Mozaik 18/2006 Religion & Society

WSCF Activities – Calendar for 2007

The Clash and the Cure There is a tragic clash between Truth and the world. Pure undistorted truth burns up the world.

Nikolai Berdyaev

The relation between Church and State has puzzled Christian thinkers since Christianity came into being. The New Testament provides a number of examples showing various forms of tension between the altar and the throne. Jesus himself was repeatedly faced with his followers’ hopes that, in addition to his spiritual programme, he would confront the oppressing state apparatus and fight for justice with political means. The Messianic concept of the State, however, was deeply rooted not only in the minds of Jesus’ contemporaries—it had been there before Christ and it has “successfully” survived him.

The notion of the kingdom of God, preached by Christ, has been interpreted in many different ways.

Some have claimed that the Christian practice of basilea is genuinely apolitical; others maintained that it is, by nature, in permanent conflict with the State. Yet another opinion viewed the concerted action of the Church and the State to be the most beneficial option for the survival and expansion of Christendom.

Furthermore, it quickly became obvious that this debate is not solely the concern of Christians—the same issue needed to be tackled by other religions too.

In what way should religion be a corrective to society? How can religion retain its original agenda

while co-operating with the State?

Is the State selfless enough to further the cause of the religion at its own expense? Is the mode of governance proclaimed by religion in conflict with the doctrine of the State?

Questions like these necessarily arise when one thinks of the relation between religion and society…

The articles appearing in the present issue of Mozaik try to provide answers to some of the aspects of this debate. They are reflections on this theme from diverse perspectives, including case studies, analyses, poems or first-hand experiences of the authors. Several of the contributions published in this issue are connected to the Theological Conference of WSCF Europe, Religion and Society – Partners or Competitors?, which took place in October 2006 in Copenhagen, Denmark.

This time we present to the reader articles written by authors from Belarus, Cameroon, Croatia, Denmark, France, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, the U.K. and the U.S. The readers are cordially invited to send comments, feedback, questions and further ideas to our e-mail address wscfmozaik@yahoo. co.uk or to contact directly the authors, whose e-mail addresses are included in their mini-bios.

We have the pleasure to introduce to our readers the art of Holló Katalin, whose works accompany the contributions appearing in this issue and co-shape the atmosphere of the journal. Last, but not least, I would also like to thank my coeditors Rachael Weber and Bogdan Popescu for their excellent work and diligent editorship.

Ut omnes unum sint.

19-22 April 2007

Staff Meeting: “Migration – Slavery?”

Edinburgh, Scotland

23-28 May 2007

WSCF Europe Thematic Conference: “If I Were a Migrant …” Youth Perspective on Migration and Integration of Young Migrants into Society Rome, Italy

1-9 June 2007

Meeting of the Global Executive Committee Cairo, Egypt

6-10 June 2007

Ecumenical Church Days – Kirchentag: “Living, Active, and Sharper” Köln, Germany

19-24 June 2007

Nordic Summer Meeting: “Human Rights – Whose Rights?”

Norway

July 2007

Agape Theological Camp Prali, Italy

1-8 July 2007

CESR Summer Seminar: “Overcoming Nationalism, Xenophobia and Populism in Modern Societies of Central Europe” Senec, Slovakia

August 2007

Agape Political Camp Prali, Italy

4-9 September 2007

The Third European Ecumenical Assembly (EEA3): “The Light of Christ Shines Upon Us All” Sibiu, Romania

16-21 October 2007

WSCF Europe Thematic Conference: “Religion – Source of Peace or Violence?”

Paris, France

21-23 October 2007

European Regional Assembly Paris, France

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Illa Kulbicki

Prison for Hedgehogs: 7 Days of Solidarity Vs. Cruelty in Akrestsina Prison And, Say, Who Goes There?

Yanka Kepala Translated by Vera Rich And, say, who goes there? And, say, who goes there?

In such a mighty throng assembled, O declare?

Byelorussians!

And what do those lean shoulders bear as load, Those hands stained dark with blood, those feet bast-sandel shod?

All their grievance!

And to what place do they this grievance bare, And whither do they take it to declare?

To the whole world!

And who schooled them thus, many million strong, Bear their grievance forth, roused them from slumbers long?

Want and suffering!

And what is it, then, for which so long they pined, Scorned throughout the years, they, the dear, the blind?

To be called human!

On March 21, 2006, Illa was arrested on his way to the place of mass protests against the Belarusian dictatorship and the corruptions of 2006 presidential elections. He spent seven days in prison for “foul language,” as did many other young people bringing food to protesters in the Square. He writes about his experiences.

Prologue

I don’t want anyone to think that I was imprisoned for some kind of political views. I usually don’t give a damn about all this westeast socialism-liberalism stuff. I simply physically sense emotions.

One week before the presidential elections the feeling of fear hung in every corner of my city and shot out of the eyes of almost everyone I saw on the street. Lies and intimidation by the authorities worked very well.

I have never experienced anything like that anywhere. And I also want

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to add – I am Christian. I remember very well; evil does not exist. You can build awesome castles and impregnable prisons on the foundation of sin, lies, and blackmail, and God would only need to look down on all that with his eye half-open, and at his command everything will turn into ashes. But will He really look at people, who believe in the power of sin, and not of God? At people, who turned their backs not only at heaven, but at one another as well?

No more elections of coups. What we need is “the Great Convention” as the Belarusian poet Kupala wrote. Everywhere, forever. That week the Great Convention was held on the Kastrychnitskaya square inn Minsk.

But instead of looking into the dragon’s eyes, I was forced to study his insides for the whole week. But I have no regrets. Below you will find my observations, which should be attached to the “history of the monster’s illness.”

March 21

The last drop is the lie of the “Moscow Echo” radio station. A store – canned food, candy – a drugstore – anti-cough medicine – telephone – I’m the last to go where everyone goes – whatever, I’ll break through on my own too… I walk from the Victory Square – no groups of people are in sight, only a solitary girl with a blue ribbon. Route-100 buses are stuffed with people, leaving no way to get in with a big backpack. I go by foot.

Reaching the Circus, I call Burbalka and she tells me that there are arrests already, but our guys went through the subway tunnel. Heck with it, I don’t have time to get back and take a subway train—I cross the street, a lot of people are around already. On the corner

of a building someone grabs my hand, “Stop! Police !” Two huge jerks in plain clothes drag and press me against the wall. Documents – open your bag – follow us…

Two more appear and they lead me into the court near the Veterans’ Palace of Culture. They are scoffing along the way, cursing me with the worst words, promising to beat me up (luckily they do not). They force me into a back seat of a “zhiguli” car. The driver and a man by his side in the front seat are exactly alike, with the same square mugs instead of faces.

One is leafing through a porn magazine. About 5 minutes later they throw another protester into the car. They caught him at the same place; he was carrying a fishing-rod and a handmade EU-flag. The car starts. The cell phone rings in my pocket. “Don’t pick it up, or it’ll get worse.” The roads are jammed; we are moving slowly. Out the window I see the “blue Notting-Hill,” which I failed to reach. Amazing and majestic with white-red-white flags in the snow haze and the ghostly light of lanterns. People are streaming from all directions, their happiness has no limits, it reaches through the glass of the car’s window. On the hill there is no fear… Only there…

They take us to Akrestsina prison in Minsk. Order us to turn off our cell phones. Examine and make a

The Challenge of Status quo

list of all my possessions, confiscate my belt, shoelaces, elastic for my hair, and tear off all of the ropes on my coat and hat. They even take away the little cross I wear on a lace around my neck. We are taken to the first floor, shot by a VHS-camera, and our personal information is written down. The procedure has little to do with real questioning. The two jerks that brought us here sit at a table and write a report. Another cop writes nothing, just keeps asking whom I voted for, how much money I got for this, and why in the world I didn’t stay at home. After the two finish their writing, the cop writes down the charge: article 156 part 1 – minor hooliganism. “Read and write your explanations.” I read that I allegedly “used curse words, yelled, and did not react to the notices of policemen”. I write honestly, that I was going to the square. End of questioning.

They lead us into the cell. I ask, for how long? “Till morning,” they answer. They lock the door. Here, I am scared. My mother won’t be able to stand it; she will die. I don’t notice anything. I don’t talk to inmates. I throw myself from one wall to another. In a couple of hours we are being led to another cell, similar to the previous one.

Only now I begin to pay attention to the setting. The cell is designed for three prisoners. There is a table, a bench, two bedside-tables, a sink, a WC surrounded by iron walls.

Everything is firmly screwed to the floor. The walls are pale orange, the plank bed is blue. Everything has been recently painted; a thick layer of dust-like deck paint is lying everywhere.

“The building is new,” explains the guard. We wipe the paint away from the plank-bed, and somehow settle in…

After a while the door is jerked open – they lead a new inmate into the cell. We get acquainted. He is Andrej Liubka, the Ukrainian journalist. Riot policemen have caught him and beat him up. He hadn’t eaten anything for 24 hours.

I am asking him about Majdan – yes, he was one of the leaders.

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He says that everything began similarly in Majdan; the people didn’t believe in victory… A fourth is being thrown into the cell; he is Polish, also a journalist, a friend of Andrej (I think his name was Peter). The conversation awakens, three brother-tongues mix in the cell. The guy, who was arrested with me, also called Andrej, tells that in his district, the town of Myadzel, the majority is surely against Lukashenko. Peter recalls his recent pilgrimage to Budslau in Belarus, when the Belarusian state television journalists came to him and asked, “what are you doing here, don’t you have your own pilgrimages?” Midnight is approaching and the voices of the inmates are blending. I want to eat, I have to sleep, and my thoughts are only about my mom…

March 22

In the middle of the night the door is opened – the food is here. We ask what time it is - 2 a.m. What can we do? We should eat. Andrej from Myadzel declares a hunger-strike.

The porridge is plain salt; we don’t have drinking water and have to drink from the tap… …Yesterday’s guard is now completely drunk; he was trying to drown his consciousness in alcohol.

Later I found out that in the night a group of girls was brought into prison. One of them was bleeding badly… ...They load us onto a bus to go to the Zavadski district court (I now know that all of the judges in Minsk took part in this farce). An old dissident Vadzim Aleksandrovich is in the bus. He is accustomed to everything and begins to make jokes about cops, courts, and authorities as a whole. Everyone’s mood gets better… …The first convictions are made. 7 days in prison, 10 days, 12 days…

The eyes of the lawyers are about to pop out from amazement. One lawyer insists on two girls being taken into the hospital and the quarrel has no end. The cops say that if there will be a convoy, the girls will go to the hospital. Sveta,

Suggested reading “Writer Yanka Kupala” http://www.belarus-misc.org/writer/ykupala.htm

2006/2

the girl with bleeding, gets worse and worse. I forget about everything, begin to pray for her. Around 5 p.m. the convoy is finally there.

Sveta is taken away… …My court is almost over and I wait in the corridor. My lawyer contacted my parents. I now know that my mother is alive and I feel much calmer. Cops say that Sveta was taken back to the court from the hospital. I get a conviction – 7 days in prison. I don’t care anymore… …Sveta leaves the courtroom. She manages to hold up seven fingers before her energy leaves her are she falls to her knees. This moment was the hardest for me and I felt like falling down beside her. I saw the faces of cops – everyone stared away, and only the younger one looked at her and made desperate attempts to keep his eyelids from trembling. The lawyer said that the hospital resolution read “Treatment at home is needed.” For the court this means in prison…

March 24

…We are talking in our cell. I am impressed by Pavel’s life experiences from the aviation college. He never cared for politics, lived his own life, and occasionally visited the meetings with Milinkevich – and at these meetings he came to understand what kind of people are against Lukashenko and what kind of people favour him… In the square he had no doubts about his actions, neither has he doubts about being here, in the cell…

From the 10 people in the cell, there are only 3 from Minsk, all the rest are from provinces– from Pinsk, Barysau, Dziarzhynsk…

Today another myth is destroyed – regions are not for Lukashenko!

His electorate are “nomenclature” people, their children, “youth” activists from local colleges, and old “babushkas” who suffer from TV-idiotism. But simple workers from the half-dead factories, statepaid employees like teachers and doctors, the students who were sent to the provinces from bigger cities by force, everyone who suffers

Illa Kulbicki was born on April 14, 1982 in Minsk, Belarus. He graduated from the Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Informatics of the Belarusian State University. Currently he works as a programmer in Minsk. He is a member of the Belarusian Orthodox Brotherhood.

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under the press of bureaucracy, who are bound to their livingplaces for their lifetime, without any hope for the decent pension, all of these are ready for changes – no matter in which direction. They are ready to hold onto any alternative… …At about 6 p.m. new prisoners are brought to our floor. Cells opposite us fill up with 10 people each. We hear the cops talking – they are bringing prisoners to the third and fourth floors already. Riot policemen appear –they probably brought the arrested. They look into each cell – stone faces, empty eyes.

They spend especially long time in front of the girls’ cells. They take out their cell phones, take photos through the peep-holes in the door, send SMSes. We tighten our teeth and fists… …The evening comes and the riot policemen are gone. The soup is

water with pieces of potatoes. The tea tastes the same as it did in the morning; I take a sip and spill it away… We calm down, the mood is slowly lightening. Prisoners in different cells begin to communicate by knocking. In one cell, guys begin to sing the N.R.M. (Independent Republic of Dream) song “Three Turtles” and the rest of cells clap their hands…

thing,“Will you go to the square again?” Though I fight the temptation to actually commit the crime I was sent to prison for 7 days for, the wish to be set free is stronger.

They return my things and I tie up my shoelaces. Off we go! I haven’t even checked if they returned everything. Checkpoint – passport – open doors – everything is calm and I am being met. Freedom!

March 28

Epilogue

…I begin to pack my things. I found a pink balloon, which by some miracle was not confiscated. We blow it up and throw it from one to another. The time runs unbelievably slowly and every minute is longer than the previous one. 18.10 – they come after me. Finally, I can breath fresh air! The cops in the new building, the cops in the old building, everyone asks the same

These are just my personal observations. But everything which was written during these days, proves that today the regime in Belarus is not alive – it is a poorly animated corpse, which may fall into pieces at any moment. The only goal of the resistance movement now should be to prevent our country from drowning under a thick layer of pus when this corpse falls apart.

Miriam Diez Bosch

Spain: The Ambivalence of a “Catholic” Country Spain is a complex country that, from a popular perspective, easily fits into the category of a “Catholic place.” It would be easy to state that Spain is a Catholic country, but this does not give us a complete picture.

In reality, for many analysts, Spain is seen as a “modern and progressive country” in which Christian values and principles are no longer applied.

The Different Faces of Spain

In a certain sense one could still claim that Spain is Catholic, but such a statement requires some clarifications. Spain’s Catholicism is very different from, let’s say, Italy’s Catholicism. It is not a panCatholic society: you do not find the Crucifix all around. In Italy where I live, in my bank, my post office and my favourite restaurant, the Crucifix is always there on the

wall. In Spain, people do not go to mass on Sundays as they used to do.

There is still a sharp feeling against clerics, as seen in the existence of “comecuras,” literally meaning “someone who eats clerics.”

The Church in Spain is forced to dialogue, and this dialogue is not always balsamic. The Church has been accused of being a factor in the retarded modernisation of the country. It has also been connected historically as a collaborator with Francisco F ranco’s dictatorship, which ended in 1975.

Popular Catholic culture—clearly Marian and devoted—continues to be present in society, but not in the same capillary way it used to be.

Some of the traditional religious feasts have more cultural value than religious significance.

From a political perspective, Spain has special agreements with the Holy See, the so-called

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“Acuerdos,” that since 1979 have regulated the relationship between the Catholic Church and the Spanish government. All Spanish governments have to deal with this reality, even though it is no secret that the present administration does not approve of the resulting “privileged” status of the Church.

But still, the “Acuerdos” are treaties to be respected.

Having said this, I would like to try to explain some of the concerns of the intricate situation of ChurchState relationships in today’s Spain.

My aim is to present some issues that can help explain the current relationship between the Church and the government that, at this moment, is in socialist hands of Mr. José Luis Rodríguez Z apatero.

Catholic Power?

Even though the common background of the population in Spain is

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under the press of bureaucracy, who are bound to their livingplaces for their lifetime, without any hope for the decent pension, all of these are ready for changes – no matter in which direction. They are ready to hold onto any alternative… …At about 6 p.m. new prisoners are brought to our floor. Cells opposite us fill up with 10 people each. We hear the cops talking – they are bringing prisoners to the third and fourth floors already. Riot policemen appear –they probably brought the arrested. They look into each cell – stone faces, empty eyes.

They spend especially long time in front of the girls’ cells. They take out their cell phones, take photos through the peep-holes in the door, send SMSes. We tighten our teeth and fists… …The evening comes and the riot policemen are gone. The soup is

water with pieces of potatoes. The tea tastes the same as it did in the morning; I take a sip and spill it away… We calm down, the mood is slowly lightening. Prisoners in different cells begin to communicate by knocking. In one cell, guys begin to sing the N.R.M. (Independent Republic of Dream) song “Three Turtles” and the rest of cells clap their hands…

thing,“Will you go to the square again?” Though I fight the temptation to actually commit the crime I was sent to prison for 7 days for, the wish to be set free is stronger.

They return my things and I tie up my shoelaces. Off we go! I haven’t even checked if they returned everything. Checkpoint – passport – open doors – everything is calm and I am being met. Freedom!

March 28

Epilogue

…I begin to pack my things. I found a pink balloon, which by some miracle was not confiscated. We blow it up and throw it from one to another. The time runs unbelievably slowly and every minute is longer than the previous one. 18.10 – they come after me. Finally, I can breath fresh air! The cops in the new building, the cops in the old building, everyone asks the same

These are just my personal observations. But everything which was written during these days, proves that today the regime in Belarus is not alive – it is a poorly animated corpse, which may fall into pieces at any moment. The only goal of the resistance movement now should be to prevent our country from drowning under a thick layer of pus when this corpse falls apart.

Miriam Diez Bosch

Spain: The Ambivalence of a “Catholic” Country Spain is a complex country that, from a popular perspective, easily fits into the category of a “Catholic place.” It would be easy to state that Spain is a Catholic country, but this does not give us a complete picture.

In reality, for many analysts, Spain is seen as a “modern and progressive country” in which Christian values and principles are no longer applied.

