Contents Page
Page 3: Note from the chief editor and assistants
Page 4: Meet the magazine team
Page 5: An introduction to the GAIA society
Page 6: Our clubs, teams and events
Page 7: GAIA coordinators
Page 8: Benefits of joining GAIA/ how to join
Pages 9-11: The Cuban Missile crisis and Putin
Pages 12-15: International Women’s Day– women of GAIA
Pages 16-21: The moon is made of cheese
Pages 22-26: The Mesozoic era
Page 27: Ancient History quiz
Pages 28-33: Ancient and Modern imperialism
Pages 34-35: The disappearance of the two princes
Page 36: What’s on next term?
Page 37: Quiz answers
Page 38: Final note from the chief editor
Note from the chief editor and assistants
Hello everyone and welcome to the Spring 2024 issue of the GAIA magazine! This issue’s production has taken place across two really exciting events– Women’s history month and International Women’s day– so we have ensured to include a few pages on that theme. This magazine would not have been possible without my exceptional team who all work incredibly hard to ensure the magazine is of the highest standard. It has been a privilege to be a part of our team at the magazine and the GAIA society as a whole, a society which brings students with a passion for history, geography and geology together and enriches their experience at Winstanley College. I’m unbelievably proud of the entire editorial team for their impeccable work this term and would like to take this opportunity to thank my assistant editor Grace for all her support in managing the team and going above and beyond during the production of this issue. I would also like to thank Silvia Marques, the leader of the GAIA society, who has been amazingly supportive of me and the entire team. In this issue, we have a wide range of exceptional articles and other features, written by the talented students of Winstanley college, as well as a quiz on ancient history! I sincerely hope you enjoy reading– thank you and have a lovely Easter break!
Lily Barber, Chief editor
• Grace Kelly (assistant editor)
• Erika Fowles
• Lily Barber (chief editor)
• Martha Griffiths
• Harrison Bailey
• Lizzie Clark (not pictured)
Eva Marsden-Barnes (assistant editor), Nainika Rao, Jane Clark
The GAIA magazine combines education, entertainment, inspiration and a passion for learning to create a wonderful sense of community for all those involved. Our incredible team uses their love and shared knowledge of history, geology and geography to educate and inspire the students at Winstanley College. It is a great opportunity for young writers to get involved in enrichment and further learning– writing an article for the magazine doesn’t only enhance your own knowledge, it educates your peers and is a fantastic way to become a published writer. If you would like to join our magazine team, please email H005732@winstanley.ac.uk or post on the GAIA magazine channel. To gain access to the channel please contact Silvia Marques.
(from left to right)
GAIA is a student led organisation for students who study A-Level History, Geography or Geology, or have interest in the subjects. The society meets weekly to plan and organise events for all college students and we have a Microsoft Teams page which advertises all of our exciting and educational events to all History, Geology and Geography students.
GAIA is what our students want it to be, so this year, we have a number of different ongoing projects which you can find all about overleaf.
GAIA coordinators
Each club within the GAIA Society is led by one of our amazing coordinators whose role involves organising, marketing, and curating events for their club. Coordinators have applied for the position by filling in an application form. They produce a range of creative posters and posts on the GAIA teams page to advertise their event and coordinate other members to hold the event.
Our clubs, teams and events
• Horrible Histories Karaoke
• Model UN
• GAIA Magazine
• GAIA Podcasts
• Termly ‘pub’ quizzes
• Ancient History film/documentary club
• Debate Team – where we entered the Liverpool John Moores University
‘The Great Debate’
• Geology club including rock painting and documentary-making
• GAIA bake-off raising money for local charities
• ‘Keeping Manny Warm’ campaign where we donated items for The Brick at Christmas
• Guest speakers from universities, industries and other organisations
• TED Talks
• REEL Geography
• Anthropology Trip to UCLAN
• Opportunities to enter national competitions e.g. London’s Geological Society Competition, Historical Association
Debate competition, Bloomsbury Ancient History Competition
• Oxbridge application support
• Commemoration of key events – Remembrance Day, Holocaust memorial, Black History Month, Earth Day, and International Women’s Day
Our GAIA coordinators this year are:
Geology
Geography – Jake Hughes, Aidan Berry
Ancient and Medieval History – Ayse Rose Mckenzie
Horrible Histories Karaoke – Miya Rae Woodward-Green, Jasmine Lindsay, Elizabeth Roberts
Debate Team – Oliver Towler, Leila Morris, Jake Hughes, Stephanie Duru-
Okwbua
Podcast – Harrison Holden, Cameron Boyers
Quiz – Amber Wells, Cameron Boyers, Finn Houghton
Magazine Chief Editor – Lily Barber
Poster Designer - Miya Rae Woodward-Green
Photographer – Erika Fowles
Secretary – Mayukhi Mittal
Benefits of joining GAIA and how to join
Why should I join GAIA?
