Human resource management 13th edition gary dessler solutions manual download

Solution Manual for Human Resource Management 13th Edition Dessler 0132668211 9780132668217

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LectureOutline

©

Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 74

Copyright

2013

PART TWO RECRUITMENT AND PLACEMENT CHAPTER T Six

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Employee Testing and Selection

Strategic Overview

Why Careful Selection is Important

Person and Job/Organization Fit

Basic Testing Concepts

Reliability

Validity

Evidence-Based HR: How to Validate a Test

Bias

Utility Analysis

Validity Generalization

Test Takers’ Individual Rights and Test Security

How Do Employers Use Tests at Work?

Computerized & Online Testing Types of Tests

Tests of Cognitive Abilities

Tests of Motor and Physical Abilities

Measuring Personality and Interests

Achievement Tests

Work Samples and Simulations

Using Work Sampling for Employee Selection

Situational Judgment Tests

Management Assessment Centers

Situational Testing/Video-Based Situational Testing

Computerized Multimedia Candidate Assessment

The Miniature Job Training and Evaluation Approach

Realistic Job Previews

HR in Practice: Testing Techniques for Managers

Background Investigations and Other Selection Methods

Why Perform Background Investigations and Reference Checks?

The Legal Dangers and How to Avoid Them

How to Check a Candidate’s Background

The Social Network: Checking Applicants’ Social Postings

Using Pre-employment Information Services

The Polygraph and Honesty Testing

Graphology

“Human Lie Detectors”

Physical Exams

Substance Abuse Screening

Complying with Immigration Law

Improving Productivity Through HRIS

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

1. Explain what is meant by reliability and validity.

2. Explain how you would go about validating a test.

3. Cite and illustrate our testing guidelines.

In Brief: This chapter gives an overview of the selection process, testing concepts, types of tests, and selection techniques. It also addresses legal and ethical questions surrounding the area of testing and selection.

Interesting Issues: Reference checking is part of the care an employer must take to ensure that the potential employee will not pose a threat tocurrent employees or customers. Employers who fail to exercise “due diligence” in checking a job candidate’s background may find themselves legally liable if the candidate is hired and subsequently uses the job to commit a crime. Liability may even extend to offenses that occur outside of work time.

4. Give examples of some of the ethical and legal considerations in testing.

5. List eight tests you could use for employee selection, and how you would use them.

6. Give two examples of work sample/simulation tests.

7. Explain the key points to remember in conducting background investigations.

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

I. Why Careful Selection Is Important

Selecting the right employees is important for three main reasons: 1) employees with the right skills and attributes will perform more effectively; 2) the cost of making a wrong hire can become exhorbitant considering the time and money invested in the selection and training process; and 3) there are legal implications of incompetent or negligent hiring

A. Person and Job/Organization Fit - This refers to matching the knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies central to performing a job with the perspective employee’s knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies etc. to achieve good fit.

II. Basic Testing Concepts

A. Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested with the identical or equivalent tests.You can measure reliability in several ways. One is to administer a test to a group of people one day, re-administer the same test several days later to the same group, and then correlate the first set of scores with the second (test-retest reliability estimates.) Or you could administer a test and then administer what experts believe to be an equivalent test later; this would be an equivalent or alternate form estimate. Or, compare the test taker's answers to certain questions on the test with his or her answers to a sepa-rate set of questions on the same test aimed at measuring the same thing.

B. Validity refers to evidence that performance on a test is a valid predictor of subsequent performance on the job.

1. Test vValidity – answers the question “Does this test measure what it’s supposed to measure?” Put another way, validity refers to the correctness of the inferences that we can make based on the test.

2. Criterion vValidity shows that scores on the test (predictors) are related to job performance. It involves demonstrating statistically a relationship between scores on a selection procedure and the job performance of a sample of workers.

3. Content vValidity shows that the test contains a fair sample of the tasks and skills actually needed for the job in question.