The Different Faces of Spain

In a certain sense one could still claim that Spain is Catholic, but such a statement requires some clarifications. Spain’s Catholicism is very different from, let’s say, Italy’s Catholicism. It is not a panCatholic society: you do not find the Crucifix all around. In Italy where I live, in my bank, my post office and my favourite restaurant, the Crucifix is always there on the

wall. In Spain, people do not go to mass on Sundays as they used to do.

There is still a sharp feeling against clerics, as seen in the existence of “comecuras,” literally meaning “someone who eats clerics.”

The Church in Spain is forced to dialogue, and this dialogue is not always balsamic. The Church has been accused of being a factor in the retarded modernisation of the country. It has also been connected historically as a collaborator with Francisco F ranco’s dictatorship, which ended in 1975.

Popular Catholic culture—clearly Marian and devoted—continues to be present in society, but not in the same capillary way it used to be.

Some of the traditional religious feasts have more cultural value than religious significance.

From a political perspective, Spain has special agreements with the Holy See, the so-called

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“Acuerdos,” that since 1979 have regulated the relationship between the Catholic Church and the Spanish government. All Spanish governments have to deal with this reality, even though it is no secret that the present administration does not approve of the resulting “privileged” status of the Church.

But still, the “Acuerdos” are treaties to be respected.

Having said this, I would like to try to explain some of the concerns of the intricate situation of ChurchState relationships in today’s Spain.

My aim is to present some issues that can help explain the current relationship between the Church and the government that, at this moment, is in socialist hands of Mr. José Luis Rodríguez Z apatero.

Catholic Power?

Even though the common background of the population in Spain is

The Challenge of Status quo

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Catholic and the “Catholic power” and influence is high in some aspects of daily life, the values of the Gospel are not the main criteria for the nation. Faith is seen by most politicians as something to be kept in private. In this atmosphere, the growing awareness of other Christian denominations and other religions—that also have institutional relations with the State since 1992—is helping to balance this trend. Faiths are made legitimate in the public sphere and religions create alliances to defend their human values. It is easy to see initiatives involving different religious traditions uniting to defend the immigrants, national conferences about the women’s role in society and religion, or other kinds of activities (prayers for AIDS victims, conferences on environmental issues, symposia on human rights, etc.).

Despite these actions, however, something still prevents the Church’s message from spreading, and in Spain, the “Church” refers to the Catholic Church. When I speak about other Christian denominations, I address them as “Churches” in a plural sense.

The Spanish Catholic Church is not able to attract faithful youth, in part because its organisation is still very clerical. Bishops show their unity of opinions, but at the same time they give evidence of their inner tensions. Some defend the “unity of Spain” as a “moral good.”

Others, especially from the autonomous regions such as Catalonia and the Basque region, differ from this opinion. In addition, there is still a lack of confidence in lay ministries, a tendency that is being corrected by a significant number of associations and civil foundations which, by organising themselves, are mobilising the civil society from a Catholic perspective.

Even though Spain has made huge efforts over the past forty years to modernise and democratise, the Church seems to follow from a long

Suggested reading Brassloff Audrey, Religion and politics in Spain: the Spanish church in transition, 1962-96. New York 1998.

Callahan William J., The Catholic Church in Spain , 1875-1998. Washington 2000.

Conferencia Episcopal Española, Guía de la Iglesia Católica en España. Nomenclátor 2006.

G onzález De Cardedal Olegario (ed)., La Iglesia en España. 1950-2000. Madrid 1999.

distance, with a slow perception of the need to broaden their view about the involvement of lay people in their activities.

Terrorism

Spain suffers under the huge problem of the ETA’s terrorism.

In December 2006, this terrorist group, which seeks to obtain by force the independence of the Basque Country, killed two immigrants from Ecuador outside of the Madrid Airport. When talking about this tragedy, the head of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference, Ricardo Blázquez, publicly prayed for a real peace in Spain. He suggested that threats and terrorism stop, but the terrorist group ETA is not willing to adopt a ceasefire.

The Catholic Bishops’ Conference has issued a large number of statements against all types of terrorism.

There is a debate, however, among the Catholics themselves about the way to treat the problem: dialogue at all prices? Should concessions be given to prisoners, such as placing them together and nearer to their homes in order to allow their families to see them? The different Catholic groups vary in their opinions and have different views on this issue also. Overall, however, it is positive that it is possible to face a global problem at the level of faith communities and not only from political and somehow often radical views. Here the roles of new movements such as Saint Egidio are very important.

Muslims, a New Reality?

In Spain, Roman Catholicism has been, for centuries, one of the most central factors shaping the society. Names, cultural practices, and most of all language and ideas were forged in a Catholic cultural environment. But now things are changing. The proximity with Africa—only 14 kilometres away— has turned Spain into a natural

Vidal Fernández Fernando, G onzálezCarvajal Luis, Medios de comunicación y religión en España. Una investigación sobre el estado de la comunicación mediática Iglesiasociedad. Boadilla del Monte 2005.

Miriam Diez Bosch was born in 1973 in Girona, Catalonia, Spain. Currently, she lectures in journalism at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. She is a journalist working for Zenit

2006/2

entrance point to Europe. Mobility is also higher. For this reason, immigration has become a resource and blessing for Spain, but at the same time, also a huge problem for the government and challenge for the Churches. Spain is not a country with a high percentage of Muslim citizens, but this does not change the reality that the Muslims in Spain want to live there: in Spain Muslim immigrants now reach to the fourth generation. Obviously, the March 11, 2004 terrorist attacks in Madrid did not help their process of integration. But generally speaking, most Muslims in Spain do not recognize the organisers of the terrorist attacks to be true “Muslims”.

We must remember that Muslims invaded Spain in the VIIth century, and for some newcomers, Spain is still a place to re-conquer. A governmental survey from November 2006 concluded that Muslims in Spain are liberal, open and satisfied with their place in the society. This picture of an open Islamic community is backed by figures: 80% of Muslims in Spain believe that there is no problem in being Muslim and Spanish at the same time, and 83% encounter no problems while practicing their religion.

The Mission of the Roman Catholic Church in Spain

One of the main goals of Roman Catholicism in Spain could be to make a serious contribution to the pacification of the country, particularly with respect to the terrorist problem. The Church alone cannot solve the problem but it could propose a tone and a style of doing so. Very often the Church’s language, style and propositions have been too hard: a smooth, calm and serene language might help to diminish tension. This is not easy, since the Spanish character is normally “black” or “white,” and is

International News Agency (www.zenit.org). She is also is a member of the Executive Committee of the International Foundation for Intercultural and Interreligious Education (www.ifiie. org). Her special interests include Church and Media, Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue, and Feminist Theology. She has studied both journalism and theology in Barcelona (Spain), in Athens (Greece), and in Rome (Italy). Her email is diez@unigre.it.

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not used to nuances or diplomatic ways of thinking and speaking.

The “Catholic” Spain has to learn to live in a pluralistic society where other Christians are raising— legitimately enough—their voice, and their voice is not always in the line of the Roman Catholic Church.

There are also a growing number of people who are not interested in Church issues at all. Dialogue is urgent with non-believers, especially with the younger generations.

Ecumenical and inter-religious dialogue appear to be other paths that favour the co-operation of Church and State as partners: indeed, the present Government is willing to listen to different religions. It is an opportunity that

should not be missed. The Alliance of Civilizations launched by the United Nations was first proposed by the Spanish Prime Minister and this clearly reveals that there is a possibility to work in this direction.

Dialogue with Islam, apart from the daily co-operation at the local level, has become stronger thanks to the work of Caritas and other Christian NGOs working with Muslim immigrants, especially in the Canary Islands and in the border areas of the Mediterranean.

The internal interests of the Roman Catholic Church—such as education, economic, family and bioethical issues—seem to follow a good path of negotiation with the Government. If the Catholic Bishops

were able to involve lay people and also non-believers in their pro-life campaigns, their struggle against poverty and in other activities, their actions may be more successful. In a global situation of alliances and cooperation, the Catholic Church in Spain knows that she needs to work together with the civil society, with the State and also with people who believe themselves to be far from God, faith and Church structures.

In this lies a big challenge which concerns not only the bishops but the whole community of faithful.

Dialogue and co-operation must replace the ancient attitudes of condemnation or ignorance. This is not just a human duty—it is also an Evangelical precept.

Jovanie Serge Tankeu Keusseu

Youth - Empire: Our Crisis… Our Mission!

“We are not orphans because we have lost father and mother, but because we have lost hope.” This African saying brings us to cruel consideration of our actions as youth, and especially as Christians, confronted with the decisive question of the Empire. Thinking about empire today implies presenting the world forces and dynamics that are ruling the current practices in our societies and their prospects for the future. This crude reality in our societies results in happiness for the minority at the expenses of the miserable majority.

The present reflection originates from my formal and informal exchanges as youth leader of the Protestant University Chaplaincy network of Cameroon and from international exchange meetings with other youth from Africa and abroad. Within this purview, we will glance at our conscious or unconscious complicities with the ruling order, but above all, we will make proposals likely to transform our state of passivity into mission.

OUR CRIMES

A careful glance at the general situation worldwide as a whole and that of Africa in particular makes it difficult not to picture the despicable state of women and men, as well as the increasingly rapid growth of misery in some of our countries.

1. Our Political Mistakes

The international geopolitics is seemingly trying to convince us that if we, as Africans, want the advent of a peaceful planet, then we are not going the right way about it.

This same reality leads us to think that fighting for energy resources (gas, oil, gold, diamond, copper, etc.) is sufficient and the ultimate security for the future of nations.

According to figures, the battle for an African policy for Africa and Africans seems to be lost. Rebel movements are present here and there, from the north to the south and from the east to the west, always fiercer, and always trying to grab power only to reproduce

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the same rule as their predecessors. Powerful multinationals, “ex-metropolis” in connection with some of our fathers, mothers, grand-fathers and grand-mothers, are still using our divisions, tribes, and religious denominations as means to monopolise the power, crush resistance and interposition forces. We are all conscious of the fact that the West is using our internal potentialities and wealth to position their “tramps” at the helm of our states and their international “experts” at the bedside of our governments’ structures.

The infernal cycle of power seizing through arms in Chad, as from the beginning of the 1980s, testifies of the way our leaders and their barons understand the ruling in Africa. Nowadays again, instead of figuring out deep questions within themselves as concerns the source of their disagreement and strife, they spend most of their time travelling abroad to explain why they are still holding the power or how they intend to rule once home. Yet, so far in the reality, our leaders’

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Religion & Society

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not used to nuances or diplomatic ways of thinking and speaking.

The “Catholic” Spain has to learn to live in a pluralistic society where other Christians are raising— legitimately enough—their voice, and their voice is not always in the line of the Roman Catholic Church.

There are also a growing number of people who are not interested in Church issues at all. Dialogue is urgent with non-believers, especially with the younger generations.

Ecumenical and inter-religious dialogue appear to be other paths that favour the co-operation of Church and State as partners: indeed, the present Government is willing to listen to different religions. It is an opportunity that

should not be missed. The Alliance of Civilizations launched by the United Nations was first proposed by the Spanish Prime Minister and this clearly reveals that there is a possibility to work in this direction.

Dialogue with Islam, apart from the daily co-operation at the local level, has become stronger thanks to the work of Caritas and other Christian NGOs working with Muslim immigrants, especially in the Canary Islands and in the border areas of the Mediterranean.

The internal interests of the Roman Catholic Church—such as education, economic, family and bioethical issues—seem to follow a good path of negotiation with the Government. If the Catholic Bishops

were able to involve lay people and also non-believers in their pro-life campaigns, their struggle against poverty and in other activities, their actions may be more successful. In a global situation of alliances and cooperation, the Catholic Church in Spain knows that she needs to work together with the civil society, with the State and also with people who believe themselves to be far from God, faith and Church structures.

In this lies a big challenge which concerns not only the bishops but the whole community of faithful.

Dialogue and co-operation must replace the ancient attitudes of condemnation or ignorance. This is not just a human duty—it is also an Evangelical precept.

Jovanie Serge Tankeu Keusseu

Youth - Empire: Our Crisis… Our Mission!

“We are not orphans because we have lost father and mother, but because we have lost hope.” This African saying brings us to cruel consideration of our actions as youth, and especially as Christians, confronted with the decisive question of the Empire. Thinking about empire today implies presenting the world forces and dynamics that are ruling the current practices in our societies and their prospects for the future. This crude reality in our societies results in happiness for the minority at the expenses of the miserable majority.

The present reflection originates from my formal and informal exchanges as youth leader of the Protestant University Chaplaincy network of Cameroon and from international exchange meetings with other youth from Africa and abroad. Within this purview, we will glance at our conscious or unconscious complicities with the ruling order, but above all, we will make proposals likely to transform our state of passivity into mission.

OUR CRIMES

A careful glance at the general situation worldwide as a whole and that of Africa in particular makes it difficult not to picture the despicable state of women and men, as well as the increasingly rapid growth of misery in some of our countries.

1. Our Political Mistakes

The international geopolitics is seemingly trying to convince us that if we, as Africans, want the advent of a peaceful planet, then we are not going the right way about it.

This same reality leads us to think that fighting for energy resources (gas, oil, gold, diamond, copper, etc.) is sufficient and the ultimate security for the future of nations.

According to figures, the battle for an African policy for Africa and Africans seems to be lost. Rebel movements are present here and there, from the north to the south and from the east to the west, always fiercer, and always trying to grab power only to reproduce

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the same rule as their predecessors. Powerful multinationals, “ex-metropolis” in connection with some of our fathers, mothers, grand-fathers and grand-mothers, are still using our divisions, tribes, and religious denominations as means to monopolise the power, crush resistance and interposition forces. We are all conscious of the fact that the West is using our internal potentialities and wealth to position their “tramps” at the helm of our states and their international “experts” at the bedside of our governments’ structures.

The infernal cycle of power seizing through arms in Chad, as from the beginning of the 1980s, testifies of the way our leaders and their barons understand the ruling in Africa. Nowadays again, instead of figuring out deep questions within themselves as concerns the source of their disagreement and strife, they spend most of their time travelling abroad to explain why they are still holding the power or how they intend to rule once home. Yet, so far in the reality, our leaders’

The Challenge of Status quo

actions have proven to be rather different even upon their returns.

Our complacency as youth was to believe that we could build our states and destinies through military rule or democracy as conceived in the West. We were exploited and used as tools by the power maffia (which were also exploited and were tools of their barons) through structures created to anaesthetize, enslave and stultify: In Cameroon, I will name the President Biya Youth (PRESBY) and the Active Youth for Chantal Biya (JACHABY); the same applies to many other regions of Africa.

2. Our Economic Mistakes

Today, more than in the past, the world is laughing at Africa, but worse still, Africans too are laughing at their Africa. How is it understandable that more than four decades after the wave of independences, our economies are still depending on the International Community and donors like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) with all of the wealth and human intellectual potential, natural resources and world forest reserves Africa is bestowed with?

Our fathers and grand-fathers have taken the West to be a destination to mourn about our situation. Hence, they spend their time fighting not to satisfy the population, but rather to please their western “barons.”

With the left hand they offer grants, only to take them back tenfold with the right hand. We have too easily forgotten that Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) were presented by the IMF and

Suggested reading Yinda Hélène, Lettre ouverte à tous les protestants et toutes les protestantes du Cameroun: notre crise, notre mission, notre avenir. Yaoundé, 2006.

Fokam K ammogne Paul, La Misère galopante du sud, complicité du nord: jeux, enjeux et défis. Paris 2005.

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the WB during the 1990s as the ultimate solution to fight poverty in Africa. Now again, we are brought to believe that the Highly Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPCI) or the Debt Relief Initiative (C2D), as concerns Cameroon, will bring promised answers to the social service, the structure of health care, basic education and infrastructure. I wish I were making a false diagnosis here. Yet, when we consider our calamitous managing which continues to rest on the drip of international experts, the majority of whom studied in the same prestigious universities as our leaders, we have no need to wait for the resounding effects of these initiatives whose aim is to make us more backwards than we are today. Each time we believed that it was for our good, and this was our mistake; this prevented us from understanding the economic reality of our countries.

3. Our Spiritual Crises

One of our reflexes as Africans is always to boast that Christian values are rooted in us. This reflex is only the extension of a long missionary tradition of the past, which made us believe that the ultimate Christianity is that of the West. This reality can still be felt in our churches, parishes, local communities and movements, and brought us to deny our culture, customs and rites, as if prior to the advent of the missionaries our ancestors had been lost.

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Nowadays again, the not less fierce yet more destructive war that wages in Africa is one of spiritual alienation. The West and its preachers, priests and pastors found in our continent a fertile ground. Scenes were opened to them; the red carpet was unrolled for them to come in and alienate us with their preachings and so-called miracles that are meaningless and void of the deep Christian realities of the African.

We were complacent because we accepted this distortion of Christian faith rooted outside of our traditions and rites; we accepted to be moulded by tales, teachings, and preachings and trainings foreign to our deep affects. The majority of us became foreigners, unable to firmly, confidently and energetically defend our actions and Christian values based on our own canons. In short, we lost the courage and strength before the battle, but above all, our Gospel remained verbose and inactive.

4. Our Socio-Cultural Crises

A glance at our private and public African televisions is frightening.

Another glance at how our brothers, fathers, sisters and mothers are making use of information and communication technologies within our communities and their excitement by their discovery of its advantages makes one sick.

At a time where we should adapt those technologies to answer to the needs of our societies in the areas of education and organisation, they are rather merely making a shameful use of them, looking for husbands and wives in a bid to escape misery. In my opinion, misery is more a state of the mind than an experienced material reality. In Cameroon, between 1-2 p.m. and 7-8 p.m., instead of listening to national and international news, our youth concentrate on watching westerner series, most of which have no links with our reality and identity. Unconsciously,

Jovanie Serge Tankeu K eusseu (1981) has a maîtrise in organic chemistry at the University of Yaoundé I. He also studied accountancy and company management in a private higher institute in Cameroon. In August 2007, he will begin his studies of medical technology at the Old Dominion University (ODU) in Virginia, USA. He has been the national coordinator of the Movement of Protestant Students in Cameroon (SCM Cameroon) since 2002.

