, global financial institutions to encourage to remain engaged and to ensure that regulations prohibitive; second, to increase are not the capacity of local financial institutions, and third, to provide support measures to increase the availability of trade finance via multilateral development banks.

• A number of further steps could be taken, including: - enhancing existing trade finance facilitation programmes to reduce the financing US$ 50 billion; gap by - reducing the knowledge gap in local banking sectors for handling trade finance by training at least 5,000 instruments professionals over the next five years; - maintaining an open dialogue with trade finance regulators to ensure that development considerations trade and are fully reflected in the implementation of regulations; and - improving monitoring of trade finance provision to identify and relating to any future crises. respond to gaps, particularly • A new effort to support SMEs’ access to trade finance, along the lines set out here, a very significant, positive could have impact.

• Strong inter-institution al dialogue and coordination will be required to take this building on a track-record work forward, of successful cooperation between the WTO and its partners in this field.

SMES

TRADE FINANCE AND SMES

|7

Economic research and trade policy analysis

World Trade Report 2016 SME Participation in International Trade WORLD TRADE REPORT

2016

SME participation in international trade

The World Trade Report 2016 examines the participation of SMEs in international trade. In particular, it looks at how the international trade landscape is changing for SMEs, where new opportunities are opening up and old challenges remain, and what the multilateral trading system does and can do to encourage more widespread and inclusive SME participation in global markets.

WORLD TRADE REPORT

2015

I. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND TRADE IN 2014 AND EARLY 2015

Figure 5: Quarterly world exports of manufactured (year-on-year percentage goods by product, 2012Q1-2014Q4 change in US$ values)

Figure 7: Growth in the value of commercial services exports by (annual percentage region, 2011-14 change)

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-5

To be published in September 2016 CHF 50.-

17

15 12

-10

Office and telecom equipment

s based on mirror data for available reporters in the Global Trade Atlas datab

2014Q4

2013Q4

2014Q1

2014Q2

Automotive products

2014Q3

2013Q1

2013Q2

2013Q3

2012Q1

2012Q4

Iron and steel Chemicals Textiles and clothing

5

5 3

4

3

ase, Global Trade Informa

North America

120

South and Central Americaa 2011

May 2015

May 2014

July 2014

Nov. 2014

Jan. 2015

Sept. 2014

Mar. 2015

Mar. 2013

May 2013

Nov. 2013

Jan. 2014

Sept. 2013

July 2013

Figure 7 provides a breakdown of com mercial services exports by WTO geographic region. modest increases in services exports All regions saw of between 1 and 5 per cent in 2014, except the CIS, which registered a strong decline of 7 per cent that included drops in transport services (-2.3 per cent), travel (-12.1) and other business services (-6.3). Imports are not shown in Figure 6, but the story is similar, with all regions recording modest increases except declined by 2 per c ent in the latest yea the CIS, which r.

Mar. 2014

Nov. 2012

Jan. 2013

Jan. 2012

Mar. 2012

May 2012

July 2012

Sept. 2012

Merchandise trade figures in dollar terms should be interpreted with caution since these influenced by excha nge rates, includingdata are strongly of the US dollar since the middle of las the appreciation t year (up around 12 per cent on average between July 2014 and June 2015 – see Figure 6).

2

5 3

-8 Europe

CIS

2012

Note: Data are compiled acco rding to the sixth editio n of the IMF Balance o from earlier years. a Includes the Caribbean .

Source: WTO and UNCTAD Sec

95 90

(b) Trade developments in commer cial services

4

-4 World

115

f St. Louis.

6

5 3 1

-0.3

–10

110

Source: Federal Reserve Bank o

8

7

5

4

tion Systems.

105

18

2

–5

100

Informe sobre el comercio mundial 2016 ISBN 9789287040787

7

6

5 5

0

Industrial machinery

Figure 6: Trade-weighted US dollar index: broad, January 2012 – June (index, January 2012=100) 2015

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2016 ISBN 9789287040770

13 9 9

2012Q3

2012Q2

12

11

10

-15

Source: WTO Secretariat estimate

ISBN 9789287040763

I. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND TRADE IN 2014 AND EARLY 2015

World Trade Report

FORTHCOMING

At the global level, the weakest component of services trade in 2014 was manufacturing services on physical inputs owned by others, w hich were down 7.6 per cent as measured by exports. Meanwhile, exports of other c ommercial service s, which include financial services and account for more than half (52 per cent) of world commercial services trade, rose 5.1 per cent l ast year.

3. Trade in the first half of 20 15 Monthly merchandise trade statistics in current dollar terms are timelier than quarterly statistics in volume terms, and are available for a larger num ber of countries.

These are shown in Appendix Figure 1 for the period January 2010 to A pril 2015.

Trade flows in dollar terms turned dow n sharply in many countries in the first half of 2015. For example, the US

2013

Africa

Middle East

Asia

2014

f Payments Manual (BP

M6) and are not compa

rable to figures

retariats.

dollar value of extra-EU exports dropp cent year-on-year in April, while imports ed around 12 per cent over the same period. In January, were down 19 per extra-EU exports hit their lowest level in dollar terms while imports for the month were dow since April 2010, per cent as in April. However, much of n by the same 19 attributed to dollar appreciation, whichthis decline can be denominated in other currencies, and b undervalues trade y lower oil prices, which reduces the dollar value of any oil exported or imported. By comparis given quantity of are expressed in euros, extra-EU exp on, if trade values up 12 per cent in April compared to thorts were actually 2014, while extra-EU imports rose 4 pee same month in r cent.

Exchange rates and oil prices do not explain all of the nominal downturns in the first quarter of 2015, and some countries did indeed enter a sof half of the year. However, quarter-on- t patch in the first the volume of world trade was in fact squarter growth in 0.7 per cent in the first quarter, equiva lightly positive at lent to an annual rate of 2.9 per cent.

The discrepancy statistics in value a nd volume terms hi between trade to interpret dollar-denominated trade dghlights the need in light of the strong price fluctuation ata very carefully s observed since the middle of 2014 .

Returning to Figure 2, we see that slowed in volume terms in developing import demand economies in the first quarter of 2015 while import grow developed countries. On the export sid th was steady in e, shipments from developed economies turned down while those from

developing countries picked up. Overall, world trade growth slowed from 1.8 per cent in of 2014 to 0.7 per cent in the first quthe fourth quarter arter of 2015, but remained positive. Some of the slowdown originated in Asia, where import growth decelerated in the fourth quarter of 2014 to -0.3 p from 2.1 per cent er cent in the first quarter of 2015, but North America also saw import demand slowing (see and other regions Figure 4).

4. Additional perspectives on trade developments World trade continued to grow at a mod first quarter of 2015 but the outlook f erate pace in the or the second half was clouded by numerous risk factors, are on the downside. US GDP growth many of which has swung from strongly negative to strongly positive and back since the beginning of 2014.

Continued strength in the US economy could buttress global demand and reinforce the trade recovery. Conversely, any s hortfall in the US performance would leave few alternative sources of rising import dema nd. US GDP growth could disappoint if tighter monetary conditions and choke off investment, including in the lower oil prices energy sector.

Economic conditions in the European Union were improving in early 2015 improving, but EU-wide unemployment remains high (9.7 per c ent in April) while fallout from the Greek debt crisis threatens to revive financial instability.

19

51

World Trade Reports Previous editions 2003-15

The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system.

The 2015 World Trade Report is the first detailed study of the potential impacts of the TFA based on a full analysis of the final agreement text. The Report finds that developing countries will benefit significantly from the TFA, capturing a large part of the available gains.

Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

WORLD TRADE REPORT 2015

Many developing countries have experienced unprecedented growth and have integrated increasingly into the global economy, thereby opening opportunities for countries still lagging behind. However, important barriers still remain.

Integration into global value chains can make industrialization in developing countries easier to achieve. Upgrading to higher-value tasks within these supply chains can support further growth. But competitive advantage can be lost more easily, and achieving such upgrading can be challenging.

Higher prices for agricultural goods and natural resources have helped some developing countries achieve strong growth. But higher prices can cause strains for net importers of these goods.

Growing interdependence within the global economy allows countries to benefit more quickly from growth in other parts of the world. But it can also cause challenges as crises can be quickly transmitted across borders.

WTR2014_Cover_EN.indd 1

World Trade Report 2009 Trade Policy Commitments and Contingency Measures See page 9

World Trade Report 2013 Factors shaping the future of world trade See page 62

World Trade Report 2008 Trade in a Globalizing World See page 65

2005

World Trade Report 2005 Trade, standards and the WTO See page 43

Printed by the wto Secretariat

WORLD TRADE REPORT

2004

World Trade Report 2004 Coherence

05/08/2014 7:46:46 PM

The world is changing with extraordinary rapidity, driven by many influences, including shifts in production and consumption patterns, continuing technological innovation, new ways of doing business and, of course, policy. The World Trade Report 2013 focuses on how trade is both a cause and an effect of change and looks into the factors shaping the future of world trade.

ISBNISBN: 978-92-870-3859-3 978-92-870-3859-3

9 789287 038593

2013

Factors shaping the future of world trade

2003

Factors shaping the future of world trade

Images (front and back covers)

World Trade Report

WORLD TRADE REPORT

Economic and political institutions along with the interplay of cultural customs among countries all help to shape international cooperation, including in the trade field. The future of trade will also be affected by the extent to which politics and policies successfully address issues of growing social concern, such as the availability of jobs and persistent income inequality. These and other factors are all examined in the World Trade Report 2013.

World Trade Report 2013

One of the most significant drivers of change is technology. Not only have revolutions in transport and communications transformed our world but new developments, such as 3D printing, and the continuing spread of information technology will continue to do so. Trade and foreign direct investment, together with a greater geographical spread of income growth and opportunity, will integrate a growing number of countries into more extensive international exchange. Higher incomes and larger populations will put new strains on both renewable and non-renewable resources, calling for careful resource management.

Environmental issues will also call for increasing attention.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

World Trade Report 2013

Jean-Claude Prêtre, DANAÉ WORLD SUITE, 2001.

In this series (from which two prints are reproduced here), the artist wishes symbolically to portray a “movement” towards geopolitical peace. The full collection of 49 works is on display at the WTO. For more information, please visit the artist’s website at www.jcpretre.ch.

World Trade Report 2014 Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO See page 111

WORLD TRADE REPORT

2004

ISBN 978-92-870-3912-5

Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO

World Trade Report 2010 Trade in Natural Resources See page 15

WORLD TRADE REPORT

Images (front and back covers) Jean-Claude Prêtre, DANAÉ WORLD SUITE, 2001.

In this series (from which two prints are reproduced here), the artist wishes symbolically to portray a “movement” towards geopolitical peace. The full collection of 49 works is on display at the WTO. For more information, please visit the artist’s website at www.jcpretre.ch.

World Trade Report 2014

Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO

Many developing countries still have a long way to go in addressing their development challenges. The multilateral trading system provides developing countries, and particularly least-developed countries, with unique opportunities to do so. Further progress in the Post-Bali Agenda would therefore be important to making trade work more effectively for development.

World Trade Report 2014

The World Trade Report 2014 looks at four major trends that have changed the relationship between trade and development since the start of the millennium: the economic rise of developing economies, the growing integration of global production through supply chains, the higher prices for agricultural goods and natural resources, and the increasing interdependence of the world economy.

World Trade Report 2015 Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement See page 46

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

World Trade Report 2014

World Trade Report 2006 Subsidies, trade and the WTO See page 10

2005

ISBN 978-92-870-3985-9

World Trade Report 2011 The WTO and preferential trade agreements: From co-existence to coherence See page 29

WORLD TRADE REPORT

Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

The TFA is also highly innovative in the way it allows each developing and least-developed country to self-determine when and how they will implement the provisions of the Agreement, and what capacity building support they will require in order to do so. To ensure that developing and least-developed countries receive the support they need to implement the Agreement, the Trade Facilitation Agreement Facility was launched in 2014 by WTO Director-General Roberto Azevêdo.

World Trade Report 2007 Six decades of multilateral trade cooperation: What have we learnt?

See page 124

WORLD TRADE REPORT

2003

World Trade Report 2003 Trade and development See page 116

World Trade Report

The Report’s findings are consistent with existing studies on the scale of potential benefits from trade facilitation, but it goes further by identifying and examining in detail a range of other benefits from the TFA. These include diversification of exports from developing countries and least-developed countries to include new products and partners, increased involvement of these countries in global value chains, expanded participation of small and medium-sized enterprises in international trade, increased foreign direct investment, greater revenue collection and reduced incidence of corruption.

World Trade Report 2015

The WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which was agreed by WTO members at the Ministerial Conference in Bali in December 2013, is the first multilateral trade agreement concluded since the establishment of the World Trade Organization in 1995. The TFA represents a landmark achievement for the WTO, with the potential to increase world trade by up to US$ 1 trillion per annum.

World Trade Report 2012 Trade and public policies: A closer look at non-tariff measures in the 21st century See page 42

world trade organization

World Trade Report 2015

World Trade Report 2012 Trade and public policies: A closer look at non-tariff measures in the 21st century

52

Global Value Chains Development Report

Global value chains

Global Value Chains Development Report

53

This publication will provide a detailed map of global value chains (GVCs), enabling policy makers to have a better understanding of the ongoing development and evolution of GVCs and the relationship between economic development and GVC participation. Copublished with the World Bank, OECD, IDE-JETRO and the Research Center for Global Value Chain Research.

The joint research undertaken by these organizations aims to synthesize the partiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge and expertise on GVC studies and to contribute to better policy making by the international community.

Co-published by the World Bank, OECD, IDE-JETRO and the Research Center for Global Value Chain Research.

To be published in November 2016 ISBN 9789287041258

FORTHCOMING

in a changing world

Global value chains (GVC) are a major driving force of globalisation. They are an inevitable outgrowth of the application of transformative information and transport technologies, combined with new business models and largely open borders. The GVC phenomenon promotes integration on multiple levels. Today’s international production systems confound traditional ways of looking at investment, production, finance, information systems and technology. These can no longer be seen as separate, meriting distinct attention and discrete policy treatment. The international fragmentation of production has generated the opposite of fragmentation – a complex networked system of production and consumption with innumerable moving, interactive parts.

Co-published with the Fung Global Institute and the Temasek Foundation.

WEB

Edited by Deborah K. Elms and Patrick Low

WTO ISBN 978-92-870-3882-1

DGVC cover-Mar13 AWfin.indd 1

12/06/2013 11:09

Published in 2013 | 410 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287038821

SEE ALSO

Trade Patterns and Global Value Chains in East Asia 56

Global value chains

Efforts to understand the dimensions of GVCs have spread across disciplines. This volume is the product of a dialogue with policy makers in the Asian region, where economists, political scientists, management specialists, development thinkers and business executives joined together in an exploration of the multiple dimensions of supply chains, what drives them, how they operate, how they adapt in a rapidly changing world, and what they mean for development and for policy.

Global value chains in a changing world

Elms and Low (eds)

A collection of papers by some of the world’s leading specialists on global value chains (GVCs). It examines how GVCs have evolved and the challenges they face in a rapidly changing world. The approach is multidisciplinary, with contributions from economists, political scientists, supply chain management specialists, practitioners and policymakers.

Global value chains in a changing world

Global value Edited by Deborah K. Elms and Patrick Low chains

WTO – FGI – TFCTN

Global Value Chains in a Changing World

54

Supply Chain Perspectives and Issues A Literature Review

are more studied and talked national production sharing ussion on production, trade, ooperation more generally. governments are central to and operation of GVCs in behaviour are also crucial

Global value chains 55

Supply Chain Perspectives and Issues A Literature Review

Supply Chain Perspectives and Issues

Cs is vast, multi-disciplinary ume is an ambitious attempt t. While extensive, to claim ng that GVCs hold no more

Park, Nayyar & Low

s and Issues

Written by Albert Park, Gaurav Nayyar and Patrick Low

Global value chains (GVCs) have become ubiquitous. The literature that attempts to understand and explain GVCs is vast, multidisciplinary and no less complex than the phenomenon itself. This volume is an ambitious attempt at a fairly comprehensive review of literature on the subject.

Co-published with the Fung Global Institute.

WEB

Albert Park Gaurav Nayyar Patrick Low

Published in 2013 | 228 pages CHF 35.ISBN 9789287038937

SEE ALSO

Global Value Chains Development Report 53

Trade Patterns and Global Value Chains in East Asia From Trade in Goods to Trade in Tasks The increasing internationalization of supply chains is challenging our interpretation of conventional trade statistics, as traditional concepts like country of origin, or the distinction between goods and services, become blurred. This publication, jointly produced by the WTO and the Institute of Developing Economies — Japan External Trade Organization (IDE-JETRO), focuses on the factors that have helped to shape global production.

WEB Published in 2011 | 132 pages CHF 40.ISBN 9789287037671 La structure des échanges et les chaînes de valeur mondiales en Asie de l’Est: Du commerce des marchandises au commerce des tâches ISBN 9789287037688 Pautas del comercio y cadenas de valor mundiales en el caso de Asia Oriental: Del comercio de mercancías al comercio de tareas ISBN 9789287037695

Global value chains

Co-published with the Japan External Trade Organization (IDE-JETRO).

56

Trade, Skills and Employment ILO - WTO

nd the growth ed on existing research by the ects different w high rates of ng countries to th.

GLOBALIZATION AND INFORMAL JOBS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

ars, making a has not led to a living standards as largely taken ent of workers my have almost n, with limited

TRADE, SKILLS AND EMPLOYMENT

A World Trade Organization and International Labour Office co-publication.

t-work friendly te sustainable tries.

Trade and employment

This joint ILO/WTO publication aims at bridging the gap between the extensive economic literature that analyzes both theoretically and empirically the linkages between trade, skills, and labour market outcomes and the practical experience accumulated through ILO’s Skills for Trade and Economic Development programme.

FORTHCOMING A joint study of the International Labour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization

-92-870-3691-9

7 036919

57

To be published in 2017 ISBN 9789287040169

SEE ALSO

Trade and Employment 60

Making Globalization Socially Sustainable Edited by Marc Bacchetta and Marion Jansen

A World Trade Organization and International Labour Office co-publication.

WEB

Published in 2011 | 336 pages CHF 50.ISBN 9789287037831

Trade and employment

Globalization is widely seen as a powerful engine that has the potential to promote growth and development.

For many years, however, concerns have also been raised about the effects of globalization on jobs and wages.

This has led to questions about the social sustainability of globalization. This publication consists of contributions by leading academic experts who analyse the various channels through which globalization affects jobs and wages. Together, the nine chapters in this volume summarize state-of-the art knowledge on themes related to the social dimension of globalization.

58

ILO - WTO

de and the growth Based on existing cal research by the rm affects different how high rates of oping countries to rowth.

Trade and employment

ecent-work friendly omote sustainable ountries.

GLOBALIZATION AND INFORMAL JOBS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

years, making a th has not led to a nd living standards n has largely taken er cent of workers onomy have almost ction, with limited

GLOBALIZATION AND INFORMAL JOBS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A joint study of the International Labour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization

Globalization and Informal Jobs in Developing Countries This joint study by the International Labour Office and the WTO focuses on the relationship between trade and the growth of the informal economy in developing countries.

Based on existing academic literature, complemented with new empirical research by the ILO and the WTO, the study discusses how trade reform affects different aspects of the informal economy. It also examines how high rates of informal employment diminish the scope for developing countries to translate trade openness into sustainable long-term growth.

N: 978-92-870-3691-9

A World Trade Organization and International Labour Office co-publication.

