A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES AN ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL SUSTAINABLE AND PASSIVE STRATEGIES AND THEIR POTENTIAL FOR THE MODERN BUILT ENVIRONMENT.

ISAAC N. WOOD APPALACHIAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED DESIGN INTERIOR DESIGN PROGRAM FALL 2021

AUTHOR’S NOTE Modern architecture and design has been the subject to abrupt, uninterrupted, and monumental evolution throughout the past century alone. We as a Western Society have developed specific codes and standards in which we work to develop buildings in order to maintain safety. However, we have truly lost what indigenous technology offers, sustainability via passive systems. This brief study will analyze some of these systems in order to better understand their functions and potential applications to a modern technologically and industrially advanced society. In order to preserve the planet, we will need to revisit and reanalyze our roots.

INTRODUCTION “Primitive” architecture, technology, and design has developed admirable solutions regarding issues posed by climate and available resources.

However, Western Society often discredits these technologies and innovations as they come from “undeveloped” countries or time periods. In fact, the condescending terms undeveloped and primitive states the view which Western Society has on these technologies quite well. This point of view is promoted by a philosophy of Western ethnocentrism, which needs to be restructured in order to positively impact the passive sustainability of the continuously developing modern society.

In order to phase out the condescending term “primitive architecture” the author posits the term “foundational architecture” in its place to relay respect and admiration to the indigenous and historical technicians, builders, designers, and architects who developed these systems.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS AUTHOR’S NOTE

01

INTRODUCTION

01

CONCEPTS

03

MATERIALS & RESOURCES

04

CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [01]: ROMAN REUSE 06 CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [02]: RUBBLE MATRIX 08 CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [03]: POLE & RUBBLE 09 GRASS ROOFS 10 DIRT TO DWELLING 12 RAMMED EARTH 15 MONUMENTAL MUD [01] 16 MONUMENTAL MUD [02] 17 LIVING MATERIALS 19 SUPPORTIVE BAMBOO 22 RESILIENT REEDS 24

ENVIRONMENT & CONSTRUCTION

28

CULTIVATED LANDSCAPE ENCLOSURES 29 CARVED IN STONE [01] 30 CARVED IN STONE [02] 31 CARVED IN STONE [03] 33 MEGALITHIC ARRANGEMENTS 34 CULTIVATED LANDSCAPE ENCLOSURES 37 WINDCATCHERS 39 BADGIR WINDSCOOPS 41 INTERCHANGEABLE CLADDING 43 DIRT, STICKS, & STONES 44 CORDWOOD 46

SPACE & TERRITORY

48

CREATED SHELTER: COVERED STREETS & ARCADES 50 CREATED SHELTER: SEMI-COVERED STREETS 51 SHARED SPACE VIA CIRCULAR FORMATION 52 COMMON TERRITORY [01] 53 COMMON TERRITORY [02] 55

A FINAL WORD

56

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

57

IMAGE CREDITS

58

ENDNOTES

60

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CONCEPTS This study will focus on 03 primary concepts for, as Rudofsky put it, “architecture without architects,” in order to spark passive sustainable strategies inspired by previous systems for modern design and architecture.

01. MATERIALS & RESOURCES This concept will review and analyze various materials and resources utilized in foundational architecture and how it responds to a sustainable built environment. The research found within this concept will have proposed applications to modern developmental architecture to reduce environmental impact of the building, design, and construction industry regarding material resource availability. Additionally, this concept will review and analyze unique material uses found within Foundational Architecture and their applicability to modern architecture and design.

02. ENVIRONMENT & CONSTRUCTION This concept will review and analyze foundational construction techniques and strategies which respond to the surrounding environment and climatic conditions. The research will have proposed applications and thoughts regarding its applicability to modern construction and design, and how it will reduce carbon emissions and pollution from the building, design, and construction industry.

03. SPACE & TERRITORY This concept will analyze indigenous and first peoples’ societal construction in reference to their architecture’s space allocation and planning.

Western society is very territorial and thus requires much space, however, there is a lot to learn from previous societies regarding shared space and territory in the further development of modern architecture and design in order to reduce the spatial and environmental footprint of our growing modern society.

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MATERIALS & RESOURCES

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [01] [02] [03] GR ASS ROOFS DIRT TO DWELLING MONUMENTAL MUD [01] [02] R AMMED EARTH LIVING MATERIALS SUPPORTIVE BAMBOO RESILIENT REEDS PAGE 05 | 62

CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [01]: ROMAN REUSE The architectural cannibalistic tendencies of the Roman Empire is an acutely sustainable strategy.

The society of ancient Rome often reused material from demolished structures - so much so that trade of deconstructed materials became extremely lucrative. Many monuments, temples, and structures in Rome today have deeper roots in the past through the cannibalistic strategies employed.

Columns, capitals, motifs, and even foundations were reused and applied in many new builds during the Roman Empire; one popular example of this cannibalistic application is seen within the Arch of Constantine, which is composed primarily of reused building materials and components. 001 This practice continued throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance era, notably shown by the full cannibalization of the Septizonium to erect the foundation for the Obelisco di Piazza San Pietro in Vatican City. 002 This form of adaptive reuse and material cannibalism has proven valuable to architecture and design. The materials which were cannibalized are long lasting and extremely durable, shown by their continued preservation to date.

Modern building, design, and construction should strategically transition to material cannibalization to reduce waste, pollution, and carbon emissions - this foundational strategy will be a large step to ensure a more sustainable and viable future.

001 | Obelisco di Piazza San Pietro, Vatican City HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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The Arch of Constantine showcases many cannibalized motifs.

