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Restored outline of a fish of the genus Palæoniscus, Agass. Palæothrissum, Blainville.

The Palæoniscus above mentioned belongs to that division of fishes which M. Agassiz has called "Heterocercal," which have their tails unequally bilobate, like the recent shark and sturgeon, and the vertebral column running along the upper caudal lobe. (See fig.

340.) The "Homocercal" fish, which comprise almost all the 8000 species at present known in the living creation, have the tail-fin either single or equally divided; and the vertebral column stops short, and is not prolonged into either lobe. (See fig. 341.)

Fig. 340.

Shark.

Heterocercal.

Fig. 341.

Shad. (Clupea, Herring tribe.)

Homocercal.

Now it is a singular fact, first pointed out by Agassiz, that the heterocercal form, which is confined to a small number of genera in the existing creation, is universal in the Magnesian limestone, and all the more ancient formations. It characterizes the earlier periods of the earth's history, when the organization of fishes made a greater approach to that of saurian reptiles than at later epochs. In all the

strata above the predominates.

Magnesian

limestone

the

homocercal

tail

A full description has been given by Sir Philip Egerton of the species of fish characteristic of the marl-slate in Mr. King's monograph before referred to, where figures of the ichthyolites which are very entire and well preserved, will be found. Even a single scale is usually so characteristically marked as to indicate the genus, and sometimes even the particular species. They are often scattered through the beds singly, and maybe useful to a geologist in determining the age of the rock.

Fig. 342.

Palæoniscus comtus, Agassiz.

Scale magnified.

Marl-slate.

Fig. 343.

Palæoniscus elegans, Sedg. Under surface of scale magnified. Marlslate.

Fig. 344.

Fig. 345.

Cœlacanthus caudalis, Egerton.

Scale showing

Palæoniscus glaphyrus, Ag. Under surface of scale magnified. Marlslate.

granulated surface magnified. Marlslate.

Scales of fish. Magnesian limestone.

Fig. 346. Pygopterus mandibularis, Ag. Marl-slate. a. Outside of scale magnified. b. Under surface of same.

Fig. 347. Acrolepis Sedgwickii, Ag. Marl-slate.

The inferior sandstones (No. 6. Tab. p. 301.), which lie beneath the marl-slate, consist of sandstone and sand, separating the magnesian limestone from the coal, in Yorkshire and Durham. In some instances, red marl and gypsum have been found associated with these beds. They have been classed with the magnesian limestone by Professor Sedgwick, as being nearly co-extensive with it in geographical range, though their relations are very obscure. In some regions we find it stated that the imbedded plants are all specifically identical with those of the carboniferous series; and, if so, they probably belong to that epoch; for the true Permian flora appears, from the researches of MM. Murchison and de Verneuil in Russia, and of Colonel von Gutbier in Saxony, to be, with few exceptions, distinct from that of the coal (see p. 307.).

Dolomitic conglomerate of Bristol.—Near Bristol, in Somersetshire, and in other counties bordering the Severn, the unconformable beds of the Lower New Red, resting immediately upon the Coal, consist of a conglomerate called "dolomitic," because the pebbles of older rocks are cemented together by a red or yellow base of dolomite or

magnesian limestone. This conglomerate or breccia, for the imbedded fragments are sometimes angular, occurs in patches over the whole of the downs near Bristol, filling up the hollows and irregularities in the mountain limestone, and being principally composed at every spot of the debris of those rocks on which it immediately rests. At one point we find pieces of coal shale, in another of mountain limestone, recognizable by its peculiar shells and zoophytes. Fractured bones, also, and teeth of saurians, are dispersed through some parts of the breccia.

These saurians (which until the discovery of the Archegosaurus in the coal were the most ancient examples of fossil reptiles) are all distinguished by having the teeth implanted deeply in the jaw-bone, and in distinct sockets, instead of being soldered, as in frogs, to a simple alveolar parapet. In the dolomitic conglomerate near Bristol the remains of species of two distinct genera have been found, called Thecodontosaurus and Palæosaurus by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stutchbury[306-A]; the teeth of which are conical, compressed, and with finely serrated edges (figs. 348 and 349.).

