Burton Psychology 6e Ch01

Psychology:thestudyof mental processesand behaviour

LEARNINGOUTCOMES

Afterstudyingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:

1.1 define psychology

1.2 discussthecontributionsofbiopsychologyandthesocioculturalperspective

1.3 outlinethehistoryofpsychology

1.4 distinguishamongthemajortheoreticalperspectivesinpsychology

1.5 discusstheeducationalrequirementsforpsychologistsandoutlinetheirmostcommonworksettings.

CONCEPTMAP

Psychology:thestudyofmental pr ocessesandbehaviour Psychology

• Psychology isthescientificinvestigationofmental pr ocesses(thinking,rememberingandfeeling)and behaviour.Understandingapersonrequiresattentionto theindividual’sbiology,psychologicalexperienceand culturalcontext.

Theboundariesandbordersofpsychology

• Biopsychology examinesthephysicalbasisofpsychological phenomenasuchasmotivation,emotion andstress.

•The socioculturalperspective representsamodern appr oachtopsychologythatemphasisessocialinteractionandtheculturaldeterminantsofbehaviourand mentalprocesses.

• Cultural and cross-culturalpsychologists eachadopt the approachthatcontentandcontextofaculture,rather thanabsoluteuniversaltruths,areimportantconsiderationsinthestudyofhumanbehaviour.

Historyofpsychology

Philosophical rootsofpsychologicalquestions

• Freewill or determinism :dowefreelychooseour actionsordothingsoutsideourcontroldetermine ourbehaviour?

• Mind–bodyproblem :thequestionofhowmentaland physical eventsinteract.

Fromphilosophicalspeculationtoscientific investigation

•WilhelmWundtfoundedthefirstpsychologicallaboratory in1879.

•Twoprominentearlyschoolsofthoughtwere structuralism (uncoverthebasicelementsofconsciousness through introspection )and functionalism (explainpsychologicalprocessesintermsoftherole,or function, theyserve).

•EdwardTitchenerinitiatedtheschoolofthoughtknown asstructuralism;WilliamJameswasoneofthefounders offunctionalism.

PsychologyinAustraliaand New Zealand

Educationandtrainingtobecomeapsychologist

•Currently,aregisteredpsychologistinAustraliahas completed aminimumofsixyearsstudyinanAPSaccreditedpsychologyprogram.TopractiseasapsychologistinAustralia,thereisalegalrequirementthat youberegisteredwiththeAustralianHealthPractitioner RegulationAgency,whichworksinconjunctionwith thePsychologyBoardofAustraliatoprovideasingle registrationschemeenablingregisteredpsychologiststo practiseanywhereinAustralia.

•InNewZealand,psychologistsworkinginthepublicsectormustberegisteredwiththeNewZealandPsychologistsBoard,whichalsoinvolvesaperiodofsupervision ontopofuniversitytraining.

Professionalassociationsforpsychologists

•BothAustraliaandNewZealandhavepeakbodiesthat r epresenttheprofessionanditsmembers—theAustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS),establishedin1966, andtheNewZealandPsychologicalSociety(NZPsS), establishedin1967.

Majorsubdisciplinesinpsychology

•Withinthebroaddisciplineofpsychology,thereare many fieldsofspecialisation,includingdevelopmental, social,clinical,cognitive,health,forensic,community, culturalandcross-cultural,Indigenousandsportpsychology,amongothers.

•Positivepsychologyisemergingasanewfieldofpsychologythattakesastrengths-basedapproachtohelp peoplemaintainanoptimalstateofmentalhealthand wellbeing.

•Differentpsychologistsadoptdifferentperspectivesin theirapproachtothestudyofhumanbehaviour.

Careersinpsychology

•Thereisawiderangeofcareeroptionsavailableto psychologists. Psychologistsmayworkinprivatepractice.Theymayalsogainemploymentinnumerousother governmentandprivatesectororganisations.

•Thereisapredictedstrongemploymentgrowthwithin thenextfiveyears.

Perspectivesinpsychology

The psychodynamicperspective

•The psychodynamicperspective reliesonseveral key premises.

CENTRALQUESTIONS

Facts,theoriesandperspectives in psychology

Thewaypsychologistsandotherscientistsunderstandany phenomenon dependsontheirinterpretationofthewhole —ontheirperspectives.Althoughthedifferentperspectivesofferradicallydifferentwaysofapproachingpsychology,eachhasmadedistinctivecontributions.

1.People’sactionsaredeterminedbythewaythoughts, feelingsandwishesareconnectedintheirminds.

2.Manyofthesementaleventsoccuroutsideconscious awareness.

3.Thesementalprocessesmayconflictwithoneanother, leadingtocompromisesamongcompetingmotives.

4.SigmundFreudemphasisedunconsciousmentalforces inhispsychoanalytictheory.

5.Accordingtopsychoanalytictheory,manyoftheassociationsbetweenfeelingsandbehavioursorsituations thatguideourbehaviourareexpressedunconsciously.

Thehumanisticperspective

•The humanisticperspective focusesontheuniqueness of theindividual—itassumesthatpeoplearemotivated tobecome self-actualised (reachtheirfullpotential).

• CarlRogers’client-centredtherapyemphasisedconscious,goal-directedchoicesandtheneedforindividualstorealisetheirtruepotential—toself-actualise.

Thebehaviouristperspective

•The behaviouristperspective focusesontheway objects oreventsintheenvironmentcometocontrol behaviourthroughlearning.

•B.F.Skinnerobservedthatbehaviourcanbecontrolled byenvironmentalconsequencesthateitherincrease (reinforce)ordecrease(punish)theirlikelihoodof occurring.

Thecognitiveperspective

•The cognitiveperspective focusesonthewaypeople per ceive,processandretrieveinformation.

•RenéDescartes’earlyphilosophicalquestionsledmany cognitivepsychologiststoemphasisetheroleofreason increatingknowledge.

•Modern-daycognitivepsychologistsuseexperimental procedurestoinfertheunderlyingmentalprocessesin operation.

Theevolutionaryperspective

•The evolutionaryperspective arguesthatmany behavioural tendenciesinhumans,fromtheneedto eattoconcernforourchildren,evolvedbecausethey helpedourancestorssurviveandrearhealthyoffspring.

•EvolutionarypsychologistssupportCharlesDarwin’s theoryofnaturalselection—themostadaptive behaviouraltraitsarethosethathelpedourancestors adjustandsurviveintheirenvironment.

•Howdoesourtheoreticalperspectiveinfluencetheway weinterprettheworld?

•Canwedispensewiththeoryandsimplylookat thefacts?