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our analyses, ways of dressing, and our behaviours are imported and they distance us from our countries, making us always surprised by the decisions that are falling on us.

At the end of this overview, I would like to say that our major mistake has been to keep quiet on the major evils of our societies, on fundamental issues relating to our future as leaders and managers of public affairs. Worse still, we left our future hostage of our fathers, mothers, grand-fathers and grandmothers. They are spending their lives in positions that are ours and are reducing us to the eternal role of ball boys and girls and small spectators of matches they are playing at our expense to dilapidate the heritage-patrimony which is supposed to be our inheritance.

It is possible to reverse the trend.

We have no other choice: either we fight or we perish!

OUR MISSION

The overall situation we just outlined may seem too gloomy to be true. Yet it does not seem to be taking into account all the initiatives and commitments made in our continent in a bid to bring about change, through missionary actions and transforming dynamics in a difficult context. More than ever, it is time to launch a true crusade against our true enemies.

1. Our Political Mission

It has to do with breathing a new evangelical democracy, not according to the Western pattern, but based on our traditional ancestral values. In the past, they were the strength of our chiefdoms and kingdoms through their capacities to organise, educate, decide and resist. To be more solid and human, our political mission should gain inspiration from Jesus Christ who, in washing the feet of his disciples, is the example of a leader. This approach should start within our groups and movements at the local, national and continental level. It should start within the framework of elections, service and animation of exchanges. This should be carried out in simplicity, deepness, sincerity and truth.

Whatever the difficulties, it is the occasion par excellence to test our capacity to take the destiny of our countries in our hands.

As for relationship with the emerging youth of the West, during our intercultural and worship fellowships, professional and academic trainings, common reflections pertaining to vital issues of faith, we should not remain mere observers or spectators of debates that sometimes have nothing to do with world exchange dynamics, as I sometimes sadly witnessed. We must respectfully and humbly express the pertinence of our viewpoints. This would lead to our living together co-responsibly for the world order to which our contribution is also expected.

But let us first be courageous enough to have a critical look at ourselves and note not only our mistakes and weaknesses, but also recognise our strengths.

2. Our Economic Mission

We are certain that Africa can live without always depending on the

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eternal drip of the external world.

It must achieve this state because it has the natural potential and the human means, women and men trained for their jobs and educated in the most prestigious schools and universities worldwide.

We should personally involve ourselves in the macro- and micro-economic theories that

the International Community and donors are using to drain us.

We must reverse the trend of the generations before us; they have not only deliberately confused their pockets with that of the state, but, worse still, are keeping them abroad to enrich foreign banks and perpetuate the infernal cycle of misery. As many of our elders, we should create local development networks drawing inspiration from our deepest nature. In Cameroon, I have in my heart the success story of MC² (Community Growth private insurance) managed by the NGO

The Challenge of Status quo

ADAF (Appropriate Development for Africa Foundation) and sponsored by a bank grounded in African values. At this cost, our intelligence will result in productive values and relieve our States from predators that are injecting us with water to remove our blood.

3. Our Spiritual Mission

As youth, it is our duty to refuse the development of mindnumbing beliefs in spirits and the collapse of the intelligence in our societies. Our spiritual battle is not to reject Christianity from the West, but to acculturate our values, customs and rites that present men and women as the focus of God’s projects for society. Let’s stop thinking that it is only through prayers, preachings, Bible studies, spectacular sensitization campaigns and miracles that we are going to change the world order.

Is Christ not speaking to us when he admonishes his disciples for not feeding the crowd?

Today more than ever, we should not only get rid of religious patronage, but also we should help our elders, father, mothers, grand-fathers and grandmothers to understand that the battle remains that of African Christianity by and for Africans, reflecting our fundamental and living values.

My experience at the local and national level brings me to the certitude that this is the only approach that can help us to clear our complexes and to get at the core of a missionary reflection, based on African values, to provide a worldwide solution of beliefs where faith and action are indissociable.

4. Our Socio-Cultural Mission

What does patriotism mean? What kind of commitment does it imply?

Which fundamental standard does it require for the true building of our societies?

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This question is directed to each of us, not in order to provide an academic or philosophical answer that would reactivate the cramming of our teachings, which are mere speculations that envelop our intelligence like water in “cocoa leaves.”

The aim of this battle is to give rise to a new type of Africans, men and women concerned about the social and cultural realities of our continent. The aim would be to produce a new reading of our history and of world history from our cultural references, to stop featuring western societies as models and rather to take up the challenges of originality and authenticity of their countries in Africa.

the Defence of Students’ Rights in Cameroon (ADDEC) for a quality education in universities. Such lobbying and pleas should be concerted, oriented, planned and cleared from individual quests or battles to position the clan or to seize power. Such action aims at opening the floodgates of the deep and innovative dialogue with our immobile heads whose sole preoccupation is to balkanise our education, to deprive our States from their resources and to use our energies as weapons of destruction.

We are already very late. We should act fast and appropriately.

Our ultimate understanding of this challenge is to restore our personalities and our peoples in their creative dynamics and their capacity to live according to the project that God prepared for humanity with Africa as springboard. Here and there challenges for restoration were undertaken. They need only to be intensified, coordinated, and perfected. Confronted with issues of education, poverty, corruption, impunity, HIV/AIDS, we should launch pleas and lobbying.

I can share my experience with the battle of the Association for

societies confronted with the world Empire and despite the promising initiatives undertaken here and there, only one thing remains fundamental. We must have a motto of work—always be working.

It is our sole inheritance in this decisive battle for our participation in the world order as partners, like China and India today. There is no need to be afraid, because the time has come for Africans, wherever they are, to reverse this trend with the Gospel of Matthew 28:17-20 as the launch pad.

At the end of this reading of sad realities inherent to our African

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Rosie Venner

Empire, Religion and Society: Reflections from the 2006 WSCF Inter-regional Conference in Nairobi, Kenya.

In my preparation for attending the 2006 WSCF inter-regional conference on Empire, a friend lent me Arundhati Roy’s “An Ordinary Person’s Guide to Empire.” It seemed like a good place to begin. Roy argues that “our strategy should be not only to confront Empire, but to lay siege to it. To deprive it of oxygen. To shame it. To mock it.

With our art, our music, our literature, our stubbornness, our joy, our brilliance, our sheer relentlessness – and our ability to tell our own stories. Stories that are different from the ones we’re being brainwashed to believe.” At the conference, as we shared our experiences of Empire and resistance, we realised the dynamic nature of our

stories. We found common threads running through them that crossed cultural and regional boundaries.

We helped educate each other and unveil hidden truths about Empire in each of our different contexts. We left feeling inspired and encouraged at the stories of resistance in the many student movements of WSCF. The following is a brief report from the conference and some further reflections.

WSCF Inter-regional Programme on Empire

In August 2006, I attended the WSCF’s inter-regional programme in Nairobi, Kenya as one of the delegates from WSCFEurope. Gathered together from over twenty different countries, our focus was on “Christians, Empire and Basilea.” Our understanding of Empire was informed by the WCC Agape document as “the coherence of economic, cultural, political, religious and military powers that constitute a global system of domination.” In contrast to this, Basilea is a Greek word used by Jesus in the Gospels when he speaks of the Kingdom of God. Through Bible studies and discussions, we found

that the teachings and life of Jesus present us with alternatives to Empire. Basilea is a political, challenging and radical vision which we are called to work towards today.

Naming the powers

During the programme, we spent time ‘naming the powers’ and recognising the manifestations of Empire in our various contexts.

The Empire of today portrays itself as rational, intelligent and beneficial, making it important to reveal its true nature. We heard presentations from each region and reflected on economic injustices in Africa, the effects of debt and global warming in Asia-Pacific, corporate power and restrictions on the movement of people in Europe, political corruption in South America, control over the media in North America, and military violence in the Middle East.

Revealing the alternative

The Empire fools us into thinking that ‘there is no alternative.’ But the thread running through the WSCF conference was a phrase from Liberation theology: “The world is not as it should be. It can and must be changed.” We discovered that, although the signs of Empire were present in all of our contexts, equally present were the signs of resistance. Empire rebels were present in co-operatives,

Suggested reading Roy Arundhati, An Ordinary Person’s Guide to Empire. Cambridge, MA, 2004.

Commission for Urban Life and Faith, Faithful Cities, www.culf.org.uk.

WSCF Solidarity Plan on Empire, www. wscfglobal.org.

World Council of Churches AGAPE document.

WSCF, Talitha Cum! The Grace of Solidarity in a Globalised World. Geneva, 2004.

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Rosie Venner (1983) is a graduate in African Studies and English from the University of Birmingham. She is on the General Council of UK SCM. She is currently working as a Social Responsibility Assistant within her local Church of England diocese. She likes drinking lots of tea.

The Challenge of Status quo

intentional communities, the trade justice movement, women’s groups, grassroots activism, and, of course, in the many and diverse Student Christian movements that make up WSCF’s global community!

Living and working together for the ten days of the programme as representatives of our various SCMs, we found that a way forward in the face of Empire is to create communities that reflect the values of God’s Basilea. As part of the “exposure” programme organised

by WSCF-Africa, we visited the Utooni Self-Help Community Group who have collectively transformed their local environment and livelihoods by building sand dams to collect rainwater and irrigate land that has grown arid through deforestation. In Kibera – Africa’s largest slum – we were inspired by young people creating alternative media through a radio station which gives a voice to a marginalised community. At the end of the programme, we produced an International Solidarity Plan to guide WSCF’s response to Empire (details below).

2. Reflections on Empire, Religion and Society

Within Europe, the International Solidarity plan calls us to recognise and respond to the manifestations of Empire in our local contexts and to promote and engage in communitybased initiatives within our localities as a way to create alternatives to Empire. Our response to

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Empire must be unashamedly practical. But as we fight Empire at a local level, in the Church’s response to poverty and inequality, what relationship should we have with government and secular society? Since returning from the WSCF conference I have looked at these questions in the context of the United Kingdom with a new perspective.

Should we be filling in the gaps in social provision? Using a specific example, should the Church be providing hospitality and support for asylum seekers who are forced into destitution after failed applications or should we be challenging the state policies that cause this to happen and lobbying the government for a change in its asylum procedures?

In the United Kingdom in recent years, the government has taken an increasing interest in the capacity of faith communities to tackle poverty and to be involved in regeneration of deprived areas. At the same time, statutory buzz words like “community cohesion” and “social capital” have entered the Church’s vocabulary. Partnerships between faith-based groups and state bodies are becoming common. But with the power structures of Empire in mind, how concerned should we be by these developments? Churches and congregations of other faiths are attractive to the state because they are present and active in a cross-section of society. Partnership between statutory bodies and faith groups gives government a foothold in difficult-to-reach communities.

On a positive level, this can increase access to public services like healthcare and education, and the voices of marginalised and deprived communities are more likely to be heard in public consultations. However, what constraints do these partnerships place on the Church’s response to the inequalities of Empire?

Do the State and the Church have the same vision for community regeneration?

The publication of a

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document by the Commission on Urban Life and Faith in the United Kingdom called “Faithful Cities” has sparked a debate about the relationship between faith communities and Government in urban regeneration. The contributors suggest that the Church and other faith groups who work in partnership with government and statutory bodies should maintain a critical and prophetic stance. We should be suspicious of regeneration that is based simply on economic terms or that has only cosmetic effects rather than addressing the real problems of deprived areas. In a culture of social entrepreneurship there is the potential for rivalry rather than co-operation between faith groups as they work to address the needs of their communities. Increasingly, churches are in receipt of government funding for their social action work. How prescriptive is this government funding? Does it look for shortterm success or long-term transformation? Is what we are doing ‘measurable?’ We can measure indices of poverty and unemployment, but can we measure the extent to which individuals in communities feel welcomed, respected, encouraged, safe and fulfilled? In brief, how do we know if we are speaking the same language as the State? Accepting funds from those in power can limit the Church’s capacity to be prophetic.

Partnership

Who should the Church work with in its fight against Empire? I believe we should be committed to working with those who share our concern for those marginalised by Empire and not only with those who share our particular religious values and traditions. This is likely to mean working more closely with secular NGOs and people from other faith communities and networks. It means that student groups should work more closely with community groups and trade unions. It means looking outward from the Church and from academia and building a diverse democratic base from which to demonstrate our alternatives to Empire.

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Religion & Society

2006/2

Olga Israel

Inter-religious Dialogue in Europe Today As a child of five driven by curiosity typical for that age, I asked my mother if she believed in God. Her answer was simple and straightforward—she said she did. When asked the same question, my father told me I had to learn, read a lot and grow up so I could understand his answer. So I did, and years went by before I finally grasped what he was trying to tell me. I never asked him that question again, yet his answer has been guiding me ever since.

Jointed European Identity

Being Jewish comprises not only belief and religious obedience, but also learning from Jewish history and tradition and acting accordingly. While religious beliefs were constantly challenged in a post– communist country like former Yugoslavia, living proactively made it possible to grow up as a Jew. With the same sentiments, I approach every challenge in my life, and inter-religious dialogue in Europe is one of them. Without knowing who we are and where we come from, it is difficult to

determine where we would like to be. As youth activists in faith-based organisations it is imperative that we continuously seek knowledge about our roots and about those of different backgrounds.

We live in a Europe that has multiple faces and identities, and it is our task to learn how to best reconcile the differences between us, celebrating the heritage and rich culture each of these identities brings. The richness and the diversity of our faiths should serve as a starting point for a joint journey towards a better future rather than as a reason for division and separation.

There are many ways of engaging in inter-religious dialogue. Each of these methods, however, begins with a very individual introspective process of knowing oneself and understanding one’s roots and background before inspecting others.

The topic before us today is a textured one: inter-religious dialogue and its perspectives and outreach. There is, of course, no single answer. I like the saying that there are as many answers as there are students and young individuals in the world.

In a continent with over fifty different countries, each and every young person lives in very different realities. We are a generation of European students that has become highly individualised.

We no longer face one single future, for the rally-

ing points of the iron curtain, the Berlin wall and a united Europe are now behind us.

Young people today live in a society with a great variety of choices. Young Muslims in France have a choice—how will they act in connection with a paralysing national debate? Young Jews in Poland need to choose—when homosexuals are marginalized, how are they affected? And youth in Belarus dwell on a choice—what do they do when the voice of dissent and democracy is consistently crushed?

The future of young people is no longer governed by generational debates, but is marked by the choices they make, the obstacles they choose to overcome, and the taboos they vow to break.

Fighting Present and Future

Growing up in Serbia, I too needed to make a choice. Each time I visit Belgrade, I face a father who still bears the scars of the city he and I love so much and of the choices he had to make—a city in which he was repeatedly forced to evacuate his two daughters in order to save them from the turmoil of a war, a city in which he had to face Slobodan Milosevic himself as a kidnapped dissident.

In a country still laced with stereotypes and with old wounds, I chose to move myself beyond a national classroom still defined by difference and by division. I can still hear my elementary school class reciting the poem that says “Volim Tita vise nego roditelje - I love Tito more than my parents”.

Olga Israel is the chairperson of the European Union of Jewish Students, an umbrella organisation for 34 national unions of Jewish students across the continent. She was born in 1979 in Belgrade.

She graduated from the Universities of Belgrade and Munich with degrees in banking, insurance and finance and was awarded a Fellowship with the Ford Motor Company that enabled her to study as a “Community Leader” at the School of International and Public Affairs of Columbia University in New York, USA. She was evacuated

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from Belgrade twice, once in 1992 and again on the eve of the NATO invasion in 1999, both times seeking refuge in Israel. In August of 2000, she returned to Belgrade and re-invigorated the Union of Jewish Students of Serbia and Montenegro. She left Belgrade in March 2003 to work in the private sector in Germany while she pursued her graduate studies. After being elected as EUJS vice-president in 2004, she was elected Chairperson of EUJS at the EUJS Congress in Pag, Croatia in August 2005. She began her term in Brussels on January 1, 2006.

The Challenge of Status quo

Engaging a set of values and ideals beyond those haunting lyrics may be second nature in some places, but in Serbia and many other European countries it was and it still is a very profound choice.

I come from a mixed marriage— my mother was an Orthodox Christian and my father was Jewish—so I was always privileged to have a very close insight into what the vast diversity of different faiths, religions and related customs can offer. My home was a sanctuary for inter-faith and inter-religious dialogue where I was first taught about the choices I could make—to learn to understand and respect even if I didn’t necessarily agree.

A year ago, the European Union of Jewish Students (EUJS) organised a mission where 10 Jewish leaders joined 10 Rwandan-Belgian students on an unparalleled journey: together they traveled across Rwanda, listening to the stories of survivors who were of our own age. They learned about young Rwandans who have also made a choice: to embrace a path of peace and reconciliation in the face of unimaginable wounds.

This past December about 60 young leaders of different faiths from all around Europe came to a seminar organised by the European Union of Jewish Students at the European Parliament in Brussels. They sought to build

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strong coalitions and take the lead in expressing the views and concerns of young people who are proud of their religious identity on a continent where “being religious” is associated with extremism and fundamentalism. They each made a choice.

Later on that month, EUJS brought a Darfuri Muslim refugee to the Special Session of the UN Human Rights Council on Darfur, who addressed the plenum on behalf of a group of Jewish organisations. Joining forces and raising our voices before genocide was a conscious choice we all made.

The increasing number of opportunities for young people in the world today prevents us from chartering one single future. What we can do, what we must do, and what we should all strive to do is to offer young people the courage to take the road less traveled.

And our future is formed by the choices that we make today.

The foundation of a peaceful future is laid when young Europeans trapped in cultural conflict channel frustration through dialogue rather than violence. The guarantee of a tolerant future is drafted when Serbian, Macedonian, Croatian, Bosnian and Slovenian youth meet in Brussels, and commit to meeting more often at home.

The future of Europe is grounded in helping young people to make the

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right choices in this very complex and varied world. Together, we must continue to move beyond our constituencies in our respective organisations and to bring new and broader voices to the table—voices that will help us develop greater opportunities for the millions of youth who were not privileged to grow up with the values we all see as natural.

Our challenge is to take this message of choice, born and matured in the corridors of Jewish, Christian and Muslim humanism, and bring it to young people in the suburbs of Paris, in the fractured landscape of Bosnia-Herzegovina, in the rural communities of Poland—across the continent.