GAIA is both a fun and educational opportunity to engage with your subjects or explore subjects of interest which you didn’t have the chance to study at A-level. By joining GAIA, you join a community of like-minded students with a passion for humanities. We are a society ran by the students, for the students, meaning that engaging with any of our clubs is an amazing chance to have your ideas heard. GAIA is a great way to make friends and even boost your personal statement if you’re interested in pursuing humanities beyond college.
How do I join GAIA?
You can come along to any of our events without signing up for the society. To get involved with individual clubs, read ahead for personal contact information. If you’d like access to our teams in order to get involved as a club member or to be notified of any upcoming events, please contact Silvia Marques:
silvia.marques@winstanley.ac.uk
The Cuban Missile Crisis & Putin: A repeat waiting to happen?
‘Of course, nobody does [want another Cuban missile crisis]’ - Vladimir Putin. A quote, ironically enough, from the man, who many have come to conclude, may cause some form of round two of maybe the most terrifying event in the aftermath of the Second World War. He may claim that quote to be his attitudes towards the current tensions between East and West, but, as some would say, actions some of the time, speak much louder than words. Many of Putin’s morals and agendas of the modern day heavily reflect those held by Nikita Krushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Furthermore, it can be argued, that Biden to some extent, could replicate the position of Kennedy. So, is this a disaster waiting to happen? One that we almost have partially seen before, because as they say, history always repeats itself.
1961- the beginning. Kennedy decided to attempt to overthrow the communist leadership of Cuba, lead by Fidel Castro. He decided to send exiled convicts, that at one point lived in Cuba, to begin a revolt against Castro. However, the plan was discovered by spies sent to uncover the American plot and the Cuban people were overall supportive of Castro and so the attempted revolution failed. This obviously led to great mistrust from Castro that steered him to seek assistance from the Soviet Union.
As a precaution, Krushchev and the Soviets decided to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to act as a deterrent: 200 miles from American soil. This obviously caused great distress to the West. The construction of these missiles began during the summer of 1962. As a response, Kennedy decided to create a naval blockade to prevent the construction of the weapons. Negotiations lasted 7 days between Kennedy and Krushchev- ending in the decision that the SU would dismantle the weapons if America agreed to not invade Cuba again. However, in the seven days that passed before the agreement was reached, it
was the closest we as a race had ever been to an all-out nuclear war. Both sides, before negotiations, were more than prepared for war, with Kennedy going as far as announcing on television in a live broadcast that the USA were stepping up surveillance.
It can be argued that there are many similarities in the 60s and the modern day. The obvious first being the characteristics of the respective Russian leaders. However, many contend that Krushchev was a lot saner than Putin. In contrast, Krushchev was however a lot weaker than Putin too, with Putin currently having significantly more autonomy. To add to this, Russia is currently a nuclear superpower, with a much greater capacity of warheads and missiles than those in arsenal in 1962. Finally, Krushchev did not want war or new land, it can be argued from one side that he was purely provoked from the Bay of Pigs incident. The same cannot be said for Putin.
Another consideration to factor in is the influence and positioning of NATO. NATO was formed late 1949, meaning it had only existed for the good portion of 10 years before the conflict took place. A considerably smaller number of countries were involved in the treaty at that time, and the only country properly at risk was the USA. Now, however, NATO countries border Ukraine, meaning the risk is a lot closer to home for those in Europe. Not only is NATO a bigger organisation with significantly more influence, it also means that should a nuclear war occur in the modern day, there would almost surely be little to no survivors anywhere on the planet.
Putin is also extremely contradictory, so it extremely difficult at this time, to know where we stand. He has been quoted saying he does not plan a nuclear attack but has also been recorded saying he will use all available means to defend territories it has gained through annexation. This ultimately means, the West is not fully aware of what Putin has in store. Furthermore, Putin has rejected any comparison of him to Krushchev, possibly hinting at a different set of ideals in regard to conflict, especially with the West. Kennedy and Biden, however, are slightly more similar. Both understand to similar extents the importance of the preventing of nuclear war. Biden himself has stated: been going" this highlights his views towards the threat of Putin.
"For the first time since the Cuban Missile Crisis, we have a direct threat to the use of nuclear weapons, if in fact things continue down the path they'd been going" this highlights his views towards the threat of Putin. Whilst Kennedy may to an extent have worsened tensions regarding this, both men understand and understood the threat that both leaders of the opposition posed. Both men are not worried about publically calling out the opposition, using direct language to emphasise their strong opinions on the events of their times. However, Kennedy was much more offensive than the defensive Biden. Kennedy acted against the Soviet Union, resulting in severe consequences through his naval blockade. Biden, in contrast, hasn’t committed to a physical response against Russia, nothing that would provoke them similarly to the way Krushchev was provoked. Whilst Putin may have spoken out against the USA in regard to providing aid to Ukraine, there has been no strike against Russia by America meaning there is slightly less threat than the 60s.