89287 036919

59

WEB Published in 2009 | 192 pages CHF 35.ISBN 9789287036919 Mondialisation et emploi informel dans les pays en développement ISBN 9789287036926 La globalización y el empleo en el sector informal en los países en desarrollo ISBN 9789287036933

ILO - WTO

Trade and Employment Challenges for Policy Research This study is the outcome of collaborative research between the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Labour Office (ILO). It addresses an issue that is of concern to both organizations: the relationship between trade and employment.

On the basis of an overview of the existing academic literature, the study provides an impartial view of what can be said, and with what degree of confidence, on the relationship between trade and employment, an often contentious issue of public debate. Its focus is on the connections between trade policies, and labour and social policies and it will be useful for all those who are interested in this debate: academics and policy-makers, workers and employers, trade and labour specialists.

CHALLENGES FOR POLICY RESEARCH

TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT CHALLENGES FOR POLICY RESEARCH

A joint study of the International Labour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization

A World Trade Organization and International Labour Office co-publication.

WEB

WTO ISBN 978-92-870-3380-2 ILO ISBN 978-92-2-119551-1

Published in 2007 | 104 pages CHF 20.ISBN 9789287033802 Le commerce et l’emploi: un défi pour la recherche sur les politiques ISBN 9789287033819 SEE ALSO

Trade, Skills and Employment 57

Comercio y empleo: Retos para la investigación sobre políticas ISBN 9789287033826

Trade and employment

This study is the outcome of collaborative research between the WTO and the International Labour Office (ILO). It addresses an issue that is of concern to both organizations: the relationship between trade and employment. Its focus is on the connections between trade policies, and labour and social policies, and it will be useful to all those who are interested in this debate: academics and policymakers, workers and employers, trade and labour specialists.

TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT

60

An Advanced Guide to Trade Policy Analysis Forthcoming advanced edition

The book is a follow-up to A Practical Guide to Trade Policy Analysis published by the WTO and UNCTAD in 2012. The Guide is aimed at government experts engaged in trade negotiations as well as students and researchers involved in trade-related study or research.

An UNCTAD and World Trade Organization co-publication.

Trade policy analysis

FORTHCOMING

61

To be published in November 2016 CHF 40.ISBN 9789287041234

SEE ALSO

A Practical Guide to Trade Policy Analysis 64

World Trade Report 2013 Factors Shaping the Future of World Trade World Trade Report 2013

The world is changing with extraordinary rapidity, driven by many influences, including shifts in production and consumption patterns, continuing technological innovation, new ways of doing business and, of course, policy. The World Trade Report 2013 focuses on how trade is both a cause and an effect of change and looks into the factors shaping the future of world trade.

One of the most significant drivers of change is technology. Not only have revolutions in transport and communications transformed our world but new developments, such as 3D printing, and the continuing spread of information technology will continue to do so. Trade and foreign direct investment, together with a greater geographical spread of income growth and opportunity, will integrate a growing number of countries into more extensive international exchange. Higher incomes and larger populations will put new strains on both renewable and non-renewable resources, calling for careful resource management.

Environmental issues will also call for increasing attention.

Economic and political institutions along with the interplay of cultural customs among countries all help to shape international cooperation, including in the trade field. The future of trade will also be affected by the extent to which politics and policies successfully address issues of growing social concern, such as the availability of jobs and persistent income inequality. These and other factors are all examined in the World Trade Report 2013.

World Trade Report

2013

Factors shaping the future of world trade

Images (front and back covers) Jean-Claude Prêtre, DANAÉ WORLD SUITE, 2001.

In this series (from which two prints are reproduced here), the artist wishes symbolically to portray a “movement” towards geopolitical peace. The full collection of 49 works is on display at the WTO. For more information, please visit the artist’s website at www.jcpretre.ch.

world trade report 2013

ISBNISBN: 978-92-870-3859-3 978-92-870-3859-3

9 789287 038593 I. Trade developmenTs In 2012 and early 2013

I. Trade developmenTs In 2012 and early 2013

Figure 1.2: Quarterly merchandise trade flows (seasonally adjusted volume indices, 2010Q1=100)of selected economies, 2010Q1-2012Q4 Exports

2.8 per cent average of the last 20 years including the crisis period (see Table 1.1).

Imports

130

130

125

Policy responses from the European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve in the middle of 2012 appeared to

125

120

have succeeded in easing the sovereign debt crisis and putting US growth on a firmer footing. Borrowing costs in the euro area returned to more manageable

120

115

115

110

Figure 1.3: Ratio of world exports of merchandise and commercial services to world GDP, 1980-2012 (ratio of current US$ values)

110

105

105

100

30

EU-extra Developing Asia

2012Q3

2012Q2

United States Japan

2012Q4

2010Q2

2010Q3

2010Q4

2011Q1

2011Q2

2011Q3

2011Q4

2012Q1

2011Q4

2012Q1

2012Q3

2012Q4

2012Q2

EU-extra Developing Asia

2010Q1

25 22.4 20

Intra-EU trade

120

27.7

15 2005

2010

1980

1985

1990

ISBN 9789287038593 Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2013 : Facteurs déterminant l’avenir du commerce mondial ISBN 9789287038609

Figure 1.4: Volume of world merchandise exports, 1990-2012 (index, 1990=100) 2012Q3

2012Q4

2010Q3

2010Q4

2011Q1

2011Q2

2011Q3

2011Q4

2012Q1

2012Q2

2010Q1

2010Q2

90

22

1995

Sources: IMF for world GDP, WTO Secretariat for merchandise trade, WTO Secretariat and UNCTA D for commercial services.

95

400

350

EU-intra (exports)

250

200

150

100

2010

2011

2012

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

1997

1998

1999

2001

2002

2000

Export volume Source: WTO Secretariat.

2003

1990

1991

1992

50 1993

trend and actual trade outcomes in recent years (b) Economic growth appears to be widening, albeit slowly. This gap in percentage terms was equal to 11 per cent in 2010, Economies in the euro area stalled 12 per cent in 2011 and 15 per cent in 2012. in 2012 and the sovereign debt crisis flared again in the summer, pushing long-term borrowing costs for Italy and Spain At some point in the future, trade growth will again surpass its 20 year average, if only because this average above 6 per cent and stoking uncertainty about the keeps falling with every passing year of sub-par growth. future of the common currency (see Figure 1.5).

Growth also slowed worryingly in the United States in When or if it will manage to bridge the gap with its precrisis trend remains to be seen. In addition to a durable Q4, and Japan slipped in and out of recession during level shift in the series, it appears that the fundamental the year. As a result, world GDP growth at market growth rate of world trade may have also been reduced. exchange rates dropped to 2.1 per cent in 2012 from To return to the previous trend would require a period of 2.4 per cent in 2011. This pace of expansion was below the average of 3.2 per cent for the two decades very rapid trade expansion at some point in the future. preceding the financial crisis and also below the

300

1994

stics.

1995

Source: WTO short-term trade stati

2000

105 100

Published in 2013 | 340 pages CHF 60.-

The next fastest growing re gion after Africa was Asia (3.8 per cent) followed by the CIS (3.7), the Middle East (3.3 per cent), South and Central America (2.6 per cent), North America (2.3 per cent) and Europe (-0.1 per cent). Aggregate quarterly figures for world GDP growth are not readily available, but such growth likely slowed towards the end of the year as output in the European Union contracted in Q4 and US and Japanese growth slowed.

18.4

115 110

1996

2010Q1

2010Q2

2010Q3

2010Q4

2011Q1

2011Q2

2011Q3

United States Japan

31.8

32.7

95 90

The 2.3 per cent growth in the United States was nearly double the 1.2 per cent rate for developed economies as a whole in 2012.

Japan’s increase for the year was also above average at 1.9 per cent, but the European Union’s growth was close to zero at -0.3 per cent.

Developing countries and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) collectively raised their output by 4.7 per cent in 2012, with Africa recording the fastest growth of any country or region at 9.3 per cent. The outsized growth rate for the African continent was mostly due to the resurgence of Libyan output after oil supplies were disrupted by civil conflict in 2011, but growth in Sub-Saharan Africa was still above the world average at 4.0 per cent. China’s GDP advanced 7.8 per cent, while India recorded a 5.2 per cent increase. However, the newly industrialized Asian economies of Hong Kong (China), the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Chinese Taipei registered a disappointing 1.8 per cent increase as slumping European demand penalized their exports.

35

100

95 90

levels in the second half of the year and employment picked up in the United States, but this progress remained fragile.

Trend (1990-2008)

23

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2013: Factores que determinan el futuro del comercio ISBN 9789287038616

Trade policy analysis

Factors shaping the future of world trade

WEB

World Trade Report 2013

The World Trade Report 2013 focuses on the factors that will influence world trade in the years to come. It looks at what has shaped global trade in the past and reviews how demographic change, investment, technological progress, developments in the transport and energy/ natural resource sectors as well as trade-related policies and institutions affect international trade in various ways.

62

The Future of Trade: The Challenges of Convergence Report of the Panel on Defining the Future of Trade convened by WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy

Trade policy analysis

The Future of Trade: The Challenges of Convergence

63

Report of the Panel on Defining the Future of Trade convened by WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy 24 April 2013

The Panel on Defining the Future of Trade was established in 2012 to examine and analyse challenges to global trade opening in the 21st century. The Report looks at trade patterns and what it means to open global trade in the 21st century, bearing in mind the role of trade in contributing to sustainable development, growth, jobs and poverty alleviation.

WEB

Published in 2013 | 50 pages Free ISBN 9789287038760 Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;avenir du commerce: Les dĂŠfis de la convergence ISBN 9789287038777 El Futuro del Comercio: Los Retos de la Convergencia ISBN 9789287038784

FREE

A Practical Guide to Trade Policy Analysis

An UNCTAD and World Trade Organization co-publication.

Published in 2012 | 232 pages CHF 50.ISBN 9789287038128

WEB

SEE ALSO

An Advanced Guide to Trade Policy Analysis 61

Trade policy analysis

A Practical Guide to Trade Policy Analysis provides the main tools for the analysis of trade policy. Written by experts with practical experience in the field, this publication outlines the major concepts of trade policy analysis and contains practical guidance on how to apply them to concrete policy questions. The Guide has been developed to contribute to the enhancement of developing countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; capacity to analyse and implement trade policy. It is aimed at government experts engaged in trade negotiations, as well as students and researchers involved in trade-related study or research. An accompanying DVD contains datasets and programme command files required for the exercises.

64

World Trade Report 2008 Trade in a Globalizing World The World Trade Report 2008 provides a reminder of what we know about the gains from international trade and highlights the challenges arising from higher levels of integration. It addresses the question of what constitutes globalization, what drives it, what benefits it brings, what challenges it poses and what role trade plays in this world of ever-growing interdependency.

65

wOrld TradE

rEpOrT 2008

II – D TRADE, THE LOCATION

OF PRODUCTION

AND THE INDUSTRIAL

Share of intermediate manufactures by sector, 2000

Countries

Manufacturing sector

OECD countries

(in per cent)

Canada France

40.8

Germany

40.8

United Kingdom

Non-manufactur

ing sector (in per

9.4

40.8

Italy

33.8

8.5

39.7

9.0 9.8 10.4

40.5 34.9

8.9

China

38.7

Source: OECD Input-Output

15.2 28.1

48.3 Database: 2006

Share of manufacture d intermediates in output

(Percent)

Motor vehicles, trailers semi-trailers

ISBN 9789287034540

The structure of demand is such that output will be the same per firm in each country.

By virtue of having similar wages, and given that free entry ensures that price equals average cost, “mill” or producer prices will also be the same in both countries. Because of trade costs, the price paid by a consumer for an imported good will be higher the price received by the foreign producer.13 than

cent)

10.5

Japan United States Emerging economies Brazil

Published in 2008 | 204 pages CHF 60.-

Manufacturing Sector

Trade policy analysis

WEB

Equating demand in both countries to the available production of the manufactured good determines the equilibrium number of firms in the manufacturin sector in the two g countries. Given that output of each differentiated product is the same, number of firms the in a country corresponds size of its manufacturin to the g sector. So for example,

Box 11 The home market effect

&

ORGANIZATIO

N OF FIRMS

if the number of firms in Country 1 is six and the number of firms in Country 2 is four, it would mean that Country 1 produces 60 per cent of global manufacturing output.

This turns out to depend on, among other things, the relative sizes of the country (the size of their labour forces).

The larger the labour force of a country, of aggregate manufacturin the higher is its share g output. In fact, country is sufficiently if one large, it is even possible all manufactured for products to be produced i.e. complete specialization there, in manufactured by the large country goods (Krugman, 1980).

Box 11 provides a way of describing the home market effect in terms of the relationship share in global manufacturin between a country’s g and its relative size.

Country 1’s share of global manufacturin g production 1.00

Electrical machinery & apparatus

0.50

Coke, refined petroleum products, nuclear fuel

US Japan Germany

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2008 : Le commerce à l’heure de la mondialisation ISBN 9789287034557 Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2008: El comercio en un mundo en proceso de globalización ISBN 9789287034564

0

Source: OECD Input-Output Database: 2006

(b) Home market and magnification effects

20

40

60

of which produces two goods: a constant returnsto-scale agricultural product and a differentiated increasing returns-to-sca The key concern in this sub-section le manufactured product. is to examine Labour is the only how falling trade input used in production costs are likely to affect the and the size of the labour pattern of trade. force will be used As was stated earlier, as a proxy for the size of the economy. the home market effect predicts The country with that a country will the larger labour force is assumed export those goods for which to be the economy it has a large home with the large home market. market.

In effect, the large For this analysis, domestic product the wage is serves assumed rate base for exports. as a to be constant and It turns out that the same in the two reduction in countries.10 To make trade costs magnifies things simple, a constant the importance of of income is assumed share market size in determining to be spent on the which country concentrates agricultural and manufactured producing and exporting in goods; but in addition, manufactured goods. demand for the manufactured product is influenced consumers’ love of by Consider first the variety.11 Finally, home market effect. 9 it is assumed that trade is costly Imagine two countries (call for the manufactured them Countries 1 good but and 2), each not for the agricultural product.12 90

45° O

SMIN

0.50 SL = Labour force in country 1/Total labour force

SMAX

1.0

The horizontal axis measures the size of Country 1 (the size of its and its size is given labour force relative by the slanting bold to the total amount of labour line. The slope of this solid of both countries). line is steeper than The vertical axis measures a 45-degree line, which means Country 1’s share that whichever country global manufacturin of larger will have a is g output (the number proportionately larger manufacturing firms of share of manufactured goods. in Country 1 relative To see the total in both to 0.6 < SMAX . Consequently this, suppose SL = countries). If the , Country 1 will have relative size of Country 1 equals more than 60 per or exceeds S cent of global manufacturin MAX , it will completely specialize output (at that point g in manufactured the bold line will goods while Country 2 be above the 45-degree line). will specialize in Now suppose S = agriculture.

If the relative size L 0.4 > SMIN .

Consequently, Country of Country 1 is less 1 will have less than than or equal to S per cent of global 40 MIN , it will specialize manufacturin in agriculture g output (at that while Country 2 will point, the bold line specialize in manufactured is below the 45-degree products. Within line).

This implies that the range given by Country 2 the interval SMIN and S 60 per cent of manufacturin will have more than MA X , the relationship g production. Thus, between Country 1’s share graphically the home of global manufacturin market effect is indicated g output by the slope of the solid line.

91

Managing the Challenges of WTO Participation 45 Case Studies Edited by Peter Gallagher, Patrick Low and Andrew L. Stoler

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

WEB

Published in 2005 | 666 pages PB : English | CHF 80.ISBN 9780521677547 HB: English | CHF 160.ISBN 9780521860147

Trade policy analysis

This compilation of 45 case studies documents disparate experiences among economies in addressing the challenges of participating in the WTO. It demonstrates that success or failure is strongly influenced by how governments and private sector stakeholders organize themselves at home.

These case studies demonstrate that the WTO creates a framework within which sovereign decision-making can unleash important opportunities or undermine the potential benefits flowing from a rules-based international environment that promotes open trade.

66

67

The Role of Trade in Ending Poverty looks at the complex relationships between economic growth, poverty reduction and trade, and examines the challenges that poor people face in benefiting from trade opportunities.

Written jointly by the World Bank Group and the WTO, the publication examines how trade could make a greater contribution to ending poverty by increasing efforts to lower trade costs, improve the enabling environment, implement trade policy in conjunction with other areas of policy, better manage risks faced by the poor, and improve data used for policy-making.

A World Trade Organization and World Bank Group co-publication.

WEB Published in 2015 | 77 pages CHF 40.ISBN 9789287040138 Le rôle du commerce dans l’éradication de la pauvreté ISBN 9789287040145

Chapter 1 as well as the progressive lowering of barriers to global trade and finance.3 This helps explain the strong correlation between increased exports of goods and services as a share of global GDP, and the steady decline in the number of global poor (Figure 1.1).

In this most recent period, developing countries have experienced high and sustained growth while participation in the global economy has increased rapidly.

Developing country total trade as a share of GDP has doubled since 1985. Since 2000 alone, the developing country share of world trade increased from 33 percent to 48 percent.

China is now the world’s largest exporter, with a number of other developing countries in the top twenty exporters, including Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Thailand. This has been accompanied by steady GDP growth.

Between 2000 and 2011, the largest, higher-income developing countries — those that are members of the G20 — experienced per capita GDP growth of 5.2 percent per year on average, up from 3.9 percent in the preceding decade. This growth has not been limited to the largest developing countries. Between 2000 and 2011, least-developed country (LDC) per capita income grew at 3.7 percent per year on average, in stark contrast to negative growth of 0.7 percent in the preceding decade. The developing country share of world output grew from 23 percent to 40 percent between 2000 4 and 2012.

Figure 1.1: gdp, trade,

growth and the number

GDP per capita and world U.S. Dollars 9,000

La función del comercio en la eliminación de la pobreza ISBN 9789287040152

8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0

Economic growth is key to job generati on and critical for poverty reduction, especially in countries with large numbers of young people. Growth increases the demand for labor, which is the main and often the sole asset of the poor.

In turn, increasing employment has been crucial in sustaining higher growth. It is the strong growth of the global economy over the past 10 years that has enabled the majority of the world’s working-age population to

exports Billions of extreme poor

U.S. Dollars 9,000

Percent

Percent 35

35

8,000 7,000 6,000

25

25

5,000

3,000

0

Percent

2.0

1.5

1.0

2.0

table 1.1: population shares and

50 1.5

1.0

40

30

10 5 0

0.5

0.0

0.5

20

60

16.7

1.5

1.3 7.4

5.8

East Asia and Pacific Eastern Europe and Central

ppp) 2010

13.7

projections 2011

10.3

0.4

4.8 1.7 29.0

2015

7.9

0.6

5.4 2.1 34.1

2020

4.1

0.5 4.6 1.7

2030

1.5

0.3 4.3 2.0

0.2 3.8 1.8

0.1

a

0.1

b

3.1 2.4

52.8

49.7

24.5

48.2

18.1

16.3

13.4

23.6

18.6

17.0

34.2

21.1

19.1

40.9

2.1

21.8

46.8

13.8

24.8

14.5

10.5

11.5

5.7

9.1

4.9

1990 957.1 Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa

South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa Total

2008

3.0 39.3

56.6 43.5 36.4

region

30

20

10 10 0.0 1981 1984 1987 1990 0 1993 1996 1999 2002 1981 1984 1987 1990 200502008 2010 2011 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2010 2011 Number of poor Number of poor Poor as share of global population Poor as share of global population

Indicators, PovcalNet

2005

58.2 12.0

Millions of people below

40

in extreme poverty

below uS$1.25 a day (2005

1990

53.2

Total

50

total numbers of people

percentage of population region East Asia and Pacific

Sub-Saharan Africa Total (developing world)

Percent

7.1 52.7 13.1 603.2

uS$1.25 a day (2005 2005 324.1 6.0 41.0 9.0

2008 272.3

projections

2010 207.1

2.0

5.5

1.3

27.6 c

5.6

2015 86.4

2.3

28.3 c

2011 160.8

2.9

31.0 6.5

ppp)

26.8 c

7.3

2020 31.3 0.8 24.8 7.0

2030 2.5 0.3 21.7

589.0

287.1

532.7

399.1

465.3

406.8

399.0 415.4

249.6

403.2

42.5

1368.1

416.4

310.6

1920.2

382.9

334.6

10.3

1251.4 source: World Bank, Global 1125.5 Monitoring Report 2014/15.