When the World Student Christian Federation (WSCF) organized a conference in Copenhagen in October 2006 and invited me to speak on an Inter-religious panel together with a Muslim colleague, I rushed to accept the invitation as I saw it as the best choice anyone could make. And the right choice leads to all the right steps needed to make one’s individual contribution to pluralistic and diversified Europe.

Although it sometimes feels like fighting Goliath, it was at a very early age that I learned from my father: one is what one chooses to be.

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Religion & Society

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Henrietta Szovati

The Concept of Society in Islam Islam is well-known to be a religion of community and it does not actively promote an individual approach to worship. The rituals such as prayers—that are best to be done in congregation—the pilgrimage (Hajj), or the other main pillar of the faith, Almsgiving, is all about caring for and sharing with others.

It is also well established that Islam is not only a religion but rather a way of life that permeates into every sphere of existence for a person who believes in One God, Allah.

Islamic Societies Today

In an ideal world, we would all live in peace and harmony. We would all understand each other’s needs and would live according to a theory that creates an ideal society. Perhaps Muslim intellectuals would not be left out from discussions about important issues such as Turkey’s accession to the European Union, or perhaps the situation of young Muslims in many parts of today’s Europe would be far more satisfying.

By looking at the largest Muslim nations, we will not be able to identify what an Islamic society is like, as they each have a unique setup and system that works for them. The list of those Muslim nations contains one of the poorest countries in the world today (Bangladesh), some of the countries with the highest corruption rates (India, Indonesia, or Nigeria). In addition, the most populated country in the world, China, contains a growing Muslim population. These countries deal with their own problems in different ways, and each can be identified as Islamic. Yet millions of questions are unanswered; many problems are unresolved in Muslim societies where the ideal of a society would

be, or should be, the society the Prophet Muhammad established after his migration to Madina.

But, overall, what is the concept of society in Islam?

The Concept of Society in Islam

Islam is based on equality both economically and spiritually. The society is responsible for those who are less fortunate and tries to ensure that the gap between the rich and poor narrows. The concept of Zakat (almsgiving) is commended partly to make sure that the rich do not get richer than they should, but also to ensure that the poor have an opportunity to enjoy a reasonable standard of living through assistance from those who live in abundance.

Islam divides chores both in the home and in the workplace.

It promotes a healthy balance between the needs and the capabilities of men and women by using their natural dispositions to create a more harmonious society.

While women are allowed and often promoted to perform certain jobs, they are the only ones who can give birth to children. Therefore, they are the most suitable for raising children and nurturing them spiritually and physically. This frees them from the pressure of being turned into material creatures who are always exhausted, have no time for family and children, and run out of breath by the time they reached their home after the day’s work in a demanding job.

This freedom is a great tool for a more balanced society which, by no means, indicates the degradation of women in terms of their intellectual capacity and their talents.

Society is a concept in Islam which is based on moral principles

Suggested reading E sposito John, What everyone needs to know about Islam. Cambridge, 2002.

K amali Mohammed Hashim, Freedom of expression in Islam. Cambridge 1997.

H amid Abdul Wahid, Islam the Natural Way. Mels, 1998.

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and values that are stipulated by the Quran and the Sunnah, the teachings of Prophet Muhammad.

Morality in Islam is within the boundaries of what is acceptable by the members of that society, focussing on what causes the least harm to anyone in the given society, but most importantly, on what is set forth by God. It is not the individual who is the primary focus, but rather the society as a whole. An individual may not like certain things, but if something is for the benefit of a wider group (i.e. the society) he or she ought to accommodate. Islam looks beyond the needs of the individual only; it calls for the establishment of a community spirit with mutual rights and responsibility.

Rights and Responsibilities, Justice and Freedom

No right exists without responsibility. For any individual to claim rights, they need to fulfil their responsibilities first, and Islam acknowledges this very basic human truth. The youth are responsible for the elderly, parents are responsible for their children, the healthy are responsible for the sick, and the rich are responsible for the poor. We all fulfil at least two roles in our lives, if not more, and we have to carry out our roles in a responsible manner to ensure a rightful way of living. Islam sets forth the boundaries within which humanity and any given society operate, but the logistics of things are left for every individual to address, bearing the community spirit in mind.

The main pillars of Islamic society are justice and freedom. Although there are not many Muslim societies (in fact, none) that fulfil

Henrietta Szovati has a Masters Degree in Islamic Studies from the University of Loughborough, UK and works as a freelance consultant. She is a Hungarian revert to Islam and lives in London with her husband and daughter. She specializes in social issues, diversity and multiculturalism. Her email is henna7@btinternet.com.

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The Challenge of Status quo

this criteria in its absolute sense, the ideal society would embrace freedom in its most comprehensive form and justice would be practiced in attempts to reach as close as possible to absolute justice. Shariah, as the divine law, is a guiding tool for Muslims, but it does not entail the executive power to hang, kill or stone to death in any part of the world. In reality, the concept of Shariah has become too loosely

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used in the West when referring to certain Muslim societies. It has to be studied and understood in a much more elaborate and sophisticated manner than it is currently being studied in the light of modernity.

Islam promotes a just, equal, and harmonious society. It calls for community spirit, mutual respect and understanding while giving floor to disagreements and differences of opinions. However, the

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newly revamped and modern understanding of freedom has proven that in a free society where morals and principles have diluted or almost disappeared, there is little hope. A society based on individual desires and whims can only succeed in the short term, and even if it does endure longer, it will not leave a permanent mark in the history of humanity.

Iva Beranek:

War and Peace Start in People’s Hearts: On a Spirituality of Reconciliation Freedom has become a luxury in many countries. Wars and conflicts around the world are changing the face of the Earth, often making it look rather depressing. Amidst the terror, it is generally hard to see hope for our society. As Christians, we regularly pray, “Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, on Earth as it is in Heaven,” but often find it difficult to see the kingdom of God present in our surroundings.

In this essay, I will argue that the fear of “otherness,” which occurs in conflicts, can be overcome by a change of heart. The starting point is that “changing human hearts and changing human society are not separate tasks, but are as interconnected as the two beams of the cross” (Nouwen, 20). Jesus is the one who teaches us about reconciliation and is a bridge-builder across the divide. If we decided to follow Christ on his road of reconciliation, maybe then we would see the kingdom of God growing among us. In the end, hope for more stability and peace may emerge out of our decision for engagement as well.

Diversity as a Challenge for Peace in the Contemporary Society

The Bible tells us that in the beginning was harmony, characterised by trust between humans and God, for the “first two chapters of Genesis affirm the covenantal

relationship of trust between God and humanity and the ontological priority of peace over conflict and violence” (Stevens, 50). In the story of the Fall, however, we see the beginning of human conflict and violence, for fundamental in the Genesis story is how alienation from God brings a deep insecurity into human affairs.

Fear of the neighbour, rather than trust in God, becomes a governing factor in human relations. The neighbour becomes an oppositional `other’ who threatens us.

(Stevens, 50) God created “our common humanity” and our diversity, but it seems that we have forgotten to live united in our diversity, to live in a tension of being so different and unique, personally, culturally and religiously, and still sharing the same condition of being human (Stevens, 50). Not knowing how to live with our diversity, we often decide to build walls between ourselves and others.

Alienation happens between individuals as well as between larger groups, even nations. Especially in societies wounded by conflict, like in Northern Ireland, Israel and Palestine, or in the former Yugoslavian countries, alienation of one group from the other becomes common. Even when the conflict is over or is silenced, destruction is still visible on buildings, in the cities and in the environment. In Croatia,

near Vukovar, where the war in the 1990s was severe, there are still mine fields with signs warning “do not walk here.” If the wounds and signs of conflicts remain in the physical world, they are even more etched in human souls.

Unfortunately, people have mines in their hearts as well. These inner “mine fields” often carry similar messages of a lack of trust, messages warning “do not come near.” Personal mines need to be healed or an incident might happen where someone will step on a mine and they will explode causing even greater damage. Where the wound of conflict is deep, the alienation is rarely temporary. This leads to building walls, first in our hearts and then later in the outside world. Sometimes manifesting the multitude of our inner conflicts results in actual brick walls, like the Peace Walls in Belfast or the wall in Jerusalem, built in order to separate the divided groups (McEwen, 14-16). Walls represent fears, insecurity, and false peace.

Though “such `solutions’ lessen the possibility of violence… they are ways of life based on fear and mistrust of the neighbour” (Stevens, 50).

Whenever there is a lack of trust between people, the fear of the other is present, for “One of the central issues we face is how we know ourselves in relation to diversity, which is about the acceptance of `otherness;’ how we view

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The Challenge of Status quo

this criteria in its absolute sense, the ideal society would embrace freedom in its most comprehensive form and justice would be practiced in attempts to reach as close as possible to absolute justice. Shariah, as the divine law, is a guiding tool for Muslims, but it does not entail the executive power to hang, kill or stone to death in any part of the world. In reality, the concept of Shariah has become too loosely

mozaik

used in the West when referring to certain Muslim societies. It has to be studied and understood in a much more elaborate and sophisticated manner than it is currently being studied in the light of modernity.

Islam promotes a just, equal, and harmonious society. It calls for community spirit, mutual respect and understanding while giving floor to disagreements and differences of opinions. However, the

2006/2

newly revamped and modern understanding of freedom has proven that in a free society where morals and principles have diluted or almost disappeared, there is little hope. A society based on individual desires and whims can only succeed in the short term, and even if it does endure longer, it will not leave a permanent mark in the history of humanity.

Iva Beranek:

War and Peace Start in People’s Hearts: On a Spirituality of Reconciliation Freedom has become a luxury in many countries. Wars and conflicts around the world are changing the face of the Earth, often making it look rather depressing. Amidst the terror, it is generally hard to see hope for our society. As Christians, we regularly pray, “Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, on Earth as it is in Heaven,” but often find it difficult to see the kingdom of God present in our surroundings.

In this essay, I will argue that the fear of “otherness,” which occurs in conflicts, can be overcome by a change of heart. The starting point is that “changing human hearts and changing human society are not separate tasks, but are as interconnected as the two beams of the cross” (Nouwen, 20). Jesus is the one who teaches us about reconciliation and is a bridge-builder across the divide. If we decided to follow Christ on his road of reconciliation, maybe then we would see the kingdom of God growing among us. In the end, hope for more stability and peace may emerge out of our decision for engagement as well.

Diversity as a Challenge for Peace in the Contemporary Society

The Bible tells us that in the beginning was harmony, characterised by trust between humans and God, for the “first two chapters of Genesis affirm the covenantal

relationship of trust between God and humanity and the ontological priority of peace over conflict and violence” (Stevens, 50). In the story of the Fall, however, we see the beginning of human conflict and violence, for fundamental in the Genesis story is how alienation from God brings a deep insecurity into human affairs.

Fear of the neighbour, rather than trust in God, becomes a governing factor in human relations. The neighbour becomes an oppositional `other’ who threatens us.

(Stevens, 50) God created “our common humanity” and our diversity, but it seems that we have forgotten to live united in our diversity, to live in a tension of being so different and unique, personally, culturally and religiously, and still sharing the same condition of being human (Stevens, 50). Not knowing how to live with our diversity, we often decide to build walls between ourselves and others.

Alienation happens between individuals as well as between larger groups, even nations. Especially in societies wounded by conflict, like in Northern Ireland, Israel and Palestine, or in the former Yugoslavian countries, alienation of one group from the other becomes common. Even when the conflict is over or is silenced, destruction is still visible on buildings, in the cities and in the environment. In Croatia,

near Vukovar, where the war in the 1990s was severe, there are still mine fields with signs warning “do not walk here.” If the wounds and signs of conflicts remain in the physical world, they are even more etched in human souls.

Unfortunately, people have mines in their hearts as well. These inner “mine fields” often carry similar messages of a lack of trust, messages warning “do not come near.” Personal mines need to be healed or an incident might happen where someone will step on a mine and they will explode causing even greater damage. Where the wound of conflict is deep, the alienation is rarely temporary. This leads to building walls, first in our hearts and then later in the outside world. Sometimes manifesting the multitude of our inner conflicts results in actual brick walls, like the Peace Walls in Belfast or the wall in Jerusalem, built in order to separate the divided groups (McEwen, 14-16). Walls represent fears, insecurity, and false peace.

Though “such `solutions’ lessen the possibility of violence… they are ways of life based on fear and mistrust of the neighbour” (Stevens, 50).

Whenever there is a lack of trust between people, the fear of the other is present, for “One of the central issues we face is how we know ourselves in relation to diversity, which is about the acceptance of `otherness;’ how we view

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identity and difference” (Cooper, 22-24). Otherness has become an increasing challenge, as most of

In the Bible, it is said that “a man is what his heart is, and heart is used to designate the character” (Mk 7:21) (McKenzie 344). A person carrying a cold, reserved, fearful, or violent heart is in need of a change. The Biblical notion and hope is for “an interior regeneration, a change of heart which is a transformation of character” (Ezek 18:31; 36:26) (McKenzie 344).

This inner change will influence how we relate to others, for the “biblical vision of the heart focuses on that dimension of us which is most sensitive and open to others” (Kennedy 75). Those who have any portion of their hearts frozen and

Jesus as a Role Model for Reconciliation

Through his Passion, Jesus brings love where there was hatred, hope where there was despair, pardon where there was injury (from the Peace Prayer of St. Francis). Jesus identifies with those who are hurt and wounded and wishes to bring healing and love. Everyone bears

hurts, though the wounds have been afflicted differently. We can all identify with personal woundedness in one way or another.

These wounds, however personal and unique, if shared or expressed, would probably “speak most deeply to others” (Nouwen, 74). Jesus identified with us exactly in our woundedness and in our limitations, in order to bring us the fulfilment of a restored relationship with God and with others. Christ’s “bleeding flesh is the tearing of the veil that separated us from God” and each other (Venter, 153). Through the crucifixion of Jesus, “all the enmity, boundaries, barriers and divisions crumble” (Venter, 153).

Jesus, being both God and man, walked the road of reconciliation for us that we may know the way by following his footsteps. He is “the Way, the Truth and the Life” (John 14:6). As God incarnate, he made the interface between God and men a sacred space. In Jesus, the alienation that was between God and humans has been transformed into homecoming. We can follow the call of love that Jesus lived and is inviting us to live and learn by looking to him. We do not have to be perfect or strong to follow his way and accept the love he offers. Embracing our weaknesses and wrongdoings and offering our repentance to God “is a kind of homecoming” (McCaffery, 90). St. Therese of Lisieux set an example in this way; she learned to embrace her humanity and limitations to allow grace to work more profoundly in her (McCaffery 30).

In the example of Jesus and the way he lived, as Therese discovered, we can see that God loves us even though we are not perfect; he loves us with all our limitations and weaknesses.

The flame of God’s love coming

Suggested reading Venter Alexander, Doing Reconciliation. Racism, Reconciliation and Transformation in the Church and World. Cape Town, 2004.

Benedict XVI, Deus Caritas Est. God is Love.

Dublin, 2006.

Cooper David, Exclusion and Embrace (Corrymeela Connections 4, 3), 2004.

Stevens David, The Land of Unlikeness. Exploration into Reconciliation. Dublin, 2004.

Tombs David, L iechty Joseph (eds.), Explorations in Reconciliation. New Directions in Theology.

Aldershot, 2006.

Mc K enzie John L., Dictionary of the Bible. London, 1965.

Nouwen Henri J. M., The Wounded Healer. Ministry in Contemporary Society. London, 1997.

Mc C affrey James, The Fire of Love. Praying with St Thérèse of Lisieux. Norwich, 1998.

K ennedy Robert (ed.), Reconciliation: The Continuing Agenda. Collegeville, 1987.

Mc E wen Susan, Across the Lines (Corrymeela Connections 5, 1), 2005.

Volf Miroslav, Exclusion and Embrace. A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness and Reconciliation. Nashville, 1996.

Iva Beranek was born in 1978 in Croatia. In 2003 she graduated from the Jesuit Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Culture in Zagreb. While a student, she was a volunteer in STEP (IFES Croatia) for 4 years, and after graduation she became fulltime staff. In 2005 her life-long dream to move to Ireland came true. Since the Fall of 2005 she has been living in Dublin and is currently studying for a MA in Christian Spirituality at Milltown Institute.

Her focus and passion is reconciliation, especially in Belfast and Northern Ireland. She is currently doing a research on the role of Christ’s Passion in reconciliation.

the conflicts between persons, groups and cultures, in that magnetic field where ethnicity, politics, culture and religion oppose one another, are viewed increasingly as configured around boundaries and bonds of identity and relationship with those whom we have come to regard as the stranger

(Tombs, 138).

Difference should not be “the cause of division” or conflict, but rather the “enrichment of unity” (Stevens, 53). The challenge is to examine and know who we are, to be stable and integrated in our identity, in order to be able to be embracive towards others as well. With some of the doors of our hearts closed towards those who are different, this ideal of unity will not happen easily. Whenever we recognize our hearts as wounded with walls blocking our freedom to welcome the other, we recognize a need for a new heart and reconciliation.

The Call for Inner Conversion

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walled off will not have the human characteristic of openness.

The promise of a new heart that God gave to Ezekiel is compelling.

We hope we will hear the same words spoken to Ezekiel: “I shall give you a new heart, and put a new spirit in you; I shall remove the heart of stone from your bodies and give you a heart of flesh instead” (Ezek 36:26). We need a new heart. The promise and call of a new heart offers the wounded light amid the darkness of pain and despair. Through the eyes of a new heart, diversity becomes a sign of the richness of life. A change of heart brings with itself a change of attitudes and the renewal of our minds. This change cannot be forced or bought.

With his life and death, Jesus reconciled Heaven and Earth; we can enter this kingdom by “another kind of birth” (John 3:5). He calls us to “a profound change of heart (metanoia)” (Stevens, 87). It is a challenging call. In the Gospels, we see that Jesus is not only encouraging external change, but also inner conversion, for “conversion in the gospel sense refers to an inner disposition, or an attitude of mind and heart” (McCaffrey, 45).

Conversion is a call for a changed perspective on the way we live in the world and it leads us to openness (McCaffrey, 45). Jesus, however, does not call us to walk this path alone; he is there to help us.