OPENINGCASE

Backin2011,lifewasgoodforTuriaPitt.Thethen24-yearold wasworkinginherdreamjobasaminingengineer intheremoteandbeautifulKimberleyregionofWestern Australia.Turiawasalsoatalentedrunnerandhadentered a100kilometreultra-marathontakingplaceintheregionin Septemberofthatyear.Running100kilometresisenough ofachallengeatthebestoftimes—littledidTuria knowthatthisracewouldseeherliterallyinthefightof herlife.That’sbecauseduringtherace,Turia,alongwith fellowcompetitorKateSanderson,becametrappedwhen fireunexpectedlyrippedthroughagorgenearElQuestro station.Turiasufferedfullthicknessburnsto65percent ofherbody,losingsevenfingers.Shewasrescuedfrom thegorgebarelyaliveandenduredmorethan200medical proceduresoverthenexttwoyearsassherecoveredfrom herhorrificinjuries.Theburnshaveleftseriousscarring acrossherfaceandmuchofherbody.

Imaginebeinginherposition.OnedayTuriawasa supremelyfitathletewithapromisingcareeranddreams ofbecomingtheCEOofaglobalfirm.Thenextday,she layinaninducedcoma,horribleburnsacrossmostofher body,barelyclingingtolife.Thatonemomentinthegorge hadchangedherlifeforever.Aheadofherwastheprospect ofwearingafull-bodycompressionsuitandmaskevery dayforyearsandrepeatedsurgeries.Hercareeraspirations wereintatters.Ifanyonehadanexcusetofeelsorryfor themselves,itwasher.

However,sincetheaccident,Turia’sstoryisoneoffantasticpositivityinthefaceofshockingandunexpected adversity.Turiahasbouncedbackamazinglywell,both physicallyandmentally.Despiteinitiallybeingtoldshe wouldneverrunagain,shehasmanagedtocomplete theIronmanWorldChampionshipraceinHawaii—a 3.8-kilometreswim,180-kilometrerideand42.2-kilometre run—aswellaswalktheKokodaTrack.Inaddition,she istheauthorofthreebest-sellingbooks,amotivational speakerandamothertotwoyoungboyswithhusband MichaelHoskin,whohasbeenbyhersidesincebeforethe fire.Infact,MichaelboughtTuria’sengagementringwhen shewasinintensivecareimmediatelyafterthefireandused ittoproposefouryearslater.

So,whatishersecret?HowhasTuriamanagedtomake themostofhernewcircumstancesdespitefacinglimitationsthatwouldbringmostpeopletobreakingpoint?One reasonisherattitude.Sheconsciouslychosehappiness andpositivityoverdepressionandanger.

Turiasayssheislivingproofthatwiththerightmindset, peopletrulycanachieveanything(Pitt,2019).AsdocumentedintheWomen’sAgenda(Lambert,2021),Turiasaid:

Ibelievethatwe’veallgottheinnerresourcestobe able tocopewithwhateverlifethrowsourway.A lotofpeoplejustnevergettestedsotheymightnot knowthataboutthemselvesyet.

IknewinthoseearlydaysthatifIjustkeptruminatingonwhatmyfuturemayormaynotlooklikeor howIwasgoingtorebuildmylife,ortheunfairness ortheinjusticeofitall,thatwouldjusteatmeup inside.Itwouldmakemefeelsickanditwouldn’t doanythingtohelpmyrecovery.

Ireallythinksomeonewhoishappymostofthetime isgenerallymoreproductive,moreenergetic,more focusedandmoredetermined.

Turiareceivedterriblephysicalinjuriesinthefirethat shewastrappedin.However,herstoryisrelevanttothe studyofpsychologybecauseithighlightstheimportance oftakingastrengths-basedapproachandhavingapositive mentalmindset.

Inthischapter,wefocusondefiningpsychology.We beginwithadiscussionofhowbiologyandcultureareintegraltothestudyofpsychology.Wealsodiscussthehistory ofpsychologyandoutlinethemajortheoreticalperspectivesandvariousfieldsofspecialisation.Next,wediscuss educationalpathwaysandemploymentopportunitiesfor psychologygraduatesinAustraliaandNewZealand.Two questionsarecentraltothischapter.First,howdoesour theoreticalperspectiveinfluencethewayweinterpretthe world?Second,canwedispensewiththeoryandjustlook atthefacts?

1.1Psychologyandpositivepsychology

LEARNINGOUTCOME1.1 Define psychology.

Formuchofitshistory,psychologyhasfocusedonthedarkersideofhumannature—mentalillnessrather thanmentalhealth,pathologyratherthansubjectivewellbeing(Seligman&Csikszentmihalyi,2000). Psychologypreviouslyviewedpeopleasdeficientratherthanashumanspossessingremarkablecharacter strengthsthatallowthemtopersevereandflourish.Manypeopleviewthepracticeofpsychologythrough theprismofabnormality—asasciencethatisonlyusedto‘fix’someonesufferingfromamentalillness ordisorderofsomekind.However,anewsubdisciplineofpsychologyhasemergedoverthelastdecadeor

morethatviewsthepracticethroughadifferentprism,knownasthe positivepsychology approach.This subdiscipline doesnotviewpsychologyassomethingonlytobeusedtotreataproblem.

Rather,itisaproactiveapproachtohelppeoplelivehappier,morefulfillingandjoyfullives.Thefocus isonunderstandingandharnessingpositiveemotionsandactivelystimulatingtheconditionsthathelp peopleflourish.Positivepsychologyfocusesonunderstandingthefactorsandprocessesthatunderpina worthwhilelife(AustralianPsychologicalSociety,APS,2017).Thepositivepsychologymovementlooks attopicssuchashope,optimism,creativity,forgiveness,gratitude,wisdom,happiness,self-determination, wellbeingandresilience,tonameafew.AssummarisedbyMartinSeligmanandMihalyCsikszentmihalyi (2000),twooftheleadersofthepositivepsychologymovement:

Thefieldofpositivepsychologyatthesubjectivelevelisaboutvaluedsubjectiveexperiences:wellbeing, contentment,andsatisfaction(inthepast);hopeandoptimism(forthefuture);andflowandhappiness(in thepresent).Attheindividuallevel,itisaboutpositiveindividualtraits;thecapacityforloveandvocation, courage,interpersonalskill,aestheticsensibility,perseverance,forgiveness,originality,futuremindedness, spirituality,hightalent,andwisdom.Atthegrouplevel,itisaboutthecivicvirtuesandtheinstitutions thatmoveindividualstowardsbettercitizenship:responsibility,nurturance,altruism,civility,moderation, tolerance,andworkethic(p.5).

ThestoryofTuriaPittisaperfectexampleofpositivepsychologyinaction.BothTuriaandherhusband Michaeldirectedtheirenergyatmakingthemostoftheirsituation,strivingtobehappy,notfocusingon theextentofherinjuriesorthenegativeimpacts.‘Irewrotemystory.Ireinventedmyself’,Turiasaid (Gorman,2021).

