3 The OECD PISA secretariat estimates that one academic year of content (in OECD countries)
equals approximately 38 points on the PISA test scale. 4 These studies typically regress student achievement on past student achievement, school and peer
factors, family and neighborhood inputs, and a teacher fixed effect (Hanushek and Rivkin 2010). Rothstein (2010) demonstrates that sorting of students may lead to upward bias on some of these, but studies that guard against sorting such as Rothstein (2010) and Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain (2005) also show significant impacts.
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