1010.7 unchanged income distribution 835.5 Poverty projections are 696.4 based on per capita GDP within countries.

411.8 a The statistic for 2030 growth rates set out in is 0.11 for East Asia and the World Bank 2014 Global Economic Prospects Pacific. It has been rounded b The statistic for 2030 report, assuming is 0.06 for Europe and to 0.1 in the table.

Central Asia. It has been c Refers to the numbers rounded to 0.1 in the table. that are provisional because survey coverage is less than 50 percent of population in the region.

14 14 WTO_Trade_Full Report_06

the poverty challenge Amid these shifts in the global econom y, the world still faces a great challenge in ending extreme poverty and improving prospects for the poorest.9 Between 1990 and 2010, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty was halved, with East Asia and the Pacific (primarily China) having made the greatest contribution to this (see Table 1.1). Nevertheless, based on the most recent estimates available (2011 data), slightly more than one billion people globally — around 17 percent of the developing world’s population — continue to live on less than $1.25 per day.

South Asia

and share of population

Billions 2.5

60

15

15 10 5

0

20

20

1,000

Billions 2.5

30

30

4,000

2,000

find employment. Real wages for low-skilled jobs have increased with GDP growth worldwide, which indicates that, globally, the poorest workers have benefited from the increase in global trade and growth.7 Globally, between 2000 and 2011 real monthly average wages grew by just under 25 percent, but in Asia they almost doubled, while in the developed world they increased by only about 5 percent.8 At the same time, in every region of the world and particularly in Africa, youth unemployment is a major issue.

Eastern Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa

of poor

GDP per capita (constant 2005 US$) GDP per capita (constant US$) Exports2005 of goods and services (% Exports of goods and services of GDP) (% of GDP)

source: World Development

to the WTO in 2001, China’s simple average tariff fell from about 40 percent in 1985 to under 10 percent today.5 The growing size and increased openness of large developing markets has provided new export opportunities for many other developing countries and has been an important factor driving growth.

The emergence of global value chains h as been an important driver of developing country participation in the global economy.

Countries no longer need to develop competitiveness in whole industries to be able to trade. Declining transportation and communications costs, along with improved technology, have made it easier for firms in developing countries to provide particular tasks or activities (services as well as goods) to value chains that extend across countries. More than half of developing country exports in value-added terms involve global value chains (GVCs.) This is not being generated just through trade from developing to developed countries — the share of trade in parts and components (a good approximation of GVC-related trade) between developing countries has quadrupled over the last 25 years.6

Important trade reforms undertaken in developing economies stand out as an important force behind these trends. Major liberalization episodes happened in Brazil, China and India over the last two decades. Following China’s accession

1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1960 1976 1962 1978 1964 1980 1966 1982 1968 1984 1970 1986 1972 1988 1974 1990 1976 1992 1978 1994 1980 1996 1982 1998 1984 2000 1986 2002 1988 2004 1990 2006 1992 2008 1994 2010 1996 2012 1998 2014 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

Trade and poverty reduction

The Role of Trade in Ending Poverty

15 15

17.indd 14 6/18/15 1:22 PM

WTO_Trade_Full Report_06

The Role of Trade in Ending

Poverty

17.indd 15 6/18/15 1:22 PM

Trade and Poverty Reduction in the Asia-Pacific Region Case Studies and Lessons from Low-Income Communities Edited by Andrew L. Stoler, Jim Redden and Lee Ann Jackson

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

‘This book is a refreshing move away from tedious ideological debates of free and fair trade toward telling us how it really is at ground level - with frankness and clarity.’

Published in 2009 | 818 pages PB: English | CHF 90.ISBN 9780521745307 HB: English | CHF 180.ISBN 9780521768368

Trade and poverty reduction

This book explores the complex relationship between international trade and poverty reduction through a combination of research papers and contemporary case studies. Written mainly by developing country authors in consultation with local businesses and communities, the case studies contribute to our understanding of the ways in which low-income communities are dealing with trade as a practical challenge, especially in the Asia-Pacific region where approximately two-thirds of the world’s poor live.

Colleen Ryan, The Financial Times 68

WTO Agreements & Public Health

Trade and public health

This publication is a joint study by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the WTO on the relationship between trade rules and public health. The study explains how WTO agreements relate to different aspects of health policies. The study covers areas such as drugs and intellectual property rights, food safety, tobacco and many other issues which have been subject to passionate debate.

69

A World Trade Organization and World Health Organization co-publication.

WEB

Published in 2002 | 171 pages CHF 30.ISBN 9789287012234 Les Accords de l’OMC et la santé publique ISBN 9789287036865 Los Acuerdos de la OMC y la Salud Pública ISBN 9789287036223

SEE ALSO

Promoting Access to Medical Technologies and Innovation 24

Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations under the GATT and the WTO Procedures and Practices Anwarul Hoda

2nd edition to be published in mid-2017

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;It repays a close reading, and provides a comprehensive understanding of GATT/WTO tariff negotiations and renegotiations. It also makes an important contribution to the goal of transparency in international trade.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Andrew D. Mitchell and Tania Voon, The Cambridge Law Journal

Published in 2001 | 312 pages CHF 120.HB: English ISBN 9780521804493

Tariff negotiations

The procedures and practices to implement the provisions relating to tariff negotiations and renegotiations have evolved considerably since the GATT was established in 1947. The provisions themselves have undergone some changes in the last fifty-four years. Professor Hoda reviews the evolution of these provisions and of the procedures adopted and practices followed by the contracting parties to GATT 1947 and the members of the WTO.

70

Statistics

World Trade Statistical Review 2016 This new publication provides a detailed analysis of the latest developments in world trade, focusing on the most recent trends in goods and services trade and the participation of developing economies in world trade.

The analytical chapters are complemented by a statistical appendix containing over 60 tables providing detailed data on trade by region and sector. The publication replaces the WTO’s annual flagship publication, International Trade Statistics.

FORTHCOMING

New annual publication

World WorldTrade TradeOrganization Organization||World WorldTrade TradeStatistical StatisticalReview Review 2016 2016 World Trade Organization World Trade Organization | World Trade | World Trade Statistical Statistical Review 2016 Review 2016

Trade Trade in in value value and and Trade in volume: Which Which one one to to use use when when analysing trade?

Duringthe During the2000–10 2000–10period, period,growth growthinintrade tradevalue valueresulted resulted fromaabalanced from balancedcontribution contributionofofprice priceand andquantities: quantities: on on average,aa9.7 average, 9.7per percent centincrease increaseininvalue valueterms termswas wasdue due 4.3per totoaa4.3 percent centcontribution contributionofof volume change volume change and andaa

4.8 4.8 per per cent change in prices).

During the the 2009 2009 financial financial crisis, crisis, merchandise merchandise trade values dropped 23 23 per per cent, cent, i.e. i.e. volume volume changes accounted for 52 per cent cent and and unit unit changes changes accounted for 48 per cent (see chart chart below). below).

During During 2010, 2010, both price and volume recovered. Volume recovered.

Volume developments developments contributed more than price change, change, resulting in a 21 per cent resulting increase in value terms terms (the (the volume contribution volume contribution was 68 per cent and the the price price change change was 32 was 32 per per cent).

2013 and 2013 and 2015 saw a different contribution contribution to to value value growth: volume growth: volume growth stabilized at 2.7 per cent cent in in aa context of context of falling commodity prices.

This resulted resulted in in aa large decrease decrease in value large growth (see table below),with below),with relationships between relationships price and volume similar similar to to those those registered in the registered early 1980s before the ratios between ratios between volume and and prices volume prices bounced bounced back. back.

Contribution to trade Contribution growth,in to trade growth, involume volume andunit unitprice priceterms, and terms,1981 1981––95 95((per per cent) cent)

25.0 25.0 20.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 -5.0 -5.0 -10.0 -10.0 -15.0 -15.0 -20.0 -20.0

Unit Value Unit Value -3.5 -3.5 6.2 6.2 1.9 1.9 -2.1 -2.1 5.1 5.1 4.6 4.6 -1.3 -1.3 -6.0 -6.0

2011 2011

2013 2013

2015 2015

2003 2003

2005 2005

2001 2001

Volume Volume 2.9 2.9 5.8 5.8 6.2 6.2 7.0 7.0 5.0 5.0 3.7 3.7 3.1 3.1 2.7

Average trade growth 2.7 by volume, value and Average trade growth unit value (per cent) by volume, value and unit value (per cent) Source: WTO Secretariat.

2007 2007

Value Value

2009 2009

1991 1991

1993 1993

1995 1995

1997 1997

1999 1999

1983 1983

1985 1985

Unit Value Unit Value

1987 1987

1981 1981

Volume Volume

Period Period 1981-1985 1981-1985 1986-1990 1986-1990 1991-1995 1991-1995 1995-2000 1995-2000 2001-2005 2001-2005 2006-2010 2006-2010 2011-2015 2011-2015 2013-2015 2013-2015

1989 1989

-25.0 -25.0

Value Value -0.7 -0.7 12.3 12.3 8.4 8.4 4.8 4.8 10.5 10.5 9.0 9.0 1.9 1.9 -3.5 -3.5

Tradeinincommercial Trade commercialservices services The66per The percent cent (see (seeTable TableA3) A3)decline decline ininthe thedollar dollarvalue valueofofworld worldexports exports ofofcommercial commercialservices servicesinin2015 2015was was strongly stronglyinfluenced influencedbybyexchange exchangerate rate fluctuations, fluctuations,particularly particularlythe thegeneral general appreciation appreciationofofthe thedollar dollaragainst againstthe the currencies currenciesofofUS UStrading tradingpartners partnersand and more morespecifically specificallybybythe thedepreciation depreciationofof the theeuro euroand andthe thepound poundagainst againstthe theUS US currency. currency.

To be published in September 2016 CHF 50.-

-10 -10

-15 -15

Europe Europeaccounted accountedfor foraalarge largefraction 2014 / Q4 fraction 2014 / Q4 2015 / Q1 2015 / Q1 ofofworld 2015 / Q2 worldcommercial 2015 / Q2 commercialservices 2015 / Q3 2015 servicestrade / Q3 2015 tradeinin / Q4/ Q4 2015 2015 2015(46 Transport (46per percent Transport Travel centofofexports).

Travel Goods-related exports).AAlarge Goods-related services large services Other commercial Other services share commercial services shareofofthis Source: thisencompassed encompassedtrade WTOWTO Secretariat.

Source: Secretariat. tradewithin within the theeuro euroarea areaand and within withinthe theEuropean European Chart Chart3.8 Union 3.8shows showsquarterly Unionmore quarterly moregenerally, generally,sosoexchange exports down exchange exports 3 per developments down cent in the 3 per developmentsinincommercial final rate cent in the final ratedevelopments services commercial developmentswithin services quarter withinthe compared theEU quarter EUhave exports have to to compared thethe same exportsinin2015 period an same 2015broken period anoutsized brokendown byby outsizedimpact down impacton in in 2014. onworld worldtrade. trade. geographic 2014.Asia’s decline Asia’s was steeper geographicregions. decline However, was regions.World steeper exports However,allallregions World in in exports regionswere (down 6 per wereprobably probably cent (down dollar in the 6 per fourth cent quarter dollarterms affected in the termswere fourth weredown much quarter affectedtotosome downasas asas somedegree much after degreebybyexchange rising 8 per exchange after 8 cent per rising 8 per cent in the equivalent 8 percent rate in the centyear-on-year the year-on-yearin in equivalent second ratemovements movementsdue the period second duetotothe in in 2014) thefact factthat quarter, and period that probably 2014) reflected trade quarter,but and probably butbybythe reflected thefourth tradestatistics the fourthquarter statisticsare quarter a real areusually slowdown the usuallyrecorded recordedinin decline in trade a real slowdown had activity moderated US as decline in well. trade to had activity around To moderated illustrate USdollars. as 6 per well. dollars. To illustratethe to around 6 forfor per Figures imports thesensitivity sensitivityofof cent.

Figures by by region display imports these cent.The Theevolution region evolutionofofEuropean display exports thesedata datatotoexchange European exchangerates, trends. exports similar rates,consider followed similar consider trends. the followeda asimilar similarpattern, thefact thethe pattern,although factthat thatcommercial although commercialservices servicesexports exports magnitude ofofthe European Union magnitudeofofthe greater thedecline declinewas the European Unionwere Note: was World greater and regional quarterly weredown Note: downnearly nearly (-12 World 10 (-12per percent quarter, centininthe -8-8 aggregates are and regional quarterly 10per thesecond percent second centinin2015 quarter, 2015(see (seeTable based TableA3), aggregates are onon A3),but available but per ififthis trade was measured based percent centininthe North available thefourth fourthquarter). this trade was measuredin euro terms quarter). reporters, North covering at least 90 per cent in euro terms America reporters, exports would have covering Americarecorded recordeda amore exports would haverisen moremodest of trade in commercialat least 90 per cent modest risen88per contraction, with commercial percent. services. of trade in commercial cent. contraction, with commercial services services. services Chart 3.9 shows the quarterly Chart 3.8: Chart 3.9 shows evolution Chart 3.8: quarterly World evolution exports of the dollar value ofthe World exportsofofcommercial world commercial by of the dollar value of commercialservices 2014Q4-2015Q1 (year-on-year services byregion, world region, 2014Q4-2015Q1 commercial change) (year-on-yearpercentage services exports in 2015 by major percentage change) services exports 2015 by major services categories.inTransport 5 services categories. recorded 5 the largest contraction Transport recorded at year end, with the largest at end, with exports down contraction 0 12 per cent inyear exports down fourth 0 12 per cent the in the quarter. On the other hand, goods-fourth quarter. On the other hand, goodsrelated services and other commercial -5 related services and other commercial -5 services showed signs of recovery services in the signs of recovery second halfshowed the year, with respectivein the -10 second of of the with declines ofhalf -10 1 per centyear, and 5 perrespective cent in declines of 1 per cent and 5 per cent the final quarter. in the final quarter.

-15 -15

World World

Source: WTO Secretariat.

2014 / Q4 2014 / Q4

00 00

Chart3.9: Chart 3.9:

World World exports exports commercial of of commercial services services by by main main category, category, (year-on-year (year-on-year 2014Q4-2015Q4 2014Q4-2015Q4 percentage percentage change) change) 5 5

0 0

-5 -5

2015 / Q1 2015 / Q1

North America North America 2015 / Q2 2015 / Q2

2015 / Q3 2015

/ Q3

2015 / Q4 2015 / Q4

Europe Europe

Asia Asia Source: WTO Secretariat.

Source: WTO Secretariat.

Note: World and regional quarterly Note: World and regional aggregates quarterly are based on available aggregates are based on available reporters, covering at least 90 per cent covering at least of reporters, trade in commercial 90 per cent services. of trade in commercial services.

Download the data: www.wto.org/statistics Download the data: www.wto.org/statistics

00 00

ISBN 9789287041104 Examen des statistiques du commerce mondial 2016 ISBN 9789287041111 Examen de las estadísticas sobre el comercio mundial 2016 ISBN 9789287041128

Statistics

The TheWTO’s WTO’smerchandise merchandisetrade tradevolume volumeindices indicesare are designed designedtotoapproximate approximatechanges changesininquantities quantitiesof ofgoods goods traded tradedby byadjusting adjustingtrade tradevalues valuesinincurrent currentdollar dollarterms terms totoaccount accountfor forfluctuations fluctuationsininprices pricesand andexchange exchangerates. rates.

ToTocalculate calculatethem, them,we wedivide dividechanges changesininthe thedollar dollarvalue value ofoftrade tradeflows flows(represented (representedby bytrade tradevalue valueindices) indices)by by changes changesininexport exportand andimport importprices prices(represented (representedby by unit unit valueindices)using value indices)usingdata datacollected collectedfrom fromnational nationalsources. sources.

InIngeneral, general,trade tradestatistics statisticsininvolume volumeterms termsare areused used to to analysechanges analyse changesinintrade tradeininreal realterms termswhile whiletrade tradeinin value value usedwhen isisused whenanalysing analysingchanges changesinintrade tradeusing usingcurrent current prices. prices.

72

Trade Profiles 2016 The annual Trade Profiles has been expanded to cover key data on both trade in goods and services. Each profile provides the most important indicators for trade in goods, including major imports and exports, and a breakdown of trade in services. Data is provided in a handy doublepage format for each of the 180 economies covered by the publication. This new edition incorporates Services Profiles, which was previously published separately.

New 2016 edition

FORTHCOMING

Previous editions 2005-15

Trade Profiles 2014

e ad

lic po

es easur ym WTO budget contribution

fow s

an d

tr

Trade Profiles 2016 ISBN 9789287041135 Profils Commerciaux 2016 ISBN 9789287041142

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax: +41 (0)22 731 42 06 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

Commercial services trade Outstanding notifications Trade ranking

Trade to GDP Merchandise trade

Perfiles Comerciales 2016 ISBN 9789287041159

ISBN 978-92-870-3971-2

Trade Profiles 2014

73

Trade Profiles 2014 provides the latest information on the trade flows and trade policy measures of WTO members, observers and other selected economies. With information for each economy provided in a standardized format, the publication is an invaluable quick reference tool for anyone looking for essential trade statistics. The data provided for each economy include basic economic indicators (such as GDP), trade policy indicators (such as tariffs, import duties, number of disputes, notifications outstanding and contingency measures in force), merchandise trade flows (broken down by broad product categories and major origins and destinations), services trade flows (with a breakdown by major components) and industrial property indicators. With one page devoted to each economy, Trade Profiles offers a concise overview of global trade.

Trade

Statistics

To be published in October 2016 CHF 50.-

Tariffs

Duty free imports Disputes

Service Profiles 2015 Services Profiles 2015 provides key statistics on â&#x20AC;&#x153;infrastructure servicesâ&#x20AC;?, i.e. transportation, telecommunications, finance and insurance, for some 150 economies. The 2016 edition of Trade Profiles incorporates the data previously provided in Services Profiles.

WEB

Published in 2015 I 152 pages CHF 40.ISBN 9789287039972 Profils des services 2015 ISBN 9789287039989 Perfiles de Servicios 2015 ISBN 9789287039996

Statistics

Previous editions 2013-14

74

World Tariff Profiles 2016

New 2016 edition

World Tariff Profiles 2016 provides a unique collection of data on tariffs imposed by WTO members and other countries. It contains summary tables showing the average tariffs imposed by individual countries as well as more detailed tables for each country, listing the tariffs it imposes on imports (by product group) and the tariffs it faces for exports to major trading partners. The profiles show the maximum tariff rates that are legally â&#x20AC;&#x153;boundâ&#x20AC;? in the WTO and the rates that countries actually apply.