Psychologyseekstoanswerquestionsaboutwhywedothethingswedo.Intryingtounderstand whythingshappen,wemustbecautiousnottobetooquickinlookingforasinglecauseofbehaviour oraparticulartriggerevent.Humansarecomplexcreatureswhosepsychologicalexperienceliesatthe intersectionofbiologyandculture.ToparaphrasetheoristErikErikson(1963),psychologistsmustpractise ‘triplebookkeeping’tounderstandanindividualatanygiventime,simultaneouslytrackingbiological events,psychologicalexperienceandtheculturalandhistoricalcontext.

Psychologyliesattheintersectionofbiologyandculture. Psychology isthescientificinvestigationof mental processes(thinking,rememberingandfeeling)andbehaviour.Allpsychologicalprocessesoccur throughtheinteractionofcellsinthenervoussystem,andallhumanactionoccursinthecontextofcultural beliefsandvaluesthatrenderitmeaningful.Psychologicalunderstandingrequiresaconstantmovement betweenthemicro-levelofbiologyandthemacro-levelofculture.

Thischapterbeginsbyexploringthebiologicalandculturalboundariesandbordersthatframehuman psychology.Wethenexaminethetheoreticalperspectivesthathavefocused,andoftendivided,the attentionofthescientificcommunityformorethanacentury.Thechapterclosesbylookingatpsychology asadisciplineinthetwenty-firstcentury.Wewillexaminethemajorsubdisciplinesinpsychologyand considerthevariouscareeroptionsforpsychologygraduatesinAustraliaandNewZealand.

INTERIMSUMMARY

Psychology isthescientificinvestigationofmentalprocesses (thinking,rememberingandfeeling)andbehaviour. Understandingapersonrequiresattentiontotheindividual’sbiology,psychologicalexperienceandcultural

PRACTICALAPPLICATION

Positivepsychology:whatmakes us happy?

Oneofthemostconsistentfindingsinpositivepsychology is thatotherpeoplemakeushappy.‘Simply’building andmaintainingrelationshipstendstosignificantlyimprove ouroverallhappinessandwellbeing(Diener&Tay,2015; Galinhaetal.,2016;Lee&Kawachi,2019).Asshown

context. Positivepsychology focusesonunderstanding and harnessingpositiveemotionsandactivelystimulating conditionsthatproducevalued,subjectiveexperiences thathelppeopleflourish.

inthephoto,evenjusttalkingwithstrangersleadsto higherlevelsofhappiness.Researcherswhoaskedriders ontrainsandbusestoeitherquietlysitaloneortalktoa strangerfoundthatthosewhotalkedtoastrangerreported morepositivefeelingsthanthosewhosatalone(Epley& Schroeder,2014).

Inaddition,contrarytothepopularbeliefthat‘money buys happiness’,researchshowsthatoncewehave enoughincometomeetourbasicneeds,additionalfunds donotsignificantlyincreaseourlevelsofhappinessand wellbeing(Kushlevetal.,2015;Whillansetal.,2019).Furthermore,whenadultsaregivenmoneyandtoldtospend itonothers,theyexperiencehigherlevelsofhappiness thanthosewhoaretoldtospenditonthemselves(Dunn etal.,2008).

Researchhasshownthatcommuterswhotalktoastranger r eportmorepositivefeelingsandhigherlevelsofhappiness thanthosewhositalone.

Source: SandersonandHuffman(2019).

1.2Theboundariesandbordersofpsychology

LEARNINGOUTCOME1.2 Discuss thecontributionsofbiopsychologyandthesocioculturalperspective. Biologyandcultureestablishboththepossibilitiesandtheconstraintswithinwhichpeoplethink,feeland act.Ontheonehand,thestructureofthebrainsetstheparameters,orlimits,ofhumanpotential.Most 10-year-oldscannotsolvealgebraproblemsbecausetheneuralcircuitryessentialforabstractthoughthas notyetmatured.Similarly,thecapacityforlovehasitsrootsintheinnatetendencyofinfantstodevelop anemotionalattachmenttotheircaretakers.Thesearebiologicalgivens.

Ontheotherhand,mostadultsthroughouthumanhistorywouldfindalgebraproblemsasmystifyingas wouldapreschoolerbecausetheircultureneverprovidedthegroundworkforthiskindofreasoning.And thoughlovemaybeabasicpotential,thewaypeoplelovedependsonthevalues,beliefsandpracticesof theirsociety.Forexample,insomecultures,peopleseekandexpectromanceintheirmarriages,whereas inothers,theydonotselectaspousebasedonaffectionorattractionatall.Thestudyofpsychological phenomenainotherculturesbyobservingpeopleintheirnaturalsettingsisundertakenby psychological anthr opologists ,and cross-culturalpsychology involvesexaminingthepatternsofbehaviouracross dif ferentcultures.

Theboundarywithbiologyandculture

Thebiologicalboundaryofpsychologyistheprovinceof biopsychology (or behaviouralneuroscience ), which investigatesthephysicalbasisofpsychologicalphenomenasuchasmemory,emotionandstress. Biopsychologistsexploretheroleofbiologicalfactorsinalmosteveryareaofpsychology.Usingsophisticatedtoolsandtechnologies,psychologistswhoadoptthisbiologicalperspectiveexaminebehaviour throughthelensofgeneticsandbiologicalprocessesinthebrainandotherpartsofthenervoussystem. Sinceitsoriginsinthenineteenthcentury,oneofthemajorissuesinbehaviouralneurosciencehasbeen localisationoffunction ,ortheextenttowhichdifferentpartsofthebraincontroldifferentaspectsof functioning. In1836,adoctornamedMarcDaxpresentedapapersuggestingthatlesionsontheleftside ofthebrainwereassociatedwithaphasia,orlanguagedisorders.Thenotionthatlanguagewaslocalisedto theleftsideofthebrain(thelefthemisphere)developedmomentum,withnewdiscoverieslinkingspecific languagefunctionstospecificregionsofthelefthemisphere.PaulBroca(1824–1880)discoveredthat brain-injuredpeoplewithlesionsinthefrontsectionofthelefthemispherewereoftenunabletospeak fluentlybutcouldcomprehendlanguage.CarlWernicke(1848–1904)showedthatdamagetoanareaa fewcentimetresbehindthesectionBrocahaddiscoveredcouldleadtoanotherkindofaphasia.These individualscanspeakfluentlyandfollowrulesofgrammar,buttheycanneitherunderstandlanguagenor speakinawaythatiscomprehensibletoothers(figure1.1).Individualswiththisformofaphasiamight speakfluently,apparentlyfollowingrulesofgrammar,buttheirwordsmakelittlesense(e.g.,‘Isawthe batsandcuticlesasthedogliftedthehoof,thepauser.’).