4. Construct vValidity involves- demonstrating that (a) a selection procedure measures a construct (something believed to be an underlying human trait or characteristic, such as honesty) and (b) the construct is important for successful job performance.

Teaching Tip: The difference between reliability and validity is sometimes difficult for students to understand. Explain that if 100 accident-prone, careless applicants took the same test and scored well on it, the test would be reliable because the results are consistent. However, if the purpose of the test was to identify safety-conscious

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applicants, it would not be valid as a test because it does not predict good safety performance on the job, the very thing it was intended to measure.

C. Evidence-Based HR: How to Validate a Test – This section discusses the steps in the validation process as well as the role that bias plays in validation. Utility analysis and validity generalization are also addressed.

1. Analyze the jJob and write job descriptions and job specifications.

2. Choose the tTests that measure the attributes (predictors) important for job success.

3. Administer the tTest selected to old or new employees for concurrent and predictive validation.

4. Relate tTest sScores and cCriteria through a correlation analysis, which shows the degree of statistical relationship between (1) scores on the test and (2) job performance.

5. Cross-validate and rRevalidate by performing Steps 3 and 4 on a new sample of employees. Testing gGuidelines: 1) use tests as supplements; 2) validate the tests; 3) analyze all your current hiring and promotion standards; 4) keep accurate records; 5) begin your validation program now; 6) use a certified psychologist; and 7) test conditions are important.

6. Who Scores the Test? – Some tests are professionally scored and interpreted but some allow the employer to score the test.

D. Bias – Bias usually occurs in two ways: 1) bias in how the test measures the trait, and 2) the predictions made with the test results. Employers must be careful to avoid bias whenever possible.

E. Utility Analysis – Knowing the test is reliabe and valid ios important, but one must also consider the practical use of the test. Completing a utility analysis shows the degree to which a selection test improves the quality of those selected versus what decision would have been made without it. Utility analysis usually includes the validity of the measures, a measure of job performance in dollars,the applicant’s average test scores, the cost of the measure and the number of applicants tested and selected.

F. Validity Generalization – is the degree to which evidence of a measure’s validity in one situation can be used to as a measure of validity in other situations.

G. Test Takers’ Individual Rights and Test Security – Test takers have certain rights to privacy and information under the American Psychological Association’s (APA) standard for educational and psychological tests.

1. Privacy Issues – Supreme Court decisions provide protection against the disclosure of employee information to people outside the company. Organizations should train supervisors regarding confidentiality and adopt a “need to know” policy to protect information. Disclosure of procedures may also limit liability.

Commented [ey1]: Should this only mention the validation process, since bias, utility analysis, and validity generalization are D, E, and F.

Commented [ey2]: Should this be a separate number? Doesn’t make sense with cross-validation.

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E. How Do Employees Use Tests at Work – Various types of tests are widely used by employers today, including those for basic skills, job skills, and psychological measurement.

F. Computerized and oOnline tTesting – is increasingly replacing pencil-andpaper and manual tests.

III. Types of Tests

A. Tests of Cognitive Abilities – Cognitive tests include tests of general reasoning ability (intelligence) and tests of specific mental abilities like memory and inductive reasoning.

1. Intelligence tTests are tests of general intellectual abilities ranging from memory, vocabulary, and verbal fluency to numerical ability.

2. Specific cCognitive aAbilities (aptitudes) include inductive and deductive reasoning, verbal comprehension, memory, and numerical ability.

B. Tests of Motor and Physical Abilities – Employers may use various tests to measure such motor abilities as finger dexterity, manual dexterity, and reaction time. They may also want to measure such physical abilities as static strength, dynamic strength, body coordination, and stamina.

C. Measuring pPersonality and iInterests – can be used to assess personal characteristics such as attitude, motivation, and temperament.

1. What Personality Tests Measure – Tests measure basic aspects of an applicant’s personality, such as introversion, stability, and motivation.