Notably, the attic frieze depicts Marcus Aurelius , (176 C.E.), the pediments showcase Dacian captives of Trajan (112 C.E.), below, the Roundels depict Hadrian (117-138 C.E.). 003

002 | Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy PAGE 07 | 62

003 | Caravansari in Qum, Iran

CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [02]: RUBBLE MATRIX The Caravansari found in the town of Qum in Teheran is built with a structural matrix of mud, brick, and stone rubble. 004 Similarly, rubble from deconstruction should be utilized in other systems in modern design. Broken concrete, bricks, and other stone or clay based materials from demolished buildings should be repurposed for structural purposes in new construction or reconstruction.

This will drastically reduce construction waste and reinforce the longevity of the building material lifespan. Even if the rubble is not used in other buildings, it can be repurposed for sidewalks, barrier walls, and pavers.

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CANNIBALIZED MATERIALS [03]: POLE & RUBBLE A more recent development of cannibalized materials is found in the early Eurocentric mining settlements in Australia (mid to late 1800s). The Pole and Rubble building technique has roots in Aboriginal construction, who used a pole and pug approach to building with saplings and mud. Pole and Rubble is built using a sturdy earthfast frame of local timber poles connected via nails with thinner split wooden laths. The lathe spaces are then infilled with rubble and mortared with a daublike mixture of mud, straw, and other aggregate.

The exterior of the dwelling was often finished with a layer of mud or plaster to reinforce the rubble infill and provide a smooth exterior. 005 [Building strategies with similar roots and development can be found under Environment & Construction | Dirt, Sticks, and Stones.]

004 | Pole and Rubble Barn, Maldon, Australia

Primary vertical pole

It is safe to deduce that the rubble utilized in this construction strategy is waste from the local mines, due to the location of the dwellings and the lifestyle of the dwellers. This construction strategy utilizes local rubble from an industry which supports the community’s economic prosperity and wellbeing. It is interesting to see the direct connection between these two concepts develop an affordable and sustainable dwelling. Deeper connections between community, place, economy, and building need to be reinforced in order to redevelop a sustainable mindset and industry.

Pug matrix/ binder Rubble infill Horizontal split lathe Plaster finish coating Grid and Daub Section Detail

[Information from Miles, Composite Vernacular Construction, 36.]

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GR ASS ROOFS Use of vegetation to create a comfortable and efficient overhead condition is shown seamlessly by the Kayabuki thatched roof system in the No Sato village in Japan. In the feudal period, these roofs were maintained and built by the peasants of the village, as this system was simple to maintain and economical to build. 006 This roof system has a significantly long life span and provides ample insulation and protection against various climate conditions. 007

005 | Kayabuki Thatched Roof, Japan

The University of Massachusetts, Amherst denotes thatch as “a tightly intermingled layer of living and dead stems, leaves, and roots which accumulates between the layer of actively growing grass and the soil underneath.” 008 006 | Guttiyya Roof, Sudan HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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007 | Kayabuki Thatched Roof, Japan PAGE 11 | 62

DIRT TO DWELLING More recently, are developments in American Foundational Architecture during the Westward Expansion. Sod homes in the Great Plains have a legacy based in Scandinavian and North American indigenous construction. Some early precedents for the Westward expansion soddies are the Igluryaq of the Siglit Inuvialuit near the Mackenzie River in the Canadian boreal forest. 009 Sod houses or soddies, which developed in the American Prairies in the mid 1800s 010, were developed for temporary shelter as homesteaders constructed more permanent dwellings. 011 These dwelling units were economically constructed with directly local and available materials: sod, thatch, straw, and wood. Sod, which is grass with the soil underneath connected via root system, was ploughed and cut into 24” lengths, was layered and overlapped with grass face down, to create a type of building block.

The interior of the walls were often upholstered with cloth or paper to reduce leakage in the rainy season. The roof was constructed with rudimentary cut sticks, overlaid with sod blocks, thatch, or straw. 012 Specific grasses are required to construct a well-made sod house, these species include Buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides), wire grass (Eleusine indica), prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), and wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium). 013

008 | Soddy Style House, Nebraska, U.S.A.

009 | Igluryaq Dwelling, Canada HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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010 | Soddy Style House, U.S.A.

Sod has the ability to be transformed into a modern building block for sustainable, humble, and economical structures and dwellings in the Great Plains of North America. This building system obviously has its flaws, such as leakage, but with modern technology, these issues can be resolved.

Further developments in sod structures can bring Americans back to their humble roots and emphasize a philosophy of environmental stewardship and create a new era of modern homesteading.

Sod Block Wall Construction Diagram PAGE 13 | 62

011 | Basgo Fort in Ladakh, India

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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R AMMED E ARTH Rammed earth as a building material has been utilized in many cultures and distributed via immigration. It normally requires a mixture of various sands, clays, and silts which are found in mountainous and hilly regions, in addition to loess plains. 014 As seen in the Basgo Fort and Leh Fort in Ladakh - a union territory divided between India, Pakistan, and Gilgit-Baltistan the lifts are stacked and stepped on a horizontal axis, allowing the structure, and thus the lifts, to become thinner as the height increases. 015 Many of these structures incorporate large timber beams to increase structural ability and were scaffolded with smaller logs, as seen by the many putlog holes on all elevations. 016 There are many different approaches to the construction of rammed earth walls, however the primary include vertical posts integrated into the structure, a stepped batter approach which do not call for vertical support and taper inwards, or horizontal timbers threaded through the construction period, then removed resulting in putlog holes. 017 Previously constructed vernacular buildings have been standing for hundreds of years, 018 showcasing the importance of this material and why it is still employed today.

