REPORT F ROM T HE W O R L D S O C I E T Y F O R T H E P RO TEC TIO N O F A N IMA LS
and potassium fertilizers and in the production of agrochemicals (much of which are petrochemical-based)45. “Environment Canada This fossil energy budget involves CO2 emissions, while (2010) reports that national the application of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers is a large agriculture greenhouse gas source of nitrous oxide emissions. Another significant emissions rose by 19 percent and related aspect of soil-related GHG emissions stems from the fact that soils are major carbon sinks between 1990 and 2009… and the loss of soil biota in industrial monocultures, with livestock production and described above, serves to both release soil carbon industrial fertilizer key drivers and reduce the carbon sequestration capacity of soils (McIntyre et al., 2009; PCIFAP, 2008; Montgomery, of this growth.” 2007; Steinfeld et al., 2006; Pimentel and Pimentel, 2006; McKenney, 2002). Canada’s agricultural sector annually consumes industrial fertilizer far above world averages, and a large share of the ensuing production is destined for ILOs (Weis, 2010c; Steinfeld et al., 2006). The running of ILOs also involves significant energy consumption and GHG emissions. The large volumes of feces and urine discussed in the preceding sections generate nitrous oxide and methane emissions. Massive concentrations of animals increase the energy needed for heating, lighting, cooling, ventilation, and waste management, with the energy demand of ILOs contingent on factors such as climate and the composition of electricity grids (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Increasing volumes of animal flesh and derivatives also heighten energy demand relative to plant-based protein, through industrial slaughter and processing plants, pasteurization and dairy production, and ultimately refrigeration, from packing and transport to retailing and storage (Sainz, 2003).46 As with feed, livestock products are also moving across ever greater distances than in the past, both within countries and between them. When the net energy demands of feed production and ILOs are considered together with the metabolic losses of cycling feed through animals, rising livestock production can be seen to greatly magnify the fossil energy budget and GHG emissions from agriculture. In the United States, for instance, Pimentel and Pimentel (2003) calculate that 2.2 kilocalorie (kcal) of fossil energy go into the production of 1 kcal of plant protein from industrial agriculture, whereas 25 kcal of fossil energy go into the production of 1 kcal of animal protein in ILOs, a figure which involves considerable differences from species to species.47 Environment Canada (2010) reports that national agricultural GHG emissions rose by 19 percent between 1990 and 2009 (from 29 to 34 Mt CO2 equivalent), with livestock production and industrial fertilizer key drivers of this growth.48
In Alberta for instance, large industrial polluters are subject to strong environmental regulations with extensive enforcement provisions and fines up to $1 million. In contrast, ILOs are regulated by weaker agricultural regulations, exempt from lawsuits when their pollution harms people and the maximum fines available are set at $10,000. The Agricultural Operations Practices Act (AOPA) which regulates ILOs contains ‘right to farm’ provisions which exempt operations from nuisance lawsuits for air and other pollution that harms neighbours.
45
The greater refrigerant and cooking demands associated with livestock products is a frequently underappreciated aspect of the overall energy budget, though it is incredibly complex to calculate with precision.
46
Within ILOs, broiler chicken production is the least inefficient (4:1 kcal) converter of fossil energy input to animal protein output, followed by turkey (10:1), pig (14:1); milk (14:1), and beef (40:1), with milk and beef assuming a diet feed and forage) (Pimentel, 2004; Pimentel and Pimentel, 2003).
47
By its calculations, agriculture constitutes 8 percent of Canada’s total GHG emissions, which is a lower relative share than the world average – partly as a result of Canada’s enormous energy-related emissions, and partly as a result of a relatively narrow definition of agricultural emissions.
48
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