2. The "Big Five" – Industrial psychologists emphasize five personality dimensions as theyapplyto personneltesting: extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

3. Do Personality Tests Predict Performance? – Personality Tests do correlate with job performance in a number of areas. Different traits are predictive of different jobs.

4. Caveats – Personality tests are the most difficult tests to evaluate and use. Recent court decisions indicated that the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a medical test because it can screen out applicants with psychological impairment, and that its use before an employment offer is made is therefore a violation of ADA. Also, some dispute that self-refport tests predict performance at all.

5. Interest iInventories compare a person’sone’s interests with those of people in various occupations.

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 NOTES Educational Materials to Use

D. Achievement tTests – measure what a person has learned. 

Educational Materials to Use

IV. Work Samples and Simulations

A. Using Work Sampling for Employee Selection

1. Basic Procedure – The basic procedure is to choose several tasks crucial to performing the job in question and to test applicants on those identified tasks.

B. Situational Judgment Tests – These tests are designed to assess an applicant’s judgment regarding a situation encountered in the workplace.

C Management aAssessment cCenters - Pprovide simulations in which candidates perform realistic management tasks, under the observation of experts who appraise each candidate’s potential. Simulated exercises include in-basket, leaderless group discussion, management games, individual presentations, objective tests, and interviews.

1. Effectiveness – Most experts view assessment centers as effective for selecting and promoting management candidates, despite the extra cost to develop the centers.

C. Situational tTesting and vVideo-bBased sSituational tTesting typically present the candidate with several scenarios, each followed by a multiplechoice question.

D. Computerized mMultimedia cCandidate aAssessment tTools are systems specifically designed for each company to measure any type of skill or ability.

E. The mMiniature jJob tTraining and eEvaluation aApproach involves training candidates to perform a sample of job tasks, and evaluating candidates’ their performance.

F. Realistic Job Previews – Being explicit about work schedules, preferences, and other job standards at the point of interview can help reduce turnover later.

G. HR in Practice: Testing Techniques for Managers provides some tips for managers in large companies to screen applicants on a more formal basis.

V. Background Investigations and Other Selection Techniques

A. Why Perform Background Investigations and Reference Checks? – Most employers check and verify an applicant’s background information and references, including driving record, check for criminal charges or convictions, and credit check.

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NOTES

1. Why Check? – The main reasons for conducting investigations into an applicant’s background are to verify factual information and to uncover damaging information to help prevent losses.

2. Effectiveness – Reference letters are not viewed as very useful. Fewer than half of HR managers state that they were able to obtain adequate information about candidates.

B. The Legal Dangers and How to Avoid Them

1. Defamation – Laws (like the Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970) increase the likelihood that rejected applicants will have access to the background information. The rejected applicant has various legal remedies, including the right to sue for defamation.

2. Privacy – Truth is not always a defense. Employees can sue employers for disclosing true but embarrassing private facts to those without a need to know.

C How to Check a Candidate’s Background – Most employers at least try to verify an applicant’s current or former position and salary with his or her current or former employers by phone, assuming permission was given by they cleared doing so with the candidate. Employers should: include on their application forms a statement for applicants to sign that , explicitly authorizesing a background check; rely more on telephone references than written ones; ask open-ended questions; , use each reference as a source for another; and watch for “red flags.” An example of a reference checking form is illustrated in Figure 6-9.

D. The Social Network: Checking Applicanttns’ Social Postings - A new technique for exploring applicants’ qualifications is checking social networking sites or using Google to run searches on the applicant. There are some legal issues with checking social networking sites. Organizations need to be careful when using this information for employment decisions.

E. Using Preemployment Information Services – Various federal and state laws govern how employers acquire and use applicants' and employees' background information. Compliance involves four steps: 1) Disclosure and authorization; 2) Certification; 3) Providing copies of the reports; and 4) Notice after adverse action.

F. The Polygraph and Honesty Testing

1. Who Can Use the Polygraph? - A polygraph (lie detector) is a device that measures physiological changes like increased perspiration. Current law prevents most employers engaged in interstate commerce from using these tests for preemployment screening or during the course of employment. Local, state, and federal government employers can continue to use the tests.