FIGURE1.1

Broca’sandWernicke’sareas.(a)Broca’saphasiainvolvesdifficultyproducingspeech,whereas W ernicke’saphasiatypicallyinvolvesdifficultycomprehendinglanguage.(b)Positronemission tomography(PET)isacomputerisedimagingtechniquethatallowsresearcherstostudythe functioningofthebrainasthepersonrespondstostimuli.ThePETscanhereshowsactivityin Wernicke’sarea(right),Broca’sarea(left)andamotorregionproducingspeech,duringanexercise inwhichtheparticipantwasaskedtorepeatwords.

Broca’s area ) (a)

Wernicke’s area

Contemporaryneuroscientistsnolongerbelievethatcomplexpsychologicalfunctions‘happen’exclusi velyinasinglelocalisedpartofthebrain.Rather,thecircuitsforpsychologicalevents,suchasemotions orthoughts,aredistributedthroughoutthebrain,witheachpartcontributingtothetotalexperience.A manwhosustainslesionstooneareamaybeunableconsciouslytodistinguishhiswife’sfacefromthe faceofanyotherwoman—adisablingconditionindeed—butmayreactphysiologicallytoherface withahigherheartrateorpulse(Bruyer,1991).Technologicaladvancesoverthelasttwodecadeshave allowedresearcherstopinpointlesionsprecisely,andeventowatchcomputerisedportraitsofthebrain lightupwithactivity(orfailtolightup,incasesofneuraldamage)aspeopleperformpsychologicaltasks (chapter6).

Forexample,researchshowsthatgenesinfluencemanyaspectsofourbehaviour,includinghowkind wearetootherpeopleorwhetherornotwearelikelytoownadog.Arecentstudyexamining35035twin pairsfoundthatgenesexplainmorethanhalfofthevariationindogownership,showingthatthechoice ofowningadogisinfluencedbyourgeneticmake-up(Falletal.,2019).

Incontrasttobiopsychologists,however,psychologistswhoadopta socioculturalperspective emphasise thesocialinteractionsandculturaldeterminantsofbehaviourandmentalprocesses.Althoughwe areoftenunawareoftheirinfluence,factorssuchasethnicity,religion,occupationandsocioeconomic classallinfluenceourmentalprocessesandbehaviour.Asocioculturalperspectiveemphasisessocial interactionandtheculturaldeterminantsofbehaviourandmentalprocesses.Culturalpsychologistsfocus onthepatternsinbehavioursandhowcultureinfluencesthosebehaviours;cross-culturalpsychologists focusonthepatterns—thesimilaritiesanddifferences—amongvariousculturalgroupsandhowthey influencebehaviours.

MAKINGCONNECTIONS

Patientswithdamagetocircuitsinthebrainlinkingthoughtswithfeelingsmay‘know’somethingisriskybutdoitanyway. They cannotseemtoconnectactionswiththeiremotionalconsequences(chapters6and13).

INTERIMSUMMARY

Biopsychology (or behaviouralneuroscience )examines the physicalbasisofpsychologicalphenomenasuchas motivation,emotionandstress.Althoughdifferentneural regionsperformdifferentfunctions,theneuralcircuitsthat underliepsychologicaleventsaredistributedthroughout thebrainandcannotbe‘found’inonelocation.Atanother boundaryofpsychology,the socioculturalperspective

emphasisessocialinteractionandtheculturaldeterminants of behaviourandmentalprocesses.Culturalpsychology focusesonhowcultureinfluencespatternsinbehaviours, whilecross-culturalinvestigationtriestodistinguishuniversalpsychologicalprocessesfromthosethatarespecificto particularcultures.

1.3Historyofpsychology

LEARNINGOUTCOME1.3 Outline thehistoryofpsychology. Questionsabouthumannature,suchaswhetherpsychologicalattributesarethesameeverywhere,were oncetheprovinceofphilosophy.Earlyinthetwentiethcentury,however,philosophersenteredaperiodof intenseself-doubt,wrestlingwiththelimitationsofwhattheycouldknowabouttopicssuchasmorality, justiceandthenatureofknowledge.Atthesametime,psychologistsbegantoapplythemethodsand technologiesofnaturalsciencetopsychologicalquestions.Theyreasonedthatifphysicistscoulddiscover theatomandindustrialistscouldmass-producecars,psychologicalscientistscoulduncoverbasiclawsof humanandanimalbehaviour.

Philosophicalrootsofpsychologicalquestions

Thefactthatpsychologygrewoutofphilosophy isimportant.Manyissuesattheheartofcontemporarypsychologicalresearchandcontroversy areclassicphilosophicalquestions.Oneoftheseis whetherhumanactionistheproductof freewill or determinism ;thatis,dowefreelychooseouractions or isourbehaviourcaused—determined—bythings outsideourcontrol?

Championsoffreewillfollowinthefootsteps ofseventeenth-centuryFrenchphilosopherRené Descartes(1596–1650),whocontendedthathuman actionfollowsfromhumanintention—thatpeople chooseacourseofactionandactonit.Proponentsof determinism,fromtheGreekphilosopherDemocritus onwards,assertthatbehaviourfollowslawfulpatterns likeeverythingelseintheuniverse,fromfallingrocks toorbitingplanets.Psychologicaldeterministsbelieve thatphysicalforcesdeterminetheactionsofhumans andotheranimals—internallybygeneticprocesses andexternallybyenvironmentalevents.

Thisdebatehasnoeasyresolution.Subjectively,we havetheexperienceoffreewill.Wecouldchooseto stopwriting—oryoutostopreading—rightnow.Yet hereweare,continuingintothenextsentence.Why?

PhilosopherRenéDescartescontendedhuman action followsonfromhumanintention;thatis, peoplechooseacourseofactionandactonit.

Whatdeterminedourdecisiontoforgeahead?Andhowcanmentalprocessesexercisecontroloverphysical processessuchasmovingapenorturningapage?

Humansarepartofnature,likebirds,plantsandwater.Whenwechoosetomove,ourlimbsexert aforcethatcountersgravityanddisturbsmoleculesofair.Howcananon-materialforce—will— displacematerialforces?No-onehaseverproposedasatisfactorysolutiontothe mind–bodyproblem ,the question ofhowmentalandphysicaleventsinteract.However,psychologicalphenomenaputthemind–bodyprobleminanewlightbydrawingattentiontothewaypsychologicalmeaningcanbetransformed intomechanism(physiologicalevents).