Fig. 348.

Fig. 349.

Tooth of Palæosaurus platyodon, nat. size.

Tooth of Thecodontosaurus, 3 times magnified.

In Russia, also, Thecodont saurians occur, in beds of the Permian age, of several genera, while others named Protorosaurus are met with in the Zechstein of Thuringia. This family of reptiles is allied to the living monitor, and its appearance in a primary or paleozoic formation, observes Mr. Owen, is opposed to the doctrine of the progressive development of reptiles from fish, or from simpler to more complex forms; for, if they existed at the present day, these monitors would take rank at the head of the Lacertian order.[306-B] In Russia the Permian rocks are composed of white limestone, with gypsum and white salt; and of red and green grits, with occasionally copper ore; also magnesian limestones, marlstones, and conglomerates.

The country of Mansfeld, in Thuringia, may be called the classic ground of the Lower New Red, or Magnesian Limestone, or Permian formation, on the Continent. It consists there principally of, first, the Zechstein, corresponding to the upper portion of our English series;

and, secondly, the marl-slate, with fish of species identical with those of the bed so called in Durham. This slaty marlstone is richly impregnated with copper pyrites, for which it is extensively worked.

Magnesian limestone, gypsum, and rock-salt, occur among the superior strata of this group. At its base lies the Rothliegendes, supposed to correspond with the Inferior or Lower New Red Sandstone above mentioned, which occupies a similar place in England between the marl-slate and coal. Its local name of Rothliegendes, red-lyer, or "Roth-todt-liegendes," red-dead-lyer, was given by the workmen in the German mines from its red colour, and because the copper has died out when they reach this rock, which is not metalliferous. It is, in fact, a great deposit of red sandstone and conglomerate, with associated porphyry, basaltic trap, and amygdaloid.

Permian Flora.—We learn from the recent investigation of Colonel von Gutbier, that in the Permian rocks of Saxony no less than sixty species of fossil plants have been met with, forty of which have not yet been found elsewhere. Two or three of these, as Calamites gigas, Sphenopteris erosa, and S. lobata, are also met with in the government of Perm in Russia. Seven others, and among them Neuropteris Loshii, Pecopteris arborescens, and P. similis, with several species of Walchia (Lycopodites), are common to the coalmeasures.

Among the genera also enumerated by Colonel Gutbier are Asterophyllites and Annularia, so characteristic of the carboniferous period; also Lepidodendron, which is common to the Permian of Saxony, Thuringia, and Russia, although not abundant. Noeggerathia (see fig. 350.), supposed by A. Brongniart to be allied to Cycas, is another link between the Permian and carboniferous vegetation.

Coniferæ, of the Araucarian division, also occur; but these are likewise met with both in older and newer rocks. The plants called Sigillaria and Stigmaria, so marked a feature in the carboniferous period, are as yet wanting.

Fig. 350.

Noeggerathia cuneifolia. Ad. Brongniart.[307-A]

Among the remarkable fossils of the rothliegendes, or lowest part of the Permian in Saxony and Bohemia, are the silicified trunks of tree-ferns called generically Psaronius. Their bark was surrounded by a dense mass of air-roots, which often constituted a great addition to the original stem, so as to double or quadruple its diameter. The same remark holds good in regard to certain living extra-tropical arborescent ferns, particularly those of New Zealand.

Psaronites are also found in the uppermost coal of Autun in France, and in the upper coal-measures of the State of Ohio in the United States, but specifically different from those of the rothliegendes. They serve to connect the Permian flora with the more modern portion of the preceding or carboniferous group. Upon the whole, it is evident that the Permian plants approach nearer to

the carboniferous ones than to the triassic; and the same may be said of the Permian fauna.

CHAPTER XXIV. THE COAL, OR CARBONIFEROUS GROUP. Carboniferous strata in the south-west of England — Superposition of Coal-measures to Mountain limestone — Departure from this type in North of England and Scotland — Section in South Wales — Underclays with Stigmaria — Carboniferous Flora — Ferns, Lepidodendra, Calamites, Asterophyllites, Sigillariæ,Stigmariæ — Coniferæ — Endogens — Absence of Exogens — Coal, how formed — Erect fossil trees — Parkfield Colliery — St. Etienne, Coalfield — Oblique trees or snags — Fossil forests in Nova Scotia — Brackish water and marine strata — Origin of Clay-iron-stone.