In conclusion, it may seem that both sides do not want a repeat of the events of 1961-62. Though, as previously stated, just because the leader claims to not want conflict, this is not necessarily their opinion behind the scenes. The question that needs to be asked is can Putin be trusted to be telling the whole truth over his intentions. I think the answer to this is a fairly firm no. We do not know if Putin is in any way thinking rationally over his hatred for the West. This could ultimately have negative consequences for life as we know it. All because of one man.
Article written by Jasmine Lindsay
International Women’s Day: Women of GAIA
In GAIA, we have an amazing range of leaders, coordinators and members. In lieu of International Women’s day, which was on the 8th March, we would like to highlight the exceptional women in GAIA and the work they do to help keep the society up and running.
Our female coordinators are:
• Amber Wells
• Ayse Rose Mckenzie
• Miya Rae Woodward-Green
• Jasmine Lindsay,
• Elizabeth Roberts
• Leila Morris
• Stephanie Duru-Okwbua
• Lily Barber
• Erika Fowles
• Mayukhi Mittal
Though all of our team members are impeccable at what they do, the women in GAIA always go above and beyond in their organisation, creativity and collaboration. Whether they’re forming new and exciting clubs, designing poster art, delivering educational ted-talks or writing informative articles, they are constantly inspiring all of us in GAIA and their peers at Winstanley College. Overleaf are a few of our exceptional female members who have consistently excelled this past term nominated by our team and by Silvia Marques, our amazing society leader!
Mayukhi is the Gaia Society secretary. In this role she has shown ambition, superb organisation, direction and commitment. Mayukhi chairs the meetings, sets the agenda and collaborates with all the Gaia coordinators and teams, she posts information on our Gaia Team and keeps everyone in check. She is authoritative and supportive of all the members and is ambitious about what we can achieve. She baked a beautiful and well considered cake for the Gaia bake-off competition, making an ox-bow lake. She contributed to and organised the cake stall which raised £130 for Better Brighter Orrell. Thank you Mayukhi for your dedication.
-Silvia Marques, leader of GAIA and assistant head of history
Lily is the Gaia magazine chief editor. She is enthusiastic, committed and inspirational. She coordinates the magazine team with fairness and diligence - everyone knows what they have to do and when. The magazine team have produced are a superb example of the effort she has put into her role. She has shown initiative and l eadership - a role model for all women. Thank you Lily you are a superstar.
-Silvia Marques, leader of GAIA assistant head of history
Silvia Marques
Silvia is the leader of the GAIA Society and assistant head of history at Winstanley College. She consistently inspires each and every one of us by organising meetings, clubs, charity events and more. Silvia encourages all of our students by supporting their events, clubs and ideas. She always ensures everybody has the chance to share their thoughts and ideas and that we are all able to contribute to GAIA however we would like. It is a privilege to be taught by or work with Silvia, her passion for humanities absolutely shines through in her efforts under GAIA and inspires her students to share the same dedication as her.
-The Magazine team
Grace Kelly
Grace is a wonderful addition to the magazine team, always the first at the meetings and the first to volunteer her help. She is impeccably selfless in her dedication to the production of the magazine and always has fresh and exciting ideas to contribute. Thank you Grace for all your help.
-Lily Barber, Chief editor
Martha Griffiths
Martha works extensively on promotion for the magazine team, designing wonderful posters with her amazing art skills which give the magazine a fantastic boost . Thank you for always being so creative and dedicated.
-Lily Barber, Chief editor
Our female humanities teachers at Winstanley College
Each and every one of our female staff work incredibly hard, inspiring us with their passion for history, geography or geology. We are all so grateful for their dedication to exceptional teaching– they are certainly role models to all women, especially those of us who study their subjects.
The Mesozoic Era
By Amber Wells
The second of Earth’s three major geologic eras of Phanerozoic time, with its name deriving from the Greek term ‘middle life’. This Era is spans out between 252– 66 Ma and contains a lot of firsts in the history of Earth. It started off with a bang, having followed from the Permian-Triassic extinction that wiped out of 95% of ocean-dwelling species and 70% of land species. With the geologic time scale, the Mesozoic Era is split into three major periods – the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. This Era was not only significant for evolution but also for climate and tectonic activity.