Psychologistsdonottacklephilosophicalissuessuchasfreewilldirectly,butclassicphilosophical questionsreverberatethroughmanycontemporarypsychologicaldiscussions.Researchintothegenetics ofpersonalityandpersonalitydisturbancesprovidesanintriguing,ifdisquieting,example.Peoplewith antisocialpersonalitydisorderhaveminimalconscienceandatendencytowardsaggressiveorcriminal behaviour.Inaninitialpsychiatricevaluation,onemanboastedthathehadterrorisedhisformergirlfriend foranhourbybrandishingaknifeandtellingherinexquisitedetailthewaysheintendedtosliceherflesh. Thismancouldundoubtedlyhaveexercisedhisfreewilltocontinueordiscontinuehisbehaviouratany momentandhencewasmorally(andlegally)responsibleforhisacts.Heknewwhathewasdoing,hewas nothearingvoicescommandinghimtobehaveaggressivelyandhethoroughlyenjoyedhisvictim’sterror. Adeterminist,however,couldofferanequallycompellingcase.Likemanyviolentmen,hewastheson ofviolent,alcoholicparentswhohadbeatenhimseverelyasachild.Bothphysicalabuseinchildhood andparentalalcoholism(whichcanexertbothgeneticandenvironmentalinfluences)renderanindividual

morelikelytodevelopantisocialpersonalitydisorder(seeShietal.,2012).Intheimmediatemoment, perhaps, hehadfreewill,butoverthelongrun,hemayhavehadnochoicebuttobethepersonhewas.

APPLYANDDISCUSS

In1996,MartinBryantshotdead35peopleatPortArthur in Tasmania.Mentalhealthprofessionalswhoevaluated Bryanttestifiedthathewasoflimitedintellectualability,had severedevelopmentalproblemsandsufferedasignificant personalitydisorder.In2012,JamesHolmesshotdead12 peopleandwounded58othersatthemidnightscreening ofthenewBatmanfilmatacinemainColoradointhe UnitedStates.Hewasdescribedvariouslyasintellectually giftedandsociallyisolatedinmediareportsatthetime.He wonauniversityscholarshiptocompletehisundergraduate

degreeinneuroscience,althoughwaswithdrawingfromhis doctoralstudieswhenheundertooktheattack.Apsychiatristwhohadrecentlytreatedhimhadreportedtopolice thathewasdangerousapproximatelyonemonthpriorto theattacks.

•WereBryantandHolmesresponsiblefortheiractions?

•Wasoneanylessresponsiblethantheother?

•Waseithermoreresponsiblethanapersonwhohas aheartattackwhiledrivingandconsequentlykillsa pedestrian?Ifso,why?

Otherphilosophicalquestionsframecontemporarypsychologicaltheoryandresearch.Many,suchas freewillversusdeterminism,taketheapparentformofchoicesbetweenpolaropposites,neitherofwhich canbeentirelytrue.Doeshumanbehaviourreflectnature(biology)ornurture(environmentalinfluence)? Doesknowledgecomefromobservingtheworldorfromthinkingaboutit?Severalofthesefundamental questionsaresummarisedintable1.1.

TABLE1.1 Philosophicalissuesandpsychologicalquestions

Philosophicalissue

Freewillversusdeterminism: Do peoplemakefreechoicesor doforcesoutsidetheircontroldeterminetheiractions?

Natureversusnurture: T owhatextentdopsychological processesreflectbiologicalorenvironmentalinfluences?

Rationalismversusempiricism: T owhatextentdoesknowledge abouttheworldcomefromobservationandexperienceorfrom logicandreasoning?

Reasonversusemotion: T owhatextentarepeopleguidedby theirknowledgeorbytheirfeelings(andtowhatextentshould theybe)?

Continuityversusdiscontinuitywithotheranimals: T owhat extentarehumanssimilartootheranimals(thatis,towhat extentishumanpsychologycontinuouswiththepsychologyof otheranimals)?

Individualismversusrelationality: T owhatextentarehumans fundamentallyself-interestedororientedtowardsrelatingto andhelpingotherpeople?

Consciousversusunconscious: T owhatextentarepeople consciousofthecontentsoftheirmindandthecausesof theirbehaviour?

Mentalversusphysical: T owhatextentcanweunderstand psychologicaleventsindependentoftheirneuralbasis?

Examplesofcontemporarypsychologicalquestions

Whatcausespatientswithantisocialpersonalitydisorderto pr oducecriminalbehaviour?

Towhatextentisintelligenceinherited,andhowdogenesand envir onmentinteracttoinfluenceintellectualfunctioning?

Howdochildrencometounderstandthatotherpeoplehave thoughts andfeelings?

Shouldpeoplechoosetheirmatesbasedon‘gut’feelings, or shouldtheycarefullyweighapotentialpartner’scostsand benefitsiftheywanttohaveahappy,long-lastingmarriage?

Towhatdegreecanstudyingfearresponsesinprimatesinform psychologists aboutthenatureofhumanemotions?

Dopeopleeverreallyhelpotherswithoutbenefitingthemselves, or aretheymotivatedbyotherconsiderations,suchasdesires tofeelgoodaboutthemselvesoravoidguilt?

Canpeopledescribethemselvesaccuratelyoraretheyunaware of manyaspectsoftheirpersonality?

Howmanykindsofmemoryarethere?Whenweholdaphone number inmindbrieflyaswereachforthephone,areweusing differentneural‘hardware’thanwhenwestorethatnumber ‘forkeeps’?

Fromphilosophicalspeculationtoscientificinvestigation

Philosophicalquestionshavebeenaroundthroughouthumanhistory—theywereoncetheprovince of religionand,later,philosophy.Theyhavesurvivedbecausetheyallowpeopletobetter understandthemselves.

Philosophicalargumentshavesettheagendaformanyissuesconfrontingpsychologists.Theemergence of psychologyasascienceprovidedanewmeansforansweringtheselong-askedquestions.Itsroots inphilosophy,however,haveprofoundlyinfluencedthediscipline.Philosopherssearchedforanswersto questionsaboutthenatureofthought,feelingandbehaviourintheirminds,usinglogicandargumentation. Bythelatenineteenthcentury,analternativeapproachemerged:tounderstandthemindandbehaviour,we shouldinvestigateitscientifically,justasphysicistsstudythenatureoflightorgravitythroughsystematic observationandexperimentation.Thus,in1879,WilhelmWundt(1832–1920),oftendescribedasthe ‘fatherofpsychology’,foundedthefirstpsychologicallaboratoryinLeipzig,Germany.

Wundt’sscientificpsychology

Wundthopedtousescientificmethodstouncovertheelementaryunitsofhumanconsciousnessthatcombine toformmorecomplexideas,muchasatomscombineintomoleculesinchemistry.Foremostamong hismethodswas introspection ,theprocessoflookinginwardandreportingonone’sconsciousexperience. This introspection,however,wasnothingliketheintrospectionofphilosophers,whospeculatedfreelyon theirexperiencesandobservations.Instead,Wundttrainedobserverstoreportverballyeverythingthat wentthroughtheirmindswhenpresentedwithastimulusortask.Byvaryingtheobjectspresented,he concludedthatthebasicelementsofconsciousnessaresensations(suchascolours)andfeelings.These elementscombineintomoremeaningfulperceptions(suchasofafaceoracat),whichcanbecombined intostill more complexideasbyfocusingattentiononthemandmentallymanipulatingthem.