2. Checking for Honesty: What You Can You Do – Employers can: ask blunt questions; listen, rather than talk; ask for a credit check; check all references; consider paper-and-pencil honesty tests and psychological tests as a part of their honesty-screening program; test for drugs; establish a search-and-seizure policy; and conduct searches.

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G Graphology (handwriting analysis) assumes that handwriting reflects basic personality traitstests

H “Human Lie Detectors” – are experts who may be ablet to identify lying just by watching the applicant. The expert watches for signs of deception such as irregular breathing or pupils changing size.

I Physical Exams – Once an offer is made and the person is hired, a medical exam is usually the next step in the selection process.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

J. Substance Abuse Screening – Because drug abuse is a serious problem for employers, it is common practice for most employers to conduct drug screening just before employees are formally hired.

1. Some Practical Considerations – Because drug testing indicates only the presence or absence of drugs, it can’t measure the level of impairment or addiction. Some argue that the testing is therefore not justifiable if workplace safety is the motivator for using tests.

2. Legal Issues – Former drug users may be protected under the ADA. Privacy rights are also often cited.

3. What to Do ifs an Employee Tests Positive – Many companies will not hire an applicant if they test positive, but current employees have more legal recourse.

K. Complying with Immigration Law – Under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, employees hired in the U.S. have to prove they are eligible to work in the U.S. Immigrants face increasing difficulty in entering the U.S. Figure 6-10 outlines procedures to comply with immigration laws.

1. Proof of Eligibility – Restrictions on hiring undocumented workers have tightened. Employers should be careful to obtain and verify documents.

2. Avoiding Discrimination – The I-9 Employment Eligibility Verification form must not be used to discriminate based on race or country of national origin.

H. Improving Productivity through HRIS: Automated Applicant Tracking Systems and Applicant Screening - These systems are an example of technology use in HR. These systems help companies screen applicants in three ways: 1)) Eliminating"Knock out" applicants who do not meet minimum, non-negotiable job requirements; 2) tTesting and screening applicants online including Web-based skills testing, cognitive skills testing, and psychological testing; and 3) discover "hidden talents" by identifying talents in the candidate pool that lend themselves to job matches at the company that the applicant didn't know existed when he or

she applied. Minimum functionality requirements of ATS are discussed here.

 NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Whatis the difference betweenreliability and validity? In what respects are they similar? Reliability is the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when retested with identical tests or with an equivalent form of a test. It is a measure of internal consistency of the instrument. Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is purported to measure. It is a measure of external consistency. They are similar in that both are concerned with aspects of consistency of the instrument, and that reliability is a necessary condition for validity. (LO 6.1; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

2. Explain how you would go about validating a test. How can this information be useful to a manager? The validation process consists of five steps: job analysis, selecting a test, administering a test, relating the test scores and the criteria, and cross validation and revalidation. Using valid selection devices will enable the manager to develop objective information in the selection process and should result in more effective selection decisions. (LO 6.2; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

3. Explain why you think a certified psychologist who is specially trained in test construction should (or should not) always be used by a small business that needs a test battery. Due to the complex and legal nature of this activity, the use of a certified psychologist may be the only safe way to accomplish your objectives. However, because of the high salary and limited job scope of such a specialist, a definite drawback to this approach is the cost involved. Perhaps more "direct" tests can be developed which require less sophistication: motor and physical abilities tests (many state employment agencies provide this service), on-job knowledge tests, and work sampling. This chapter also presents some alternative testing tools that are relatively easy to administer and low in cost and that are reasonable choices for small employers to use. (LO 6.3-4; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

4. Give some examples of how interest inventories could be used to improve employee selection. In doing so, suggest several examples of occupational interests that you believe might predict success in various occupations including college professor, accountant, and computer programmer. Interest inventories can improve employee selection by identifying individuals with similar interests asto those reported by a substantial percentage of successful incumbents in an occupation. This should clearly increase the likelihood that the applicants will be successful in their new jobs. Interests that one might expect: accountant: math, reading, music; college professor: public speaking, teaching, counseling; computer programmer: math, music, computers. (LO 6.5; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