The Triassic period ranges roughly from 252 – 201 Ma and is situated between two extinction events (The Permian–Triassic and the Triassic–Jurassic). At the beginning of this period, all major landmasses were collected into the supercontinent of Pangea, and the climate was very warm and dry. Pangea covered about one-quarter of the Earth and the Northern continents were collectively termed Laurasia and the Southern continents Gondwana. The rest of the planet was covered by Panthalassa, an enormous world ocean stretching pole to pole. The worldwide temperatures between the poles and Equator were less extreme than how they currently are, resulting in no polar ice existing and a lack of biodiversity. The land was extremely arid, with strong seasonal precipitation in some parts of the world. There are several indicators of an arid climate including, red sandstones and shales containing few fossils, lithified dune deposits, mud cracks and evaporites. However, it is also thought that there was strong seasonal precipitation due to clay-rich deltaic deposits and fluvial sediments. Both different paleo climates fit together by postulating a monsoonal climate over wide areas of Pangea. An additional indication of temperature and tropical climates is coal deposits. Coal deposits are useful as they indicate humid conditions with somewhat high rainfall – which is responsible for vegetation growth and poor drainage. The large swamps created by this would act as depositional basins for the decomposing plant material that
gradually transforms into peat, and over time, coal. After much of the oceanic life had been wiped out, the reptiles apart of the order Ichthyosauri returned. In fossils, their vertebrae indicate they swam by moving their entire bodies side to side. Later in the Triassic, Ichthyosaurs evolved into purely marine forms with dolphin-shaped bodies and longtoothed snouts. The vertebrae of these indicate they swam more like fish, using their tails and fins for propulsion. By the mid-Triassic these ichthyosaurs were dominant in the oceans. Unfortunately for the plants and insects, they dry climate prevented any extensive evolutionary advances during the Triassic. Mosses and ferns survived in coastal regions and conifer forests began to recover from the previous extinction. The only new insect group of the Triassic was the grasshoppers. Two groups of animals survived the extinction – the Therapsids and the archosaurs. In the early Triassic, Therapsids (mammal-like reptiles) dominated but by the mid-Triassic most had become extinct, and archosaurs (the more reptilian group) were dominant. The archosaurs
branched off into different groups, with many becoming bipedal, and some becoming the first pterosaurs. The end-Triassic mass extinction was less devastating than the extinction at the end of the Permian. On land a great amount of fauna disappeared at the end of the Triassic other than the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, turtles, mammals, and fishes – who were little affected by the transition.
Plant fossils and palynomorphs show no significant changes in diversity at the end of the Triassic. Intense volcanic activity was caused by the breakup of Pangea s thought to have cruised carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, and therefore the acidity of the oceans. Since this volcanism coincided with the end-Triassic extinction, many palaeontologists think this to be the extinctions most likely cause. The Jurassic period is from 201 – 145 Ma and was characterised by a warm wet climate that helped give rise to the flora and fauna at the time. The start is marked by the major Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, wiping around half of all marine life. During this period the supercontinent, Pangea, was split apart into landmasses that would eventually form some of the continents we know today.
Along with the rifting of the content, warmer global temperatures allowed for the dominance of the dinosaurs. By the beginning of the Jurassic, plant life had evolved into low-growing mosses and liverworts, that lacked vascular tissue, ere confined to the moist swampy areas. Other plants like germs and gingkoes had roots and vascular tissue to move water and nutrients, along with using a spore system for reproduction. These were the dominant plants of the early Jurassic. Gymnosperms, such as conifers, allowed for wind distribution of their pollen, allowing for greater genetic combinations by the end of the Jurassic. Fossil evidence also revealed that flowing planets started to emerge in the mid to late-Jurassic, however, they remained very rare compared to the other thriving species at the time. Reptiles were dominant in the Jurassic period, overcoming the problems amphibians had with reproduction, which ended up limiting them. A useful evolutionary trait of reptiles is that they had long ossified skeletons supported by an advanced muscular system for locomotion. Some of the largest animals to ever live were the dinosaurs and allowed for the first fully terrestrial animal life cycles due to the amniotic eggs some of them laid. Sauropods (lizard hipped) were herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks balanced by heavy tails. Some were greater than 100 feet and weighed over 100 tons, making them the largest land animals to ever walk the Earth. Their skulls were relatively small, with nostrils high near their eyes. Sauropod fossils have been found in every other continent, even Antarctica. With such large herbivorous prey being common during this time, large predators came about to hunt them. Carnosaurus (meat-eating dinosaur) is what these hunters were named, many had a longer jaw and heavier forelimbs, as well as stronger hind legs for running – unfortunately it is unclear how fast they could run. Their heavily muscled forelimbs would help them tear their prey into piece and then swallowing them whole. Mammals were also present during the Jurassic period, being very small herbivores or insectivores. Marine life was also highly diversified like on land, with the largest carnivores being the Plesiosaurus. The typical structure of these marine reptiles were broad bodies, four flipper shaped limbs and long necks with small heads. some fossils have been found with smaller individuals inside them suggesting that these animals may have
been a kind the first to have internal gestation and bear live young. This period came to an end with a mass extinction wiping out 8% of marine families and 26% of marine genera. This extinction seems to be related to marine anoxia and the formation of black shales and represent significant reserves of uranium.