Wundtneveridentifiedexperimentationastheonlyroutetopsychologicalknowledge.Heconsidered itessentialforstudyingthebasicelementsofthemind,butothermethods—suchasthestudyofmyths, religionandlanguageinvariouscultures—wereessentialforunderstandinghighermentalprocesses.The nextgenerationofexperimentalpsychologiststookadifferentview,motivatedbytheirwishtodivorce themselvesfromphilosophicalspeculationandestablishafullyscientificpsychology.

Structuralismandfunctionalism

Wundt’sstudent,EdwardTitchener(1867–1927),advocatedusingintrospectioninexperimentswiththe hope ofdevisingaperiodictableoftheelementsofhumanconsciousness,muchliketheperiodictable developedbychemists.Becauseofthisinterestinthestructureofconsciousness,theschoolofthought Titchenerinitiatedwasknownas structuralism .UnlikeWundt,Titchenerbelievedthatexperimentation wastheonlyappropriatemethodforascienceofpsychologyandthatconceptssuchas‘attention’implied

WilhelmWundt(seated)isoftencalledthefatherofpsychologyforhispioneeringlaboratoryresearch.

toomuchfreewilltobescientificallyvaluable.Thegenerationofexperimentalpsychologistswhofollowed T itchenerwentevenfurther,viewingthestudyofconsciousnessitselfasunscientificbecausethedata— sensationsandfeelings—couldnotbeobservedbyanyoneexceptthepersonreportingthem.

Structuralismwasoneoftwoschoolsofthoughtthatdominatedpsychologyinitsearliestyears.The otherwasfunctionalism.Insteadoffocusingonthecontentsofthemind, functionalism emphasised the role—orfunction—ofpsychologicalprocessesinhelpingindividualsadapttotheirenvironment. Functionalistswouldnotbecontentwiththeideathatrunningcomesintoconsciousnessinthepresenceof asnakeraisingitsheadtostrike.Theywouldadvocatethatitisnoaccidentthatthisparticularideaenters consciousnesswhenapersonseesasnakebutnotwhentheyseeaflower.

Afounderoffunctionalism,HarvardpsychologistWilliamJames(1842–1910),pennedthefirst textbookinpsychologyin1890.(Ifyouthinkthisoneislong,tryreadingJames’s1400-page,two-volume set.)Jamesbelievedthatknowledgeabouthumanpsychologycouldcomefrommanysources,including introspectionandexperimentationbutalsothestudyofchildren,otheranimals(whoseintrospectivereports maynotbeveryuseful)andpeoplewhosemindsdonotfunctionadequately(suchasthementally ill).Jamesthoughtthestructuralists’effortstocataloguetheelementsofconsciousnesswerenotonly misguidedbutprofoundlyboring!Consciousnessexistsbecauseitservesafunction,andthetaskofthe psychologististounderstandthatfunction.Jameswasinterestedinexplaining,notsimplydescribing,the mind’scontents.Aswewillsee,functionalismboretheimprintofCharlesDarwin’sevolutionarytheory, whichhasagaincometoplayacentralroleinpsychologicalthoughtacenturylater.

Structuralismandfunctionalismweretwoearly‘camps’inpsychologythatattractedpassionate advocatesandopponents.Buttheywerenotthelast.

INTERIMSUMMARY

Althoughmanycontemporarypsychologicalquestions derive fromage-oldphilosophicalquestions,bytheend ofthenineteenthcentury,psychologyemergedasadisciplinethataimedtoanswerquestionsabouthuman naturethroughscientificinvestigation.Twoprominentearly

schoolsofthoughtwere structuralism and functionalism . Structuralismattemptedtouncoverthebasicelements ofconsciousnessthrough introspection .Functionalism attempted toexplainpsychologicalprocessesintermsof therole,orfunction,theyserve.

PRACTICALAPPLICATION

Psychologyversuspseudoscience

Howcanwespotthedifferencebetweentruepsychological science andpseudoscience,whichisbasedonfantasy, folkwisdomorsuperstitions?Firstofall,notethat pseudo means‘false’.Second,althoughpseudoscientificclaims oftengivetheappearanceofscience,theydonotfollow thebasicsofthescientificmethod,whichwillbecovered indepthinchapter5.

Testyourownpossiblemisperceptionsaboutpsychologybyansweringtrueorfalsetothefollowingquestions.

1.Hypnosisimprovestheaccuracyofourmemories.

2.Advertisersandpoliticiansoftenusesubliminalpersuasiontoinfluenceourbehaviour.

3.Mostbrainactivitystopswhenwe’reasleep.

4.Punishmentisthemosteffectivewaytopermanently changebehaviour.

5.Ourpersonalitiesare‘setinstone’byage30.

6.Thebestwaytolearnandrememberinformationisto ‘cram’,orstudyitintensivelyduringoneconcentrated period.

7.Vaccinationisaleadingcauseofautism.

8.Polygraph(‘liedetector’)testscanreliablydetectwhen apersonislying.

9.Violentoffendersgenerallyhaveadiagnosisofmental illness.

10.Peoplewithschizophreniahavemultiplepersonalities.

11.Oppositesattractandmakebetterandmorelonglastingromanticpartners.

12.Inanemergency,themorepeoplewhoarepresentthe morelikelyyouaretogethelp.

Source: SandersonandHuffman(2019).

Answers: Asyou’lldiscoverbyreadingthistext,all12ofthese statementsarefalse.Weincludethemtodemonstratehowcommon sensebeliefsaboutpsychologyareoftennotbackedbyscientificfacts, andtoincreaseyourinterestinbecomingamoreinformedconsumer ofpsychologicalscience.

1.4Perspectivesinpsychology

LEARNINGOUTCOME1.4 Distinguish amongthemajortheoreticalperspectivesinpsychology.

PhilosopherThomasKuhnstudiedthehistoryofscienceandfoundsomeremarkableconvergencesinthe wayschoolsofthoughtcomeandgoandknowledgeisgenerated.Kuhn(1970)observedthatsciencedoes notprogress,asmanybelieve,primarilybyaccumulating‘facts’.Rather,scienceprogressesasmuch,or more,bydevelopingbetterandbetterparadigms.