Rammed earth has great potential for thermal properties, especially in more arid regions, as it stores and releases energy depending on temperature differentiation. However, rammed earth as a mass building material only has an r-value of 0.4 SQ FT-HR-F/BTU, thus requiring extremely thick walls to comply with various local codes. 019

Rammed earth is created by compacting a mixture of different soils and aggregates, like straw and lime, into a formwork, layer by layer. This form is then hoisted vertically, creating what is known as a lift. 020

012 | Putlog Holes, Kasbah of Taourirt, Morocco PAGE 15 | 62

MONUMENTAL MUD [01] The surrounding environment provides many opportunities and resources to develop shelter against climatic hazards. In hot, desertscapes such as Mali, that resource is the earth underfoot.

Predating the adobe brick construction of the Pueblos in the Americas (1400 C.E.), 021 the people of modern day Mali have developed a strong and durable mud brick construction technique by utilizing direct local materials. Some of the structures were built in the early 1300s, and are still standing today, hundreds of years later. 022 Ferey is a type of sun-baked mud brick construction method in which logs penetrate the mud structure to work as scaffolding; various layers of mud based mortar and plaster are then applied to create a smooth, organic, monolithic appearance. 023

013 | Mosque at Djenne, Mali HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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014 | Pueblo Micro-city [updated with modern conveniences]

MONUMENTAL MUD [02] Unlike many American Indigenous tribes, the Hopis of Northern Mexico and Southern United States were a more stationary people, developing microcities on top of mesas. 024 These integrated multi-story microcities were built utilizing a stone structure, held together with mud plaster. The roof was constructed with wooden beams, covered with thatch, and glued with more mud plaster. Access to these spaces were granted via ladders. 025 The walls are extremely thick, providing stability for the stories above as well as protection from various climate conditions. Earth and dirt based materials offer many opportunities for passive insulation and protection against the elements in warmer, more arid conditions. This will limit the importing of illfit materials for these climates and improve the lifespan of modern buildings via materiality.

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015 | Meghalaya, India HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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LIVING MATERIALS The Khasi Hill tribe of Meghalaya, India are one of the strongest indigenous designers utilizing living materials in everyday life. The state of Meghalaya has the highest levels of precipitation in the world, with an average of five hundred centimeters (197 inches) of rain during the four month monsoon season, June to September. 026 027 Intense monsoons bombard the region, thus travel is often cut off as many areas are flooded.

However, the Khasi tribe has developed a strong and flexible form of thoroughfare which is able to withstand the heavy rains: living root bridges. 028 The Khasi philosophy and mythology has deep roots in environmental and human synthesis, as they see themselves as one with the surrounding ecosystem. 029 The interwoven latticework style living bridges are able to withstand the intense climate of the region better than any artificial or modern structural system. 030 Due to the remoteness of the Khasi tribe’s region, their way of life and environmental synthesis has been preserved from the rapid and egregious over development of India. 031

The author of Lo_Tek Design

by Radical Indigenism, Julia Watson, denotes this foundational technology as a socio-ecological system: which “consist of a ‘biogeo-physical’ unit and [is] associated with social actors and institutions.” 032

016 | Rubber Tree Bridge, Meghalaya, India PAGE 19 | 62

JINGKIENG DIENG JRI The infrastructure of the unique and ingenious rubber tree bridges, or jingkieng dieng jri, consist of training roots of the Ficus elastica, or rubber fig tree, around the trunk of a betel nut tree which acts as a structural scaffolding. 033 After about fifteen years, large flat stones can be placed in the various gaps in the bridge, creating a more holistic structure with diverse biological elements in the matrix. 034 These integrated biological systems can span up to thirty meters (approximately 98 feet) in length and have support systems up to forty meters high (approximately 130 feet). 035 After careful consideration and planning of the root system and thirty years of growing and training, the jingkieng dieng jri is able to hold approximately fifty people. 036 These root bridges have been able to thrive for hundreds of years, only growing stronger with the brunt of many monsoon rains. 037 In addition to the ancient development of the living root bridges, living ladders are integrated into the socio-ecological system of the Khasi tribe. This development aids in the access of horticulturally applicable land, which is typically isolated to large plateau escarpments. 038

017 | Rubber Tree Bridge HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

018 | Rubber Tree Ladder PAGE 20 | 62

019 | Rubber Tree Bridge, Meghalaya, India

Overall, the Khasi tribe showcases a strong arsenal of inventiveness, patience, and integration regarding their synthesis with the surrounding environment. Technology and society works with nature and not despite nature, especially regarding the intense climate conditions of Meghalaya. Selfrepairing natural technology needs to be integrated into the modern world of architecture, design, and urbanism. This type of technology and intrinsic philosophy is the first step to repair the broken system of ecological injustice which some aspects of modernity and consumerism has wrought on the Western World. Patience is necessary in order to implement a redirection focused on a long lasting, sustainable, and resilient future for the built environment, and thus, the earth.

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SUPPORTIVE BAMBOO Bamboo is becoming more popular as a building material but it has primarily been applied to interior applications and not structural in the United States. 039 Structures in other countries such as the Haus Tambaran or “Spirit House,” Vernacular Dwellings, and Yam Houses in New Guinea make use of bamboo as a structural element, in addition to local wood and other grasses. This strategy has been used for generations and takes full advantage of the strong, flexible, and fast growing material. In addition to structural uses, bamboo is also stripped and woven to create semi-permeable cladding for many structures. 040 Implementation of bamboo as a structural material in the United States does have many opportunities, however it is combated by building codes with specific insulation requirements. 041 To employ this strategy in the United States, bamboo should be used to create outdoor shelters. The flexibility of the material allows many forms and shapes to be achieved while also developing ample shade for various activities. However, one of the primary issues with bamboo’s use in the U.S. is the embodied carbon from transportation. One may wonder if bamboo agriculture is a feasible industry in the United States, or if rivercane can be used in a similar manner that employed by Foundational Strategies.