5. Why is it important to conduct pre-employment background investigations? How would you go about doing so? Past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. It is important to gain as much information as possible about past behavior to understand what kinds of

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behavior one can expect in the future. Knowledge about attendance problems, insubordination issues, theft, or other behavioral problems can certainly help one avoid hiring someone who is likely to repeat those behaviors. The section on background investigations and reference checks has some excellent guidelines for background checks. (LO 6.7; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Reflective Thinking Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

6. Explain how you would get around the problem of former employers being unwilling to give bad references on their former employees Since many companies have strict policies regarding the release of information about former employees, it may not be possible to get information at all, good or bad. However, conducting a thorough reference audit by contacting at least two superiors, two peers, and two subordinates will help increase the chance that you will find someone who is willing to give you the information you need. Also, making the contacts by phone rather than in writing will increase their belief that the information may not be traced back to them. Using the additional technique of asking references for the name of someone else who might be familiar with the applicant's performance will also increase the possibility of getting more information. (LO 6.7; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Reflective Thinking Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

7. How can employers protect themselves against negligent hiring claims? There is a list of ways employers can protect themselves against negligent hiring claims discussed in the section on why careful selection is important at the beginning of the chapter. (LO 6.4; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Reflective Thinking Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP ACTIVITIES

1. Write a short essay discussing some of the ethical and legal considerations in testing. State and federal laws, EEOC guidelines, and court decisions require that you must be able to prove that your tests are related to success or failure on the job and that they are not having an adverse impact on members of a protected group. Test takers also have certain basic rights to privacy and information. The test taker also has the right to expect that the test is equally fair to all test takers. (LO 6.4; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Reflective Thinking Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

2. Working individually or in groups, develop a list of selection techniques that you would suggest your dean use to hire the next HR professor at your school. Also, explain why you chose each selection technique. The students should use the selection information presented in the chapter to list their selection techniques of choice with their supporting rationale. (LO 6.5; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

3. Working individually or in groups, contact the publisher of a standardized test such as the Scholastic Assessment Test and obtain from them written information regarding the test's validity and reliability. Present a short report in class discussing what the test is supposed to measure and the degree to which you think the test does what it is supposed to do, based on the reported validity and reliability scores. Encourage students to contact different sources; it may be a good idea to have a sign-up sheet so that no two students or groups are gathering information abouton the same instruments. Students should be able to clearly relate validity and reliability scores to effectiveness. (LO 6.5; AACSB: Communication Abilities & Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

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4. The HRCI "Test Specifications" lists the knowledge someone studying for the HRCI certification exam needs to know in each area of human resource management (such as in Strategic Management, Workforce Planning, and Human Resource Development). In groups of 4-5 students, do four things: (1) review that appendix now; (2) identify the material in this chapter that relates to the required knowledge the appendix lists; (3) write four multiple-choice exam questions on this material that you believe would be suitable for inclusion in the HRCI exam; and (4) if time permits, have someone from your team post your team's questions in front of the class, so the students on other teams can take each other's exam questions. Material included in this chapter that relates to the HRCI certification exam includes establishing and implementing selection procedures of testing; reference and background checking; post-offer employment activities; knowledge of reliability and validity of selection tests/tools/methods; and use and interpretation of selection tests. (LO 6.1-77; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES & CASES

Experiential Exercise: A Test for a Reservation Clerk

This exercise gives the students the opportunity to practice designing a test to measure one’s specific ability for applicants. (LO 6.1-7; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

Application Case: The Insider (LO 6.5-7; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

1. We want you to design an employee selection program for hiring stock traders. We already know what to look for as far as technical skills are concerned – accounting courses, economics, and so on. What we want is a program for screening out potential bad apples. To that end, please let us know the following: What screening tests would you suggest, and why? What questions should we add to our application form? Specifically, how should we check candidates’ back-grounds, and what questions should we ask previous employers and references? Students should consider the different types of selection measures that they believe should be included.