The third period in making up the Mesozoic Era is the Cretaceous period. This period began 145 – 66 Ma and comes before the Paleogene, the first in the Cenozoic Era (our current Era). The Cretaceous is the longest period in Phanerozoic Eon, with Pangea still breaking apart and drifting outward due to seafloor spreading. By the end of this period, Pangea was no more, and the distribution of the continents is much like they are today. Due to the hotter climate, the poles lacked ice and sea levels fluctuated, but remained high – at times they were 170 m higher than today’s. The climate was so much warmer and mild that temperate rainforests grew close to the poles and flowering plants started to become more prominent. At the start of the Cretaceous, the fossil record is scarce of these angiosperms, but nearer the end of the period they started to flourish in numbers. Dinosaurs were still the dominant species at the time, especially hadrosaurs –duck-billed dinosaurs.
Giant marine reptiles like mosasaurus and ichthyosaurus were common in the sea, and pterosaurs still dominated the skies. Modern mammals evolved during the cretaceous and many became the modern ones we know today by the end of the period. As soon as dinosaurs were to vanish from the environment, mammals would come to take their place in being the dominant species. This period ended with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, which is the most recent extinction event Earth has experienced. This extinction has a definite connection to a meteorite and 76% of life went extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Evidence of this hypothesis Is found with the huge crater near Chicxulub, Mexico, which
dates to the cretaceous and was buried beneath sediments. Before this, it had been believed the extinction was caused by climate and geological changes that interrupted animal’s food supply. However, in the 1980s a distinct layer of iridium, which is only abundant in space, that corresponds with the dinosaur’s disappearance. This then led to the discovery of the Chicxulub Crater in the 1990s.
Ancient History Quiz
1. Depending on who you ask, “B.C.” can mean “Before the Common Era,” “Before the Current Era,” or before which Biblical figure?
2. Which former capital of Ancient Egypt is located 12 miles (20 km) south of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile? The city in question shares its name with a city in Tennessee.
3. In ancient Greece, which term referred to an Athenian democratic procedure in which a citizen could be expelled from Athens for ten years? In modern usage, this term means exclusion by general consent from common privileges or social acceptance.
4. What word follows “Gordian” in the name of a legend of Ancient Greece, associated with Alexander the Great, often used as a metaphor for an intricate problem?
5. Played by Gerard Butler in the film "300," what is the name of the king of Sparta who famously led his force of 300 soldiers against a Persian army of approximately 1,000 times that number in the Battle of Thermopylae?
6. Referring to the government of the ancient Roman Republic, which fourletter abbreviation was used for the phrase “Senatus Populusque Romanus” meaning "The Roman Senate and People?"
7. One trigger for the Peloponnesian war was the foundation of the Delian League in 478BC. Under Pericles' lead, which large city state was able to build an empire through their control of the Delian League and challenge Sparta as the most powerful Greek city state?
8. Taking place in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, the Punic Wars were a series of wars fought between the Roman Republic and which city-state in modern Tunisia?
9. What military formation was made famous by Alexander the Great?
10. What was the highest political office in the Roman Republic?
How ancient imperialism has influenced modern imperialism- with a focus on China (A political, economic, social, and historical study)
By Oliver Towler
China, one of the oldest, continuously independent nations on earth and a country that has dominated the far eastern world for millennia. A country that has culturally, politically, economically, and religiously dominated its neighbours- along with, of course, military dominance and imperial ambition that has continued for much of the nation's history. The beginning of China's long history of empires was with the Qin Dynasty, followed 15 years later by the Han Dynasty, and then by the Sui Dynasty and finally, by the Tang Dynasty: a period of eight hundred years that saw China as one of the preeminent powers of the ancient to early medieval world (Chua, 2007). However, during the colonial period and due to the dogmatic expansion of European powers and the rise of the rapidly modernizing Japanese empire (along with other socioeconomic factors) this once great civilisation fell into a great decline from which the country only began to recover from only once the civil war had ended on the 7th of December 1949.