Jointly published by the WTO, the International Trade Centre (ITC) and the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

Statistics

FORTHCOMING

75

To be published in October 2016 CHF 50.ISBN 9789287041166 Profils tarifaires dans le monde 2016 ISBN 9789287041142 Perfiles Arancelarios en el Mundo 2016 ISBN 9789287041159

Previous editions 2005-15

International Trade Statistics 2015 International Trade Statistics 2015 provides a detailed overview of developments in world trade up to the end of 2014, covering both merchandise and services trade as well as trade measured in value-added terms.

World Trade Statistical Review 2016 has replaced International Trade Statistics as the WTOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flagship annual statistical publication.

WEB

Previous editions 2001-14 Published in 2015 | 170 pages CHF 50.-

Statistiques du commerce international 2014 ISBN 9789287039897 SEE ALSO

World Trade Statistical Review 2016 72

EstadĂ­sticas del comercio internacional 2014 ISBN 9789287039903

Statistics

ISBN 9789287039880

76

Boxed-set of WTO statistical titles 2016 2015

The latest trade data from the WTO available in one package. The boxed set brings together:

International Trade Statistics World Tariff Profiles Trade Profiles Services Profiles

International Trade Statistics 2015 offers a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in world trade, covering trade in merchandise and commercial services as well as trade in global value chains.

WTO

• World Tariff Profiles 2016 International Trade Statistics 2015

An overview section looks back over the past 20 years, using charts and maps to illustrate the most important trends. More detailed data are provided in a variety of tables covering various aspects of goods and services trade.

ITC UNCTAD

World Tariff Profiles 2015 provides comprehensive information on the tariffs imposed by over 161 countries and customs territories. New in this edition are the special topic which is a technical paper on tariff accumulation, effective protection and export competitiveness in global production and the new tables on anti-dumping measures. The regular summary tables in the first part of the publication allow for quick cross-country comparisons on the bound and applied duties for all products, as well as for agricultural and non-agricultural products. In the second part, a one-page summary for each country lists the tariffs imposed on its imports and the duties it faces when exporting to major trading partners.

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International Trade Statistics 2015 serves as an invaluable reference tool for researchers, policy makers and anyone interested in international trade.

World Tariff Profiles 2015 Applied MF

The publication is jointly prepared by the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the International Trade Centre (ITC).

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503

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6,087

1,196

Chemicals

2,057 US$ billion

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US$ billion

1,623 US$ billion

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Services Profiles 2015

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World Tariff Profiles 2015

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World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax: +41 (0)22 731 42 06 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

09/11/2015 14:21

Services Profiles 2015

Trade Profiles 2015

ISBN 978-92-870-3991-0

12,250

US$ billion

4<6

Trade to GDP

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax: +41 (0)22 731 42 06 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

MANUFACTURES

US$ billion

2,585

2<4

Services Profiles provides statistics on key infrastructure services (transportation, telecommunications, and finance and insurance) for some 186 economies. On one page for each economy, the Profiles gather an invaluable number of statistical indicators of these sectors, making the publication a quick reference tool for market conditions and trade in services in the respective sectors. The information is derived from national accounts, employment statistics, balance of payments statistics, foreign affiliates statistics, foreign direct investment statistics and quantitative indicators largely sourced from international/regional organizations and specialized bodies.

ISBN 978-92-870-4000-8

1,486

Other commercial services

SPECIAL FOCUS: WORLD TRADE AND THE WTO: 1995–2014

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Comprehensive data on global trade

To be published in October 2016.

CHF 120.-

Statistics

ISBN 9789287041227

77

• Trade Profiles 2016

US$ billion

Food

International Trade Statistics 2015

World Tariff Profiles 2015

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax: +41 (0)22 731 42 06 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

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1,765

955

US$ billion

Trade Profiles 2015 provides the latest information on the trade flows and trade policy measures of WTO members, observers and other selected economies. With information for each economy provided in a standardized format, the publication is an invaluable quick reference tool for anyone looking for essential trade statistics. The data provided for each economy include basic economic indicators (such as GDP), trade policy indicators (such as tariffs, import duties, number of disputes, notifications outstanding and contingency measures in force), merchandise trade flows (broken down by broad product categories and major origins and destinations), services trade flows (with a breakdown by major components) and industrial property indicators. With one page devoted to each economy, Trade Profiles offers a concise overview of global trade.

FUELS & MINING PRODUCTS

US$ billion

Transport

ISBN 978-92-870-3994-1

FORTHCOMING

Trade and Tariffs

FREE

D TR A

Over the past 20 years, global trade in goods has nearly quadrupled, reaching US$ 19 trillion in 2013 compared with US$ 5 trillion in 1996. This represents an annual growth rate of 7.6 per cent on average. Over the same period, there has been a 15 per cent reduction in average tariffs applied by WTO members. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks at the evolution of trade and tariffs over the past 20 years.

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Trade Grows as Tariffs Decline

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Chart 1: Tariffs applied

by WTO members and global trade in goods: 1996-2013 Value of global trade in goods (in US$ trillion)

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0 96 19 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 11 12 13 20 20 20 20

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Merchandise trade Average MFN tariffs Sources: International

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Commerce et Droit des Douane: Le commerce augmente à mesure que les droits de douane diminuent

30% Trade Statistics, World

Tariff Profiles

9%

Average tariff applied by WTO members in 2013

20%

Bound Applied

10% 0% All All WTO members developed

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El Comercio y los Aranceles: El comercio aumenta a medida que disminuyen los aranceles

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On joining the WTO, new members commit to keep their tariffs “bound” level, as specified in their schedules of commitment beneath a actually apply can be far s. But the tariffs they lower than these bound rates.

The average tariff applied

by WTO members stands at 9 per cent whereas the average bound rate is as high as 39 per cent. The difference between bound and applied tariffs is even more marked for developing countries (see Chart 2).

This is because developing countries negotiated much higher ceilings for their tariffs when joining the WTO. However, the tariffs they have actually applied declined by 22 per cent have over the past 20 years, far exceeding the global decline of 15 per cent. average

Profiles

78

Dispute settlement

The Development of the Rule of Law in the Multilateral Trading System Edited by Gabrielle Marceau

Gabrielle Marceau is a counsellor in the Legal Affairs Division of the WTO Secretariat. Her main function is to advise panellists in WTO disputes, the Director-General’s Office, the Secretariat and WTO members on WTOrelated matters. Dr Marceau is also Associate Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of Geneva, Switzerland, and has published extensively on WTO matters.

A History of Law and Lawyers in the GATT/ WTO The Development of the Rule of Law in the Multilateral Trading System Edited by Gabrielle Marceau

Marceau 9781107085237 PPC. C M Y K

Cover image: the stone statue of ‘Justice’, by Luc Jaggi (1924), situated in front of the main entrance to the Centre William Rappard, the headquarters of the WTO in Geneva. The statue was donated by the Swiss Confederation on 28 November 1924. Photograph © WTO / Pierre-Yves Dhinaut.

Cover design: Sue Watson

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press copublication.

’... such a unique, high-quality, and indispensible work for all those interested in trade governance, the WTO, and international dispute settlement in general.’

Giorgio Sacerdoti, Bocconi University, former member of the WTO Appellate Body, Journal of World Trade Review

Published in 2015 | 684 pages 31 colour photos | CHF 130.HB: English ISBN 9781107085237 eBook ISBN 9781316310014

Dispute settlement

This book paints an interesting and sometimes surprising portrait of the evolution of the role that law and lawyers have played throughout the history of the multilateral trading system. It brings together original contributions from an unprecedented number of eminent current and former GATT and WTO staff members, including many current and former Appellate Body members, to trace the history of law and lawyers in the GATT/WTO and to explore how the nature of legal work has evolved over the institution’s 60-year history.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

A History of Law and Lawyers in the GATT/WTO

How did a treaty that emerged in the aftermath of the Second World War, and barely survived its early years, evolve into one of the most influential organisations in international law? This unique book brings together original contributions from an unprecedented number of eminent current and former GATT and WTO staff members, including many current and former Appellate Body members, to trace the history of law and lawyers in the GATT/WTO and explore how the nature of legal work has evolved over the institution’s sixty-year history. In doing so, it paints a fascinating portrait of the development of the rule of law in the multilateral trading system, and allows some of the most important personalities in GATT and WTO history to share their stories and reflect on the WTO’s remarkable journey from a ‘provisionally applied treaty’ to an international organisation defined by its commitment to the rule of law.

Marceau

A History of Law and Lawyers in the GATT/WTO

80

WTO Dispute Settlement: One-Page Case Summaries 1995-2014

Dispute settlement

(2015 edition)

81

WTO Dispute Settlement: One-Page Case Summaries provides a succinct summary of the key findings of every dispute panel report up to the end of 2014 and, where applicable, the subsequent Appellate Body report. Each one-page summary comprises three sections: the core facts; the key findings contained in the reports; and, where relevant, other matters of particular significance.

The disputes are presented in chronological order (by dispute settlement number). Two indexes at the end of the publication list the disputes by WTO agreement and

by WTO member responding to the complaint.

Published in 2015 | 224 pages CHF 40.-

WEB

ISBN 9789287040091 Le règlement des différends dans le cadre de l’OMC: Un différend, une page (2015) ISBN 9789287040107 Solución de diferencias en la OMC: Resúmenes de una página por caso (2015) ISBN 9789287040114

‘This collection of DSU cases is very much suited for a short overview, and therefore, valuable for governments, legal advisors, students, and researchers of the field.’

Carsten Weerth, Global Trade and Customs Journal

This multi-volume series provides the full texts of panel reports, Appellate Body reports and arbitration awards issued by the WTO in 2014. It is an essential resource for all trade lawyers and students studying international economic or trade law. The series is produced annually.

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33341.indd 1

Dispute Settlement Reports 2014

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Cases covered in the Dispute Settlement Reports 2014 include:

Published in 2016 | 8 volumes Price per volume: CHF 220.-

2015 DSR Reports to be published in 2017

Dispute settlement

Previous editions: 1996-13

03/03/2016 14:53

03/03/2016 14:53

• European Communities - Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products (WT/DS400, WT/DS401).

• China – Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten, and Molybdenum (WT/DS431, WT/ DS432, WT/DS433).

• United States – Countervailing Measures on Certain HotRolled Carbon Steel Flat Products from India (WT/DS436).

• China and the United States – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties on Certain Automobiles from the United States (WT/DS440, WT/DS449).

82

Visual ONLY

Dispute settlement

wto appellate body repertory of

83

Visual ONLY

(5th edition)

1995–2013 fifth edition–volume i compiled by the appellate body secretariat

reports and awards 1995–2013 compiled by the appellate body secretariat – volume i

wto appellate body repertory of

reports and awards 1995–2013 compiled by the appellate body secretariat – volume i

WTO OMC

WTO Appellate Body Repertory of Reports and Awards 1995-2013

wto appellate body repertory of reports and awards

wto appellate body repertory of reports and awards 1995–2013 fifth edition–volume i compiled by the appellate body secretariat

blind

WTO OMC blind

WTO OMC WTO OMC

Published in 2014 2 volumes | 2,126 pages CHF 400.HB: English ISBN 9781107059726 eBook ISBN 9781139899673

The Repertory covers the Appellate Body’s rulings in WTO disputes since its establishment in 1995. This fifth edition is in two volumes and includes the largest amount of new material since the publication of the first edition in 2005. New texts covers the 14 Appellate Body reports and two Article 21.3(c) arbitration awards issued from 2010 to 2013, including key rulings from disputes relating to aircraft subsidies and technical barriers to trade. The Repertory is an essential resource for all those interested in WTO law and international dispute settlement.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

WTO Analytical Index

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

This handbook describes the historical and legal background to the TRIPS Agreement, its role in the WTO and its insti-

tutional framework, and reviews the following areas: general provisions and basic principles; copyright and related rights; trademarks; geographical indications; patents; industrial designs, layout-designs, undisclosed information and anti-competitive practices; enforcement of IPRs; dispute settlement in the context of the TRIPS Agreement; TRIPS and public health; and current TRIPS issues. It contains a guide to TRIPS notifications by WTO members and describes how to access and make use of the official documentation relating to the TRIPS Agreement and related issues. Furthermore, it includes the legal texts of the TRIPS Agreement and the relevant provisions of the WIPO conventions referred to in it, as well as subsequent relevant WTO instruments.

Jayashree Watal is a senior officer This in the Intellectual Property Division thebackground WTO Secretariat. handbook describes the historical and of legal to the TRIPS Agreement, its role in the WTO and its institutional framework, and reviews the following areas: general provisions and basic principles; copyright and related rights; trademarks; geographical indications; patents; industrial designs, layout-designs, undisclosed information and anti-competitive practices; enforcement of IPRs; dispute settlement in the context of the TRIPS Agreement; TRIPS and public health; and current TRIPS issues. It contains a guide to TRIPS notifications by WTO members and describes how to access and make use of the official documentation relating to the TRIPS Agreement and related issues. Furthermore, it includes the legal texts of the TRIPS Agreement and the relevant provisions of the WIPO conventions referred to in it, as well as subsequent relevant WTO instruments.

Jayashree Watal is a senior officer in the Intellectual Property Division of the WTO Secretariat.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

GUIDE TO WTO LAW WTO AND PRACTICE A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement Taubman, Wager and Watal

Antony Taubman is Director of the Intellectual Property Division of the WTO Secretariat.

Hannu Wager is a senior officer in the Intellectual Property Division of the WTO Secretariat.

WTO ANALYTICAL INDEX

Third Edition Volume 1

ANALYTICAL INDEX

GUIDE TO WTO LAW AND PRACTICE Third Edition Volume 1

Published in 2012 | 2,340 pages 2 volume set | CHF 400.HB: English ISBN 9781107025257

‘… a terrific resource.’

Lorand Bartels, University Senior Lecturer in Law, University of Cambridge

eBook ISBN 9781139795159

Dispute settlement

The Analytical Index is a comprehensive guide to the interpretation and application of the WTO agreements by dispute settlement panels, the Appellate Body and other WTO bodies. It contains extracts of key pronouncements and findings from tens of thousands of pages of WTO jurisprudence, including panel reports, Appellate Body reports, and arbitration awards. This unique work is an indispensable tool for anyone working in the field of WTO law, including lawyers, economists, academics and students. This third edition covers developments from the establishment of the WTO in January 1995 to September 2011.

Hannu Wager is a senior officer in the Intellectual Property Division of the WTO Secretariat.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement Taubman, Wager and Watal

Antony Taubman is Director of the Intellectual Property Division of the WTO Secretariat.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

Guide to WTO Law and Practice (3rd edition)

84

ollects together the

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

edures that apply WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

technical questions ducted, including ate them; what

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The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures

and procedures.

The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures A Collection of the Relevant Legal Texts

nd students. This

Third Edition WTO Secretariat

Dispute settlement

Third Edition

85

Published in 2012 | 132 pages PB : English | CHF 60.ISBN 9781107684157 HB: English | CHF 120.ISBN 9781107027992 eBook ISBN 9781139558792

The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures A Collection of the Relevant Legal Texts (3rd edition) This third edition of the WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures brings together the treaty texts, decisions and agreed practices relating to the WTOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dispute settlement procedures. It covers matters such as how disputes are initiated and conducted, what deadlines apply, what rules of conduct apply, and what rules of procedure are followed for meetings of the WTOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Dispute Settlement Body. This edition has been fully updated to take account of revised rules and procedures.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

The WTO in the Twenty-first Century Dispute Settlement, Negotiations, and Regionalism in Asia Edited by Yasuhei Taniguchi, Alan Yanovich and Jan Bohanes

The issues of dispute settlement, trade negotiations and regionalism, and the interplay between them, are examined by leading scholars and practitioners in international trade law from North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific in this comprehensive collection of essays.

‘… the book offers different points of as well as interesting insights into the WTO. … it is an ageless source for research into the first ten years of WTO trade policies.’

Prof. Dr. Ralph M. Wrobel, East Asia Integration Studies web journal ‘The integration of (the contributors) diverse perspectives into a coherent collection speaks volumes about the effort and the ability of the editors.’

Michael Ewing-Chow, National University of Singapore, Journal of International Economic Law

Published in 2007 | 566 pages HB: English | CHF 155.ISBN 9780521875691 eBook ISBN 9781139200271

Dispute settlement

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

86

The WTO at Ten The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System

Dispute settlement

Edited by Giorgio Sacerdoti, Alan Yanovich and Jan Bohanes

87

Published in 2006 | 576 pages HB: English | CHF 140.ISBN 9780521863148

This volume assesses the first ten years of the WTO. It examines: the relationship and balance between political governance and dispute settlement; the functioning of the dispute settlement procedures and various reform proposals; the contribution of the Appellate Body to the development of international trade law; and treaty interpretation in a number of international dispute settlements conducted by the WTO, the International Court of Justice, the European Court of Justice and the Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

‘… this is an excellent book … it provides a rare opportunity to examine, from the inside, the WTO dispute settlement system, which is arguably the most important international dispute settlement system the world has ever seen.’

Henry Gao, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Deputy Director, East Asia International Economic Law and Policy (EAIEL) Program, University of Hong Kong, Chinese Journal of International Law

Key Issues in WTO Dispute Settlement The First Ten Years Edited by Rufus Yerxa and Bruce Wilson

This book provides a unique view of the operation and evolution of the WTO dispute settlement system by WTO Secretariat professionals and outside experts, covering the first ten years of the WTO. Each chapter is based on the individual author’s personal experience with, or study of, the system. The book makes for informative reading for those who wish to gain further insights into how the system has operated in practice since 1995.

Published in 2005 | 328 pages

‘This book is a valuable and unique record of the institutional memory of members of the WTO Secretariat and of WTO dispute settlement’s participants in general.’

Isabelle Van Damme, Gonville & Caius College, University of Cambridge, Faculty of Law, Journal of International and Comparative Law Quarterly

HB: ISBN 9780521861595 | CHF 125.Cuestiones clave del sistema de solución de diferencias de la OMC: Los primeros diez años PB: ISBN 9789287033772 | CHF 80.Questions clés dans le domaine du règlement des différends: Les dix premières années PB: ISBN 9789287033765 | CHF 80.eBook ISBN 9780511131578

Dispute settlement

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

88

A Handbook on the WTO Dispute Settlement System This handbook explains how the WTO’s dispute settlement system works. It provides comprehensive information on each stage of the dispute settlement process as well as explaining the evolution of the current system. The handbook is a useful tool for legal practitioners as well as those simply wishing to gain a better understanding of the dispute settlement system.

Dispute settlement

Co-published with Cambridge University Press and Éditions Yvon Blais.

89

Published in 2004 | 234 pages CHF 80.ISBN 9780521602921 Manual sobre el sistema de solución de diferencias de la OMC ISBN 9789287037336 Guide sur le système de règlement des différends de l’OMC ISBN 9782894517680

SEE ALSO

The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures 85 Dispute Settlement Reports 82

WTO Dispute Settlement

FREE

WTO DISPUTE SETTLEMENT

WEB

Rules and procedures The WTO’s dispute settlement system has as its foundation and practices developed the rules, procedures under the General Agreement (GATT) 1947. However, on Tariffs and Trade it improves upon the previous system in a number of ways, including by being more accessible. This is shown by the increased participation of developing countries.