021 | Spirit House, Papua New Guinea

020 | Vernacular Dwelling with Bamboo Cladding, Papua New Guinea HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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022 | Yam House, Papua New Guinea PAGE 23 | 62

RESILIENT REEDS The mudhif building style originated with the development of floating island infrastructure, socio-ecological system called tuhul. 042 This was developed at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers around 4000 BCE by the Ma’dan people, which translates to “dweller in the plains.” 043 The marshlands span across Southern Iraq, Southwestern Iran, and parts of Kuwait. 044 The tuhul has four primary construction phases: first, an area of reeds in the marsh are enclosed in a perimeter reflecting the size of the future island.

Then, layers of reed and mud are overlaid and interwoven onto the enclosed area. Next, additional layers are added to the pre-existing floor structure to create a more permanent footing. Finally, structures are added to the island’s structure. 045

This cultural keystone species of the region provides structure for architecture, flour for bread, and even fodder for local water buffalo. 046

024 | Giant Reed, Qasab

023 | Tuhul, Floating Island HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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025 | Qasab Reeds being used to construct a Mudhif PAGE 25 | 62

The Ma’dan people employ a technique utilizing local qasab reeds, phragmites communis, which are bound, impaled in the floating islands base structure, and bent to form parabolic arches. 047 048 Once the thick, bundled parabolic arches of reeds are stabilized, crossbeams of thinner bundles are laid across to connect the structural arches. The structure is then overlaid with mats for protection against the elements. 049 The mats are woven in a specific motif and pattern to allow cool air to infiltrate the interior environment in addition to filtered daylight. 050 The smallest of the mudhif structures are built with seven arches while the largest are built with eleven, often all of these structures face Mecca, emphasizing the Islamic traditions of the region. 051 In addition to utilizing local materials in an ingenious and environmentally supportive way, the Ma’dan people also cannibalize previous architecture when rebuilding or restructuring an island or mudhif. 052

026 | Mudhif Construction, Iraq HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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027 | Completed Mudhif Structure

Reed construction such as the mudhif is an ingenious utilization of local materials which are not often viewed as structural. However, with the binding and drying methods employed in the marshes of the Tigris and Euphrates river, these structures provide proper shelter from the elements. Although applying this strategy to modern architecture and design may be difficult due to structural codes and control of the interior thermal environment, the binding and bending method has greatly informed current practices and should be studied in more detail to achieve a greater understanding of local materials and environmental and design synthesis.

Additionally, the Ma’dan as a culture and society have been thriving in a water-based infrastructure system for thousands of years. Their culture works seamlessly with the surrounding environment and continues to positively influence that ecosystem. In order to develop carbon negative and sustainable water based societies, the Ma’dan culture needs to be studied in depth, as they offer much indigenious and invaluable knowledge on this topic.

Mudhif Parabolic Arch Analysis PAGE 27 | 62

ENVIRONMENT & CONSTRUCTION

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CARVED IN STONE [01] [02] [03] MEGALITHIC ARR ANGEMENTS CULTIVATED L ANDSCAPE ENCLOSURES WINDCATCHERS BADGIR WINDSCOOPS INTERCHANGEABLE CL ADDING DIRT, STICK S, AND STONES CORDWOOD PAGE 29 | 62

029 | Amphitheaters of Muyu-uray, Peru

CARVED IN STONE [01] The amphitheaters of Muyu-uray in Peru take full advantage of the surrounding environment since they were carved directly from the earth itself and integrated into the contours of the hills. The level of environmental integration reduces material load and workload required. Seemingly, the only material is the earth itself and the workload involves removing stone to form the massive amphitheater, where the stone could have been transported to another location for further production and architecture. 053

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CARVED IN STONE [02] The town of Pantalica in Sicily is a perfect example of Troglodytic dwellings. The homes are carved from the mountainside, where the environment provides ample and viable shelter from climatic conditions such as storms and sun. Initially, these furrowed dwellings were burial grounds for a nearby settlement. 054 The fact that these furrows were re-used for another purpose than the intended showcases the viability and versatility of environmental provisions and how humans in the past have taken ingenious advantage of these provisions.

Further exposition of nature providing shelter against the weather in the form of integration, not disruption is the La Ciudad Encantada, or Enchanted City, in Spain. 055 It is possible that these eroded forms were used for shelter in the past. For modern application however, these formations can inspire productive integration of similar formations into new architecture in order to reduce the amount of man-made structure.

030 | La Ciudad Encantada, Spain

031 | Troglodytic Dwelling, Pantalicia Sicily PAGE 31 | 62

032 | Church at Lalibalia, Ethiopia HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CARVED IN STONE [03] During the Zagwe Dynasty, Ethiopia explored new developments in environmental integration of architecture on a grand scale. Under the rule of King Lalibalia, the people of this region painstakingly carved eleven different churches from the solid red volcanic rock underfoot. These churches are located in the capital city of Roha, above the Takkaze River. 056 The importance of these churches is the level of utter environmental integration intrinsic to the architecture and planning. Since the churches and surrounding buildings are carved out of living stone at ground level, climate conditions such as high winds pass over the structures without much interference. The structures also take full advantage of the cooling properties which the earth gives off as well as providing ample shade on all sides to escape the hot Ethiopian climate. However, one of the primary disadvantages to this style of construction is the potential for dire flooding in the case of a flash flood or heavy rains. That being said, carving entire buildings into the earth provides many positives regarding climate protection and passive geothermal cooling and heating.