The next group which we meet with in the descending order is the Carboniferous, commonly called "The Coal;" because it contains many beds of that mineral, in a more or less pure state, interstratified with sandstones, shales, and limestones. The coal itself, even in Great Britain and Belgium, where it is most abundant, constitutes but an insignificant portion of the whole mass. In the north of England, for example, the thickness of the coal-bearing strata has been estimated at 3000 feet, while the various coalseams, 20 or 30 in number, do not in the aggregate exceed 60 feet.

[308-A]

The carboniferous formation comprises two very distinct members: 1st, that usually called the Coal-measures, of mixed freshwater, terrestrial, and marine origin, often including seams of coal; 2dly, that named in England the Mountain or Carboniferous limestone, of purely marine origin, and containing corals, shells, and encrinites.

In the south-western part of our island, in Somersetshire and South Wales, the three divisions usually spoken of by English geologists are: 1. Coalmeasures

{

2. Millstone grit

{

3. Mountain or Carboniferous limestone

}

Strata of shale, sandstone, and grit, with occasional seams of coal, from 600 to 12,000 feet thick.

A coarse quartzose sandstone passing into a conglomerate, sometimes used for millstones, with beds of shale; usually devoid of coal; occasionally above 600 feet thick.

A calcareous rock containing marine shells and corals; devoid of coal; thickness variable, sometimes 900 feet.

The millstone grit may be considered as one of the coal sandstones of coarser texture than usual, with some accompanying shales, in which coal plants are occasionally found. In the north of England some bands of limestone, with pectens, oysters, and other marine shells, occur in this grit, just as in the regular coal-measures, and even a few seams of coal. I shall treat, therefore, of the whole group, as consisting of two divisions only, the Coal-measures and Mountain Limestone. The latter is found in the southern British coalfields, at the base of the system, or immediately in contact with the subjacent Old Red Sandstone; but as we proceed northwards to

Yorkshire and Northumberland it begins to alternate with true coalmeasures, the two deposits forming together a series of strata about 1000 feet in thickness. To this mixed formation succeeds the great mass of genuine mountain limestone.[309-A] Farther north, in the Fifeshire coal-field in Scotland, we observe a still wider departure from the type of the south of England, or a more complete intercalation of dense masses of marine limestones with sandstones, and shales containing coal.

COAL-MEASURES. In South Wales the coal-measures have been ascertained by actual measurement to attain the extraordinary thickness of 12,000 feet, the beds throughout, with the exception of the coal itself, appearing to have been formed in water of moderate depth, during a slow but perhaps intermittent depression of the ground, in a region to which rivers were bringing a never-failing supply of muddy sediment and sand. The same area was sometimes covered with vast forests, such as we see in the deltas of great rivers in warm climates, which are liable to be submerged beneath fresh or salt water should the ground sink vertically a few feet.

In one section near Swansea, in South Wales, where the total thickness of strata is 3246 feet, we learn from Sir H. De la Beche that there are ten principal masses of sandstone. One of these is 500 feet thick, and the whole of them make together a thickness of 2125 feet. They are separated by masses of shale, varying in thickness from 10 to 50 feet. The intercalated coal-beds, sixteen in number, are generally from 1 to 5 feet thick, one of them, which has two or three layers of clay interposed, attaining 9 feet.[309-B] At other points in the same coal-field the shales predominate over the sandstones. The horizontal extent of some seams of coal is much greater than that of others, but they all present one characteristic feature, in having, each of them, what is called its underclay. These underclays, co-extensive with every layer of coal, consist of

arenaceous shale, sometimes called firestone, because it can be made into bricks which stand the fire of a furnace. They vary in thickness from 6 inches to more than 10 feet; and Mr. Logan first announced to the scientific world in 1841 that they were regarded by the colliers in South Wales as an essential accompaniment of each of the one hundred seams of coal met with in their coal-field.