A paradigm isabroadsystemoftheoreticalassumptionsthatascientificcommunityusestomake sense ofitsdomainofstudy.Aparadigmhasseveralcomponents.First,itincludesasetoftheoretical assertionsthatprovideamodel,oranabstractpicture,oftheobjectofstudy.Chemists,forexample,have modelsofthewayatomscombinetoformmolecules—somethingthestructuralistshopedtoemulate byidentifyingbasic‘elements’ofconsciousnessandhowtheycombinedintothoughtsandperceptions. Second,aparadigmincludesasetofsharedmetaphorsthatcomparethesubjecttosomethingelsethatis readilyapprehended(suchas‘themindislikeacomputer’).Third,aparadigmincludesasetofmethods thatscientistsagreewillproducevalidandusefuldata.Astronomers,forexample,agreethattelescopic investigationprovidesawindowtoeventsinspace.

AccordingtoKuhn,thesocialsciencesandpsychologydifferfromtheoldernaturalsciences(suchas physicsandbiology)becausetheylackanacceptedparadigmuponwhichmostmembersofthescientific communityagree.Instead,heproposes,theseyoungsciencesarestillsplinteredintoseveralschoolsof thought,orwhatwewillcall perspectives

In thischapterandthroughoutthetext,weexaminefiveperspectivesthatguidecurrentpsychological thinking,offeringsometimescompetingandsometimescomplementarypointsofview.Theseperspectives offerthesamekindofbroad,orientingapproachasascientificparadigm,andtheyshareitsthreeessential features.Focusingontheseperspectivesdoesnotmeanthatotherlesscomprehensiveapproacheshave notcontributedtopsychologicalknowledgeorthatnothingcanbestudiedwithoutthem.Thesefive perspectivesgenerallyguidepsychologicalinvestigationsandtherapeuticinterventions.

APPLYANDDISCUSS

•Towhatextenthasintegrationbetweenthedifferent theor eticalperspectivesoccurred?

•Whatarethemainbenefitsofanapproachthataccepts manybehaviouristprinciplesbutalsoemphasisesthe roleofthoughtprocessesinlearning?

Inthefollowingsections,weexaminethepsychodynamic,behaviourist,humanistic,cognitiveand evolutionaryperspectives.Inmanyrespects,theseperspectiveshaveevolvedindependently,andatthe centreofeacharephenomenatheotherstendtoignore.

INTERIMSUMMARY

A paradigm isabroadsystemoftheoreticalassumptions employedbyascientificcommunitythatincludesa distinctsetofconceptsorthoughtpatterns,andshared metaphorsandresearchmethods.Psychologylacksa

Thepsychodynamicperspective

unifiedparadigmbuthasanumberofschoolsofthought, or perspectives ,thatcanbeusedtounderstandpsychological events.

Afriendhasbeengoingoutwithamanforfivemonthsandhasevenjokinglytossedaroundtheidea of marriage.Suddenly,herboyfriendtellsherhehasfoundsomeoneelse.Sheisshockedandcries uncontrollablybutadaylaterdeclaresthat‘hedidn’tmeanthatmuchtomeanyway’.Whenyouconsole herabouttherejectionshemustbefeeling,shesays,‘Rejection?Hey,Idon’tknowwhyIputupwithhim foraslongasIdid’,andjokesthat‘badcharacterisageneticabnormalitycarriedontheYchromosome’ (moreonthatlater).Youknowshereallycaredabouthim,andyouconcludethatsheisbeingdefensive— thatshereallyfeelsrejected.Youdrawtheseconclusionsbecauseyouhavegrownupinacultureinfluenced bythepsychoanalytictheoryofSigmundFreud.

TheCouch!SigmundFreud’ssignaturetherapyprocedurewastohavepatientslieonacouchandsaywhatevercame to mind,whilehetooknotesbehindthem.ThecouchisnowintheFreudMuseuminLondon.

Inthelatenineteenthcentury,SigmundFreud(1856–1939),aViennesephysician,developedatheoryof mentallifeandbehaviourandanapproachtotreatingpsychologicaldisordersknownaspsychoanalysis. Sincethen,manypsychologistshavecontinuedFreud’semphasison psychodynamics ,orthedynamic interplayofmentalforces.The psychodynamicperspective restsonthreekeypremises.First,people’s actions aredeterminedbythewaythoughts,feelingsandwishesareconnectedintheirminds.Second, manyofthesementaleventsoccuroutsideofconsciousawareness.Andthird,thesementalprocessesmay conflictwithoneanother,leadingtocompromisesamongcompetingmotives.Thus,peopleareunlikelyto knowpreciselythechainofpsychologicaleventsthatleadstotheirconsciousthoughts,intentions,feelings orbehaviours.

Aswewillsee,Freudandmanyofhisfollowersfailedtotakeseriouslytheimportanceofusing scientificmethodstotestandrefinetheirhypotheses.Asaresult,manypsychodynamicconcepts,such asideasaboutunconsciousprocesses,remainedoutsidethemainstreamofpsychologyuntilcontemporary researchersbroughtthemintothelaboratory(Bargh&Morsella,2008;Westen,1998).Inthistext,we willemphasisethoseaspectsofpsychodynamicthinkingforwhichthescientificevidenceisstrongest. Youshouldrecognisethatresearchersofteninterchangethetermspsychoanalyticandpsychodynamic, andpsychologistsinpracticeshouldconsidertheeffectivenessofpsychodynamicpsychotherapies (Gaskin,2014).

Originsofthepsychodynamicperspective

Freudoriginatedhistheoryinresponsetopatientswhosesymptoms,althoughreal,werenotbased on physiologicalmalfunctioning.Atthetime,scientificthinkingcouldnotexplainpatientswhowere preoccupiedwithirrationalguiltafterthedeathofaparentorweresoparalysedwithfearthattheycould notleavetheirhomes.Freudmadeadeceptivelysimpledeductionthatchangedthefaceofintellectual history:ifthesymptomswerenotconsciouslycreatedandmaintained,andhadnophysicalbasis,onlyone possibilityremained—theirbasismustbeunconscious.

Freudarguedthatjustaspeoplehaveconsciousmotivesorwishes,theyalsohavepowerfulunconscious motivesthatunderlietheirintentions.Manyofushavehadtheinfuriatingexperienceofbeingstuckina trafficjamonahighway,onlytofindnothingwasblockingtheroad—justanaccidentintheopposite lane.Whydopeopleslowdowntogawkataccidentsonthehighway?Aretheyconcerned?Perhaps. Freudwouldsuggestthatpeoplefeelanunconsciousexcitement,oratleastsatisfyamorbidcuriosity, fromviewingagruesomescene,eventhoughtheymaydenysuchsociallyunacceptablefeelings.

Manyhavelikenedtherelationshipbetweenconsciousawarenessandunconsciousmentalforcestothe visible tipofanicebergandthevastbulkthatliesoutofsightbeneaththewater.Forexample,aneconomics studentwenttoseeapsychologistbecauseofapatternoffailingtohandinassignments.Shewouldspend hoursresearching,writetwo-thirdsoftheassignmentandthensuddenlyfindherselfunabletofinish.She wasperplexedbyherownbehaviourbecausesheconsciouslywantedtosucceed.