2. What else (if anything) would you suggest? Students should list (and be ready to defend) the specifications that they believe would be needed.

Continuing Case 3: Honesty Testing at Carter Cleaning Company (LO 6.5-7; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

1. What would be the advantages and disadvantages to Jennifer’s company of routinely administering honesty tests to all its employees? Polygraph testing raises a large number of legal and moral issues, issues Carter Cleaning would best avoid. Use of some of the available “paper–and-pencil” honesty tests may be a possibility. In general, these have been shown to be reasonably reliable and valid, but t. They are still controversial. The costs associated with these tests may also make them prohibitive to a small operation like Jennifer’s.

2. Specifically, what other screening techniques could the company use to screen out theft-prone employees, and how exactly could these be used? More thorough background checks are a recommended technique to eliminate potential thieves. Some firms choose to contract this out to a private security agency, although (cost may be an issue to Jennifer) However, the company can quickly check to see if savings from reduced theft would offset the cost of an outside agency. As part of the job preview, Carter must communicate that dishonesty

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and theft will not be tolerated. Further, company policies regarding theft should be clearly communicated to new and existing employees.

3. How should her company terminate employees caught stealing, and what kind of procedure should be set up for handling reference calls about these employees when they go to other companies looking for jobs? Terminating employees for theft should include the involvement of proper authorities and should only be done when there is absolute proof of the theft and who committed it. Such an action will also send a message to the other employees that you will not tolerate theft of company resources. While many employers are reluctant to prosecute employees for theft, developing evidence with police and through the courts can be beneficial in providing future employers of the individual with truthful and factual information.

Translating Strategy into HR Policies and Practice Case: The Hotel Paris Testing - The continuing case study of Hotel Paris is discussed here. In this example, Lisa Cruz, the HR manager, wants to design a battery of tests that will produce employees who can help the hotel meet its strategic objectives. (LO 6.5-6; AACSB: Analytic Skills; Learning Outcome: Identify the characteristics of properly designed selection tests)

Questions

1. Provide a detailed example of the front desk work sample test. Students should begin by discussing the types of tasks a front desk clerk is responsible for. Figure 6-7 is an example of the types of questions that should be on this test.

2. Provide a detailed example of two possible personality test questions. Answers will vary.

3. What other tests would you suggest to Lisa, and why would you suggest them? Because front desk employees usually handle credit cards and make cash transactions, Lisa should consider the benefits of paper-and-pencil honesty testing.

KEY TERMS

negligent hiring

reliability

test validity

criterion validity

content validity

construct validity

Hiring workers with criminal backgrounds without proper safeguards.

The characteristic which refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested with the identical or equivalent tests.

The accuracy with which a test, interview, and so on measures what it purports to measure or fulfills the function it was designed to fill.

A type of validity based on showing that scores on the test (predictors) are related to job performance.

A test that is content valid is one in which the test contains a fair sample of the tasks and skills actually needed for the job in question.

A test that is construct valid is one that demonstrates that a selection procedure measures a construct and that construct is important for successful job performance.

expectancy chart

interest inventory

A graph showing the relationship between test scores and job performance for a large group of people.

A personal development and selection device that compares the person’s current interests with those of others now in various occupations so as to determine the preferred occupation for the individual.

work samples

work sampling technique

Actual job tasks used in testing applicants' performance.

A testing method based on measuring performance on actual job tasks.

A situation in which management candidates are asked to make center decisions in hypothetical situations and are scored on their performance. It usually also involves testing and the use of management games.

management assessment

situational test

video-based simulation

miniature job training

Requires examinees to respond to situations representative of the job.

A test in which examinees respond to video simulation of realistic job situations.

Training candidates to perform several of the job’s tasks, and then evaluating the candidates prior to hire.

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