Direct sunlight Prevailing winds Red volcanic stone Shadows cast from cut stone Geothermal heat/ cooling from the cut stone

Section sketching showing climate conditions and impact, Environmental Integration PAGE 33 | 62

MEGALITHIC ARR ANGEMENTS Some of the first architectural expressions in Europe is architecture for the dead. Often these structures are formed with massive slabs of rock, developing These structures megalithic structures. 057 represent the most primitive formations of shelter with stone. However, there is beauty in the simple utilitarianism of this building type as it is especially sturdy and lasts for thousands of years. Much of the architectural developments of these structures have influenced the way buildings are constructed today, outlining many precedent techniques, such as post and lintel construction. 058 Seeing that megalithic structures have withstood the climate and environmental change for thousands of years denotes the importance of this construction style and material choice. If modern buildings were to utilize megalithic aspects of construction, buildings would have a longer and more durable lifespan key components could then be cannibalized for further reuse if the building were to eventually fail.

033 | Megalithic Trilithon at Ta’ Ħaġrat Temple in Malta HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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One of the most well known examples of megalithic architecture is the dolmen.

These structures are neolithic chambered tombs in which a capstone is placed onto three or more linear stones. Often these megalithic components can weigh as much as 160 tons. 059

034 | Poulnabrone Dolmen, County Clare, Ireland

Capstone

Three large stones creating a cove

Dolmen Construction with Megaliths PAGE 35 | 62

035 | Shimane Prefecture Windscreen, Japan HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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CULTIVATED L ANDSCAPE ENCLOSURES Partially enclosed space via landscape helps deter climate damage to dwellings or other architecture.

The Shimane Prefecture hedged Windscreens in Japan showcase this strategy seamlessly. The residents have implemented “L” shaped hedge buffers made of large pine trees on the side with prevailing winter winds to protect from winter storm damage. 060 Strategies such as these can be easily applied to modern suburbia in the United States, seeing as these developments rarely integrate with the local environment. Implementing tree walls or coaxed land will reduce climate damage to these homes, and further preserve the existing landscape.

Winter prevailing winds

Windscreen Diffused wind Dwelling unit

Windscreen Climate Impact Diagram PAGE 37 | 62

036 | Windcatchers, Yazd, Iraq

Partition

Structural scaffolding Opening for wind inflow

Datum line, interior and exterior

Wind outflow, conditioning the interior environment

Windcatcher Anatomy Diagram

[Information from Shokoohi, The Ancient Persian Way to Keep Cool.]

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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WINDCATCHERS Wind catchers are common throughout many Middle Eastern and Northern African countries such as Iran, Pakistan, and Qatar due to the arid climate, though this strategy is thought to have originated in Egypt. 061 Prevailing wind force and temperature differential buoyancy drive this strategy. Initially, the air is harnessed through the pipes or the opening of the catchment system where it will flow down and discharge any debris to the floor.

After discharge, the breeze is funneled throughout the space, cooling the heat gained from the sun.

This cool air will replace the warmer air, which is pushed up and out through a vent tower system. 062 According to one simulation study, wind catchers can cool a courtyard space 8 to 12 degrees Celsius below the 46 degree Celsius ambient summer temperature in Saudi Arabia (approximately 46 to 54 degree Fahrenheit drop from a 115 degree Fahrenheit ambient temperature). 063 This type of technology is a simple and effective passive system which drastically cools an interior environment without the use of electricity. If integrated into the modern cityscape in arid regions, it could greatly reduce cooling costs and offset emissions. There is tweaking to be done with the primitive model for use in modern applications, specifically regarding dust collection, however, strides are being made by many designers, engineers, and architects to revitalize this historical passive cooling strategy.

037 | Windcatchers, Yazd, Iraq PAGE 39 | 62

038 | Badgir, Wind-scoops in Hyderabad, Pakistan HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

Unfortunately, due to a move to modernity and electricity, many wind-scoops in Hyderabad, Pakistan have disappeared.

Additionally, what remains of the foundational technology has been eaten away by termites, so very few of these remain today. 064 PAGE 40 | 62

039 | Badgir Wind-scoops in Hyderabad, Pakistan

BADGIR WINDSCOOPS In the lower Sind District of West Pakistan, the temperature can reach up to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, thus badgir wind scoops are implemented to cool the interior environment of almost every structure.

The construction and design is similar to other windcatchers found in the Middle East and Africa.

Each scoop is outfitted to an individual room in the structure and the scoops are permanently fixed to catch the prevailing wind. 065

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040 | Wampanoag Wetu HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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INTERCHANGE ABLE CL ADDING The Wampanoag tribe, of what is now Rhode Island and Massachusetts, constructed small hutlike dwellings made of tree limbs and bark called Wetus. 066 The wetu is constructed by bending young cedar saplings into the appropriate domelike shape. The frame of the dwelling is then clad with dried bark pieces and covered with bulrush mats during the winter months to curb moisture and intense wind; while in the warmer months, the structure is covered with woven cattail mats for flexibility and passive airflow. 067 068 Popular bark was often used as the exterior cladding, below the mats. Currently, historic preservation reconstructions of the wetu have a shorter lifespan than original indigenous techniques simply due to deforestation, age of trees, and human-impacted environmental damage like acid rain. 069 The wetu responds and adapts to the changing climate with an interchangeable cladding, depending on the season. This is an interesting and unique way to provide passive protection from the elements, while capitalizing on local materials and resources.

This technique could be updated and modernized to outfit smaller homes or structures to bolster sustainable passivity of the built environment.

Technology like this could positively impact the popular nomadic tiny house movement, pushing the boundaries of sustainable adaptability on a modular scale.