First, we must define imperialism to truly answer the question, Britannica define imperialism as such: ‘’Imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas’’ (Brittanica, n.d.)- a definition I accept as reasonable, and one that is fit for both modern and ancient purposes. The earliest forms of Chinese imperialism were simple, plain, conquest settlement and integration. However in 206 BC, the tribute system emerged under the Han Dynasty (Jenner, 2009). The tribute system under the ancient Chinese emperors was a series of traditions upon where states of the East Asian region paid tribute to the emperor as a way to recognise that due to ‘Tianxia’ (all under heaven) (Yelang, 2023) all states were merely the periphery of the world as compared to the ‘middle kingdom’ of China who were culturally and socially superior to all others. In exchange for this, the Han Dynasty would provide protection, legitimacy, and the right to trade with China. . The Sui Dynasty also largely kept this the same as the previously established system and would send people from certain ‘elite’ groups -like the Han people- to administer the kowtowing regions and command foreign
regions and command foreign armies to fight along the borderlands of the empire’s reach. The Tang Dynasty also maintained this system and used it to establish trade routes like the silk road but also adopted the ‘Jimi’ system that had three ‘tiers of civilisation’. The Tang Dynasty were at the top, followed by the loosely administrated regions that were not a part of the core Han provinces and were on the peripheral of the empires direct control. The next tier would have been the Sino-tributaries (Korea, Vietnam and occasionally Japan), next would be the regular tributaries and finally, the foreign nations that paid no tribute and were ‘isolated’ nations. Another important feature of the new ‘Jimi’ system was the enfeoffment of foreign titles such as the ‘Grand General of An Dong’ in Japan during the Song Dynasty- these titles would be granted despite the nation not paying tribute to China. To conclude, the tributary system was a way for China to maintain political and cultural stabilityaside from court politics- China was stable due to this and the foreign policy was an effective way of pursuing regional power and utilising their extensive political power without overstretching militarily. (Yelang, 2023)
However, this system would seem remarkably like others such as the colonial, vassal, and treaty systems of later periods, however all these systems had their own unique features that were absent in other systems. Firstly, the vassal system and states were forcefully indebted to a foreign power that could demand a payment of military or financial aid. A tribute state however was paying tribute to the foreign power for protection and could in theory leave the tribute system and face the world ‘protectionless’ – akin to mafia protection rackets. Next is the colonial system established by Europeans across the globe- this was a system produced by force with the express purpose of extracting as much as possible from colonised nations such as the brutal rubber harvesting in the Congo under Leopold II. Meanwhile, the tributary system was more likened to a modern foreign policy in that it sought stability and long-term gain and was used to establish a ‘protection racket’ style governance of East Asia. Finally, is the treaty system which was based on legal obligations to other nations of equal status as your own- the tributary system of ancient China however was clearly based on a hierarchy of nations and focused on traditions rather than any form of legal obligations. (Yelang, 2023) An often-overlooked fashion that often occurs in imperialist nations is a formation of racism and xenophobia engrained within the fabric of society that is often difficult to contain or remove. Similar to how during the British empires ‘civilizing of the savages’, an outlook of British ethnic superiority arose, or
In China, this culminated in a deep mistrust of foreign influence which- even during the pluralistic Tang empire- continued to be pervasive as it was the policy ‘to bring the ‘’barbarians’’ under Chinese administration and to use the nomads as a military force against other ‘’Barbarians’’ would not disturb the Chinese and would undergo a gradual process of Sinification’ (Yihong, 1990). But also, a sense of unity- a shared objective- like the ancient Egyptian dogma of ‘kome’ (Manley, 2009). The conquest of the first Han emperor and the bureaucratic institutions of his empire and its predecessors gave the Chinese people a sense of unity that has continued far past the emperor's own empire (Jenner, 2009).
Why were both the citizens of the empire and the leaders of the aristocracy so willing to war with certain nations and treat them as subjects? A definite belief of Chinese superiority was held within these relations- such was the relation of Tang with Korea. Whilst others like the Uighur empire or the Tibetan people were treated far more equally. The ‘tribute status,’ they had was symbolic- merely a way to maintain the facade of Chinese superiority whilst still maintaining a practicality that allowed for a stability that the greatest emperors were famous for. Precisely this was due to ‘two principles of Confucian doctrine: ‘’the king leaves nothing and nobody outside his realm,’’ and ‘’Having the various states of Xia within and keeping the Yi and Di barbarians out.’’ While the first principle represented the ideological purity and provided justification for Chinese expansion, the second stressed practicality, thus the two aspects achieved a balance.’ (Yihong, 1990) Therefore, they were able to doubly justify their conquest and rule whilst still justifying the use of tributaries and the existence of opposing nations whom they worked with as largely equal.