They are said to form the floor on which the coal rests; and some of them have a slight admixture of carbonaceous matter, while others are quite blackened by it.

All of them, as Mr. Logan pointed out, are characterized by inclosing a peculiar species of fossil vegetable called Stigmaria, to the exclusion of other plants. It was also observed that, while in the overlying shales or "roof" of the coal, ferns and trunks of trees abound without any Stigmariæ, and are flattened and compressed, those singular plants in the underclays always retain their natural forms, branching freely, and sending out their slender leaves, as they were formerly styled, through the mud in all directions. Several species of Stigmaria had long been known to botanists, and described by them, before their position under each seam of coal was pointed out. It was conjectured that they might be aquatic, perhaps floating plants, which sometimes extended their branches and leaves freely in fluid mud, and which were finally enveloped in the same mud.

CARBONIFEROUS FLORA. These statements will suffice to convince the reader that we cannot arrive at a satisfactory theory of the origin of coal till we understand the true nature of Stigmaria; and in order to explain what is now known of this plant, and of others which have contributed by their decay to produce coal, it will be necessary to offer a brief preliminary sketch of the whole carboniferous flora, an assemblage of fossil plants, with which we are better acquainted than with any other which flourished antecedently to the tertiary

epoch. It should also be remarked that Göppert has ascertained that the remains of every family of plants scattered through the coalmeasures are sometimes met with in the pure coal itself, a fact which adds greatly to the geological interest attached to this flora.

Ferns.—The number of species of carboniferous plants hitherto described amounts, according to M. Ad. Brongniart, to about 500.

These may perhaps be a fragment only of the entire flora, but they are enough to show that the state of the vegetable world was then extremely different from that now established. We are struck at the first glance with the similarity of many of the ferns to those now living, and the dissimilarity of almost all the other fossils except the coniferæ. Among the ferns, as in the case of Pecopteris for example (fig. 351.), it is not always easy to decide whether they should be referred to different genera from those established for the classification of living species; whereas, in regard to most of the other contemporary tribes, with the exception of the coniferæ, it is often difficult to guess the family, or even the class, to which they belong. The ferns of the carboniferous period are generally without organs of fructification, but in some specimens these are well preserved. In the general absence of such characters, they have been divided into genera, distinguished chiefly by the branching of the fronds, and the way in which the veins of the leaves are disposed. The larger portion are supposed to have been of the size of ordinary European ferns, but some were decidedly arborescent, especially the group called Caulopteris, by Lindley, and the Psaronius of the upper or newest coal-measures, before alluded to (p. 307.).

Fig. 351.

Fig. 352.

a. Sphenopteris crenata. b. The same, magnified.

Pecopteris lonchitica. (Foss. Flo. 153.)

(Foss. Flo. 101.)

Fig. 353.

Caulopteris primæva, Lindley.

All the recent tree-ferns belong to one tribe (Polypodiaceæ), and to a small number only of genera in that tribe, in which the surface of the trunk is marked with scars, or cicatrices, left after the fall of the fronds. These scars resemble those of Caulopteris (see fig. 353.).

No less than 250 ferns have already been obtained from the coal strata; and even if we make some reduction on the ground of varieties which have been mistaken, in the absence of their fructification, for species, still the result is singular, because the whole of Europe affords at present no more than 50 indigenous species.

Living tree-ferns of different genera. (Ad. Brong.)

Fig. 354. Tree-fern from Isle of Bourbon.

Fig. 355. Cyathea glauca, Mauritius.

Fig. 356. Tree fern from Brazil.

Lepidodendron Sternbergii. Coal-measures, near Newcastle.

Fig. 357. Branching trunk, 49 feet long, supposed to have belonged to L. Sternbergii. (Foss. Flo. 203.)

Fig. 358. Branching stem with bark and leaves of L. Sternbergii. (Foss.

Flo. 4.)

Fig. 359. Portion of same nearer the root; natural size. (Ibid.)