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The Challenge of Status quo

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from Christ’s pierced heart can “already” and “not yet” (Venter, Caritas Est, emphasises the need of heal and melt the frozen condition 141). The kingdom grows as God’s “a formation of the heart” (Benedict of our hearts. By deciding to follow love grows in and among us; XVI, 47). He speaks of charity his call and by accepting his invi- Love grows through love. Love is workers and the need for them “to tation to discover “the fullness of ‘divine’ because it comes from God be led to that encounter with God love which alone is eternity,” our and unites us to God; through this in Christ which awakens their love hearts are transformed (McCaffery unifying process it makes us a ‘we’ and opens their spirit to others,” so 30). This transformation will affect which transcends our divisions and that their faith may become “active our being and our actions in the makes us one, until in the end God is through love (cf. Gal 5:6)” (Benedict world. ‘all in all’ (1 Cor 15:28).

XVI, 47). The same may apply for The change of heart is gradual (Benedict XVI, 29) those working on reconciliation. and takes time. It also brings a Jesus challenges us to embrace challenge to become transformers, The Holy Father Pope Benedict those who are very different from and not only to be the ones who XVI, in his first encyclical Deus us - to embrace “Samaritans” as are undergoing transforthey are also our neighmation. Journeying with bours (Luke 12:30f). In Jesus will lead us on the the kingdom that Jesus road he travelled, the road brought, enemies can of reconciliation; “Jesus bring blessings, as a offers us a role model of Samaritan brought them the one who works for the to a wounded Jew (Luke reconciliation of others” 10:29-37). A journey of (Schreiter, 71). By accepting reconciliation brings Rachael Weber: the call of Jesus, we accept uncertainties because the challenge to love the “embrace is a risk,” way he loved, and live similar to love (Stevens, the way he lived. We will 54). We do not know become “kingdom people,” if the embrace will be Unadorned Representative who are “signs of life and accepted or despised, endorsing illusions of reform, hope to any who turn and nor if it will bring an latent pain, the festering trust Jesus for healing and enriching encounter and of concrete boiling in the sun transformation, because transformation. We must on raceways of pavement the kingdom has come and release; the “final act of stretching across aching is working in and through an embrace is a letting plains and rivers and mountains us” (Venter, 141). go. The arms must open and homes and cities and In building the kingdom again. The `other’ remains people. by walking the road of the `other’” (Stevens, 54). reconciliation, we allow We are to continue our But only the perspicacious notice God’s grace and love to use journey towards undercracks in the coruscating oaths— us for his purposes. We standing our differences and only they are left to contend become sowers of God’s and building sustainable and reveal the contradictions love. Jesus said, “The peace by trusting each kingdom of heaven is like other. of the ballyhoo of beliefs upheld, a mustard seed, which a of the promulgation of policies, man took and planted in Conclusion of marriages of morality his field” (Mt 13:31). Even Wars and conflicts and imperfect mankind. though it is a very small start in human hearts Sifting through sounding sycophants and seed, when it grows “it (Mk 7:21f). If a heart cryptic curtains cloaking is the largest of garden undergoes transforbyways of bashing plants and becomes a tree” mation, all that a person trivialities (Mt 13:32). Our hearts and carries in the heart will the hearts of others are undergo transformation and the wildness of false like the field that Jesus dichotomies. The vines have mentions. Sometimes we overtaken the telephone poles, cannot see the kingdom wires and willows of heaven around us, as it weeping overshadow the road. is like a small seed, still Rachael Weber is 22 and currently They must be trimmed lives in Budapest where she growing. We are living by absent highway works as a publications intern for “between the times,” WSCF Europe and as the CESR men. coordinator. She is from Virginia, caught in the tension of two USA and she recently graduated ages that overlap, because with a degree in English, focusing Prison bars glare across the page, on world literature and creative God’s government is both reflections of rays through blinds, writing. She loves books, window seats on airplanes, and apples. print blurs and only the inquiring choose to wrestle with wounded hip for verisimilitude.

“Representative”

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as well. When a person accepts a call to inner conversion, the Spirit of God will work in the person’s heart bringing peace and love in place of the desire for conflict and hate. Fears of differences will slowly diminish and restored trust will emerge (Gal 5:22f).

In the end, we recognise the promise of a new heart and reconciliation as gifts offered to us in Christ. Living out of a new heart will introduce us to “a spirituality of reconciliation that reflects the glory of the resurrection” (Stevens, 82). If we are to follow God’s call

to be transformers of broken hearts and societies, our Christian vocation of reconciliation will have to be expressed through an engaged spirituality. Ken Newell once said, “While prayer is vitally important, it is no longer enough to pray without action.” It is not enough “to wait for God to send revival when what he clearly demands in scripture right now is the forging of new, healthy relationships and positive Christian attitudes” (Stevens 109).

Without these relationships and attitudes, the hope for reconciling our societies has no future.

This message is not only valid for Christians; the language of love is universal. The call to love our enemies and to bless those who curse us, in order that they may be transformed through God’s love (that we have received), is also universal. The decision to follow Jesus on the road of reconciliation is ours. However, if we, Christians, who have received the message “first,” do not take it seriously and do not allow God’s grace to work in and through us, we are not to expect that others will follow also (or instead).

Bogdan Ioan Popescu

From Constantinople to Geneva: The Symphonic Cooperation between Church and State The cooperation between the Church and the State was not only a Byzantine tradition. The old pattern took a different shape, suited to the new reality of the beginning of XVIth Century, the Reformation. One of the most interesting patterns concerning the relation between the State and the Church which also had a considerable influence on the construction of the modern society began in Geneva, and was promoted by Jean Calvin. The message of the Gospel was no longer considered a private option, but rather it became the ideology of the state and a source of inspiration for the civil laws. Many scholars related his ideas to the principle of symphony, arguing that a Reformed Byzantium was born in the fragmented Western Europe.

The Reformed Cooperation

defend the purity of doctrine, as well as to guard general peace and tranquility. The earthly power is not incompatible with the message of the Gospel. Without cooperation with the State, Christians cannot fulfill their journey in this world. Only a Christian State, and a Church defended by it, can overcome the anarchy of the wicked. The protection offered by the political power is considered to be one of the elementary needs of this life: “Mankind derives as much benefit from it as it does from bread, water, sun and air and its dignity is far greater than any of them…it prevents idolatries, sacrileges against the name of God, blasphemies against his truth…it makes possible innocent contacts between people.”

Bogdan Ioan Popescu was born in Bucharest, Romania on August 30, 1976. He graduated from the Orthodox Seminary of Bucharest in 1996 and from the Orthodox Faculty of Theology (Bucharest University) in 2000. He has a Master’s degree from the Ecumenical Institute of Bossey (University of Geneva) and he defended his Phd thesis last year in Sibiu, with the title Patterns of Relationship between Church and State during the first five Christian Centuries

and Their Significance for Today. He was a lecturer in Church History at the Cernica Seminary. He works currently as an inspector in the Department of Education of the Romanian Orthodox Church and is the coordinator of the Theology Interest Group of WSCF-E.

In his book Institutio Christianae Religionis, Calvin promotes the idea of two realms that are interdependent and cannot survive without mutual help. Theology has to influence ideologically the political system and the state must protect its source of inspiration.

God is the absolute sovereign and naturally His word also becomes law in the political world.

The Church did not constrain the State to be Christian because this cooperation was thought to be natural and of divine origin.

Calvin emphasized the Biblical example of king Saul and the prophet Samuel and argued that force was not necessary to impose this alliance, which is wanted by God. According to Calvin, the tasks of the secular government are to protect external worship, to

Suggested reading Justinian I, Novella VI. In From Irenaeus to Grotius. A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought, Cambridge, 1999.

Calvin Jean, Institutio Christianae Religionis. In Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority, Cambridge, 1991.

M eeter Henry, The Basic Ideas of Calvinism. Grand Rapids, MI, 1990.

Baker Derek (ed.), Church, Society and Politics. Oxford, 1975.

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from Christ’s pierced heart can “already” and “not yet” (Venter, Caritas Est, emphasises the need of heal and melt the frozen condition 141). The kingdom grows as God’s “a formation of the heart” (Benedict of our hearts. By deciding to follow love grows in and among us; XVI, 47). He speaks of charity his call and by accepting his invi- Love grows through love. Love is workers and the need for them “to tation to discover “the fullness of ‘divine’ because it comes from God be led to that encounter with God love which alone is eternity,” our and unites us to God; through this in Christ which awakens their love hearts are transformed (McCaffery unifying process it makes us a ‘we’ and opens their spirit to others,” so 30). This transformation will affect which transcends our divisions and that their faith may become “active our being and our actions in the makes us one, until in the end God is through love (cf. Gal 5:6)” (Benedict world. ‘all in all’ (1 Cor 15:28).

XVI, 47). The same may apply for The change of heart is gradual (Benedict XVI, 29) those working on reconciliation. and takes time. It also brings a Jesus challenges us to embrace challenge to become transformers, The Holy Father Pope Benedict those who are very different from and not only to be the ones who XVI, in his first encyclical Deus us - to embrace “Samaritans” as are undergoing transforthey are also our neighmation. Journeying with bours (Luke 12:30f). In Jesus will lead us on the the kingdom that Jesus road he travelled, the road brought, enemies can of reconciliation; “Jesus bring blessings, as a offers us a role model of Samaritan brought them the one who works for the to a wounded Jew (Luke reconciliation of others” 10:29-37). A journey of (Schreiter, 71). By accepting reconciliation brings Rachael Weber: the call of Jesus, we accept uncertainties because the challenge to love the “embrace is a risk,” way he loved, and live similar to love (Stevens, the way he lived. We will 54). We do not know become “kingdom people,” if the embrace will be Unadorned Representative who are “signs of life and accepted or despised, endorsing illusions of reform, hope to any who turn and nor if it will bring an latent pain, the festering trust Jesus for healing and enriching encounter and of concrete boiling in the sun transformation, because transformation. We must on raceways of pavement the kingdom has come and release; the “final act of stretching across aching is working in and through an embrace is a letting plains and rivers and mountains us” (Venter, 141). go. The arms must open and homes and cities and In building the kingdom again. The `other’ remains people. by walking the road of the `other’” (Stevens, 54). reconciliation, we allow We are to continue our But only the perspicacious notice God’s grace and love to use journey towards undercracks in the coruscating oaths— us for his purposes. We standing our differences and only they are left to contend become sowers of God’s and building sustainable and reveal the contradictions love. Jesus said, “The peace by trusting each kingdom of heaven is like other. of the ballyhoo of beliefs upheld, a mustard seed, which a of the promulgation of policies, man took and planted in Conclusion of marriages of morality his field” (Mt 13:31). Even Wars and conflicts and imperfect mankind. though it is a very small start in human hearts Sifting through sounding sycophants and seed, when it grows “it (Mk 7:21f). If a heart cryptic curtains cloaking is the largest of garden undergoes transforbyways of bashing plants and becomes a tree” mation, all that a person trivialities (Mt 13:32). Our hearts and carries in the heart will the hearts of others are undergo transformation and the wildness of false like the field that Jesus dichotomies. The vines have mentions. Sometimes we overtaken the telephone poles, cannot see the kingdom wires and willows of heaven around us, as it weeping overshadow the road. is like a small seed, still Rachael Weber is 22 and currently They must be trimmed lives in Budapest where she growing. We are living by absent highway works as a publications intern for “between the times,” WSCF Europe and as the CESR men. coordinator. She is from Virginia, caught in the tension of two USA and she recently graduated ages that overlap, because with a degree in English, focusing Prison bars glare across the page, on world literature and creative God’s government is both reflections of rays through blinds, writing. She loves books, window seats on airplanes, and apples. print blurs and only the inquiring choose to wrestle with wounded hip for verisimilitude.

“Representative”

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as well. When a person accepts a call to inner conversion, the Spirit of God will work in the person’s heart bringing peace and love in place of the desire for conflict and hate. Fears of differences will slowly diminish and restored trust will emerge (Gal 5:22f).

In the end, we recognise the promise of a new heart and reconciliation as gifts offered to us in Christ. Living out of a new heart will introduce us to “a spirituality of reconciliation that reflects the glory of the resurrection” (Stevens, 82). If we are to follow God’s call

to be transformers of broken hearts and societies, our Christian vocation of reconciliation will have to be expressed through an engaged spirituality. Ken Newell once said, “While prayer is vitally important, it is no longer enough to pray without action.” It is not enough “to wait for God to send revival when what he clearly demands in scripture right now is the forging of new, healthy relationships and positive Christian attitudes” (Stevens 109).

Without these relationships and attitudes, the hope for reconciling our societies has no future.

This message is not only valid for Christians; the language of love is universal. The call to love our enemies and to bless those who curse us, in order that they may be transformed through God’s love (that we have received), is also universal. The decision to follow Jesus on the road of reconciliation is ours. However, if we, Christians, who have received the message “first,” do not take it seriously and do not allow God’s grace to work in and through us, we are not to expect that others will follow also (or instead).

Bogdan Ioan Popescu

From Constantinople to Geneva: The Symphonic Cooperation between Church and State The cooperation between the Church and the State was not only a Byzantine tradition. The old pattern took a different shape, suited to the new reality of the beginning of XVIth Century, the Reformation. One of the most interesting patterns concerning the relation between the State and the Church which also had a considerable influence on the construction of the modern society began in Geneva, and was promoted by Jean Calvin. The message of the Gospel was no longer considered a private option, but rather it became the ideology of the state and a source of inspiration for the civil laws. Many scholars related his ideas to the principle of symphony, arguing that a Reformed Byzantium was born in the fragmented Western Europe.

The Reformed Cooperation

defend the purity of doctrine, as well as to guard general peace and tranquility. The earthly power is not incompatible with the message of the Gospel. Without cooperation with the State, Christians cannot fulfill their journey in this world. Only a Christian State, and a Church defended by it, can overcome the anarchy of the wicked. The protection offered by the political power is considered to be one of the elementary needs of this life: “Mankind derives as much benefit from it as it does from bread, water, sun and air and its dignity is far greater than any of them…it prevents idolatries, sacrileges against the name of God, blasphemies against his truth…it makes possible innocent contacts between people.”

Bogdan Ioan Popescu was born in Bucharest, Romania on August 30, 1976. He graduated from the Orthodox Seminary of Bucharest in 1996 and from the Orthodox Faculty of Theology (Bucharest University) in 2000. He has a Master’s degree from the Ecumenical Institute of Bossey (University of Geneva) and he defended his Phd thesis last year in Sibiu, with the title Patterns of Relationship between Church and State during the first five Christian Centuries

and Their Significance for Today. He was a lecturer in Church History at the Cernica Seminary. He works currently as an inspector in the Department of Education of the Romanian Orthodox Church and is the coordinator of the Theology Interest Group of WSCF-E.

In his book Institutio Christianae Religionis, Calvin promotes the idea of two realms that are interdependent and cannot survive without mutual help. Theology has to influence ideologically the political system and the state must protect its source of inspiration.

God is the absolute sovereign and naturally His word also becomes law in the political world.

The Church did not constrain the State to be Christian because this cooperation was thought to be natural and of divine origin.

Calvin emphasized the Biblical example of king Saul and the prophet Samuel and argued that force was not necessary to impose this alliance, which is wanted by God. According to Calvin, the tasks of the secular government are to protect external worship, to

Suggested reading Justinian I, Novella VI. In From Irenaeus to Grotius. A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought, Cambridge, 1999.

Calvin Jean, Institutio Christianae Religionis. In Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority, Cambridge, 1991.

M eeter Henry, The Basic Ideas of Calvinism. Grand Rapids, MI, 1990.

Baker Derek (ed.), Church, Society and Politics. Oxford, 1975.

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Courage to Take a Stance

The Civil Authority

According to Calvin, the officials of the State must be conscious of the fact that they represent God and therefore have to protect God’s interests and act justly. Their functions are not profane but “sacred commissions.” They are not allowed to behave despotically because they are “God’s legates.”

If they neglect their duties, they sin against God who instituted the authority and they commit a blasphemy. A theocratic mark can easily be detected in this line of thought: the political power is not just a secular arbitrary means but becomes a religious duty.

The most important element of the State is considered to be the law, which cannot remain a pure secular product but must be impregnated with Christian ideas and values: “No polity can be well constituted, unless it makes duties owed to God its first concern and for laws to attend only to the well-being of men, while disregarding what is owed to God is an absurdity.” According to Calvin, no justice can be done if the divine Author of justice is forgotten. God is considered to be the root and the spring of order and harmony, and a society which neglects this truth becomes anarchy. The law can be applied and respected only when it is enlightened by the will of God. The magistrates are not able to operate without the law, because the law is “a silent magistrate” instituted by the Divinity. It is not a simple human invention but a processing and an adaptation of the divine message to human social needs. Inspired by the Old Testament, Calvin divides the law of God into three parts: moral, ceremonial and judicial. The moral aspect reflects the divine will in a pure way: to love and worship God and to respect and love the fellow human. The other two are solely fittings of this will to the needs of the society. The first one is eternal; the other two could be modified and abrogated in different contexts and, in this case, the contribution of the people is necessary. They have to adjust and not to invent. Calvin has no doubt that “individual people have the…freedom to make what laws they see to be expedient

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but all of these…must be measured against the law of love. Their form varies, but they all have the same end.” The methods and the formulations can differ but the purpose must be the obedience to God’s will, the protection of the innocent, and the punishment of wrongdoers. The external means change according to different times and societies: sometimes the severity of the penalties must be increased if the public order is strongly affected and new laws have to be formulated to overcome the new evil. It is clear that the intention of Calvin was to justify the new rules of the “Ecclesiastical Ordinances.”

The Use of Force

In order to protect authority and the values of the law, rulers have the duty to defend them by using force. Magistrates do not sin by punishing the wicked because they do not act on their own initiative, but accomplish God’s judgments. In this way, Calvin attempts to solve the contradiction between violence and inoffensive faith. The use of power plays the role of a bitter medicine, which can overcome a dangerous disease. The doctor is not guilty for its bitterness: “Since magistrates cannot carry out their appointed task unless they protect good men from injustices of the wicked and help and protect the oppressed, they have been armed with power, to repress evil-doers and malefactors, whose wickedness disturbs and troubles the public peace.” The danger appears when the ruler does not seek to defend the legitimate right but looks for personal revenge. For this reason, Calvin prefers the collective power of the aristocrats to the monarchy.