When talking on modern imperialism, China- similar to its ancient use of Tributaries- is a highly unique case in that it rarely fought a war through either proxy (Korea (1950-53) and Vietnam (1965-69)), or direct interventionas was the case in its wars against India (1962) and Tibet (1950) (these were invasions that occurred for territorial gains whereas Korea and Vietnam were ideological wars against the US and to extend their influence via a modern tribute nation-like north Korea). Since WW2, the China has engaged in 9 conflicts- border clashes, uprisings, civil wars, and traditional wars- The US on the other hand has been ‘among the 248-armed conflicts that occurred in 153 regions of the world, 201 were initiated by the US, accounting for 81% of the total number.’ (Andalolu Agency, 2022). This does not however mean
China engages in no imperialistic actions- it is instead a form of economic imperialism that China engages in, and the target of this imperialism is also typically the nations that need it the most. This is the main reason it continues from Sri Lanka (Stacey, 2017) to Djibouti (Central bank of Egypt, 2020) and recently even into the traditional US sphere of influence of the South Pacific (Filippino, 2022).
The belt and road initiative is a global economic strategy in which China and Chinese companies invest in the developing world to build infrastructure and exploit vital resources for that nation's economy. In exchange for investment Chinese loans average a 4.14% compared to the cheaper world bank loans at 2.1% interest (Central bank of Egypt, 2020), in certain cases the nations are unable to pay and fall into a ruthless debt trap- however recent events have caused no interest in Chinese loans to be forgiven and unpayable loans to be restructured and extended along with the 1 year moratorium on debt repayment placed by G20 (Central bank of Egypt, 2020)I highly doubt that these nations will fall into the debt trap within the near future- the possibility however remains over the heads of these nations causing them to often be a political ally –or puppet- in the international community -and the rising tensions which some have described as a second cold war. So, is this a new soviet bloc? No. These indebted nations are not aligned with China politically, or in a place to deploy a military force to rival NATO, this is instead an economic web that China has spun using both official lending and Chinese companies to influence the world around. A case that we must recognise as extremely similar to the ancient method of conquest, subjugation, and defence of the Dynasties where they would bestow power to individuals to go and conquer or command armies in certain areas, encouraging expansion without explicit orderssomething that is evident in the belt and road initiative that some describe as ‘neo-colonial’. It however appears far more similar to the tributary system of the ancient Chinese Dynasties than a colonial system designed to exploit and not truly a long term goal oriented system that China seems to have established for themselves.
Hambantota- a port on the southern tip of island of Sri Lanka. In 2016, Chinavia a private company- relieved $1.1 billion of Sri Lankan debt in exchange for a 99-year lease- with an extension option for a further 99 years (Stacey, 2017). The deep-water port deal was highly controversial and was delayed for fears of use by the Chinese military. The deal, however, went through after this fear was assuaged (Mundy, 2017). This is a case that many use to
show China’s expansionist interests, however this is simply not the case as they often lose themselves in the belief that China seized the port. The loan was in fact a way of China recouping their loss in loans left unpaid. The port is now in control of a Chinese company and so, what the future holds for the port and other projects across the globe- such as undersea cables from Kenya to Yemen, or a military base and deep-water port in Djibouti (Central bank of Egypt, 2020) - would be able to be used to advance their political influence using these now indebted nations. Although foreign minister Qin Gang refuted the claims saying the ‘so-called China's "debt trap" in Africa is a narrative trap imposed on China and Africa’ (Ministry of foreign affairs of the Peoples Republic of China, 2023).However, a grain of salt should be taken with this as he would likely have a vested interest in refuting such claims. South Asia is Chinas ‘backyard,’ and they are capitalising on it and utilising Chinese companies to exercise their will. Unofficially, however, the Chinese government has huge power over domestic companies and their international deals. And along with cultural ideas of community and working with other Chinese businesses when possible, international ethnic Chinese people can capitalise off of the increasing wealth of the mainland. As such, Chinese nationals are the market dominant group and are- although not directly accountable- guilty of possibly having a vested interest at the very least. An example of Chinese dominance is the Philippines‘just 1-2% of the population, ethnic Chinese, control all of the Philippines’ largest and most lucrative department store chains, major supermarkets, and fast-food restaurants’ ‘With one exception, all of the Philippines' principal banks are now Chinese controlled’ which includes the largest bank in the country (Chua, 2003)” Used by China, this could create a proto-tributary state, one that is totally reliant on China for its economic security and so, influence the region as it did in ancient times. Able to use threats and non-violent methods to achieve the desired results.