The dispute settlement system follows specific and detailed timetables completing the examination for of a case. This first takes place by a group of three panellists who are specially selected for the case. Their in a report which may be findings are published appealed by the members concerned. Appeals are considered by the WTO’ s Appellate Body, which consists of seven members elected for a four-year term.

The rules and procedures of the out in the Dispute Settlement WTO’s dispute settlement system are set Understanding (DSU), which by the Dispute Settlement Bod is administered y (DSB), consisting of representativ WTO members. es of all When lodging a complaint, WTO members are required agreements are allegedly to specify which WTO being violated. The agreements referred to are shown in most commonly Chart 2.

Chart 2: WTO agreement s covered by members’ complaints, 1995-2014

Using the dispute settleme

nt system

Only governments and separate customs territories that are members of the WTO can participate directly in dispute settlement as parties to the case or as third parties. Under WTO rules, a has a specific legal or economic member does not have to demonstrate that it instance, in the “EC – Bananas” interest in the subject matter of a dispute. For - the United States complained disputes – the longest disputes in WTO history that the European Union producers from African, (EU) gave banana Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries access to European markets, in violation of WTO non-discrimin preferential though the United States ation rules, even was not itself exporting bananas to the EU. However, in most cases the member making the complaint is directly affected by the action of the member being challenged.

A formal complaint by any member automatically begins process. This first stage the dispute settlement is known as a “request for consultations” as the members concerned will initially another. If this fails, a dispute try to resolve the dispute by consulting with one panel is established to examine the case.

The dispute settlement system is accessible not only to developed WTO members but also to small developing members. In fact, the DSU contains provisions specifically aimed at helping developing members dispute settlement. To date, participate in around half of the complaints WTO have been initiated brought before the by developing members (see Chart 3).

WTO 42 Agreement 4 Rules of Origin 7

Chart 3: Use of the Dispute

Government Procurement General Agreement on

Trade in Services 23 Customs Valuation 17 Preshipment Inspection 5

40 Trade-related Investment

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GATT 1994 387

% 100

Disputes filed by:

Settlement Mechanism developing members

developed members

80 Measures

Trade

Published in 2015 | 8 pages FREE Le règlement des différends dans le cadre de l’OMC: Résolution des différends commerciaux entre les Membres de l’OMC Solución de diferencias en la OMC: Resolución de las diferencias comerciales entre los Miembros de la OMC

Dispute settlement

Over the past 20 years, nearly 500 disputes have been brought to the WTO. About half of these were resolved during bilateral discussions while the other half proceeded to a panel process, which in recent years generally takes about 14 months. Appeals are considered by the WTO’s Appellate Body and – excluding exceptionally busy periods – are completed within three months. This makes the WTO’s dispute system one of the fastest in the world. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into how the dispute settlement system operates.

Re be sol tw vin ee g n tra W d TO e d m isp em u be tes rs

Resolving Trade Disputes between WTO Members

60

73 Agriculture

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90

Legal texts

The Legal Texts The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations This book contains the legal texts of the agreements negotiated in the Uruguay Round, now the legal framework of the World Trade Organization. The 2007 version includes a 167 page subject index. Contents include: • the updated General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which includes rules on agriculture, textiles, anti-dumping, subsidies and countervailing measures, import licensing, rules of origin, standards, and preshipment inspection.

Best Seller

Published in 2007 | 550 pages CHF 70.ISBN 9780521785808

• the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

Résultats des négociations commerciales multilatérales du Cycle d’Uruguay : les textes juridiques ISBN 9789287034236

• the dispute settlement mechanism.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Los Resultados de la Ronda Uruguay de Negociaciones Comerciales Multilaterales : Los Textos Jurídicos ISBN 9789287035820

Legal texts

• the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).

Luxury leather-bound edition with bookmarks | CHF 200.eBook ISBN 9781139200219

92

CD-ROM: The Legal Texts

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eur. onner un choix de langue. fichier “indexfr.htm”.

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The WTO Legal Texts The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations with subject index

Les textes juridiques de l'OMC

50-2

Résultats des négociations commerciales multilatérales du Cycle d'Uruguay avec index thématique

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Los textos jurídicos de la OMC Los Resultados de la Ronda Uruguay de Negociaciones Comerciales Multilaterales con índice temático

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25.08

The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations This CD-ROM contains the legal texts of the agreements negotiated in the Uruguay Round, now the legal framework of the WTO. Contents include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the Agreement on Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the dispute settlement mechanism.

Published in 2008 | Trilingual CHF 50.-

Legal texts

ISBN 9789287034502

93

CD-ROM: Résultats des négociations commerciales multilatérales du Cycle d’Uruguay: les textes juridiques CD-ROM: Los Resultados de la Ronda Uruguay de Negociaciones Comerciales Multilaterales: Los Textos Jurídicos SEE ALSO

Guide to the Uruguay Round Agreements 97

The Doha Round Texts and Related Documents This publication includes the principal documents agreed by WTO member governments at important stages in the trade negotiations that were launched by the Doha Ministerial Conference in November 2001. Until the Doha Round concludes, this collection remains a work in progress. This book replaces an earlier publication, Doha Declarations.

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ISBN 9789287035097 Los Textos de la Ronda de Doha y Documentos Conexos ISBN 9789287035110 SEE ALSO

The Legal Texts 92

Les textes du Cycle de Doha et documents connexes ISBN 9789287035103

Legal texts

Published in 2009 | 170 pages FREE

94

Status of WTO Legal Instruments Status of WTO Legal Instruments

tion

affixed on, ons, in his d under cations, ument.

Legal texts 95

2015 EDITION

ISBN 978-92-870-4057-2

(2015 edition) Status of WTO Legal Instruments

2015 EDITION

Status of WTO Legal Instruments covers the legal instruments drawn up by WTO members in relation to the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization and the plurilateral trade agreements annexed to that Agreement.

For each legal instrument, information is provided regarding signature, acceptance, ratification, accession and entry into force. The relevant final clauses of each instrument are also included. The cut-off point for information in this publication is end-April 2015.

WEB

Published in 2015 | 138 pages CHF 30.ISBN 9789287040572 OMC – Situation des instruments juridiques (2015) ISBN 9789287040589 OMC – Situación de los instrumentos jurídicos (2015) ISBN 9789287040596

SEE ALSO

The Legal Texts 92

General Agreement on Trade in Services Protocols This set of publications consists of additional agreements negotiated after the Uruguay Round and attached to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). They are known as the Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Protocols.

There is no first protocol.

Published 1995-1998, Reprinted in 2004 4 volumes in 3 books | Hardback Trilingual | CHF 350.ISBN 9781575888309 Protocolos anexos al Acuerdo General sobre el Comercio de Servicios Protocoles annexés à l’Accord général sur le commerce des services

• Second GATS Protocol: Revised Schedules of Commitments on Financial Services.

• Third GATS Protocol: Schedules of Specific Commitments relating to Movement of Natural Persons.

• Fourth GATS Protocol: Schedules of Specific Commitments Concerning Basic Telecommunications.

• Fifth GATS Protocol: Schedules of Specific Commitments and Lists of Exemptions from Article II. This complete set includes four volumes presented in three books.

A World Trade Organization and William S. Hein & Co. co-publication.

This complete set contains all 42 volumes of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Basic Instruments and Selected Documents (BISD) series.

The series presents the principal decisions, resolutions, recommendations and reports adopted by the GATT contracting parties on an annual basis. A volume was published every year from 1953 up to 1994.

A World Trade Organization and William S. Hein & Co. co-publication.

Reprinted in 2003 | English CHF 1,650.ISBN 9781575887890

Legal texts

GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents – Volumes 1-42

96

Guide to the Uruguay Round Agreements This publication is the only official and comprehensive explanation by the WTO of the Uruguay Round treaties.

It helps readers to navigate the complexities of well over 20,000 pages of decisions, agreements and commitments arising out of the negotiations.

Legal texts

A World Trade Organization and Kluwer Law co-publication.

97

Published in 1999 | 274 pages CHF 55.ISBN 9789041111258

SEE ALSO

The Legal Texts: The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations 92

Legal Instruments embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round The legal instruments embodying the results of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations, adopted in Marrakesh on 15 April 1994, are published in a set of 34 volumes. The complete set covers the legal texts, the ministerial decisions and the Marrakesh declaration, the signatory countries, as well as the individual agreements, the schedules of specific commitments on services, the tariff schedules for trade in goods, and the Plurilateral Agreements. Schedules in the original language only.

Reprinted in 2004 | 34 volumes | English CHF 3,600.ISBN 9781575888132

A World Trade Organization and William S. Hein & Co. co-publication.

Agreement Establishing the WTO WTO Agreement Series

A World Trade Organization and Kluwer Law co-publication.

ISBN 9789287035189

Legal texts

The Agreement Establishing the WTO is a comparatively short agreement that sets out the role, structure and powers of the WTO. It is also the first text of permanent importance in the package of agreements signed in Marrakesh on 15 April 1994 at the end of the Uruguay Round negotiations.

The WTO Secretariat has prepared this booklet to assist public understanding of the WTO Agreement.

Published in 1998 I 63 pages CHF 30.-

98

Trade monitoring

Trade Policy Reviews Trade Policy Reviews analyse the trade policies and practices of every member of the World Trade Organization.

As well as analysing by sector and by trade measure, the reports also look into the country’s wider economic environment. The reviews consist of three main parts: an independent report by the WTO Secretariat, a report by the government, and the concluding remarks by the Chair of the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Body following discussion of the review by the WTO membership.

Monitoring the trade policies and practices of WTO members is a fundamentally important activity of the WTO. All WTO members are reviewed at regular intervals, according to their share of world trade. Each Trade Policy Review consists of three parts: a report by the government under review, a report written independently by the WTO Secretariat, and the concluding remarks by the Chair of the Trade Policy Review Body. A highlights section provides an overview of key trade facts.

Trade Policy Review

Trade Policy Review

Monitoring the trade policies and practices of WTO members is a fundamentally important activity of the WTO. All WTO members are reviewed at regular intervals, according to their share of world trade. Each Trade Policy Review consists of three parts: a report by the government under review, a report written independently by the WTO Secretariat, and the concluding remarks by the Chair of the Trade Policy Review Body. A highlights section provides an overview of key trade facts.

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax +41 (0)22 739 42 06 Email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

ISBN ISBN 978-92-870-4082-4 978-92-870-4082-4

Fiji 2016

9 789287 040824

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax +41 (0)22 739 42 06 Email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

ISBN ISBN 978-92-870-4079-4 978-92-870-4079-4

Georgia 2016 9 789287 040794

Trade Policy Review Southern African Customs Union 2015

Key trade facts

Each volume of the Trade Policy Review series is priced at CHF 60-.

Real GDP growth, 2008-2013 (year-on-year percentage change) 4% 3.3%

3.3%

3.4%

3%

Merchandise exports by product (extra-SACU), 2013*

2.6%

2.4%

Merchandise imports by product (extra-SACU), 2013*

2% 1% 0%

Other 7.7%

Agriculture 10.8%

Other 5.9%

Agriculture 6.6%

-1%

2.6% in 2013

Standing orders available.

-1.7%

-2% Mining 24.0%

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Exports of merchandise goods by SACU members, 2013 100%

Mining 38.7%

Manufactures 42.8%

Intra-SACU

90%

Extra-SACU

80% 70% Manufactures 63.5%

60% 50% 40% 30%

Destinations of merchandise exports (extra-SACU), 2013*

20%

Origins of merchandise imports (extra-SACU), 2013*

10% 0%

Botswana

Lesotho*

Namibia

South Africa

Swaziland

* 2012 data for Lesotho.

Imports of merchandise goods by SACU members, 2013 EU(28) 24.3%

100% Other 31.8%

EU(28) 29.4%

Intra-SACU

90%

Extra-SACU

80% 70%

Other 45.4%

60% 50% China 13.0%

40% Japan 3.9%

30% China 15.6%

EFTA 3.7%

United States 7.7% Japan 5.9%

India 5.2% United States 6.5%

Trade monitoring

A key trade facts section provides a visual overview of the country’s major exports/imports, its main export destinations, the main countries of origin for its imports and other key economic data.

20% 10%

Saudi Arabia 7.6%

0%

Botswana

Lesotho*

Namibia

South Africa

Swaziland

* 2012 data for Lesotho.

94.4

Total exports of merchandise goods (extra-SACU) (US$ billion), 2013 *

105.4

Total imports of merchandise goods (extra-SACU) (US$ billion), 2013 *

60.8

Population (million), 2013

401

100

Current GDP (US$ billion), 2013

* 2013 data on Lesotho are not available.

4

Trade Policy Review – Southern African Customs Union 2015 www.wto.org/tpr

Trade Policy Review – Southern African Customs Union 2015 www.wto.org/tpr

5

Trade Policy Reviews 2016 Trade Policy Review

policies and practices of WTO mentally important activity members are reviewed at cording to their share of ade Policy Review consists ort by the government under ten independently by the WTO concluding remarks by the olicy Review Body. A highlights overview of key trade facts.

ISBN ISBN 978-92-870-4082-4 978-92-870-4082-4

Trade monitoring

9 789287 040824

101

A total of 23 reviews of WTO members’ trade policies and practices are to be undertaken in 2016.

Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review Saudi Arabia Dem. Rep. Congo 2016: Russian ISBN 9789287040855 ISBN 9789287040930 Federation ISBN 9789287041012 Fiji 2016 Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review 2016: Ukraine Zambia Trade Policy Review ISBN 9789287040862 ISBN 9789287040947 2016: Korea Trade Policy Reviews Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review 2016: ISBN 9789287041029 2016: Georgia Malawi Tunisia ISBN 9789287040794 ISBN 9789287040879 Trade Policy Review ISBN 9789287040961 2016: Sierra Leone Trade Policy Reviews Examen de las Políticas Examen des politiques ISBN 9789287041036 2016: Morocco Comerciales 2016: commerciales 2016: ISBN 9789287040800 Honduras Tunisie Trade Policy Review ISBN 9789287040886 ISBN 9789287040978 2016: Sri Lanka Examen des politiques ISBN 9789287041043 commerciales 2016: Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review 2016: Maroc Honduras China ISBN 9789287040817 ISBN 9789287040893 ISBN 9789287040954 Trade Policy Review Trade Policy Review 2016: 2016: Albania Fiji ISBN 9789287040909 ISBN 9789287040824 Trade Policy Review 2016: Trade Policy Review United Arab Emirates 2016: Turkey ISBN 9789287040916 ISBN 9789287040831 Examen des politiques Trade Policy Review commerciales 2016: 2016: Maldives Dem. Rep. Congo ISBN 9789287040848 ISBN 9789287040923

Trade Policy Review 2016: Singapore ISBN 9789287040985 Monitoring the trade policies and practices of WTO members is a fundamentally important activity of the WTO. All WTO members are reviewed at regular intervals, according to their share of world trade. Each Trade Policy Review consists of three parts: a report by the government under review, a report written independently by the WTO Secretariat, and the concluding remarks by the Chair of the Trade Policy Review Body. A highlights section provides an overview of key trade facts.

Trade Policy Review 2016: El Salvador ISBN 9789287040992 Examen de las Políticas Comerciales 2016: El Salvador ISBN 9789287041005 World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. +41 (0)22 739 51 11 Fax +41 (0)22 739 42 06 Email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

Examen de las Políticas Comerciales 2016: Guatemala ISBN 9789287041050 Trade Policy Review 2016: Guatemala ISBN 9789287041067 Trade Policy Review 2016: Solomon Islands ISBN 9789287041074 Trade Policy Review 2016: USA ISBN 9789287041081

Trade Policy Review

Previous WTO editions 2013-15

ISBN ISBN 978-92-870-4030-5 978-92-870-4030-5

9 789287 040305

Japan 2015

DVD: 20 Years of Trade Policy Reviews 1989-2009

This DVD contains a complete set of all Trade Policy Review publications from 1989 to 2009.

▶ Background

Marking the 20 Anniversary of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism th

years of

Trade Policy Reviews enable WTO members to examine collectively the trade policies and practices of individual members in all areas covered by the WTO agreements. Reviews are carried out by the Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB), which consists of the entire WTO membership. The Trade Policy Review Mechanism aims to encourage all WTO members to adhere to the WTO’s rules, disciplines and commitments, and thus to contribute to the smoother functioning of the multilateral trading system.

Trade Policy Reviews

By the end of 2009, 305 Trade Policy Reviews had been conducted, covering 136 of the 153 WTO members. Japan, the European Union and the United States had been reviewed nine times; Canada eight times; nine members (Australia; Brazil; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Republic of Korea; Norway; Singapore; Switzerland and Thailand) five times; eight members (Chile, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, New Zealand, South Africa and Turkey) four times; 28 members three times; and 38 members twice.

Marking the 20th anniversary of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism

This double DVD contains a complete set of all Trade Policy Review publications from 1989 to 2009 in English, French and Spanish. Trade Policy Reviews enable WTO members to examine collectively the trade policies and practices of individual members in all areas covered by the WTO agreements.

1989 - 2009

▶ If the DVD does not play automatically, double click the START file on the DVD drive.

Printed by the WTO Secretariat

Published in 2012 | double DVD Trilingual | CHF 20.ISBN 9789287038210

SEE ALSO

Trade Policy Reviews 100

Trade monitoring

9 789287 038210

102

WTO accessions

WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism The Upper Floors of the Trading System

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

FORTHCOMING

SEE ALSO

WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism 106

To be published in 2017

WTO accessions

Accessions to the WTO have helped to strengthen the multilateral trading system and increase economic growth. This book looks at how WTO accessions have unfolded in light of the new trade agenda that is shaping multilateralism. It looks at the accession process from the perspective of those who have led the negotiations for their respective governments and reviews WTO accessions from a thematic standpoint, focusing on areas such as intellectual property, competition and agriculture as well as the challenges faced by new members in the first years of WTO membership.

104

African Perspectives on Trade and the WTO Domestic Reforms, Structural Transformation and Global Economic Integration

WTO accessions

Edited by Patrick Low, Maika Oshikawa and Chiedu Osakwe

105

Twenty-first-century Africa is in a process of economic transformation but challenges remain in areas such as structural reform, governance, commodity pricing and geopolitics. This book looks into key questions facing the continent, such as how can Africa achieve deeper integration into the rules-based multilateral trading system and the global economy. The book provides a range of perspectives on the future of the multilateral trading system and Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in global trade.

To be published in September 2016 PB | CHF 70.ISBN 9781316626528 HB | CHF 180.ISBN 9781107174474

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

FORTHCOMING

WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism

World Trade Organization

Dadush and Osakwe

What have WTO accessions contributed to the rules-based multilateral trading system? What demands have been made by original WTO members on acceding governments? How have the acceding governments fared? This volume of essays offers critical readings on how WTO accession negotiations have expanded the reach of the multilateral trading system not only geographically but also conceptually, clarifying disciplines and pointing the way to their further strengthening in future negotiations. Members who have acceded since the WTO was established now account for 20 per cent of total WTO membership. In the age of globalization there is an increased need for a universal system of trade rules. Accession negotiations have been used by governments as an instrument for domestic reforms, and one lesson from the accession process is that there are contexts which lead multilateral trade negotiations to successful outcomes even in the complex and multi-polar 21st-century economic environment.