041 | Wetu with Bulrush Mats preparing for winter PAGE 43 | 62

DIRT, STICKS, & STONES Wattle and Daub, along with other similar strategies, have been used across the globe in many different societies, ranging from Palestine, to Belgium, and even Roman, but most popularly known in the Americas, the United Kingdom, and Australia. 070 This building strategy is comprised of wattling, which is a basket weaving technique applied to twigs, often Hazel Sprung in many parts of Britain, which is then plastered with daub, a clay based mortar with lime and various aggregate and binders such as straw, fibers, and even dung. 071 Similar strategies include Lehmwickel, Grid and Daub, Pole and Pug, and Pole and Rubble. [This latter strategy is discussed in Materials & Resources | Cannibalized Materials: Pole and Rubble.]

042 | Wattle and Daub, Cherokee Dwelling HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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Strategies like Wattle and Daub should be utilized more often due to their economical materials, longevity, and insulative properties. Additionally, this strategy has the potential to remove many layers of the wall system that is commonly used in modern building methods, since the cladding/ siding, vapor barrier, air retarder, insulation, and interior finish, are all consolidated into one material, the daub.

043 | A Modern Application of Wattle and Daub

Lehmwickel is a Germanic strategy where pointed stakes are coated with a plaster of clay and straw.

Once this building component was semi-dry, it would be staked in the ground next to others for a half-timbered approach (Fachwerkbau) or overlaid on a grooved crossbeam next to other components to finish drying. Another layer of plaster would then be applied to create an integrated system, providing ample insulation. 072 Grid and Daub is not specifically wattle and daub since it does not use a weaving technique, but is closer in technique to Lehmwickel. This strategy is found in many Latin American countries such as the Dominican Republic and Cuba, but similar strategies are found in Japan.

Grid and Daub is composed of close set vertical and horizontal beams which are bound together with various fibers, to create a latticework. Layers of plaster or daub are then infilled and applied to the exterior and interior, providing more structural support and protection from the elements. 073 Pole and Pug is a more modern evolution, originating in the early nineteenth century, pulling inspiration from both Lehmwickel and Grid and Daub, along with other American indigenous building strategies - it is often found in Ireland, Mexico, and Australia.

This strategy utilizes primary vertical poles with horizontal laths or beams nailed across and infilled with pug, a type of daub. 074

Horizontal axis grid beam Vertical axis grid beam

Daub coating/ infill

Grid and Daub Section Detail

[Information from Miles, Composite Vernacular Construction, 36.]

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CORDWOOD Cordwood is another construction strategy which utilizes ample local resources to develop a strong, long lasting, and durable structure. This strategy is found across the globe, much like Wattle and Daub, but with various adaptations and evolutions; it is primarily found throughout Europe, parts of Asia, Central America, North America, and South Africa. 075 The most recognized and studied cordwood strategies are found in Poland, the United States, and Canada. 076 Construction of a cordwood structure involves laying pieces of wood, either split or logs, crosswise and infilled with a mortar often consisting of lime and clay.

This construction method has many variations: one style of construction lays logs or wood “bricks” perpendicular to the face of the wall; another method installs log spacers parallel to the wall face between perpendicular layers of wood “brick.”

Often these walls are plastered over to protect the materials from environmental damage. 077 Polish cordwood construction was usually plastered over with a smooth finish while U.S. and Canadian cordwood construction often had the debarked log protruding about an inch from the exterior plaster finish. Once coated with plaster, cordwood walls are extremely thick, ranging 20 to 25 inches. 078

044 | Old Cordwood Barn, Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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As Szewezyk denotes in their article, cordwood is an indigenous vernacular heritage strategy, pre-dating World War II. 079 There is something mystical and beautiful regarding the aging of this strategy, although more research is needed regarding the metaphysical impact this strategy has on the surrounding societal landscape: specifically, how can cordwood construction positively develop a philosophy of sustainability and environmental stewardship?

045 | Split Log Cordwood Construction Strategy

Overall, cordwood construction has major benefits by utilizing local renewable resources such as wood and clay. The insulative properties all rely on the available clay or cob, species of wood, and the thickness or length of the logs used. 080 These benefits need to be more vernacularized in modern society to redevelop and encourage sustainable heritage. Additionally, this construction method referring to the linear perpendicular components in a matrix of mortar - can easily be reformatted with new building materials with better insulative and water resistant properties, allowing the mass populace to not rely solely on biomass.

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SPACE & TERRITORY

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

PAGE 48 | 62

CREATED SHELTER SHARED SPACE VIA CIRCUL AR FORMATION COMMON TERRITORY [01] [02] PAGE 49 | 62

CRE ATED SHELTER : COVERED STREETS & ARCADES Arcades and other such covered streets create ample thoroughfare for the residents of a community. The architecture integration of travel infrastructure creates sheltered environments for travelers, which is showcased in cities such as the Old Moravian Town of Telc in Czechoslovakia, Benabarre Spain, and Kharga in the Libyan Desert. 081 This strategy has the potential to reduce carbon emissions created by short distance travel in major urban areas. Integrating pedestrian travel under building structures, on street level, will create urban switchback paths which would reduce walking distance, creating a more pedestrian and thus sustainable city model. These paths will reduce taxi and ride-share usage by encouraging walking and positively impact the physical wellbeing of the city residents. These paths could also reduce the downdraught effect created by skyscrapers by allowing the breeze to be spread out instead of funneled.

Prevailing wind

Solid building Funneled wind direction, creating downdraught effect

Prevailing wind Building with pedestrian traffic flow integrated at ground level Diffused wind, eliminating downdraught effect Downdraught Effect Reduction Analysis HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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047 | Jemaa El Fna, Morocco

CRE ATED SHELTER : SEMI-COVERED STREETS Many African cultures and communities integrate semi-covered streets into their city planning to diffuse daylight and create shade to cool the thoroughfares. Organic matter such as sticks and vines are used to achieve this strategy - many are woven into intricate patterns and shapes, casting interesting shadows on the street. 082 This strategy would be simple to retrofit into many existing downtown zones in medium to small towns and cities. Developing semi-permeable coverings for the sidewalks will reduce heat island effects caused by egregious hardscape but also allow for community expression in the style, motif, material, and design of the coverings.