Lepidodendra.—These fossils belong to the family of Lycopodiums, yet most of them grew to the size of large trees. The annexed figures represent a large fossil Lepidodendron, 49 feet long, found in Jarrow Colliery, near Newcastle, lying in shale parallel to the planes of stratification. Fragments of others, found in the same shale, indicate, by the size of the rhomboidal scars which cover them, a still greater magnitude. The living club-mosses, of which there are about 200 species, are abundant in tropical climates, where one species is sometimes met with attaining a height of 3 feet. They usually creep on the ground, but some stand erect, as the L. densum, from New Zealand (fig. 360.).

Fig. 360.

a. Lycopodium densum; banks of R. Thames, New Zealand. b. branch, natural size. c. part of same, magnified.

In the carboniferous strata of Coalbrook Dale, and in many other coal-fields, elongated cylindrical bodies, called fossil cones, named

by M. Adolphe Brongniart Lepidostrobus, are met with. (See fig.

361.) They often form the nucleus of concretionary balls of clay-ironstone, and are well preserved, exhibiting a conical axis, around which a great quantity of scales were compactly imbricated. The opinion of M. Brongniart is now generally adopted, that the Lepidostrobus is the fruit of Lepidodendron.

Fig. 361.

Lepidostrobus ornatus, Brong.; half nat. size.

Shropshire.

Fig. 362.

Calamites cannæformis, Schlot.

(Foss. Flo. 79.) Lower end with rootlets.

Fig. 363.

Calamites Suckowii, Brong.; natural size. Common in coal throughout Europe.

Equisetaceæ.—To this family belong two species of the genus Equisetites, allied to the living "horse-tail" which now grows in marshy grounds. Other species, which have jointed stems, depart more widely from Equisetum, but are yet of analogous organization.

They differed from it principally in being furnished with a thin bark, which is represented in the stem of C. Suckowii (fig. 363.), in which

it will be seen that the striped external pattern does not agree with that left on the stone where the bark is stripped off; so that if the two impressions were seen separately, they might be mistaken for two distinct species.

The tallest living "horse-tails" are only 2 or 3 feet high in Europe, and even in tropical climates only attain, as in the case of Equisetum giganteum, discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland, in South America, a height of about 5 feet, the stem being an inch in diameter. Several of the Calamites of the coal acquired the height and dimensions of small trees.

Fig. 364.

Asterophyllites foliosa. (Foss. Flo. 25.) Coal-measures, Newcastle.

Asterophyllites.—In this family, M. Brongniart includes several genera, and among them Calamodendron, Asterophyllites, and Annularia. The graceful plant, represented in the annexed figure, is supposed to be the branch of a shrub called Calamodendron, a new genus, divided off by Brongniart from the Calamites of former authors. Its pith and medullary rays seem to show that it was dicotyledonous, and it appears to have been allied, by the nature of its tissue, to the gymnogens, or, still more, to the Sigillaria, which will next be mentioned.

Sigillaria.—A large portion of the trees of the carboniferous period belonged to this genus, of which about thirty-five species are known.

The structure, both internal and external, was very peculiar, and, with reference to existing types, very anomalous. They were formerly referred, by M. Ad. Brongniart, to ferns, which they resemble in the scalariform texture of their vessels, and, in some degree, in the form of the cicatrices left by the base of the leafstalks which have fallen off (see fig. 365.). But with these points of analogy to cryptogamia, they combine an internal organization much resembling that of cycads, and some of them are ascertained to have had long linear leaves, quite unlike those of ferns. They grew to a great height, from 30 to 60, or even 70 feet, with regular cylindrical stems, and without branches, although some species were dichotomous towards the top. Their fluted trunks, from 1 to 5 feet in diameter, appear to have decayed rapidly in the interior, so as to become hollow, when standing; when, therefore, they were thrown prostrate on the mud, they were squeezed down and flattened.

Hence, we find the bark of the two opposite sides (now converted into bright shining coal) to constitute two horizontal layers, one upon the other, half an inch, or an inch, in thickness. These same trunks, when they are placed obliquely or vertically to the planes of stratification, retain their original rounded form, and are uncompressed, the cylinder of bark having been filled with sand, which now affords a cast of the interior.

Fig. 365.