Case Studies and Lessons from the WTO at Twenty

WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism

Edited by Uri B. Dadush and Chiedu Osakwe

WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism Case Studies and Lessons from the WTO at Twenty Edited by Uri Dadush and Chiedu Osakwe

Dadush & Osakwe 9781107093362 PPC. C M Y K

What have WTO accessions contributed to the rulesbased multilateral trading system? What demands have been made by original WTO members on acceding governments? How have the acceding governments fared?

This volume of essays offers critical readings on how WTO accession negotiations have expanded the reach of the multilateral trading system not only geographically but also conceptually, clarifying disciplines and pointing the way to their further strengthening in future negotiations.

Uri Dadush is Senior Associate in the International Economics Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, DC. He is also President and Founder of Economic Policy International, LLC. He was formerly Director of Trade at the World Bank, a department he founded in the run-up to the WTO Doha Ministerial Conference.

Chiedu Osakwe is Director of the WTO Accessions Division, having acted as director of various divisions within the WTO Secretariat for many years.

Cover illustration: to follow Cover design: Sue Watson

Published in 2015 33 colour photos I 992 pages Figure 31 Tajikistan. Mr Emomali Rahmon, President of Tajikistan, signs, subject to ratification, Tajikistan’s Protocol of Accession to the WTO in 2012 in Geneva.

Tajikistan became the 159th WTO member on 2 March 2013.

Figure 29 Russian Federation. Signing Ceremony for Russia’s Protocol of Accession to the WTO at the Eighth Ministerial Conference in Geneva in 2011. Ms Elvira Nabiullina, Minister for Economic Development of the Russian Federation (fourth from the left), signed, subject to ratification, Russia’s Accession Protocol.

Mr Igor Shuvalov, Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation (fifth from the left), was also present. Russia became the 156th WTO member on 22 August 2012.

Figure 32 Yemen. Mr Saadaldeen Talib, Minister of Trade and Industry of Yemen, signs, subject to ratification, Yemen’s Protocol of Accession to the WTO at the Ninth Ministerial Conference in Bali in 2013. Yemen became the 160th WTO member on 26 June 2014.

HB: English I CHF 180.ISBN 9781107093362 PB: English I CHF 70.ISBN 9781107472242 eBook ISBN 9781316371664

Figure 30 Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Signing Ceremony for the Accession Protocol of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in 2012 in Geneva. Mr Nam Viyaketh, Minister of Industry and Commerce of Lao PDR (fifth from the left), signed, subject to ratification, Lao PDR’s Accession Protocol. Mr Thongloun Sisoulith, Deputy Prime Minister of Lao PDR (sixth from the left) was also present.

Lao PDR became the 158th WTO member on 2 February 2013.

Figure 33 Seychelles. Signing Ceremony for Seychelles’ Protocol of Accession in 2014 in Geneva. Mr Pierre Laporte, Minister of Finance, Trade and Investment of Seychelles (left), signed, subject to ratification, Seychelles’ Accession Protocol.

Seychelles’ formal WTO membership is pending domestic ratification.

WTO accessions

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

106

A Handbook on Accession to the WTO WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

A Handbook on Accession to the WTO

A Handbook on Accession to the WTO

Peter John Williams

WTO accessions

A WTO Secretariat Publication

107

Published in 2008 | 274 pages PB : English | CHF 55.ISBN 9780521728683 HB: English | CHF 125.ISBN 9780521425940 eBook: English ISBN 9781139200073 Manuel sur l’accession à l’OMC ISBN 9789287037343 | CHF 55.Manual sobre la adhesión a la OMC ISBN 9789287037336 | CHF 55.-

Peter John Williams

This book provides the first detailed explanation and analysis of how governments become members of the WTO. The steps in the detailed negotiations leading up to accession have evolved over the years through the actual process that governments have followed to become members of the WTO. This handbook provides a unique account of how the process has evolved and details exactly what is involved.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

‘The accession process is important for many reasons and yet it is among the least studied and understood parts of the trading system. Thus, the WTO Secretariat is to be commended for sponsoring this project and enlisting Mr Williams to write The Handbook on Accession to the WTO. The Handbook will also help to stimulate new scholarship on accession.’

Steve Charnovitz, George Washington University, Journal of World Trade Review

WTO Accessions

WTO ACCESSIONS

FREE

33 new enforceable

treaties

WTO accession agreements (known as protocols) are enforceable international treaty obligations. Each protocol becomes an integral part of the WTO Agreem and adds to the body of ent WTO legal texts. Accessions have therefore contributed to enhancing the stability and predictability of the multilateral trading system modernizing and improving while the quality of WTO rules.

“The negotiated agreement between the WTO membership and the [new] Member results in a delicate balance of rights and obligations, which are reflected in the specific wording of each commitment set out in these documents.

Ultimately, the [new] Member and the WTO membership recognize that the intensively negotiated content of an accession package is the ‘entry fee’ to the WTO system…”

Panel report, “China - Raw Materials”, para. 7.112.

1/5

Economies joining the WTO over the past 20 years have been involved in onefifth of the disputes brought to the WTO, either as complainants or respondents.

They have also acted as third parties/ participants in more than 337 instances.

Success stories Accessions of least-develo

ped countries WTO accession negotiations have helped the least-develop ed countries (LDCs) mainstream trade into their development agendas.

Two LDCs have graduated from LDC status since they have acceded to the WTO (Cabo Verde and Samoa).

Economic growth and

productivity From 1995 to 2014, the value of merchandise trade for the economies joining the WTO over this period rose by 783 per cent while the value of world merchandise trade increased by 268 per cent over the same period.

Trade opening Each completed WTO accession has led to an expansion of the multilateral trading system and an increase in market opening. Over the past 20 years, accession negotiations have been successfully concluded by the entire WTO membership, and sensitive policy issues have been overcome, proving that the WTO continues to bring economies together and to boost world trade.

Published in 2015 | 12 pages FREE Accessions à l’OMC : Accroissement du commerce mondial et renforcementdes règles de l’OMC Las adhesiones a la OMC:: Ampliar el comercio mundial y reforzar las normas de la OMC

WTO accessions

WEB

Ex

Since the WTO was established in 1995, 33 economies have joined the organization. This has resulted in over 20,000 pages of legal documents defining their specific terms of membership. These accessions have brought the WTO’s total membership to 161 economies, comprising more than 7 billion people and accounting for 98 per cent of world trade. This brochure, produced to mark the WTO’s 20th anniversary, looks into the WTO’s ever-expanding membership and the benefits of WTO accession.

p st an re di ng ng th w en or in ld g tr W a TO de ru an le d s

Expanding World Trade and Strengthening WTO Rules

108

Supporting development and building trade capacity

Trade Costs and Inclusive Growth Case Studies by WTO Chair-Holders Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

In recent decades, trade flows have become increasingly global, with developing countries and emerging economies playing an ever-expanding role.

This volume brings together these contributions from the 14 WTO chair-holders. It is divided into four sections, focusing on export diversification, the role of non-tariff measures, the rule of law in connecting to global markets, and the role of the Aid for Trade initiative in building trade capacity and overcoming supply side constraints.

The contributions provide some powerful arguments in support of using trade policy instruments as an engine for growth and provide valuable insights into how developing countries can increasingly integrate into the multilateral trading system.

WTO ISBN

Connecting New 2016 to global markets edition

Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

Edited by Marion Jansen Mustapha Sadni Jallab Maarten Smeets

978-92-870-3931-6

FORTHCOMING To be published in November 2016 CHF 50ISBN 9789287041241

SEE ALSO

Connecting to Global Markets 112 World Trade Report 2015: Trade Facilitation Agreement 46

Supporting development and building trade capacity

However, these countries face a number of constraints in connecting to global markets. To obtain a better understanding of these constraints, the WTO invited the members of its academic network in developing countries – the WTO Chairs Programme – to identify major challenges in their respective countries and suggest ways to overcome them. In response, the WTO chair-holders contributed a set of papers to the WTO’s Annual Conference of the Chairs Programme and to the Global Review of Aid for Trade in July 2013.

Connecting to global markets - Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

Connecting This book looks at how implementation of the WTO’s to global markets Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) can help to reduce trade costs and promote growth. The publication brings together contributions from ten participants in the WTO Chairs Programme, which supports traderelated activities by academic institutions in developing countries. The book looks into how the Aid for Trade initiative can assist with implementing the TFA, the importance of mainstreaming trade into national development strategies, and the potential impact of the TFA in various regions.

110

World Trade Report 2014

111

The World Trade Report 2014 looks at how four recent major economic trends have changed how developing countries can use trade to facilitate development: the economic rise of developing economies, the growing integration of global production through supply chains, the higher prices for agricultural goods and natural resources, and the increasing interdependence of the world economy.

It also looks into what role the WTO can play.

WEB world trade report

2014

I. The world economy

Figure 3: Ten-year moving

05/08/2014 7:46:46 PM

average of world trade,

GdP and trade/GdP,

and Trade In 2013

I. The world economy and Trade In 2013 and early 2014

and early 2014

1990–2013

8.0

3.5

140

2.1

4.0

130

2.5 1.8

1.7

1.6 1.4

2.0

120 120 110

1.5

1.0

110

1.0

100

0.5

90

20

The ratio of ten-year moving averages of world trade growth and world GDP growth peaked at 2.4 in 2000 (see Figure 3) but fell to 1.7 in 2013. Historically, trade has tended to contract Extra-EU import demand when world output has was consistently weak throughout slowed, and to rebound sharply 2013. Signs of a turnaround afterwards. Structural factors in intra-EU trade began (e.g. to the spread of supply appear in the middle of chains, the product composition the year but trailed off towards world trade, of the end. Seasonally subtle protectionism, etc.) adjusted extra-EU merchandise may have played a role in the declining ratio. imports were flat in the first quarter, both year-on-year However, given the number and and severity of global quarter-on-quarter. Meanwhile, slowdowns in recent years, intra-EU imports were it may simply up be a cyclical phenomenon.

1.7 per cent year-on-year, It is too soon to say whether but down 0.7 per cent quartera 2:1 relationship between on-quarter. EU merchandise trade growth and GDP imports represent 32 growth per will return once the cent of world imports including global recovery gains traction. intra-EU trade, and 15 per cent of world imports excluding it. Overall, world trade rose World merchandise trade at a rate of 1 per cent in the first quarter, equivalent growth of 2.2 per cent in 2013 to a is below the average 2 per cent annual rate. rate of 5.3 per cent for Export growth was –0.5 per cent 20 years (1993–2013) the last for developed economies and the pre-crisis average and 1.6 per cent for developing rate economies plus the of 6.0 per cent for 1990–2008 Commonwealth of Independent (see Figure 4). In addition to creating a States (CIS). On the import permanent shift downward side, developed economies in the level of trade, the global were slightly negative (–0.1 per cent) while recession of 2008-09 developing reduced its may have economies increased by average growth 1.3 per cent. rate as well. The average rate of trade expansion in the three years since 2010 has been 3.3 per cent.

For the second time in two years in 2013, merchandise trade grew more slowly than might have been expected, The divergence given the growth of the between the pre-crisis world economy as measured trend for world by trade and current GDP. Although trade can levels has continued to grow faster or more slowly widen. World than trade was 17.2 output in any given year, per cent below the trend since the 1990s it has level in 2013, tended making it almost to grow about twice as as far below the pre-crisis fast as GDP when measured trend as it was at in 2009, the period market exchange rates. known as the “great trade In 2012, trade growth fell to the (see Figure collapse” same rate as GDP, and 5). they remained at equal rates in 2013, prompting analysts to question whether the previous In 2012, the relationship would continue EU recession had a significant to hold. dampening effect on trade volumes due to the large share of the

Extra-EU

2012Q3

2012Q4

2013Q2

2013Q3

2013Q1

Japan

2013Q4

2010Q1

2010Q2

2010Q3

2010Q4

2011Q1

2011Q3

2011Q4

2011Q2

United States Developing Asiaa

2012Q1

Intra-EU

2012Q2

2012Q3

2012Q4

2013Q2

2013Q3

2013Q4

2013Q1

Japan

2014Q1

2010Q1

2010Q2

2010Q3

2010Q4

2011Q2

2011Q3

2011Q4

2012Q1

Extra-EU

Source: WTO short-term

Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2014: Commerce et développement: tendances récentes et rôle de l’OMC ISBN 9789287039132 Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2014: Comercio y desarrollo: tendencias recientes y función de la OMC ISBN 9789287039149

90

United States Developing Asiaa

(right)

a

other natural-resource-e xporting regions were hit hard as well. The weakness in developing regions was matched by equally slow trade growth in developed economies.

2014Q1

Trade growth/GDP growth

2012Q2

2012

2013

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

0.0

exchange rates (left)

2010

World GDP growth at market

2011

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

1994

1995

growth (left)

2003

World merchandise trade

Source: WTO Secretariat.

2011Q1

100

0.0

ISBN 9789287039125

Imports

140 130

3.0 2.0

Exports

3.0 2.4

Ratio

change

Published in 2014 | 242 pages CHF 60.-

5.0

Figure 2: Quarterly merchandise trade of selected economies, (seasonally adjusted volume 2010Q1–2014Q1 indices, 2010Q1=100)

4.0

7.0 6.0

Average annual percentage

Supporting development and building trade capacity ISBN 978-92-870-3912-5

Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO

sing their development untries, and particularly urther progress in the work more effectively

Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO

1990

s to benefit more quickly enges as crises can be

World Trade Report 2014

1991

elped some developing ins for net importers of

1992

n developing countries ply chains can support ly, and achieving such

Trade and Development: Recent Trends and the Role of the WTO

1993

th and have integrated ities for countries still

World Trade Report 2014

hanged the relationship m: the economic rise of through supply chains, s, and the increasing

Intra-EU

trade statistics.

Asia excluding Australia, Japan and New Zealand.

estimate for the year (+2.4 per cent), which implies that export prices declined slightly from one year to the next. Meanwhile, the value of world commercial services exports rose 5.6 per cent to US$ 4.6 trillion.

course of the year, then rose slightly in the first quarter of 2014. Trade between EU countries (i.e. intra-EU exports) rallied in the third quarter but stalled thereafter. Starting from a low base, Japan’s exports increased steadily in 2013 before easing in the first quarter of 2014. Seasonally adjusted exports from developing Asia alternated between negative and positive growth in 2013 before entering 2014 on a mildly positive trajectory, although unadjusted figures were more negative.

Some risk factors for developed economies receded considerably in the early months of 2014, including the sovereign debt crisis in Europe and fiscal brinksmanship between the executive and legislative branches of government in the United States. Meanwhile, developing economies became the focus of several risks, including large Overall, export volumes current account deficits, in the second half of 2013 currency crises, over-investment increased in for the United States productive capacity, and (3.3 per cent), intra-EU rebalancing economies to (2.0 per cent), rely more Japan (1.2 on domestic consumption per cent) and developing and less on external demand.

Asia (1.9 per cent), while extra-EU was slightly negative (-1.5 per cent).

Geopolitical tensions introduced significant risks in 2013 On the import side, extra-EU and early 2014. Civil conflicts and territorial disputes in trade remained depressed the throughout the year, Middle East, Asia and Eastern sapping global demand.

Europe could provoke higher The trend for intra-EU imports was the energy prices and disrupt trade flows if they escalate. same as for intra-EU exports.

Meanwhile, imports from the United States, Japan and developing Asia generally rose (see Appendix Figure 2. Trade development 1).

s

In the second half of 2013, import demand increased in major markets (+2.2 per (a) Additional perspectives cent for the United States, on trade +1.8 per cent for intra-EU, +0.2 per cent for extra-EU, +3.3 per cent for Japan and +2.0 per cent After a flat first quarter, US exports grew steadily in developing Asia). in 2013 before faltering in the first quarter of 2014, according to Quarterly exports seasonally adjusted merchandise and imports of developing trade volume indices economies only managed small increases jointly produced by the WTO and the United in the second half of last Nations year, as exports Conference on Trade and and imports respectively Development (UNCTAD) grew around 0.5 (see per cent and 1 also Figure 2). In contrast, per cent between the second exports from the European and fourth quarters. South and Central Union to the rest of the world (i.e. extra-EU exports) America’s trade flows actually were contracted (the strongest in the first quarter region’s exports declined of 2013, weakened over by 3 per cent the and its imports fell by 5 per cent during this period), and

19

Connecting to Global Markets

In recent decades, trade flows have become increasingly global, with developing countries and emerging economies playing an ever-expanding role.

However, these countries face a number of constraints in connecting to global markets. To obtain a better understanding of these constraints, the WTO invited the members of its academic network in developing countries – the WTO Chairs Programme – to identify major challenges in their respective countries and suggest ways to overcome them. In response, the WTO chair-holders contributed a set of papers to the WTO’s Annual Conference of the Chairs Programme and to the Global Review of Aid for Trade in July 2013.

This volume brings together these contributions from the 14 WTO chair-holders. It is divided into four sections, focusing on export diversification, the role of non-tariff measures, the rule of law in connecting to global markets, and the role of the Aid for Trade initiative in building trade capacity and overcoming supply side constraints.

The contributions provide some powerful arguments in support of using trade policy instruments as an engine for growth and provide valuable insights into how developing countries can increasingly integrate into the multilateral trading system.

WEB WTO ISBN

Connecting to global markets Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

Edited by Marion Jansen Mustapha Sadni Jallab Maarten Smeets

978-92-870-3931-6

Published in 2014 I 236 pages CHF 50.ISBN 9789287039316 Se connecter aux marchés mondiaux Défis et possibilités: études de cas présentées par des titulaires de chaires de l’OMC ISBN 9789287039323 Conectarse a los mercados mundiales Retos y oportunidades: estudios de casos presentados por titulares de cátedras OMC ISBN 9789287039330

Supporting development and building trade capacity

This book brings together contributions from the 14 WTO chair-holders of the first phase of the WTO Chairs Programme (2010-2014). The volume is divided into four sections, focusing on export diversification, the role of non-tariff measures, the rule of law in connecting to global markets, and the role of the Aid for Trade initiative in building trade capacity and overcoming supply side constraints.

Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

Connecting to global markets - Challenges and opportunities: case studies presented by WTO chair-holders

Challenges and Opportunities: Case Studies Connecting Presented by WTO Chair-Holders to global markets

112

E,

omic growth and development rms and on trade in agricultural e trade costs and contribute to

WTO World Bank OECD WTO Executive Secretariat tegrated Framework OECD

Supporting development and building trade capacity

TC OECD TAD WEF OECD and the WTO

AID FOR TRADE AT A GLANCE 2015: REDUCING TRADE COSTS FOR INCLUSIVE, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH

CE 2015

Aid for Trade at a Glance 2015 AIDFORTRADE AT A GLANCE 2015 REDUCING TRADE COSTS FOR INCLUSIVE, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH

nd statistical databases.

580-9

113

Reducing Trade Costs for Inclusive, Sustainable Growth High trade costs inhibit the trade integration of numerous developing economies, slowing their economic growth and development prospects. Furthermore, these costs tend to weigh heaviest on the poorest economies, on the smallest firms and on trade in agricultural products.

This publication calls for concerted action through the Aid for Trade Initiative to reduce these trade costs and contribute to achieving the emerging post-2015 development agenda.