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SHARED SPACE VIA CIRCUL AR FORMATION The Pygmies of Central Africa tend to orient their dwellings into a circular form, with the openings facing the central point of the formation. The orientation of the dwellings denote significant social interaction and sharing of central territory. 083 Similarly, the Yanoama of upper Orinoco between Brazil and Venezuela have developed a circular cluster of lean-tos called chapunos. This collective community intrinsic formation creates shelter for the various families while also creating a central, and sacred, shared community environment at the center of the form. 084 Despite the many egregious issues intrinsic to Western Suburbia, cul de sacs showcase this formation - however, the form is not utilized to benefit the residents. If the form was developed as a shared green space with integrated utilization, the space would become beneficial and serve as a micro-hub of activity for the residents, encouraging a closer connection between the various families. In order to properly implement this sustainable function of cleared space, residents need to orient themselves towards a communityforward philosophy regarding shared territory, which is often lacking in Western society.

Chapuno Shared Space Plan Parti

048 | Chapuno Shared Space HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is split between Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. 089 The Rungus Longhouse is the most common style in this region and hosts up to fifteen different families under one roof.090

049 | Rungus Longhouse, Borneo, Malaysia

COMMON TERRITORY [01] Longhouses, such as the churuata employed by the Piaroa and the maloca of the Desana, are fully integrated shared space with little to no private territory per occupant or family. 085 The idea of sharing all territory can be terrifying to a Westerner who is comfortable with their privacy and personal space. However, other examples of long houses are sectioned or modulated, providing ample privacy to various households, while the shared territory hosts activity and work zones. A prime example of this exposition is from the Ngadju people of Borneo. 086 Many of these longhouses are the collaborative work between various families within the clan, or the entire clan itself. The dwelling is divided into household compartments, each outfitted with a food preparation area and sleeping quarters, and common areas. 087 In some cases, the only private territory are the sleeping quarters and the food preparation areas become a shared unit. 088 Sharing of common territory is seen in University dormitories and some apartment complexes, however, due to residents’ lack of personal responsibility, these spaces can often be in disarray. The principle of common territory allows less square footage per occupant, minimizing the overall real estate, and providing more opportunities for green space and environmental rehabilitation, especially in a semiurban or urban setting.

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Kitchen space Entry

Sleeping Quarters Storage/granary Anthropomorphic axis of the turtle form Boundary wall

Fali Dwelling Diagram | Spatial Form of a Turtle [Information from Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 252-253.]

050 | Fali Dwelling Development, Cameroon HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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COMMON TERRITORY [02] Sharing space between groups of people in a centralized development is not uncommon amongst traditional indigenous societies, as seen in Space & Territory: Common Territory [01]. A specifically interesting exposition of this spatial arrangement of territory is seen within the Fali of Northern Cameroon. The spatial arrangement of their developments have strong roots in anthropomorphic ideation with a strong emphasis on the reproductive organs - the division of sexes - which is intrinsic to their mythology. In addition to the spatial capitalization of the human form, the Fali also utilize arrangements mimicking the form of a tortoise and a toad (male and female respectively).

Despite each spatial utilization zone having a direct connection to an anthropomorphic zone (head, trunk, upper limbs, lower limbs), these zones can be broken from the basic form to constrain to function. 091 The Fali have developed an extremely functional and monumental form of cohabitation with an emphasis on boundaries through mythological spatial planning. Sleeping quarters are divided, providing privacy and ownership to the individuals, while other functional spaces such as the kitchen, granary, storage place are shared spaces. 092

Cohabitation and common territory can be implemented in Western society following this foundational model, especially in urban or semiurban settings. Providing legitimate outdoor space between the micro dwellings allows a buffer zone for noise to reduce while also emphasizing stronger territory than found in a shared apartment unit, in which all zones are hosted under a single interior environment. Additionally, the buffer green space can become another common zone to encourage community and wellbeing within the residents.

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A FINAL WORD The building and construction industry accounts for 39% of all greenhouse gas emissions 093, contributing greatly to the detriment of the planet.

The Western ideation of continuous growth and development does not aid in this issue, in fact it only worsens the challenge at hand. Reviewing and restructuring Western building philosophy under the direction of foundational strategies will be a monumental step to ensure safety, wellbeing, and stewardship of the Earth and its people for generations to come. We need to look to the past to inform the welfare of the future.

HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Gratitude and acknowledgment is expressed to Associate Professor, Jeanne Mercer-Ballard of Appalachian State University, Department of Applied Design, Interior Design Program, for prompting the initial idea behind this project and continually encouraging a deeper understanding of research and analysis in regards to foundational sustainable strategies.

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ENDNOTES MATERIALS & RESOURCES 001 Tim Angelos, Sam Scherer, Colin Kolbus, and Katrina Olson. “Adaptive Reuse of Ancient Buildings in Rome.” Engineering Rome, September 16, 2019. http://engineeringrome.org/adaptive-reuse-of-ancientbuildings-in-rome/.

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003 Findley, Dr. Andrew. “Arch of Constantine, Rome.” Arch of Constantine, Rome. Smarthistory , 2015. https://smarthistory.org/arch-of-constantine-rome/.

004 Rudofsky, Architecture Without Architects, 149.

005 Miles, Composite Vernacular Construction, 3536.

006 Fong, Todd. “Kayabuki No Sato: A Village of Thatched Roof Houses in Japan near Kyoto.” VOYAPON, February 2, 2021. https://voyapon.com/kayabuki-nosato-thatched-roof-kyoto-miyama/.