In the same way, rulers have to fight against external attempts to destroy public order. According to Calvin, wars are justified in cases when the harmony of society is threatened. The ruler fulfills, in this case, the same task of protection, but on a greater scale. The reformer affirms that “from time to time it is necessary for kings and people to take up arms in order to carry out this kind of public vengeance…The wars engaged in for this purpose are legitimate.”

A war, however, is considered

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legitimate only when all the other means have failed. The war is an ultimate solution and not an ordinary one. In addition, the reason for engaging in a conflict must concern the public welfare and not a private interest.

The Limits of Christian Obedience

In the case of Calvin, it is also important to examine the extent to which obedience to political power can reach. The reformer of Geneva states very clearly that Christians must recognize and respect public institutions as those appointed

by God. Citizens should not obey rulers out of fear or consider them necessary evil. In fact, to honor the king is equivalent to honoring God. The rulers are just ambassadors and messengers of divine authority.

Even when they are wrong, they must be obeyed. Of course, when the leaders seek their own interests, becoming cruel and unjust, they no longer reflect the image of God, but their authority is still valid. Sinful kings have come about according to divine will also, in order to punish the inequity of the people. Calvin considers that “even the worse of them, and those entirely undeserving of any honor, provided they have public authority, are invested with splendid and sacred authority which God’s word bestows on the ministers of his justice and judgement.” Calvin gives also several examples, to illustrate his affirmations. According to him, in this way, the Lord ordered to the Jews through the prophet Jeremiah, to pray for Babylon, the city that enslaved them. David also, being persecuted by Saul, continued to consider his cruel king sacred.

The reformer thinks that citizens should not take into consideration the person of the ruler, but the Person whom he represents. The king must be considered a vase of honor. He could be a bad one, but must be respected for his position.

The sinfulness of the leader should not be an obstacle for the spreading of the divine message and harmony.

Like Luther and Zwingli, Calvin identifies only one particular case when Christians have the right

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and obligation to disobey the ruler.

When there is a conflict between God’s commandments and those of the kings, the Christians have only one choice: to be subjects to the King of the kings. It is moral to disobey the earthly lords if their desires clash with the will of the Person Who instituted them and gave them authority: “When His sacred mouth has spoken, it alone and no one else is to be heard. We are subjects to those who have been placed over us, but only in Him. If they command anything against His will it must be as nothing to us. “

The Impact of Calvinism on Economic Life

Calvin did not try to build a community of the redeemed outside of public life. His conviction was that the just should be part of society and influence it. They were allowed to use political and social structures to practice trade and to deal with money. While Luther preached the poverty of the Christians, Calvin stressed the importance of material means and their necessity for society. He used the confiscated properties for setting up hospitals and schools, and encouraged economic activity: equitable loan contracts, the productivity of money, the morality

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of profit making. In one of his letters he writes, “And what is money not more productive than merchandise or any other possession one could mention? It is lawful to make money by renting a peace of ground, yet unlawful to make it from money?

What? When you buy a field is money not making money?” He does not condemn the practice of usury either, but requires a fair administration of it: “I conclude we ought not to judge usury according to few passages of Scripture, but in accordance with the principle of equity.” For this reason Calvin was considered a promoter of the capitalist economy. Also, as a sign of subjection to rulers, Christians, like other citizens, have to pay taxes. The princes have the right to use these funds both for public expenses and for the expenses of palaces. They can maintain, in this way, the splendor of their houses as a symbol of the dignity and authority that God has entrusted to them.

Conclusion

Through his measures and ideas Calvin influenced and changed Western society. The Christian faith became a norm and its practice a public duty. I do not think that the Geneva of Calvin should be considered a classical theocracy but that the two powers were mixed almost in a “Constantinian” way.

The Church did not replace the civil State, but the Church acted for the State and the State protected the Church. Calvin promoted a close cooperation between faith and power and offered a strong alternative to the dichotomous Christianity of Luther.

In this way, a close cooperation between State and Church did not remain just an Eastern pattern, applied by the Orthodox Churches, but flourished also in Western Europe. Civil society, legislation, political life and culture have been dramatically influenced by the Calvinistic thought. Public life was penetrated in all its aspects by the religious element and the life of the Church was increasingly harmonized with that of the State. As in the Byzantine tradition, the two realities formed and acted like one body. The ideas of Calvin remind of one of the famous definitions of this interdependence, given by the Emperor Justinian, who stressed in the sixth Novella that “the greatest of God’s gifts among men…are priesthood and empire (basileia), the one in service of the things of God, the other providing government and care for the concerns of men, the two proceeding from one and the same source and together providing the organizing principles of human life…If the priesthood is above reproach from any quarter and stands before God with confidence, and if the imperial authority organizes the commonwealth committed to it rightly and fittingly, there will be a balanced harmony to ensure whatever may be of value to the human race.”

Calvin appreciated and used the secular means, adapting it to the Christian perspective, following this old tradition. Even though we cannot speak about a “Byzantine marriage” between the two powers, we certainly can speak about a “Reformed engagement.”

Therefore, the contemporary secular European politicians should be aware that this tradition is still very strong in Europe and that it does not belong solely to a certain area or denomination. It could be very difficult to build a united Europe without taking into consideration this heritage that influenced both the Eastern and the Western part of the continent.

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Courage to Take a Stance

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Roman Králik

The Dichotomy of Church and State in the Works of Søren Kierkegaard Nowadays, many politicians in Central Europe are devoted to the question of the separation of church and state. Some of the liberal parties intensively demand the separation between church and state before elections, expecting this to improve their chances for success. Church representatives dedicate far too much time to the issue of separation, arguing and reasoning that church and state are and must remain closely connected, as the state consists of citizens who are simultaneously members of the churches.

Kierkegaard and the Church

Personally I think it is just a matter of time when this separation will come about. When we look at the developments and figures of the past, there is much to learn from them. In this essay, I would like to exemplify my opinion on the separation between state and church with the help of the Danish philosopher and theologian Søren K ierkegaard (1813-1855), who strictly opposed the idea that the connection with the State is beneficial for the Church. K ierkegaard was convinced that such a connection does not “match” the mission of Christianity. Because of this stance and because he did not explicitly deal with the doctrine of the Church, it is rarely argued that K ierkegaard had a positive association with the Church. This does not mean, however, that he did not have interest in the Church, for which he prayed. He considered the teaching of the Church correct in its essence and accepted the church with all its sacraments, liturgies and regulations. It is therefore important to emphasize that the object of K ierkegaard’s criticism was not the church as an entity, but primarily the representatives of the Church. This is a crucial point in understanding the importance of the Church for K ierkegaard.

Another reason for K ierkegaard’s criticism of ecclesial life was

that the contemporary church was markedly influenced by the philosophy and thinking practiced at the University of Copenhagen, where Jesus Christ was at times conceived of primarily as a teacher of ethics and the Bible was not perceived through the prism of the Word of God. In addition, according to K ierkegaard, the human is able to find God even without the help of the church. K ierkegaard’s criticism of social and ecclesial conditions represents a fight against the relativisation of God and against natural world in itself, secularisation, and profanity as the primary determinant.

Christianity vs.

Christendom

K ierkegaard pointed out the poverty of theology which had changed the life in the Church into grey theory and hypocrisy with no need for human’s personal passion—the Church had, since the world’s reformation, forgotten about Christ’s demand of discipleship. K ierkegaard’s attack was connected to his conviction that the Church had surrendered to the dictate of culture and society, instead of being dependent solely on God. As a consequence of the unification of church and state— through which every citizen became a Christian—the sense of Christianity vanished. In this sense, the idea of the Church is not qualitatively different from the idea of the state, because it is entered by the individual through the uncontrollable physical action of birth.

But when the individual enters this paradox, he will not arrive at the idea of the Church.

When examining K ierkegaard’s criticism, it is necessary to point out the difference he made between Christianity, the true Christianity lived in accordance with the New Testament, and Christendom, i. e. formal Christianity, which was created also through the fusion of the Church and the State.

To understand K ierkegaard’s opposition to the condition of the Church, it is inevitable, first of all, to explain his relation to God. The Danish philosopher felt enormous spiritual humbleness and respect towards God. One of his books even carries the title Fear and Trembling, and this title accurately captures his relation to God, which stemmed from his sense of personal responsibility and respect. K ierkegaard followed the New Testament literally and drew a sharp line between sincere and personal relationship with God and public demonstrations of religiosity. He criticised the tepidity of his contemporaries, believing they made a fool of God. For this reason he even went as far as to warn the believers not to visit church services. He followed the request of the New Testament, believing that the clergyman should not accept a fixed salary or financial reward for his service to God. Since service to God represents the highest possible service, no reward should be accepted—the reward expresses dishonesty and desire for profit. The service to God must be conducted with a pure heart – out of sincerity, an immediate relationship with God and from love.

K ierkegaard was afraid that by the means of a church office, the human would desire to govern and exploit his or her position. He saw the example of neutralised Christianity in bishop Mynster and noted that priests lacked passion and determination. Because of the absence of radicality and call to unselfishness, K ierkegaard called their sermons babble which turned church visits into habit and tradition that lacked inner life. In church life, K ierkegaard saw the absence of the assertive either-or— world or God, State or Church— and he underlined the necessity first to search for the kingdom of God, and not, as he saw priests do, for their personal benefit. Therefore he considered the priests to be

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renegades who made a business out of Christianity, and he referred to them as state-paid clerks.

The Individual vs.

Masses

According to K ierkegaard, following God lies not in state protection, but is a narrow path that demands effort and even suffering. A wide path was created by the State, where everybody is a Christian and where the demands put forth by God fade away.

One of the main differences between the State and Christianity is that the State is interested in numbers, in the masses, whereas for Christianity, the most important reality is the individual and his or her decisions. If the State has the role of protecting the Church, the State prevents the Church not only from free development and progress, but it reorients the Church’s attention from the individual to the masses.

K ierkegaard’s criticism of society and the Church is, however, different from that of Nietzsche, who did not long for a remedy to the conditions. By the utilization of harsh criticism, K ierkegaard desires to bring to the attention of the individual the right narrow path, which requires autonomous thinking and genuine selflessness. K ierkegaard is critical of all hypocrisy, especially of those who make a fool of God by insincere service, while presenting themselves as the most devoted servants. The philosopher accentuates the difference between the profitoriented Christendom and the example of Jesus Christ, who did not seek fame nor wealth, but the glory of his Father.

Suggested reading K ierkegaard Søren, For Self-Examination. Princeton, 1990.

K ierkegaard Søren, Judge for Yourself! Princeton, 1990.

K ierkegaard Søren, The Moment and Late Writings.

Princeton, 1998.

K ierkegaard Søren, Practice in Christianity. Princeton, 1991.

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In his rigour, K ierkegaard goes as far as to compare the church to a theatre. Both perform the same thing. The only difference is that in the theatre everybody knows it is a play—but the church pretends to present the real thing.

K ierkegaard pointed out the absurdity of finding the truth in the church without personal interest, desire and passion for God. One of the consequences of this emphasis on individuality and personal relationship is that K ierkegaard’s work poorly highlights the concept of the Church as a community. He aimed the spotlight at the individual who is essential for the future of Christianity, making the communal activities of the Church appear to be secondary. To this “i ncomprehension” of the church, Karl Barth took a critical stand: “Where in his teaching are the people of God, the congregation, the Church; where is its diaconal, missionary, political, and social content?”

Christendom: A Community of Non-Christians

From the contemporary cultural-religious situation (tight connection between State and Church in Denmark), K ierkegaard concluded that Christianity was declining, which led to the elimination of the mutual relationship between God and human. He constantly referred to this kind of formalised and impersonal Christianity as Christendom—and this Christendom had nothing to do with the Church of Jesus Christ.

He perceived Christendom as a community of non-Christians.

The Church often serves—and by far not only in Denmark—the common “Christian” only three times—at baptism, marriage, and death. People who seek God today often appear to have lost confidence in the Church. They identify God with the Church, which is in return tightly linked to the State.

This reminds me of a story of an ancient philosopher who walked through the town, holding up a lamp, searching for something.

“What are you looking for?” he was asked. “I am looking for the human,” he answered.

Even today, though we have many professionals and scientific research constantly makes important progress, we still must ask the same question: where is the human? We need to look for him, but we don’t find him. Trust and the willingness to help vanish.

Materialism, egoism, and desire for power triumph. The role of the Church is to find the human and present him to this world. If the Church does not succeed, it has no future.

It is incorrect to state that K ierkegaard was critical towards the church only in the last years of his life, in the so-called church struggle (1854-1855). Even in his earlier works, he points out the shortcomings of the Church and its main representatives. Through the description of the condition of the Church, he wanted to stress the real content of Christianity.

Kierkegaard wanted to do in the XIXth century Denmark the same thing as Socrates had done before in the pre-Christian Athens. Today, the revival of Christianity according to the New Testament constitutes a challenge and obligation for all of us who are not indifferent to the fate of the Church. If this revival comes about, the issue of the separation of State and Church will not be relevant any more.

(The article was translated by Jozef Filo) Roman K rálik (1973) studied pedagogy, philosophy and theology in Banská Bystrica and Nitra, Slovakia, and in Prague, Czech Republic. He took part in a research programme at the Hong Kierkegaard Library of St. Olaf College in the United States and has published a number of articles dealing with the thinking of K ierkegaard. In 2005 he established the Kierkegaard Collection in Slovakia, which is the only

specialised library of this kind in the country. He has a doctorate in theology from HTF UK in Prague. He is the author of the recently published monograph Problém zvaný Kierkegaard (The Problem Called Kierkegaard). He is the founder and the chairperson of the Kierkegaard Society in Slovakia. His email adress is kierkegaard@centrum.sk.

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Étienne Dupré

The Spiritus Rector of Roman Catholic (1904–1995)

Yves Congar

Yves Congar was undoubtedly one of the most influential figures of the Roman Catholic theological renewal in the XXth century and played a prominent role in the legitimisation and promotion of the ecumenical movement in the Roman Catholic Church. His deep respect and thorough knowledge of his own tradition, as well as of the traditions of other Christian Churches, set an important example for a new generation of Roman Catholic theologians and scholars who attempted – and still attempt – to further the quest for unity between the Roman Catholic Church and other Churches of both the West and the East.

Knocking down the Buddhas

Yves Congar was born in 1904 in Sedan, northeast France. In his childhood, he was a first-hand witness to the horrors of the World War I, and under the influence of the suffering he saw during that time, he made a decision to become a doctor. He grew up in a deeply religious and patriotic family and as an adult he often remembered his mother’s Saturday readings from the Gospel. In an incident that he used to mention with a smile on his lips, he also recalled how—when preparing for his First Communion together with his sister—he knocked down Buddha figures made of sand by his brothers at the back of their garden.

Congar’s choice of the priestly vocation was later modified due to his visits to Benedictine monasteries in which he experienced authentic monastic life in spite of the critical state of the wardamaged premises in which the monks were living. In 1925 he joined the Order of Preachers

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(Dominicans) at Amiens, and even before his ordination in 1930, he became aware of his personal vocation to work for the unity of the Christian Churches.

He studied at Reims, Paris and Kain-latombe, where he attended courses and spiritual retreats led by renowned theologians such as Jacques M aritain, Reginald Garrigou-L agrange and his later personal friend and advisor MarieDominique Chenu. Congar himself was later active as a pedagogue at the prestigious Dominican house of studies known as Le Saulchoir.

In 1937 he started an ecclesiological series entitled Unam Sanctam, and the first issue was Congar’s ecumenical manifesto Divided Christendom: A Catholic Study of the Problem of Reunion. This study proved to be an important milestone in Roman Catholic thinking about ecumenism and immmediately attracted considerable attention.

Congar spent much of World War II as a prisoner of war in German captivity and after his return to France he became an active writer, known especially for his advocacy of Roman Catholic involvement in the ecumenical movement. The movement for Christian unity was, at that time, still viewed with much suspicion by the official structures of the Roman Catholic Church that regarded it as a dubious attempt at pan-Christian syncretism and feared the contamination of the Catholic doctrine.

In the post-war years, Congar continued his search for possible platforms of dialogue with other Christian denominations and

his struggle for an increased involvement of the Catholic laity in the life of the Church.

The post-war years, however, proved to be the hardest time in Congar’s life. Between 1946-1956, he was subject to a constant supervision by the Holy Office (the current Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith) and was repeatedly withheld permission to publish his writings. Eventually he was subject to total censorship.

In the years following Word War II the French Dominican was forced to leave France three times. He spent his exile first at the Dominican Biblical Institute in Jerusalem, then in Rome and in 1956 he was sent to Cambridge. His life reached a turning point in 1956 when, in December, he returned to France and the inimical attitude of the Roman curia slowly began to change. With the advent of the aggiornamento, proclaimed by the new Pope John XXIII, a significant renewal and re-orientation of the official Catholic theologizare took place. In 1960 Congar was appointed a consultant to the theological commission charged with the preparation of materials for the upcoming Second Vatican Council.

The Silent Man with a Pipe at Vatican II

mini- biography

Ecumenism:

YVES CONGAR

Courage to Take a Stance

Ecumenism became one of the key focusses of Vatican II and its importance grew steadily.

Aproximatly fourty delegates from different Christian Churches were invited to the opening of the Council and were allowed to follow the sessions as observers. This unprecedented novelty brought about much enthusiasm on the

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part of theologians like Congar who had been trying for years to facilitate and encourage meetings of the Church officials at the highest level. In 1962 Congar’s dream became reality. In his personal Council journal, Congar noted the atmosphere of warmth and love that surrounded events such as the common Scripture reading in the church of St. Paul’s Outside the Walls, where three representatives of the Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox Church communions read the Gospel together.

Congar participated actively in the preparation of the crucial declaration on ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio, which for the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church stated an official commitment of the Church to the common quest for Christian unity.

Instead of promoting the old model of the return of the other Christian Churches to the only true Church embodied in the Roman Catholic Church, the document presented a new model of gradual convergence of the Churches. Under the

influence of theologians such as Congar , the texts of the Council re-oriented the attention from what divides the Churches to what already unites them, and further to what could unite them. One of the important shifts was that of rhetorics—searching for new ways of talking about the other Churches.