Co-published with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Published in 2015 | 464 pages CHF 90.ISBN 9789287040190

WEB

AIDFORTRADE AT A GLANCE 2015

UGANDA

EXTERNAL FINANCING INFLOWS (million current USD) FDI inflows Remittances Other official flows (OOF) of which trade-related OOF Official Development Assistance (ODA) of which Aid for Trade

2006/08

Sources: UNCTAD, UNCTADstat; WB, World Development OECD, DAC-CRS Aid Activities Database

A. DEVELOPMENT FINANCE AFT DISBURSEMENTS: TOP DONORS (million current USD)

Δ:06/08-13

2013

2010/12

value 2006/08 169.5 IDA 71.1 EU Institutions AfDF (African Dev.Fund) 47.8 16.3 United States 15.3 Norway

59% 76% 15% 25% -35% 48%

881.2 1145.9 832.4 931.6 77.2 42.6 41.4 61.4 1667.7 1821.3 426.4 570.8

721.8 528.7 37.0 33.2 2802.3 384.9

3 ...

SHARE OF AFT IN DEVELOPMENT FINANCE AND FIXED CAPITAL

10% 5% 2006/08

2010/12

2013

2010/12

2006/08

2013

100

150

USD 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0

Cost to export

50

0

■ Uganda ■ LDCs

2006/08

Source: OECD, DAC-CRS Aid Activities Database Note: No benchmarks are calculated for 2013.

SECTORS WITH NO DATA ARE NOT INCLUDED.

2013

Source: OECD, DAC-CRS Aid Activities Database

B. TRADE COSTS INDICATORS Tariffs (%) Imports: simple avg. MFN applied Imports: weighted avg. MFN applied Exports: weighted avg. faced Exports: duty free (value in %) Internet connectivity (% of population) Mobile broadband subscriptions Fixed broadband subscriptions Individuals using the internet

Sources: WTO, World Tariff Profiles; ITU, World Telecommunication/ICT

La Ayuda para el Comercio en síntesis 2015: reducir los costos del comercio con miras a un crecimiento inclusivo y sostenible ISBN 9789287040213 Forthcoming

Communications Energy generation and supply Business and other services Banking and financial services Agriculture, forestry, fishing Industry Mineral resources and mining Tourism Trade-related adjustment

FORMATION

AFT/Fixed capital formation

15%

0

7.97 6.20 0.07 10.49 118.26 199.41 3.16 4.71 75.96 125.12 4.54 11.07 23.33 30.57 128.36 165.85 11.27 14.31 8.43 5.09 0.89 0.52 0.00 0.00 200

Trade policy and regulations Trade facilitation Transport and storage

Source: OECD/WTO Partner Questionnaire

AFT/Development finance

% 28 17 12 10 9

AFT DISBURSEMENTS BY SECTOR (million current USD)

Indicators;

2 ...

1 ...

value 2013 158.0 IDA AfDF (African Dev.Fund) 98.7 67.8 EU Institutions 59.4 United Kingdom 52.4 Norway

% 44 18 12 4 4

Source: OECD, DAC-CRS Aid Activities Database

TOP 3 AFT PRIORITIES

Panorama de l’Aide pour le commerce 2015: Réduire les coûts du commerce pour une croissance durable et inclusive ISBN 9789287040206 Forthcoming

LOGISTICS PERFORMANCE INDICES (LPI) (1-5) Timeliness

Overall LPI 5 4 3 2 1

Tracking and tracing Logistics competence

Customs

Access to loans

2013

12.7 12 1.1 96.8

12.8 9.6 0.2 100.0

...

0.0 2.5

7.4 0.1 16.2

Indicators

Time to import DAYS Time to export 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2014 2006 2014 2006 LDCs Uganda

Governance and impartiality

Information availability 2.0 1.5 Advance rulings 1.0 0.5

2006

2014

2006

Electricity supply

400

375

2006 2014 2014 LDCs Uganda

Port infrastructure

Air transport infrastructure

2006 2014 2014 LDCs Uganda

2006 2014 2014 LDCs Uganda

2006 2014 2014 LDCs Uganda

AID FOR TRADE AT A GLANCE 2015: REDUCING

Exports 2006

2013

62%

16% 37%

Other commercial services Travel Transport

12%

55%

33% 22%

3%

74%

24%

2013 Imports 2006

% 19 10 9 6 5

TOP 5 MERCHANDISE EXPORTS (%)

TRADE COSTS FOR INCLUSIVE, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH

- © OECD, WTO 2015

2013 648 930 0.047 0.057 120 134 0.065 0.101

Sources: WTO Secretariat; UN Comtrade

15%

22%

2013 13%

25%

Agriculture Fuels and mining Manufacturing

21% 32%

7%

61%

2013 Imports 2006

7%

71%

Exports 2006

63% 62%

% 20 14 13 6 5

TOP 5 MARKETS FOR MERCHANDISE IMPORTS (%)

2013 Kenya Dem. Rep. of the Congo Sudan Rwanda South Sudan

% 13 11 10 9 7

2013 Coffee, coffee substitute Petroleum products Tobacco, unmanufactured Fish, fresh, chilled, frozen Lime, cement, construction materials

% 18 6 5 5 4

% 16 13 8 7 6

2006 Kenya United Arab Emirates India Japan South Africa 2006 Petroleum products Telecomm. equipment parts, n.e.s.

Wheat, meslin, unmilled Medicaments Passenger motor vehicles, excl. buses

% 27 11 10 7 6

2013 India China Kenya United Arab Emirates Japan

TOP 5 MERCHANDISE IMPORTS (%)

% 20 5 4 4 3

2013 Petroleum products Medicaments Fixed veg. fat, oils, other Passenger motor vehicles, excl. buses Telecomm. equipment parts, n.e.s.

% 22 5 4 4 3

Source: UN Comtrade

D. DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS 2012 3.8 49.0 8.5 9.5 1.6 0.48

2006 3.7 49.2 16.4 11.5 5.5 0.43

INDICATOR Unemployment (% of total labour force) Female labour force (% of total labour force) Net ODA received (% of GNI) Import duties collected (% of tax revenue, 2008-2012) Total debt service (% of total exports) Human Development Index (0 to 1, 2005-2013)

Secretariat; UNDP, International Human

24.2% Agriculture, value added (% of GDP)

INEQUALITY INDICATORS

POVERTY INDICATORS

Population living below: $1.25 a day (PPP) (%) $2.00 a day (PPP) (%) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2013 2006 2013 2006

Income held: by lowest 40% by lowest 20%

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

2013

2006

2006

2013

Source: WB, World Development Indicators

GDP PER CAPITA (constant 2011 international $)

46.8% 2006

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Intra-regional Total Extra-regional

101 120 0.071 0.060

Source: WTO Secretariat calculation.

Note: Only classified products are included in the

TOP 5 MARKETS FOR MERCHANDISE EXPORTS (%)

50.2%

Source: ESCAP-WB Trade Cost Database Note: Number of partners used in the calculation of average trade costs: total (47), intra-regional (14), extra-regional (33)

392 875 0.085 0.050

Market diversification Number of export markets (max. 233) Number of import markets (max. 233) HH export market concentration (0 to 1) HH import market concentration (0 to 1)

46%

17%

Source: WTO Secretariat

2006 United Arab Emirates Sudan Kenya Netherlands Switzerland

Product diversification (based on HS02, 4-dig.)

Number of exported products (max. 1,246) Number of imported products (max. 1,246) HH export product concentration (0 to 1) HH import product concentration (0 to 1)

STRUCTURE OF MERCHANDISE TRADE

STRUCTURE OF SERVICES TRADE

ECONOMIC STRUCTURE 325

Source: WEF Global Competitiveness Index

406

Sources: WTO Secretariat

Sources: WB, World Development Indicators; WTO Development Indicators

350

Automation

Roads

Decrease Increase +144% p +362% p +125% p +244% p

2013 2.893 2.166 4.986 2.600

2006 1.188 0.469 2.216 0.756

TRADE FLOWS (billion current US$) Goods Exports Commercial services Goods Imports Commercial services

2014

TRADE COSTS (ad-valorem, %) Uganda LDCs

Appeal procedures

Procedures

Sources: WTO Secretariat; UN Comtrade

2006

INDICATOR

2013 59 43 34 61 37

2006 47 28 25 60 42

INDICATOR Trade to GDP ratio (%) Commercial services as % of total exports Commercial services as % of total imports Non-fuel intermediates (% of merchandise exports) Non-fuel intermediates (% of merchandise imports

2006 Coffee, coffee substitute Fish, fresh, chilled, frozen Gold, nonmontry excl. ores Telecomm. equipment parts, n.e.s.

Tea and mate

Source: OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators

300

2006 2014 2014 LDCs Uganda

Cost to import

Source: WB, Doing Business

TRADE FACILITATION INDICATORS, 2015 (0-2)

2014 2007 LDCs

Infrastructure

COMPETITIVENESS INDICATORS (1-7) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

2006

International shipments

Source: WB Logistics Performance Index (LPI)

UGANDA

AIDFORTRADE AT A GLANCE 2015 C. TRADE PERFORMANCE

Aid, Trade and Development Indicators for Uganda

25.6%

Industry, value added (% of GDP)

Source: WB, World Development Indicators

AID FOR TRADE AT A GLANCE 2015: REDUCING

2013

24.5%

28.7% Services, etc., value added (% of GDP)

GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2011 international $)

2006 2013 1 000

500

0

Uganda

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

LDCs

Source: WB, World Development Indicators

61

12http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/8889332422

TRADE COSTS FOR INCLUSIVE, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH

- © OECD, WTO 2015

407

Aid for Trade at a Glance 2013 Connecting to Value Chains

Co-published with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

WEB

AIDFORTRADE AT A GLANCE 2011 SHOWING RESULTS

Previous editions 2007-11

Published in 2013 | 408 pages CHF 90.ISBN 9789287038685 Panorama de l’Aide pour le commerce 2013: Se connecter aux chaînes de valeur ISBN 9789287038692 Panorama de la ayuda para el comercio en 2013: integración en las cadenas de valor ISBN 9789287038708

Supporting development and building trade capacity

This joint OECD-WTO publication puts a spotlight on aid for trade to assess what is happening, what is not happening, and where improvements are needed. The analysis is focused on trends in aid for trade policies, programmes and practices. It shows that the Aid-forTrade Initiative is delivering tangible results in improving trade performance and bettering people’s lives in developing countries, notably those of women.

114

The WTO and the Millennium Development Goals

Supporting development and building trade capacity

The WTO and the Millennium Development Goals

115

This publication outlines the relationship between the WTO and the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), a set of eight international development goal that UN members and international organizations agreed to achieve by 2015 to end poverty.

WEB

FREE

release and clearance of goods across borders, thereby reducing transaction and transit costs that are particularly important for landlocked developing countries, while increasing possibilities for small and medium-sized enterprises to expand and participate more actively in international trade.

The Doha Round also encompasses services. Services is the dominant economic activity in virtually all countries of the world, and the opening of services trade can provide many opportunities to developing countries.

Developing countries have voiced their interest in many services sectors (including professional services, computer and related services, telecommunication services, construction and related engineering services, distribution services, energy services, environmental services, financial services, tourism services and transport services) and in supplying services through the various means identified by the WTO, including through the cross-border supply of services and the temporary movement of professionals across borders.

Negotiations are also advancing to provide LDC service providers with preferential market access.

Published in 2011 I 16 pages FREE ISBN 9789287041265

The opening of services trade can provide many opportunities to developing countries Through further market opening in emerging economies, the Doha Development Round negotiations will also enhance the potential for South-South trade, with the resulting benefits to developing countries. This could be a very significant outcome of the Doha Round.

Additionally, the Doha Round would strengthen the multilateral trading system through addressing

In summary, completion of the Doha Round would be a fundamentally important contribution by the WTO to the realization of the MDGs. The Doha Round provides a unique opportunity for the international community to tackle issues in international trade that cannot be addressed in other forums.

Aid for Trade While the conclusion of the Doha Round of negotiations would give developing countries the opportunity to gain a larger share of global trade, it is now widely acknowledged that enhanced market access opportunities alone will not be sufficient for all these countries to achieve this gain. Many of them simply do not have the capacity to take advantage of the market access opportunities that will arise.

The Aid for Trade initiative was launched precisely for this reason. Aid for Trade is essentially about providing financial and technical assistance to developing

countries, especially the LDCs, to help them build up their supply-side capacity and strengthen their traderelated infrastructure to enable them to produce and trade more. Aid for Trade facilitates the mobilization of international resources to address developing countries’ supply-side constraints and trade-related bottlenecks. Providing assistance for capacity-building is one of the indicators that measure progress towards the achievement of MDG 8, so it is clear that Aid for Trade has a supportive role to play in the realization of the MDGs.

Aid for Trade has a supportive role to play in the realization of the MDGs Through the Aid for Trade initiative, the WTO is playing an important role – in partnership with other international organizations – in helping developing countries increase their share of world trade and thereby come closer to fulfilling their development aspirations. The WTO serves as platform for the actions of a large number of actors (international organizations, regional development banks, donors, civil society).

It is an example of partnership at work. The WTO spotlights Aid for Trade through periodic meetings of its Committee on Trade and Development and through annual Aid for Trade debates in the WTO’s General Council, as well as through Global Reviews on Aid for Trade. These events serve to focus on objectives and measure progress of Aid for Trade.

Commitments on Aid for Trade have increased yearon-year, as shown in Figure 4 (all figures quoted are in constant 2008 prices). In 2007, Aid for Trade

increased by 20.6 per cent over the baseline period of 2002-05, with commitments reaching almost US$ 31 billion (up from US$ 25.7 billion). The increase in Aid for Trade commitments for 2008 was even more impressive.

Preliminary figures illustrate an increase of 35 per cent, to US$ 41.7 billion. The 2008 Aid for Trade flows are 62 per cent greater than the 2002-05 baseline average.

The distribution by region of Aid for Trade flows shows an increase in resources for all regions relative to the baseline period (see Figure 5). The data for 2008 also indicates that Africa, Asia, Europe and Oceania all witnessed increases in flows over 2007 while the Americas saw a slight decline over this period. Although LDCs and low-income countries continue to receive substantial Aid for Trade, there needs to be a sustained effort to ensure that these countries continue to benefit from an increase in Aid for Trade flows.

Figure 4: Aid for Trade increases since 2002-05 baseline period (US$ million) 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0

Trade-related adjustment Building productive capacity Economic infrastructure Trade policy & regulations 20022005

2006

2007

2008

Source: OECD CRS database

Figure 5: Regional distribution of Aid for Trade flows (in per cent) Box 2: Potential gains to developing countries from the conclusion of the Doha Round According to a recent study by Adler et al. (2009), the trade gains for a sample of 15 developing countries in agriculture, non-agricultural market access and services are estimated to be US$ 7.8 billion, US$ 38.9 billion and US$ 68.8 billion respectively. Kinman et al. (2007)2 show that, in proportion to GDP, trade gains from the conclusion of the Doha Round are twice as large for developing countries and three times as large for least-developed countries as they are for developed countries, with the largest trade surge being trade between developing countries. Taking into account the effects of measures such as trade facilitation and the Aid for Trade initiative, Hoekman and Nicita (2010)3 show that a marginal reduction in trade costs can boost the trade expansion effects of the Doha Round by a factor of two or more. In addition, Adler et al. (2009) show that the income gains for developing countries from greater market access and trade facilitation as a result of the Doha Round amount to 0.3 and 1.5 per cent of GDP respectively. In both cases this is almost double the percentage increase for developed countries. Finally, Bouet and Laborde (2010)4 argue that a failure to conclude the Doha Round would not only prevent an increase in world trade, but may also precipitate a worldwide move towards protectionism that would reduce world trade by US$ 808 billion. This “preventive” role of the DDA represents the systemic benefits stemming from the adoption of binding and enforceable commitments. The authors show that in terms of real income, about two-thirds of global gains resulting from this “preventive” role accrue to developing countries.

1

L’OMC et les Objectifs du Millénaire pour le développement ISBN 9789287041272

Sources: 1 Adler, M., Brunel, C., Hufbauer, G.C. and Schott, J.J. (2009), “What’s on the table? The Doha Round as of August 2009”, Peterson Institute for International Economics Working Paper Series N° WP 09-6.

Kinnman, S. and Lodefalk, M. (2007), “What is at stake in the Doha Round”, The World Economy 30:8, pp. 1305-1325.

3 Hoekman, B. and Nicita, A. (2010), “Assessing the Doha Round: Market access, transactions costs and Aid for Trade facilitation”, The Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 19:1, pp. 65-79.

Bouet, A. and Laborde, D. (2010), “Assessing the potential cost of a failed Doha Round”, World Trade Review 9:2, pp. 319-351.

2

20 18 16

Asia

14

Africa

12 10 8 6

Americas

4 2 0

Europe Oceania

20022005

2006

2007

2008

20022005

2006

2007

Building productive capacity

2008

20022005

2006

2007

2008

Economic infrastructure

20022005

2006

2007

2008

20022005

2006

2007

2008

Trade policy & regulations

4

6

La OMC y los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio ISBN 9789287041289

fisheries subsidies, which contribute to over-fishing.

The negotiations will also lead to an improvement in the existing rules against unfair trading practices.

Strengthening the regulations governing the multilateral trading system will benefit all WTO members, but smaller players in global trade will benefit in particular, as they will from the fact that the principle of special and differential treatment (S&D) in favour of developing countries governs all areas of negotiation in the Doha Round. Finally, the Doha Round will provide for more certainty in trading arrangements by securing binding commitments from member countries. Estimates of the gains to developing countries from a conclusion of the Doha Round are summarized in Box 2.

Source: OECD CRS database

7

Trade and Development

WORLD TRADE REPORT

2003

2003

Published in 2003 | 262 pages CHF 50.ISBN 978-92-870-3906-4 Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2003 : Le commerce et le dĂŠveloppement ISBN 9789287039071 SEE ALSO

World Trade Report 2014 111

Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2003: Comercio y desarrollo ISBN 9789287036100

Supporting development and building trade capacity

WORLD TRADE REPORT

The World Trade Report 2003 focuses on development.

It explains the origin of this issue and offers a framework within which to address the question of the relationship between trade and development, thereby contributing to more informed discussion.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

World Trade Report 2003

116

Civil society

Governments, Non-State Actors and Trade Policy-Making Negotiating Preferentially or Multilaterally?

Edited by Ann Capling and Patrick Low

Using case studies from eight developing countries, this book presents the findings of a major international project that has investigated how non-state actors see their interests and seek to influence government policy in relation to preferential trade agreements and the WTO as alternative venues for trade cooperation.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

PB : English | CHF 60.ISBN 9780521165617 HB: English | CHF 120.ISBN 9781107000186 eBook ISBN 9780511922350

Civil society

Published in 2010 | 358 pages

118

WTO history and building

20 Years of the WTO 20 years of the WTO A retrospective

20 years of the WTO: A retrospective provides an overview of the first two decades of the arbiter of the multilateral trading system. A selection of compelling images and excerpts guides the reader through the history of the organization.

Readers will uncover the origins, mission, composition, functioning and key figures of the organization, all the while exploring the challenges it has faced, and how it has worked to meet these challenges.

20 years of the WTO A retrospective

20476 WTO_Cover_v5.indd 3

07/09/2015 09:06

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81

30

80

active disputes In 2014, there were 30 number since in the WTO, the highest the WTO was established.

Resolving disputes

Compliance with rulings

of our efficient and and it was the existence work are mechanism The benefits of our disputes effective dispute settlement immediately disastrous wide-ranging, and not always that helped us to curb potentially addition to the a dangerous apparent. For example, in protectionist forces during on disputes on the In this way, direct impact that it has period for the global economy. strength of the and parties involved, I think the and many others, WTO lawyers was also a have provided a great dispute settlement function to the financial practitioners to the crucial factor in the response public service over the years place is not crisis. Having the rules in global community. be enforced, enough. These rules must Azevêdo, speech at the — Director-General Roberto June 2015. in the GATT/WTO”, 1

launch of “A History

Total active disputes

Published in 2015 | 132 pages Hardback | CHF 60.-

per year

35

30

25

of Law and Lawyers Union and Above The European

ten Latin American countries

signed an agreement on

8 November 2012 ending

20 years of EU-Latin American

banana disputes.