007 Rudofsky, Bernard.

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008 Admin. “What Is Thatch?” Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, October 26, 2016. https://ag.umass.edu/turf/ fact-sheets/what-is-thatch.

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011 Panneton, Sod Houses.

012 Ibid 013 “Building a Sod House .” Nebraska Studies.

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015 Jaquin, A History of Rammed Earth in Asia, 2-3.

016 Jaquin, A History of Rammed Earth in Asia, 4.

017 Jaquin, A History of Rammed Earth in Asia, 7.

018 Jaquin, A History of Rammed Earth in Asia, 4.

019 Pyatt, Rob, Christopher O’Hara, William Babbington, and Rongrong HU. “A High-Performance Rammed Earth Wall System for Cold Climates.” Journal of the National Institute of Building Sciences, no. February (2015): 26. https://doi.org/https://www.brikbase.org/ sites/default/files/Feb2015.%20Rammed%20earth.pdf.

020 Jaquin, A History of Rammed Earth in Asia, 1.

021 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 475.

022 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 416.

023 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 416.

024 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 475-476..

025 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 476.

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028 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 47.

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030 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55.

031 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55.

032 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 50.

033 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 51.

034 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55.

035 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55.

036 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55 037 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 63.

038 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 55.

039 Boehland, Jessica. “Bamboo in Construction: Is the Grass Always Greener?” BuildingGreen.

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041 Boehland, “Bamboo in Construction: Is the Grass Always Greener?”

042 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 293.

043 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 291.

044 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 293.

045 Watson and Davis, Lo-tek, 298-299.

046 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 293.

047 Rudofsky, Bernard.

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048 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 297.

049 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 297.

050 Broadbent, G. “The Ecology of the Mudhif.” WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 2008, 15–16. https://doi.org/10.2495/arc080021. https:// w w w. w i t p r e s s . c o m / S e c u r e / e l i b r a r y / p a p e r s / A R C 0 8 / ARC08002FU1.pdf 051 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 297.

052 Watson and Davis, Lo-Tek, 303.

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054 Rudofsky, Bernard.

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055 Rudofsky, Bernard.

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056 Ching, Jarzombek, and Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 414.

057 Ching, Jarzombek, and Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 22-23.

058 Ching, Jarzombek, and Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 23.

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Architecture without Architects. 132.

061 Shokoohi, Kimiya. “The Ancient Persian Way to Keep Cool.” BBC Future. BBC, August 10, 2021. https:// w w w. b b c . c o m / f u t u r e / a r t i c l e / 2 0 2 1 0 8 1 0 - t h e - a n c i e n t persian-way-to-keep-cool.

062 Ibid 063 Kassir, Radwan M. “Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling Wind-Towers: A Case Study Using Simulation with Field-Corroborated Results.” Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 37, no. 1 (January 2016): 103–20. https://doi. org/10.1177/0143624415603281.

064 Erika. “Searching for Windcatchers in Hyderabad.”

Field Study of the World, August 9, 2020. https://www. fieldstudyoftheworld.com/searching-windcatchershyderabad/.

065 Rudofsky, Bernard.

Architecture without Architects. 113 066 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 476.

067 “Building a Home.” Plimoth Patuxet Museums.

Accessed January 3, 2022. https://plimoth.org/for-

students/homework-help/building-a-home.

068 Ching, Jarzombek, Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 476.

069 House Construction in the Wampanoag Homesite. YouTube. Plimoth Patuxet Plantation , 2009. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZqfZspzhs0&ab_ channel=PlimothPatuxetMuseums.

Lewis, Miles.

“Composite Vernacular 070 Constructions.” Built Heritage , no. 4 (2019): 29–30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03545717.

071 Miles, Composite Vernacular Constructions, 30.

072 Miles, Composite Vernacular Constructions, 31.

073 Ibid 074 Mile, Composite Vernacular Construction, 33-35.

075 Szewczyk, Jaroslaw. “Cordwood Heritage.”

Conference: Urban Heritage: Research, Interpretation, Education, September 2007, 120. https://doi.org/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269135491_ Cordwood_Heritage.

076 Szewezyk, Cordwood Heritage, 122.

077 Szewezyk, Cordwood Heritage, 120-122.

078 Szewezyk, Cordwood Heritage, 122.

079 Szewezyk, Cordwood Heritage, 120-126.

080 Keiren. “Cordwood Construction • Insteading.”

Insteading, November 16, 2020. https://insteading.com/ blog/cordwood-construction/.

SPACE & TERRITORY 081 Rudofsky, Bernard.

Architecture without Architects. 75 082 Rudofsky, Bernard.

Architecture without Architects. 82.

083 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 39-43.

084 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 52.

085 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 100-108.

086 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 110.

087 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 112.

088 Hays, Jeffrey. “Tribal People of Borneo: Longhouses, Sago and Headhunting.” Facts and Details.

Accessed January 4, 2022. https://factsanddetails.com/ indonesia/Minorities_and_Regions/sub6_3f/entry-4014. html.

089 “Borneo -- an Awesome Island.” PBS. Public Broadcasting Service. Accessed January 4, 2022. https://www.pbs.org/edens/borneo/awesome.html.

090 MySabah.com. “Sabah Longhouse and the Rungus.” MySabah.com, January 22, 2015. https://www. mysabah.com/wordpress/sabah-longhouse-rungus/.

091 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 252-258.

092 Guidoni, Primitive Architecture, 252-253.

093 “Why the Building Sector?” Architecture 2030. Accessed January 7, 2022. https:// architecture2030.org/why-the-building-sector/.

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HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE STR ATEGIES ISAAC N. WOOD APPALACHIAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED DESIGN INTERIOR DESIGN PROGRAM FALL 2021