So why? We do have some theories for China’s true motives for economic expansion such as: innocent economic growth and investment stratagem, a way of gaining political power for world domination and in preparation for the ‘inevitable’ war with the USA, or the ideological cause of communism being taken up by China using the increasingly capitalistic world to encourage a overthrowing of the western order and then a rise of socialism to its final form of communism as envisioned by Marx. Though, it is probable that the true answer is a mix of all of these theories. Yes, it may be an investment
strategy that was done to extract value whilst helping expand their political influence as a way to counteract the US influence in the region, but if so it is working as China now are ranked first in economic influence (the ability to wield influence through economic outreach and interdependence) (Jain, 2018). As for the last theory- yes, this is the final stage of communism, but this is the least realistic motivation for Chinas political strategy. In lieu of all the evidence I have presented and independently researched; I believe the influence of ancient imperialism on modern imperialism is extremely significant. The motivation may or may not have changed-but either way, it will take a while to discover the underlying reason of the belt and road initiative. The methods of creating and wielding this influence however, seem to have remained the same and have merely been adapted for the modern world as has China’s –relative to other foreign powers- aversion to war as they prefer to use war only to an end that would be unachievable any other way.
The Disappearance of the Two Princes
Rose McKenzie
Edward IVs death
Edward V and his brother Richard, the Duke of York, disappeared in 1483. They were the sons of Edward IV, King of England, who was the figurehead for the War of the Roses, from 1455 to 1485. The ongoing war started due to the feud between house Lancaster and house York, they fought to claim the throne and prove legitimacy. There was a tendency that kings would be murdered along with their heirs, so that another may take possession of the throne. Edward IVs death is uncertain, one suggestion is that he died of malaria or pneumonia; another allegation is that he was poisoned.
Edward V and the Tower
After Edward IVs death, his son Edward V became king with his uncle, Richard of Gloucester, acting as his Lord Protector since he was only 12 years of age. Richard quickly sent Edward V to the tower of London along with his brother. Richard insisted that placing them in the tower was for their protection from the civil war. They might have also been taken to the tower, as it is the starting point of the coronation ceremony. A new monarch should stay within the tower until the ceremony takes place as it is tradition.
Ascension of Richard III
Edward Vs coronation was planned to take place on the 22nd of June 1483. However, when preparation was underway the plan changed, and they were to make Richard, duke of Gloucester, king. Parliament had declared that the sons of Edward IV were illegitimate since he had a contract to marry Lady Eleanor Butler before he married Elizabeth Woodville, who was the mother of the Princes. This meant by birth right Richard was next in line to inherit the throne making him Richard III.
Suspects of the Princes Murder
Richard III quickly made enemies in court, making him fearful of being usurped by his nephew. What happened to the Princes because of this is still unknown and debated among historians. Many believe that during that year the two princes were murdered, possibly by Richard III orders. Henry Stafford may have murdered the brothers to try to gain Richard’s favour by removing any possibility that Richard could be usurped. The murder might have also been committed by Henry VII to ensure that Elizabeth of York would be the only one to inherit the throne. By marring Elizabeth of York Henry VII would become King. There is a slight possibility they weren’t killed at all. In 1491 Perkin Warbeck claimed to be Richard, Duke of York. He had said he escaped the tower and had spent his time travelling through Europe to convince people he was the real prince. He convinced Margaret of York, the aunt of the two princes. However, after a failed attempt to invade England, he was sent to the tower where he confessed that he wasn’t the prince, this led him to be executed.
Discovery in the White Tower
In 1674, bones of children around a similar age to that of the princes were found within a staircase of the white tower. King Charles II pronounced that these were the remains of the princes and had the bones placed within an urn. In 1933, the remains were taken for scientific analysis. Further research is taking place after the discovery of Richard iii remains by Philippa Jayne Langley. The DNA from Richard III will allow for testing to take place to identify if they are the bones of the Princes.
What’s on next term?
There’s always something new and exciting happening in GAIA– whether that be a talk, a documentary, a competition, a charity event or even karaoke. Keep a look out on the GAIA calendar in our teams files to make sure you know about anything new coming soon!
There are many things we are continuing next term– our Horrible Histories karaoke, our weekly documentaries, exciting debates and our amazing teams within the society. With a range of activities such as podcasts, articles, talks and photography we really do have something for everyone! We always say the more the merrier, so why not pop down and try something out? Or possibly hold your own event– such as a TED talk which you can organise by contacting Silvia Marques. We can’t wait to see you there!
Quiz answers
1. Christ
2. Memphis
3. Ostracism
4. Knot
5. Leonidas
6. SPQR
7. Athens
8. Carthage
9. Phalanx
10. Consul
Note from the chief editor
I would like to thank you all for reading and supporting the GAIA society– it has been an absolute honour to work as chief editor once again alongside my amazing team. I would like to extend my personal thanks to all those who contributed to this issue– by writing or editing. A special thanks to my assistant editors Eva Marsden and Grace Kelly who never fail to amaze me in their efforts and team work. Thank you also to our inspirational society leader Silvia Marques, who is constantly supporting the entire magazine team and the rest of us in GAIA.
Thank you everyone, see you in the next issue!
Lily Barber, Chief editor