20

15

10

— Jonathan T. Fried,

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

ISBN 9789287040060

mechanism Developing members

Developed members

26 March 2014

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

0

1997

5

Use of dispute settlement

100

80

60

Above Deputy Director-General GATT/WTO”, 1 June 2015.

Yi Xiaozhun during the

launch of “A History of

Law and Lawyers in the

— Fernando De Mateo,

2014

40

20

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1997

1996

0

1998

of Members.

2014

system DSB and the dispute settlement that to ensure have performed superbly free and fair, international trade remains sovereign rights while also respecting the

1995

and the dispute It is my belief that the DSB, generally, are at settlement system more the fact that the least partly responsible for did not lead financial crisis of 2007-2011 in the 1930s. to the sort of world witnessed the In the face of creeping protectionism,

system is highly solicited, The WTO dispute settlement in two decades of existence. with nearly 500 complaints for the Law of the International Tribunal For comparison, the has heard one year after the WTO, Sea, which was created 23 cases in its existence.

2013 DSB Chairperson,

the “jewel in the system – long regarded as a new stage crown” of the WTO – is entering incumbent upon us of maturity. It is therefore and the – the members, the practitioners stage in the analysts – to make this next as productive development of the system and effective as the last.

1996

of [The DSB] retains the confidence and developing members – both developed to it to – who continue to have recourse differences. That resolve all manner of trade to use the system these members continue complexity – even in the face of increasing that this and presumably cost – suggests

dispute settlement with the rulings of the WTO members comply does not bring cent of cases. If the member system in about 90 per agreements with the relevant WTO may its measures into conformity for compliance, the complainant within the allotted time of trade retaliation in the form request the DSB to authorize on imports, for an amount sanctions, such as restrictions offending measure. the by affected trade of equivalent to the level

1995

last few years. in complexity in the WTO disputes have grown to deal with an Appellate Body have Dispute panels and the volume of law and an increasing were expanding body of case In 2000, nearly 100 exhibits complex technical evidence. most recent period each complaint; for the submitted as part of increased threefold.

(2009-14), that number

Les 20 ans de l’OMC: rétrospective ISBN 9789287040077

March 2015 DSB Chairperson, 24

Los 20 años de la OMC: una mirada retrospectiva ISBN 9789287040084

WTO history and building

20 Years of the WTO: A retrospective provides an overview of the first two decades of the arbiter of the multilateral trading system. A selection of compelling images and excerpts guides the reader through the history of the organization. Readers will uncover the origins, mission, composition, functioning and key figures of the organization, all the while exploring the challenges it has faced, and how it has worked to meet these challenges.

20 years of the WTO: A retrospective

A Retrospective

120

The WTO at twenty

WTO history and building

Challenges and achievements

121

The WTO at Twenty Challenges and Achievements The WTO at Twenty: Challenges and Achievements explores how multilateralism in trade has worked over the past 20 years – and provides some lessons about how it can work in the future. It describes the WTO’s achievements across a number of key areas, including: strengthening the institutional foundations of the trade system; widening its membership and increasing participation; deepening trade integration through lower barriers and stronger rules; improving transparency and policy dialogue; strengthening dispute settlement; expanding cooperation with other international organizations; and enhancing public outreach.

WEB

Published in 2015 | 84 pages CHF 40.-

ThE WTO AT TWENTy CHAPTER 5

5

Improving transparency – strengthening monitoring, surveillance and consultation The past 20 years have shown that transparency is an indispensable element of the multilateral trading system. Enhanced surveillance and regular monitoring of trade policies and practices at have significantly contributed to global efforts countering the potential threat of protectionist pressures and at ensuring compliance with trade the commitments. Transparency requirements – and knowledge that WTO members stand on watchful guard – create a powerful incentive for members the to abide by their commitments. This increases level of confidence in the system. Moreover, the trade institutionalization of domestic transparency in policy-making enhances government accountability and public understanding, and reduces the scope for discretionary use of trade policy measures.

ISBN 9789287040633 L’OMC à 20 ans: Défis et réalisations ISBN 9789287040640

Under transparency provisions in GATT/WTO agreements, the organization collects, administers, disseminates and, as necessary, analyses information about members’ trade policies and practices.

Transparency in the WTO is mainly provided through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism, specific provisions in Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) many and the relevant notification obligations under WTO agreements. Surveillance takes place principally through the various committees or WTO bodies.

The raw material for this surveillance comes from by the notifications, specific trade concerns raised are members and requests for consultations. There by also comprehensive factual reports prepared the Secretariat, such as the country-specific trade WTO the policy review reports. As already noted, committee system has been energized by members over the last 20 years and offers members a regular opportunity to enhance their understanding of to each other's trade policies and practices and measures policy clarify the details of national trade and regimes. Discussions and consultations have at the allowed the resolution of many trade concerns committee level, without their escalating into actual

La OMC cumple 20 años: Desafíos y logros ISBN 9789287040657

A meeting of the General Council at the WTO's headquarters in Geneva.

disputes. The cumulative impact of these various has forms of information gathering and dissemination greatly enhanced the transparency of trade policymaking. Moreover, all of this information is publicly and freely available to all on the WTO website.

Reviewing trade policies to encourage policy dialogue was The Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) originally established under the GATT on a provisional Its basis in 1989, when it covered only goods trade. establishment marked the first time that members had allowed the Secretariat to produce independent reports on members' trade policies. It became Its permanent with the launch of the WTO in 1995. purpose was stated as: "To contribute to improved and disciplines rules, to members all adherence by commitments made under the multilateral trade agreements and, where applicable, the plurilateral trade agreements, and hence to the smoother by functioning of the multilateral trading system, achieving greater transparency in, and understanding ” of, the trade policies and practices of members.

With the birth of the WTO, its coverage was expanded to new areas under the WTO Agreement as (i.e. intellectual property rights and services), well as any other measures affecting production and trade. But the mandate clearly specifies that the mechanism is not intended to enforce specific obligations under WTO agreements, or for dispute settlement purposes, or to impose new policy commitments. While the TPRM mission and objectives the have remained unchanged since its inception, the and preparatory process, the review procedures dissemination of the results have been considerably streamlined in line with the recommendations of five appraisal exercises undertaken by the membership between 1999 and 2013.

51 50

The WTO Building Art and Architecture at the Centre William Rappard

the wto building

WEB Published in 2015 | 76 pages CHF 30.ISBN 9789287039675 Le bâtiment de l’OMC: Art et architecture au Centre William Rappard ISBN 9789287040053 El edificio de la OMC: Arte y arquitectura en el Centro William Rappard ISBN 9789287040046

WTO history and building

The WTO Building provides a fascinating insight into the artwork and architecture of the Centre William Rappard (CWR), home of the World Trade Organization. The book describes the origins and evolution of the CWR, highlighting the many works of art created and donated to adorn the building over the years. It covers the extension of the CWR, the transformation of an inner courtyard into an atrium, and the latest steps taken to preserve the building’s historic artworks.

Art and architecture at the Centre William Rappard

122

The History and Future of the World Trade Organization

WTO history and building

Craig VanGrasstek

123

A comprehensive account of the establishment of the World Trade Organization, focusing on those who shaped its creation as well as those who have influenced its evolution. The book examines trade negotiations, the WTO’s dispute settlement role, the presence of coalitions and groupings within the WTO, the process of joining the organization and many other topics, including what lies ahead for the organization.

WEB

Published in 2013 | 700 pages CHF 120.-

Members gather in a mini-ministerial in Geneva to a successful conclusion, 21 to 29 July 2008.

that aims, but fails, to bring the Doha Round

Journalists surround Keith Rockwell, WTO spokesman, the mini-ministerial on 25 July 2008.

at a briefing during

HB: English ISBN 9789287038715 Histoire et avenir de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce ISBN 9789287040558 La historia y el futuro de la Organización Mundial del Comercio ISBN 9789287040565

US Trade Representative Susan C. Schwab speaks at the start of the mini-ministerial.

at a press conference on 22 July 2008,

speaks with journalists European Commissioner for Trade Peter Mandelson Negotiations Committee. on 26 July 2008, following a meeting of the Trade

‘If there is a single publication that is now required reading on the subject (world trading system), this is it.’

Julio Lacarte Muró, Journal of World Trade Review

World Trade Report 2007 Sixty Years of the Multilateral Trading System: Achievements and Challenges

WEB

‘... an excellent supplement to any course on the world trading system.’

Douglas Nelson, School of Economics, University of Nottingham, Journal of World Trade Review

Published in 2007 | 388 pages CHF 60.ISBN 9789287034014 Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2007 : Soixante ans de coopération commerciale multilatérale: Qu’avons nous appris?

ISBN 9789287034021 Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2007: Seis decenios de cooperación comercial multilateral: ¿Qué hemos aprendido?

ISBN 9789287034038

WTO history and building

On 1 January 2008 the multilateral trading system celebrated its 60th anniversary. The World Trade Report 2007 celebrates this landmark anniversary with an indepth look at the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor the World Trade Organization — their origins, achievements, the challenges they have faced and what the future holds.

124

The First Ten Years of the WTO 1995-2005

WTO history and building

Peter Gallagher

This book provides a factual account of the first decade of the WTO. It aims to cover the principal activities of the WTO as the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the steps taken to establish a global trading system.

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Published in 2005 | 252 pages CHF 115.HB : English ISBN 9780521862158

SEE ALSO

20 Years of the WTO 120 125

The WTO at Twenty 121

Reshaping the World Trading System A History of the Uruguay Round (2nd edition) John Croome

A World Trade Organization and Kluwer Law co-publication.

Published in 1998 | 360 pages CHF 180.HB: English ISBN 9789041111265

SEE ALSO

The History and Future of the World Trade Organization

123

WTO history and building

This is the story, told in frank, lively and non-technical terms, of how and why the Uruguay Round came about, what the participant countries sought, and the twists, turns, setbacks and successes of each stage and sector of the negotiationsâ&#x20AC;Śand how, after seven years, the final achievement in many instances surpassed the original goals.

126

Resources and apps

Dictionary of Trade Policy Terms (5th edition) Walter Goode

A World Trade Organization and Cambridge University Press co-publication.

Published in 2007 | 540 pages PB : English | CHF 70.ISBN 9780521712064 HB : English | CHF 130.ISBN 9780521885065 eBook ISBN 9780511903762

Resources and apps

This dictionary acts as an accessible guide to the vocabulary used in trade negotiations. It explains some 2,500 terms and concepts in simple language. Its main emphasis is on the multilateral trading system represented by the agreements of the World Trade Organization. The dictionary covers the spread of free trade agreements and contains useful summaries of major topics and events, enabling readers to get a quick snapshot of an issue.

128

World Trade Report 2016 App FORTHCOMING WORLD TRADE REPORT

2016

SME participation in international trade

SME participation in international trade The World Trade Report 2016 app will include the full text of the Report plus the relevant data for all charts and tables. It will also contain a video and photos of the launch event.

Resources and apps

By downloading the app, users will gain free access to the new WTO kiosk, containing the WTOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s full collection of apps. This new kiosk replaces the previous version.

129

World Trade Report 2015 App Speeding up trade: benefits and challenges of implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

Previous apps

WTO apps can be downloaded from the App Store, Google Play and Amazon for viewing on your iPad, Android tablet or mobile phone.

World Trade Report 2014 App Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO

Annual Report 2016 App The WTO Annual Report 2016 will include the full text of the Annual Report as well as videos, photo galleries, charts, podcasts and interactive maps. It will also include for the first time an interactive quiz.

Annual Report 2016

FORTHCOMING

ISBN 978-92-870-4073-2

Annual Report 2016

World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Tel. switchboard: +41 (0)22 739 51 11 email: enquiries@wto.org Website: www.wto.org

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Annual Report 2014 App

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WTO apps can be downloaded from the App Store, Google Play and Amazon for viewing on your iPad, Android tablet or mobile phone.

Resources and apps

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Index 27 15 Years of the Information Technology Agreement Trade, Innovation and Global Production Networks

10 Things the WTO Can Do 5 120 20 Years of the WTO A Retrospective

82 Dispute Settlement Reports 2014 94 The Doha Round Texts and Related Documents 12 E-commerce in Developing Countries Opportunities and challenges for small and mediumsized enterprises 125 The First Ten Years of the WTO

61 An Advanced Guide to Trade Policy Analysis

96 GATT Basic Instruments and Selected

105 African Perspectives on Trade and the WTO Domestic Reforms, Structural Transformation and Global Economic Integration

96 General Agreement on Trade in Services

97 Agreement Establishing the WTO WTO Agreement Series

Agriculture (3rd edition) WTO Agreements Series 8 114 A id for Trade at a Glance 2013 Connecting to Value Chains

id for Trade at a Glance 2015 Reducing Trade 113 A Costs for Inclusive, Sustainable Growth Annual Report 2016 4 130 Annual Report App 13 CITES and the WTO Enhancing Cooperation for Sustainable Development

and Trade in an Interdependent World Economy 112 Connecting to Global Markets Challenges and Opportunities: Case Studies Presented by WTO ChairHolders 128 Dictionary of Trade Policy Terms (5th edition)

Protocols 59 Globalization and Informal Jobs in Developing

Countries 53 Global Value Chains Development Report 54 Global Value Chains in a Changing World 21 Government Procurement Agreement Opening Markets and Promoting Good Governance 118 Governments, Non-State Actors and Trade Policy-Making Negotiating Preferentially or Multilaterally?

39 Guide to the GATS An Overview of Issues for Further Liberalization of Trade in Services 97 Guide to the Uruguay Round Agreements 107 A Handbook on Accession to the WTO 11 A Handbook of Anti-Dumping Investigations 35 A Handbook on Reading WTO Goods and

Services Schedules

Index

22 Competition Policy, Intellectual Property Rights

Documents â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Volumes 1-42

37 A Handbook on the GATS Agreement

136

47 A Handbook on the WTO Customs Valuation

Agreement 89 A Handbook on the WTO Dispute Settlement System 25 A Handbook on the WTO TRIPS Agreement 14 Harnessing Trade for Sustainable Development and a Green Economy 123 The History and Future of the World Trade Organization 80 A History of Law and Lawyers in the GATT/WTO The Development of the Rule of Law in the Multilateral Trading System 76 International Trade Statistics 2015 38 The Internationalization of Financial Services Issues and Lessons for Developing Countries

64 A Practical Guide to Trade Policy Analysis 24 Promoting Access to Medical Technologies and Innovation Intersections between Public Health, Intellectual Property and Trade 31 Regional Rules in the Global Trading System 28 Regional Trade Agreements and the

Multilateral Trading System 126 Reshaping the World Trading System A History of the Uruguay Round (2nd edition) 67 The Role of Trade in Ending Poverty 32 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (2nd Edition) WTO Agreements Series

98 Legal Instruments embodying the Results of the

33 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Ensuring Safe Trading without Unnecessary Restrictions

of Multilateral Trade Negotiations

Index

36 Opening Markets for Trade in Services Countries and Sectors in Bilateral and WTO Negotiations

88 Key Issues in WTO Dispute Settlement The First Ten Years

Uruguay Round 92 The Legal Texts The Results of the Uruguay Round

74 Service Profiles 2015 95 Status of WTO Legal Instruments (2015 edition)

93 CD-ROM: The Legal Texts The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations

55 Supply Chain Perspectives and Issues A Literature Review

58 Making Globalization Socially Sustainable

70 Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations under the GATT and the WTO Procedures and Practices

23 The Making of the TRIPS Agreement Personal Insights from the Uruguay Round Negotiations 66 Managing the Challenges of WTO Participation 45 Case Studies

137

30 Multilateralizing Regionalism Challenges for the Global Trading System

44 Technical Barriers to Trade Reducing Trade Friction from Standards and Regulations

41 Technical Barriers to Trade (2nd edition) WTO Agreements Series

Marking the 20th Anniversary of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism

16 Trade and Climate Change

73 Trade Profiles 2016

60 Trade and Employment Challenges for Policy Research

57 Trade, Skills and Employment 26 TRIPS Agreement Changing the face of IP trade and policy-making

19 Trade and Environment Building pathways to sustainable development

75 World Tariff Profiles 2016

17 Trade and Environment at the WTO

115 World Trade Report 2003 Trade and Development

68 Trade and Poverty Reduction in the Asia-Pacific Region Case Studies and Lessons from Low-Income Communities

43 World Trade Report 2005 Trade, Standards and the WTO

78 Trade and Tariffs Trade Grows as Tariffs Decline 110 Trade Costs and Inclusive Growth Case Studies by WTO Chair-Holders

10 World Trade Report 2006 Exploring the Links between Subsidies, Trade and the WTO

18 Trade, Development and the Environment

124 World Trade Report 2007 Sixty Years of the Multilateral Trading System: Achievements and Challenges

48 Trade Facilitation Agreement Easing the Flow of Goods Across Borders

65 World Trade Report 2008 Trade in a Globalizing World

45 The Trade Facilitation Agreement and its

World Trade Report 2009 Trade Policy 9 Commitments and Contingency Measures

Relationship with other WTO Agreements 49 Trade Finance and SMEs Bridging the Gaps in Provision

15 World Trade Report 2010 Trade in Natural Resources 29 World Trade Report 2011 The WTO and Preferential Trade Agreements: From Co-existence to Coherence

56 Trade Patterns and Global Value Chains in East Asia From Trade in Goods to Trade in Tasks 101 Trade Policy Reviews 2016

42 World Trade Report 2012 Trade and Public Policies: A Closer Look at Non-Tariff Measures in the 21st Century

102 DVD: 20 years of Trade Policy Reviews 1989-2009

62 World Trade Report 2013 Factors Shaping the

Index

40 Trade in Services The Most Dynamic Segment of International Trade

138

Future of World Trade

85 The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures A Collection of the Relevant Legal Texts (3rd edition)

46 World Trade Report 2015 Speeding up Trade: Benefits and Challenges of Implementing the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement

34 WTO Domestic Regulation and Services Trade Putting Principles into Practice

51 World Trade Report 2016 SME Participation in International Trade 129 World Trade Report 2016 App 72 World Trade Statistical Review 2016 108 WTO Accessions Expanding World Trade and Strengthening WTO Rules 106 WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism Case Studies and Lessons from the WTO at Twenty 104 WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism The Upper Floors of the Trading System 69 WTO Agreements & Public Health 84 WTO Analytical Index Guide to WTO Law and Practice (3rd edition) 83 WTO Appellate Body Repertory of Reports and

Index

Awards 1995-2013 (5th edition) 122 The WTO Building Art and Architecture at the Centre William Rappard

WTO in Brief 6 90 WTO Dispute Settlement Resolving Trade Disputes between WTO Members 81 WTO Dispute Settlement: One-Page Case

139

Summaries 1995-2014 (2015 edition)

111 World Trade Report 2014 Trade and Development: Recent Trends and the Role of the WTO

20 The WTO Regime on Government Procurement Challenge and Reform 116 The WTO and the Millennium Development

Goals 87 The WTO at Ten The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System 121 The WTO at Twenty Challenges and Achievements 86 The WTO in the Twenty-first Century Dispute Settlement, Negotiations, and Regionalism in Asia

DVD: The WTO in Video 6

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