In earlier documents, nonCatholics were referred to as heretics or amputated members and a clear distinction between a voluntary leaving of the Church and a life-long affiliation to another Church or Community was missing. During Vatican II, the expressions separated brethren and separated Churches were used and were gradually replaced by other Christians, others who have received Baptism or Christians of other Communities. The change of language and vocabulary was not merely a cosmetic change. It was a consequence of an unequivocal change in attitudes on the part of the Roman Catholic Church.

At Vatican II, the paradigm of dialogue was introduced and the

Suggested reading

F lynn Gabriel (ed.), Yves Congar, Theologian of the Church. Louvain, 2005.

Komonchak Joseph A., Vatican II as Ecumenical Council: Yves Congar’s Vision Realised.

Congar Yves, Called to Life. Slough, 1988.

Congar Yves, Chrétiens en dialogue. Paris, 1964.

Congar Yves, Vraie et fausse réforme dans l’Église. Paris, 1950.

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http://www.jknirp.com/congar4.htm

Catholics were openly encouraged to participate in the ecumenical movement. When reflecting on the heritage of the Churches of the East, Unitatis Redintegratio even admitted that in theological formulations concerning the revealed mystery these Churches can be in some areas complementary to the Roman Catholic Church. Thus a considerable appreciation has been given to various inputs of other Churches in the fields of theology, mission, etc.

One of the important consequences of the Second Vatican Council was the establishment of such organs as the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity or the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, whose aim is to ensure constant dialogue with other Churches and living faiths.

When the Second Vatican Council was approaching its end in 1965, Yves Congar stopped at the tomb of St. Paul and prayed for the unity of the Church. He recalls his prayer in this way: “I talk to him. I talk to him about Luther, who wanted to reaffirm ‘the Gospel’ for which Paul had struggled. I ask of him, I almost tell him he has an obligation . . . to intervene in this new stage, to guide the pope and us all.”

The commitment to ecumenical dialogue that the Roman Catholic Church professed at Vatican II has been followed ever since. It is beyond doubt that Congar was among those who contributed the most to the launching of a new approach to the movement for Christian unity during the sessions of the Council. According to an anecdote, at the beginning of the Council he was still an unknown man to most of the bishops and thus he was referred to as “the silent man with a pipe.” In 1994 “the silent man with a pipe” was made Cardinal by Pope John Paul II as a sign of recognition for his lifelong struggle for the renewal of the Church and his visionary quest for the Christian unity.

Étienne Dupré (1975) was born in Toulouse and studied theology and arts in Paris. Since 1996 he has been in regular contact with the ecumenical community in Taizé. In 2000 he stayed in the Taizé community for a year. His main interests are theology, painting and liturgy. Currently he works in a design studio in Paris.

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Courage to Take a Stance

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Nagypál Szabolcs

Finding Meaning in Modern Society: Theological Insights of Viktor Emil Frankl Wisdom most of all means a knowledge which is simultaneously aware of its borders and limits; in line with this, the founder of the third Viennese psychotherapeutic school, Viktor Emil Frankl , would certainly deserve a Nobel Prize in wisdom. When evaluating his theological insights, we follow the ancient Eastern Orthodox rule: a theologian is one who prays.

The most important resource of a therapist and healer is her or his personality, and Frankl certainly regarded his patients as his teachers. Now we try to connect the wisdom, the theological insights and the therapeutic pedagogy of Frankl .

We are provided with an integrated and unified life-œuvre in the case of Frankl , which contains many repetitions and re-emphases.

It is also characterized by an interdisciplinary and frequent rotation of scientific perspectives: his interest and methodology are extremely varied, since in his views one method can never be totally fulfilling and effective.

His language is not uniform, nor does he intend to accomplish this. He says everything in at least four or five places and instances, and each time a bit differently. He has a wonderful sense for easy-toremember and citable aphoristic formulations.

In a positive sense, he is characterised by a kind of integrative eclecticism in his writings and thinking: his conviction is that soul and psychology are open to wide spaces, and only the cooperation of the different branches and movements can lead to significant scientific results and optimal therapeutic effects.

It was always emphasized by Frankl that the less psychotherapy intends to fulfill an ancillary role in relation to theology, the more services it can provide for it actually, since one need not be a servant to provide services for the other. Thus, we are grateful for all

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the services provided by existenceanalysis and logotherapy to monotheistic theologies.

Finding Meaning through Self-Transcendence

The fullness of human life consists in the harmonised cooperation of eros, ethos and logos.

Existence-analysis and logotherapy draw heavily from the positive and life-centred line of existentialist philosophy, and depict the human in her or his unity, integrity and wholeness, through the teamwork of these dimensions, recognising the peculiarity of all aspects without trying to derive one solely from the other. According to F rankl , psychotherapy should be brought back to medical science, through the demythologizing of psychotherapy and rehumanisation of medical science.

Thus the psychiatric credo of F rankl is the following: ‘I believe in the survival of the spiritual person behind the symptoms of the illness.’ He builds his psychotherapeutical credo on this notion also: ‘I believe in the spiritual ability of the person, which is able to make a distance from body and mind in all conditions and circumstances, and to place itself at a fruitful distance from them.’

Methodologically, three processes are especially worth our attention: the modification of attitude, paradox intention, and de-reflexion.

Through the modification of attitude, the therapist always provides attitudes and not contents; instead of converting the person, the therapist helps the patient’s own characteristic values to break through, working towards the possibility of fitting it into the personality.

The aim of paradox intention is to educate tragic optimism, applied together with comic pessimism (exaggerated self-ridicule). Dereflexion helps us to turn towards others with honest interest; instead of being fixed on ourselves, it urges

us to forget and put ourselves into brackets, in self-emptying kenosis.

Through this, one regains also her or his natural charm and impartiality, since keeping a distance from ourselves and the things around us helps us to bear our cross in dignity.

Principally, one does not need balance or homeostasis but a healthy dose of creative tension, which is constituted by the things already reached and yet to be done. In other words, it means the distance between what the human is and what she or he must become.

Human existence is characterised most of all by its self-transcendence, and self-realisation can be reached only through this. The more one transcends and forgets oneself, the more one becomes oneself and human. All of us are able to make sacrifices out of love for others; the genuine and full value and meaning of human life consists, according to F rankl , also in sacrificing it for something or someone.

Truth: The Mutual Refraction of Perspectives

Up to the point where we reach absolute truth (in the Reign of God), we must be content with the notion that relative truths correct each other; we must dare to be one-sided in a way that is fortunately aware of its one-sidedness, which means that it uses wisdom in a creative way. Mutual help in approaching truth and taking it seriously multiplies the chances of self-transformation and self-correction as well.

Even though we look at the world from different perspectives, for all of our stances there is only one exactly right perspective to be found. Thus absolute truth exists not in spite of the relativity of these perspectives, but precisely because of it. The only absolute allowed by reality for humanity is the absolute uniqueness of that perspective in which reality manifests itself for each human being. This is what

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is meant principally by unity in diversity and diversity in unity, and in this way the recognition of perspectives does not necessarily have to lead to relativity.

Faith, Religion and Religiousness

Unconscious faith means a natural relationship with the Transcendent.

It is not the unconscious faith suppressed in a Freudian sense, but one which is not (yet, already or currently) manifested in the conscience. Faith is not that kind of reality which is lessened by the reality of the imagined, but rather it is one which is multiplied by the existence of the thinker. One’s faith in meaning is definitely a transcendental category.

Religion is a radical and persistent will for final and superior meaning. For the religious person, life appears in a transcendental transparency, in which consciousness, awareness and responsibility are given by the Mandator, together with the tasks for our life. There is a religiosity which we perform only as far as we are in trouble (this is fox-hole religiosity); and another kind, which we follow so far as we prosper (let us call it business religiosity).

But religion is similar most of all to

Suggested reading Frankl Viktor Emil, Trotzdem Ja zum Leben sagen: Ein Psychologe erlebt das Konzentrationslager. Wien, 1946.

F rankl Viktor Emil, Der unbewußte Gott: Psychotherapie und Religion. München, 1948.

F rankl Viktor Emil, Logos und Existenz: Drei Vorträge.

Wien, 1951.

Frankl Viktor Emil, Der Mensch auf der Suche nach Sinn: Zur Rehumanisierung der Psychotherapie. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1972.

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language, in the sense that one can approach truth in many languages, but is unable to reach it fully in any. What is even more important is that one can be wrong in every language, insofar as one can lie in all of them. Maybe we are heading towards a deeply personal religiousness, from which all of us can find her or his most personal language to address God. F rankl indicates that for a religion, temptation is obscurity, and for a denomination it is rigidity: without veins, blood flows away, and without blood, veins

turn rigid. There cannot be antagonism between the responsible experiences and deeds of religious and non-religious persons; from the point of view of therapy and healing, religious experience and dimension have rather a supplementary relation. Because of this, when a patient stands on the firm ground of religious faith, the therapist should not be opposed in using the person’s religious conviction for the sake of healing, thus relying on her or his spiritual resources as well.

Religiousness is the experience of our fragmentation and relativity in the face of such a personality, whose mere naming, the ‘Absolute,’ is an act of sheer audacity in itself.

The long tradition of apophatic, negative theology draws our attention to this fact as well: according to it, the only thing that is possible to name concerning God is what God is not, because the Absolute is not in any of the dimensions, but rather is the frame of reference itself.

For the process of Searching, the Found does not exist; but for the Searcher, the Searched-for always exists. Intentionality bursts immanency, but still it stops in front of the Transcendent.

God is transcending everything always, but God is at the same time always intended.

F rankl Viktor Emil, Der leidende Mensch: Anthropologische Grundlagen der Psychotherapie. Bern, 1975.

F rankl Viktor Emil – Lapide Pinchas, Gottsuche und Sinnfrage. Gütersloh, 2005.

Tavel Peter, Smysl zˇivota podle Viktora Emanuela Frankla.

Praha, 2007.

Nagypál Szabolcs (1974) is a graduate in ecumenical theology, law and literature. He works in the Benedictine Békés Gellért Ecumenical Institute (BGÖI) in Pannonhalma, and teaches philosophy (of religion) in ELTE in Budapest.

He was chairperson of KÖD (Magyar SCM) and CESR; and a member of ERC and ExCo. He is the moderator of the Theology Commission of the International Ecumenical Fellowship (IEF). He is the editor-in-chief of Student World, the Central European Ecumenical Anthologies, and was that of Mozaik. His email address is nagypalszabi@yahoo.com.

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Courage to Take a Stance

Many times God is silent, but God is always called for; God is irrevealable, but revealed already by Godself.

Karl R ahner SI points out that the existential introduction to the mystery of faith (mystagogy) warns humanity of finding meaning: turning directly to the given world, the person should experience Transcendence profoundly and genuinely. The task of the healer and therapist is to widen and broaden the horizon of the patient in such a way that the full width, height and depth of the possible meaning of her or his life would become conscious and visible for her or him.

Person and Community

F rankl summarised in ten theses the significance of personal existence. The person is individual, existential, unconsciously egolike, creative, dynamic, supernaturally believing, (self-) transcendent in her or his soul, with indissoluble integrity and absolute dignity. Personality is provided by irreplaceability and uniqueness, in other words perfection and onesidedness; on the other hand, being the image of God also means the possibility of infinity in humanity.

Community is justified as an essential task, since through it the human becomes a fully valuable member of a bigger whole.

According to F rankl , person and community are in a dialectical relationship: it is only community that guarantees the meaning of personality for individuals, and it is only through the preserved and enlarged personality that the meaning of community is secured.

Community plays an important and fundamental role in Christian theology also; for example in ecclesiology, in a richly explained metaphor, the Church is the Body of Christ. But this also means that none of the members should imagine that it is not themselves but others who are sick and wounded, since it is always the whole body which can become infected and ill.

Following from monotheism, the sense of the unity of humankind is urged as well (monanthropism or monanthropologism), which transcends all dividing multiformity.

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One of the dimensions of interreligious dialogue is precisely this teaching on the oneness and uniqueness of humanity and on planetary (ecumenical) responsibility, including the integral awareness of the belonging together with all people of goodwill. The only chance of survival for humanity depends on whether religions and nations finally discover a common and uplifting task which will unite them. Service to humanity becomes, in such a way, a service to God at the same time.

Expulsion and Salvation

Perhaps humanity has to be expelled from Paradise again and again, in order to aim for higher goals, thus finding its inner balance, harmony, creative tension and greatness. The dawn of the sixth day of creation was when a sudden mutation provided humanoids with fourteen million (or billion) neurons, which we have been unable to use fully ever since.

On the seventh day God took a rest, and since then it has been up to humanity itself to do what it can and create what it wills. In a certain sense, God awaits: let us see how humanity realises the potentialities created with it. God is therefore still waiting, still resting, it is still Saturday—a permanent Sabbath.

Eternal salvation must be a consequence: among other things, the consequence of the fulfillment of our duty, mission and vocation. Humanity should not aim to be happy, but to be worthy of happiness: real happiness and joy is the side-effect of the fulfillment of meaning, and genuine self-realisation will be a side-effect of selftranscendence as well. Happiness, joy and salvation are always sideeffects and side-products, and are ruined exactly in such measure as they are aimed at as ends in themselves.

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Grace, Love and Dialogue

Martin Buber also emphasizes that the life of the mind itself is dialogical, because the I becomes I only by means of the Thou. Only that Ego, which is directed towards a Thou, can integrate its own Id. Karl Jaspers further underlines the need for genuine existential encounter, communication and profound dialogue between human and human. From person to person, soul to soul, the path and the bridge are narrow.

Love means that we are able to say ‘Thou’ to someone, and we are also able to say ‘Yes’ to that very person, envisioning in her or him what she or he can become in her or his existence and maybe must be as well. Love means seeing the other person in the way God thinks, dreams and sees her or him.

Therefore, love is directed towards the singularity, uniqueness and irreplaceability of the other person, and says a resounding ‘Yes’ to her or him, affirming her or his whole existence.

In the path of being loved, without our contribution and personal merit, by grace we partake in the fulfillment which consists in the realisation of our uniqueness and singularity. Love does not make one blind, but visual and visionary.

One becomes sensitive and capable of noticing and recognising values, reading others with love and interpreting everything to their benefit; this is to be called the hermeneutics of goodwill.

Next to the grace of being loved, we find at the same time the magic and miracle of love. Love is the only way to understand the inner core of the personality of the other. No one can get to know the essence of the other, unless it is by loving her or him.

The actor, blinded by the light of the lamps, sees nothing in the place of the auditorium but a big black hole: she or he never sees the audience in front of whom she or he is playing. But according to some (and among those we can count also Viktor Emil F rankl) exactly where we see nothing sits the Great Spectator, who looks at us steadily and with love, expecting from us something meaningful and dignified.

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Bulcsú Kál Hoppál

What is and what is not Religious Tolerance?

(In) a phenomenological approach Let me start with two remarks. My first remark concerns the method of this essay, the second remark is of historical retrospection to the beginnings of toleration in Hungary.

Phenomenology in Religious Sciences

As far as I have observed, strife exists over the method of religious studies.

Some scholars say that the method of religious studies is a simple positivist method of collecting data about the phenomenon observed.

Positivism is a system of working hypothesis based on things that can be seen or proven rather than on speculation. Analysis of data and data processing play a decisive role in religious studies, but the most salient feature of religious studies is obtaining information and setting out facts.

Others say that the proper method of religious studies is phenomenology. Adolf R einach was convinced that the core of every science is the method: “For the essential point is this, that phenomenology is not a system of philosophical propositions and truths…but rather it is a method of philosophising which is required by the problems of philosophy (and let me add that it is required by the problems of every science – K. H.), which is very different from the manner of viewing and verifying in life, and which is even more different from the way in which one does and must work in most sciences” (194-195). According to this view, the proper method of religious sciences requires going beyond mere observation and induction in order to obtain knowledge about the world of essences and states of facts necessarily grounded in the initial observations.

Reinach writes that, “Many sciences, by their very nature, do not involve direct intuition of essences (Wesensschau)” (196). In contrast to the positivist account, the realist phenomenology emphasizes the essence-intuition. It is

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to be remarked that Dietrich von H ildebrand also refuses the genetic explanation when he speaks about the method of phenomenology: “it (phenomenology) is also in contrast to any genetic approach which claims that we understand the object when we know its causes” (223). Knowing the causes of something is not enough, knowing the real essence of the thing itself— this is true knowledge.

Let me clarify it with a very simple example of mathematics.

The main question of mathematics is “What is the essence of number?”

The mathematician has no answer to this question, because he is totally satisfied with the mere use of numbers; he or she is not interested in the construction of axioms and principles. Not only has the mathematician no need, within his discipline, to verify the assumed axioms; he also does not need to understand their ultimate content (R einach, 201). R einach claims that the method of the modern mathematicians is an anti-phenomenological attitude. From their attitude, one can infer that they don’t want to bring light to the essence of things (that) they are working with. As John Crosby says, this method is in opposition to the evident nature of mathematical entities. (148). He goes on like this: the mathematician “simply stipulates certain things about these mathematical entities for the purposes of a given mathematical system, and then makes deductions from this stipulations” (Crosby 148). One can ask whether the law of association or a simple adding up can be explained without profound knowledge about the essence of numbers? If not (and I do not think it can be explained without that), then one can say that mathematics is grounded in mere unproved presuppositions and conventions. Mathematicians do not investigate the nature of the objects which mathematics deals with. The evidence of axioms and the nature of number are not

investigated and this attitude is in perfect opposition with (realist) phenomenology.

Referring to the all-embracing nature of this phenomeno-

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Courage to Take a Stance

logical method, we can say with John Crosby, “that phenomenology has something to give to all of philosophy (and sciences – K. H.) by restoring the attitude of inquiring into what things are in their innermost being, what their essence is” (Crosby 150). It is also a salient feature of the phenomenology that its emphasis is on the existential, immediate intuitive

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contact with the object, which is in opposition to any abstractionism or any dealing with mere concepts. (von H ildebrand, 224) Obviously phenomenology has an anti-empirist tendency in its origin, but we see that this tendency does not mean an absolute rejection of empirical data: “The phenomenological approach is not, however, restricted to the philosophical essences, that is, to philosophical apriori knowledge. It is also indispensable for the deeper understanding of many data which play a predominant role in the humanities, such as a great individual personality…”(von H ildebrand, 224-225). One must not restrict the scope of phenomenology only to necessary essences; one can apply it to the questions of real existences, such as questions of religious studies and questions of religion in general.

Without going further into the clarification of the question, I claim that the essence analysis leads to the real core of things where the essence will be necessarily-having-to-be-so (Notwendiger-so-seinMüssen) and essentially-cannotbe-otherwise (Nicht-anders-seinKönnen) (R einach, 210).

The essay will examine phenomenologically – in the sense of the foregoing – what is tolerance and what is not. In this context, phenomenology means a study of essences (Wesensanalyse), which tells us – apart from any particular case – what tolerance is in itself. I, however, am going to answer the question of tolerance pointing out not only the salient features, but the features which belong to the very essence of the phenomenon.

Nevertheless, it is an interesting attempt to illustrate it with the current Hungarian situation. So much for the method.

The Nature of Tolerance

My second remark is a memento, and as a Hungarian I am very proud of it. In the XVIth century Hungary was divided into three parts. The middle of Hungary was invaded by the Ottoman Empire, the northern part of Hungary was under Austrian rule, and independent

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Transylvania was, in reality, “Hungary” at that time. Of all European countries, the doctrine of religious freedom was codified first in Transylvania, in 1568. The law stated that all religions had the same rights and that nobody should be punished for changing his or her denomination. Until the fall of the Transylvanian Principality (1711), the Calvinist Church, the Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church, the Unitarian Church, and moreover the Romanian Orthodox Church and Antitrinitarian churches such as the Sabbatarian Church could live in a peaceful coexistence.

This was the first document of religious toleration in the known world. I think the religious toleration realised in Transylvania was not only a unique example of that epoch, but a model to be followed in the new European Union.

In order to start our investigation about the nature of tolerance, let us formulate, with the help of intuition, a preliminary definition of tolerance which we can use as a working hypothesis: tolerance is a policy of patient forbearance in the presence of something that is disliked or disapproved of. Toleration is far from an ideal policy; it is contaminated by that very implication of evil which its meaning contains.

The central problem of tolerance in Western history had been for centuries the problem of religious toleration. This is one of the consequences the West faced because its religion is Christianity—properly speaking, a rather “secularized” Christianity. It is clear that tolerance is not liberty nor indifference, nor love, nor some form of patience or respect. What is tolerance?

The opposite of tolerance is intolerance. The decisive quality of intolerance is that patient forbearance is missing. In a situation of intoleration, the religious action is not accepted, and the tolerator’s negative attitude is not suppressed toward the object of toleration.

Acting against another’s religious persuasion is intolerance. A religious fanatic can act in such a way. On the part of such an intolerant person, he or she not only despises the other religion, but de facto he or she wants to anni-

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hilate it. In the case of intolerance, there are no traces of permissive conduct and sometimes not only the religious act but also the person of another conviction is hated.

Fortunately, apart from some antiSemitic manifestations which can be considered as political crimes and some politically motivated antiCatholic acts, there have been no serious intolerant actions against religious groups in Hungary.

But it would only be proper to ask whether we would tolerate a dangerous religious group which coerces its members to commit suicide and kill other people? We can remember the horrible crime of the Japanese religious sect called Aum Sinrikio (in English ‘Supreme Truth’) in 1995, when 12 people were killed and hundreds were injured. Or, in Uganda, where the sect called ‘Restoration of God’s Ten Commandments’ in the building of its church in Kanungu, committed a collective suicide, among whom also innocent children were forced to die.11 No one would behave in a permissive way against such religious groups. Nevertheless, it is important to remark that in this case, it is not the subject (the group, or the members of this religious group) that is not tolerated, but the form in which they practice their belief. Consequently, we can say that not every form of intolerance is wrong. There are some forms of intolerance that the policy of a society has to maintain.

In the following, let’s address the difference is between indifference and tolerance. There are some religious minorities in Hungary in which the majority does not seem to have much interest, e. g. the Islamic minority. In a certain sense, we do not tolerate them, but we do not hate them either. They are simply indifferent for the Hungarian society, as the public mood was indifferent

Suggested reading Crosby F. John: Reinach’s Discovery of Social Acts.

Aletheia vol. 3, 1983..

H ildebrand Dietrich von: What is Philosophy?

Milwaukee, 1991.

R einach Adolf: Concerning Phenomenology. The Personalist 50.

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when a Muslim leader was arrested and charged with supporting terrorist networks in 2004. We don’t know their traditions; we don’t know much about them.

This absence of interest creates the difference between tolerance and indifference. On the one hand, in the case of indifference, one is not interested in the values or valuelessness of the other religion.

On the other hand, in the case of tolerance, one is interested in the other religion because in toleration there is always an element of evaluation. In other words, in order to tolerate something one has to know what is to be tolerated in that phenomenon or action.

One tolerates something because one is familiar with its negative aspects, i.e. one knows what is to be tolerated. In the case of indifference, one is not able to tolerate anything, because one does not have enough information about the thing in question. Consequently, one cannot identify without further ado tolerance with indifference.

Now, how does tolerance differ from love? It is clear that we feel a deeper relationship between love and tolerance and we are inclined to think that they are the same. In my account, love is essentially a relationship involving mutuality and reciprocity, rather than a polite way of forbearance. Love is an active interest in the well-being of the other; it does not stop at the evaluative element, it goes further and tries to change the other if this other is wrong according to his or her evaluation. One can observe this feature in the Christian religion. The so-called baptismalcommand of the Gospel clearly states the active and obligatory mission of every Christian. 22 In this sense, love does not endure without protesting the otherness

(Endnotes) 1 But the most horrible was Jim Jones’ sect, „Church of the People”. Jones claimed to be the reincarnation of Jesus and Lenin. The whole community had to take poison – 638 adult and 236 child died! 1977, Guyana.

2 “Go into the whole world and proclaim the Gospel to every creature. He who believes and is baptized will be saved; he who does not believe will be condemned” (Mk 16, 1516.) and “All power in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded

of the other, it interferes. The similarity between love and tolerance is based upon the negative attitude on the part of subject/tolerator toward the object of toleration; dissimilarity lies in the degree of restraint in acting against it.

Finally, there are misusages of tolerance (Zerformen der Toleranz).

In this case, one tolerates everything indiscriminately, i. e. disregards the evaluative moment. One cannot tolerate to the same degree two different kinds of religious group if one of them is obviously dangerous. It would be a total misunderstanding of tolerance. For example, the Hungarian society does not tolerate to the same degree the ‘Church of Satan’ and the ‘Lutheran Church.’

We have seen now what tolerance is not. Let’s sum up what tolerance is—according to this phenomenological method! These are the principal components of the concept of toleration: firstly, a tolerating subject and a tolerated subject (either may be a religious individual, group, organization, or institution); secondly, an action, belief or practice which is the object of toleration; thirdly, the act of evaluation and a negative attitude (dislike or moral disapproval) on the part of tolerator toward the object of toleration resulting from this; finally, a significant degree of restraint in acting against the negative attitude.

The questions of the range of religious tolerance, namely what things should or should not be tolerated, and the degree of restraint required by toleration do not belong to the field of religious studies. These questions are philosophical and political issues.

Nevertheless, religious studies can help in a proper formulation of the concepts and of their application.

you.” (Mt 28, 18-19.) We have to admit that it is a very strong claim. This passage explicitly expresses the “unicity”, “universality”, and “absoluteness” of Christianity.

Hoppál Kál Bulcsú (1974) is a graduate in philosophy and theology. Currently he is working on his Ph.D. thesis. He is the vice-president of the Hungarian branch of SITA (International Saint Thomas Aquinas Society) and web-master of the Hungarian Association for the Academic Study of Religions (MVT). He is also the member of other academic associations.

His publications involve the border-line problems between philosophy and theology. His email address is khoppal@ yahoo.com.

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Courage to Take a Stance

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Rikko Voorberg

When Asked to Do the Impossible: Biblestudy and Reflection on the “Rich Young Man” Rikko shared a shortened form of this reflection at the WSCF conference in Copenhagen as a part of the Reformed morning worship.

The Rich Young Man

Now a man came up to Jesus and asked, “Teacher, what good thing must I do to get eternal life?”

17 ”Why do you ask me about what is good?” Jesus replied.

“There is only One who is good. If you want to enter life, obey the commandments.”

18 ”Which ones?” the man inquired.

Jesus replied, “ ‘Do not murder, do not commit adultery, do not steal, do not give false 19 testimony, honor your father and mother,’ and ‘love your neighbor as yourself.’”

20 ”All these I have kept,” the young man said. “What do I still lack?”

21 Jesus answered, “If you want to be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.”

22 When the young man heard this, he went away sad, because he had great wealth.

23 Then Jesus said to his disciples, “I tell you the truth, it is hard for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.

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Matthew 19:6-23 NIV

Questioning

The rich young man comes to Jesus. He’s one of those guys that really try hard. He’s rich, has a lot of money, but isn’t satisfied.

Something is wrong; his soul is not at peace. He comes to Jesus to find this peace. Then Jesus says things he already knows and does. Don’t

Rikko Voorberg in 26 years old, lives in the Netherlands, and studies at the Reformed University of Kampen. He loves to travel, to perform with his band and theater-group, and to host his local radio

kill, don’t steal, etc. Do not do these things. But he already follows these commands. Is this all?

He only must follow the basic rules? Jesus answers him, “you’re right, there’s more. Sell everything you have.”

What? Auch... That hurts. It hurts a lot.

This always touched me. Look at the next sentence in this gospel.

The young man walks away. He looks at Jesus and I imagine him thinking, “Let’s see, don’t kill, don’t steal.

No problem. But this? I can’t sell everything— my car, my fridge, my Xbox.” He looks at Jesus and Jesus looks back. Jesus waits. Then the young man makes up his mind: “I can’t do this.” He turns around and walks away, shoulders hanging as if he’s been beaten. He’s tired and sad. He shouldn’t have asked. Uncertainty is better than this burning certainty inside.

He’ll think twice before posing another question. Jesus asks impossible things.

Does Jesus ask impossible things? Yes, he does. Just read the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew, chapter five and see what he asks: “Sell everything you have. Come and follow me.” Impossible.

show. His love of traveling (and meeting other cultures) and theology were combined in the recent WSCF conference in Copenhagen congress and he loved it!

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mozaik

Religion & Society

2006/2

Fearing

heart of the young men is restless.

He gives on-the-spot advice and then He waits. Will he or she turn to Me for help? Will he or she surrender? God sees clearly that I have no intention to forgive, no intention to wrestle with sins. He knows I cannot do what He asks me to do.

But why give up as if I’m alone in Seeking This walking away and hiding is this world? As if I have to fix everythe source of the problem. Hiding thing myself? God is here. He sees has no purpose. God’s close and my heart and wants to help. He knows you. He’s so close. He knows asks me to surrender. That is scary how you wrestle with your own and it even feels humiliating. But possibilities. Jesus knows why the it’s the only way, if I really want to deal with my own impossibilities. God not only sees right through me, but loves me unendingly.

Well, that’s amazing. The young man knew that.

He called Jesus “Good.”

Jesus asks, “Are you serious? ‘Cause if you really believe I’m good, then you will have to take my next advice too.

Eva Marie Østerlind The advice of giving up, the advice which comes close to forcing you to surrender.”

“God, I really want to do it your way. I hate Living in the present, that guy, he’s stupid and in a time pocket, ignorant. But somehow I now think that you like him. combining past and future.

Not for what he does, but for who he is. And I want Tearing down all kinds to do the impossible. To of walls and limits and borders do what you ask me. I and so on. hate to be nice to him, so please, please help me” Honesty.

God understands the impossibilities, and does Fighting for the action and case not stop at the border of instead of worldly and personal power. the possible. “With men Neutrality. things are impossible, In reality, with God all things are it is good to work towards one united family possible” (Matt. 19:26). but also to be honest and realise we are not always one happy family.

I am often afraid to ask anything because sometimes I know that the answer will be an impossible assigment. When I really dislike someone and I ask God what to do, I’m sure he’ll tell me to love that person. And then? I don’t want to love him, don’t want to put my hate away. What if I talk to God about the fight I just had with my parents?

If I discuss that with God, he might be so inconsiderate to say they are right. And then? It’s impossible.

And what about these things I don’t want to do and still do? Sins—sexual sins, lying, bullying. How do I put these things in prayer?

The rich young man puts his question in prayer.

Jesus answers and, too bad, the young man can’t do it. Does this mean that the kingdom isn’t for him?

Is that what the story tells?

No. There’s another side to this story. This story poses a question. Namely, what to do if God asks the impossible. What should the young man have done?

Wrestling

A Time Pocket

Well, he should have grabbed Jesus at his shoulders and shaken Him. He should have shouted, “Rabbi, you know I can’t do that. Why do you ask? It’s impossible. I even don’t want to do that.

Help! Please help!” That’s where he should have put his questions. He shouldn’t have considered his own possibilities in fulfilling this new assignment; he should have turned to Jesus. Then he would still have been in touch with God, with the one with unending possibilities.

But this young man wanted to clean up his own mess, as I often do myself. We often think by ourselves whether we can or cannot do what we are asked. If we can’t, well, bad luck. I’m considering by myself whether I’m able

32

to stop bullying, or to admit that my parents were right, or to forgive my ex-girlfriend for cheating, and I conclude: No. I can’t and I won’t.

Well then, no point in asking God. Sad and a bit demoralized, I walk away, my shoulders hanging, trying to hide what’s really wrong.

Personal testimony makes everything.

Europe must come together.

Time flies.

We will leave tomorrow.

Lost in time, lost in space.

Tearing.

Eva Østerlind, a Lutheran, was born in Copenhagen, Denmark on July 18, 1978.

She graduated from the University of Copenhagen’s Faculty of Theology in January 2007 with a Master´s degree in Theology.

Currently she is in a seminar for pastoral training, and afterwards she may apply for a position in the Danish Folk Church.

Furthermore, she is the newly elected chairperson for the Danish SCM, `Ecumenical Youth.´

Who am I to judge—still I have an opinion.

cvbnmQwQwnmQwQwcvbnmQwQwnmQwQwcvbn qwertzuiopsBCdpyuhQbpzujbLfghjklyxzujbLfg

mozaik

Religion & Society

2006/2

Fearing

heart of the young men is restless.

He gives on-the-spot advice and then He waits. Will he or she turn to Me for help? Will he or she surrender? God sees clearly that I have no intention to forgive, no intention to wrestle with sins. He knows I cannot do what He asks me to do.

But why give up as if I’m alone in Seeking This walking away and hiding is this world? As if I have to fix everythe source of the problem. Hiding thing myself? God is here. He sees has no purpose. God’s close and my heart and wants to help. He knows you. He’s so close. He knows asks me to surrender. That is scary how you wrestle with your own and it even feels humiliating. But possibilities. Jesus knows why the it’s the only way, if I really want to deal with my own impossibilities. God not only sees right through me, but loves me unendingly.

Well, that’s amazing. The young man knew that.

He called Jesus “Good.”

Jesus asks, “Are you serious? ‘Cause if you really believe I’m good, then you will have to take my next advice too.

Eva Marie Østerlind The advice of giving up, the advice which comes close to forcing you to surrender.”

“God, I really want to do it your way. I hate Living in the present, that guy, he’s stupid and in a time pocket, ignorant. But somehow I now think that you like him. combining past and future.

Not for what he does, but for who he is. And I want Tearing down all kinds to do the impossible. To of walls and limits and borders do what you ask me. I and so on. hate to be nice to him, so please, please help me” Honesty.

God understands the impossibilities, and does Fighting for the action and case not stop at the border of instead of worldly and personal power. the possible. “With men Neutrality. things are impossible, In reality, with God all things are it is good to work towards one united family possible” (Matt. 19:26). but also to be honest and realise we are not always one happy family.

I am often afraid to ask anything because sometimes I know that the answer will be an impossible assigment. When I really dislike someone and I ask God what to do, I’m sure he’ll tell me to love that person. And then? I don’t want to love him, don’t want to put my hate away. What if I talk to God about the fight I just had with my parents?

If I discuss that with God, he might be so inconsiderate to say they are right. And then? It’s impossible.

And what about these things I don’t want to do and still do? Sins—sexual sins, lying, bullying. How do I put these things in prayer?

The rich young man puts his question in prayer.

Jesus answers and, too bad, the young man can’t do it. Does this mean that the kingdom isn’t for him?

Is that what the story tells?

No. There’s another side to this story. This story poses a question. Namely, what to do if God asks the impossible. What should the young man have done?

Wrestling

A Time Pocket

Well, he should have grabbed Jesus at his shoulders and shaken Him. He should have shouted, “Rabbi, you know I can’t do that. Why do you ask? It’s impossible. I even don’t want to do that.

Help! Please help!” That’s where he should have put his questions. He shouldn’t have considered his own possibilities in fulfilling this new assignment; he should have turned to Jesus. Then he would still have been in touch with God, with the one with unending possibilities.

But this young man wanted to clean up his own mess, as I often do myself. We often think by ourselves whether we can or cannot do what we are asked. If we can’t, well, bad luck. I’m considering by myself whether I’m able

32

to stop bullying, or to admit that my parents were right, or to forgive my ex-girlfriend for cheating, and I conclude: No. I can’t and I won’t.

Well then, no point in asking God. Sad and a bit demoralized, I walk away, my shoulders hanging, trying to hide what’s really wrong.

Personal testimony makes everything.

Europe must come together.

Time flies.

We will leave tomorrow.

Lost in time, lost in space.

Tearing.

Eva Østerlind, a Lutheran, was born in Copenhagen, Denmark on July 18, 1978.

She graduated from the University of Copenhagen’s Faculty of Theology in January 2007 with a Master´s degree in Theology.

Currently she is in a seminar for pastoral training, and afterwards she may apply for a position in the Danish Folk Church.

Furthermore, she is the newly elected chairperson for the Danish SCM, `Ecumenical Youth.´

Who am I to judge—still I have an opinion.

cvbnmQwQwnmQwQwcvbnmQwQwnmQwQwcvbn qwertzuiopsBCdpyuhQbpzujbLfghjklyxzujbLfg