So,whatlaybeneaththesurface?Thepatientcamefromaverytraditionalworking-classfamilythat expectedgirlstogetmarried,nottodevelopacareer.Shehadalwaysoutshoneherbrothersinschoolbut hidhersuccessesbecauseofthediscomfortthiscausedinthefamily.Whensheshowedherreportcard, hermotherwouldglanceanxiouslyaroundtomakesureherbrothersdidnotseeit.Eventuallyshelearned tokeephergradestoherself.

Yearslater,succeedinginalargelymalecourseputherbackinafamiliarposition,althoughshehadnot realisedthelink.Theclosershecametosuccess,themoredifficultyshehadfinishingherassignments. Shewascaughtinaconflictbetweenherconsciousdesiretosucceedandherunconsciousassociationof discomfortwithsuccess.Researchconfirmsthatmostpsychologicalprocessesoccuroutsideofawareness andthatmanyoftheassociationsbetweenfeelingsandbehavioursorsituationsthatguideourbehaviour areexpressedimplicitlyorunconsciously(Combsetal.,2010;Westen,1998).

Methodsanddataofthepsychodynamicperspective

Themethodspsychodynamicpsychologistsuseflowfromtheiraims.Psychodynamicunderstandingseeks to interpretmeanings—toinferunderlyingwishes,fearsandpatternsofthoughtfromanindividual’s conscious,verbalisedthoughtandbehaviour.Accordingly,apsychodynamicclinicianobservesapatient’s dreams,fantasies,postureandsubtlebehaviourtowardsthetherapist.Thepsychodynamicperspective thusreliessubstantiallyonthecasestudymethod,whichentailsin-depthobservationofasmallnumber ofpeople(chapter5).

Themostimportantlegacyofthepsychodynamicperspectiveisitsemphasisonunconsciousprocesses. Thedataofpsychoanalysiscanbethoughts,feelingsandactionsthatoccuranywhere,fromaCEO jockeyingforpowerinacorporateboardroomtoayoungchildbitinghisbrotherforrefusingtoshare atoy.Usinganyandallformsofinformationaboutapersonreflectsthepsychodynamicassumptionthat peoplerevealthemselvesineverythingtheydo(whichiswhypsychoanalystsmaynotalwaysbewelcome atdinnerparties).

AccordingtoWesten(1999,p.1062),Freudcontributedthefollowingkeypropositionstopsychoanalytictheory.

1.Enduringaspectsofpersonalitybegintoemergeinchildhood,andchildhoodexperiencesplayan importantroleinpersonalitydevelopment,shapingthewayspeopleformlatersocialrelationships.

2.Mentalrepresentationsofself,others,andrelationshipsguidepeople’sinteractionswithothersandplay asubstantialpartinmanyformsofpsychopathology.

3.Mentalprocesses,includingaffectiveandmotivationalprocesses,operatesimultaneouslyandin parallel,sothatindividualscanhaveconflictingfeelingstowardsthesamepersonorsituationandcan craftcompromisesoutsideofawareness.

4.Personalitydevelopmentinvolvesnotonlylearningtoregulatesexualandaggressivefeelingsand wishes,butalsomovingfromanimmaturedependentstatetoamatureindependentone.

5.Muchofmentallifeisunconscious.

Psychodynamicpsychologistshavetypicallyreliedprimarilyonclinicaldatatosupporttheirtheories. Becauseclinicalobservationsareopentomanyinterpretations,manypsychologistshavebeensceptical aboutpsychodynamicideas.Anumberofresearchers,whoarecommittedbothtoscientificmethodand psychodynamicconcepts,havebeensubjectingpsychodynamicideastoexperimentaltestsandtryingto integratethemwiththebodyofscientificknowledgeinpsychology(seeCohenetal.,2011;Westen& Gabbard,1999).Forexample,severalstudieshavedocumentedthatpeoplewhoavoidconsciousawareness oftheirnegativefeelingsareatincreasedriskforarangeofhealthproblemssuchasasthma,heartdisease andcancer(Andrew&Dulin,2007;Singh&Mishra,2011).Similarly,psychodynamicexplanationshave beenofferedandtestedfortheirrelevancetobingedrinking(Blandt,2002);attention-deficithyperactivity disorder(ADHD;Rafalovich,2001);andcreativity(Esquivel,2003).

Morerecently,aliteraturereviewofinternationalandAustralianresearchontheeffectivenessof psychoanalysisandpsychoanalyticpsychotherapysuggeststhatpositivelong-termoutcomesareevident forpeoplewithvariousconditions,includingmooddisorders,anxietydisorders,sexualdysfunctionand personalitydisorders(Gaskin,2014).

ResearchfromtheUKconfirmsthesefindings(BritishPsychoanalyticCouncil,2017).Long-term psychoanalytic psychotherapyoutcomesappeartobeequivalenttothoseachievedviaotherpsychotherapiesandcanbesustainedaftertreatment(Gaskin,2014).Gaskin(2014)furthershowedthatshort-term psychoanalyticpsychotherapyiseffectiveintreatingdepressivedisorders.Gaskin’sreviewalsosupports theuseofpsychodynamicpsychotherapyforgeneralisedanxietydisorder,hypochondriasisandsome personalitydisorders,includingborderlinepersonalitydisorder,amongothers.However,longer-term psychoanalyticpsychotherapyofoneyearormoreismoreeffectivethanshorterformsoftherapyfor treatingcomplexmentaldisorders(BritishPsychoanalyticCouncil,2017).Furthermore,evidenceindicates thatthelong-termbenefitsofpsychodynamicpsychotherapycanbesustainedovertime,aftertreatment hasterminated(Gaskin,2014).

Criticismsofpsychodynamictheory

Althoughelementsofpsychodynamictheorystillplayahugeroleinpsychology,notheoryhasbeen criticised morefervently.Criticismshavebeensoresoundingthatmanyquestionwhythetheoryattracts anyattentionintextbooksandcourses.Indeed,behaviouristJohnB.Watsonreferredtopsychodynamic theoryas‘voodooism’.Alackofscientificgroundingandempiricalevidenceforitskeyideas,itsviolation ofthe falsifiabilitycriterion ,anditsrelianceonretrospectiveaccountsarejustafewofthecriticisms aimed atpsychodynamictheory.Nevertheless,thereisnodenyingthatFreudwasagiantinthefieldand hisprovocativetheoriesdramaticallyinfluencedthedisciplineofpsychology(Dvorsky,2013).

Psychodynamictheoristsarguethatitslackofrelianceonempiricalmethodsisoneofitsredeeming features.AccordingtoFonagy(2003),inpsychoanalysis‘elusivenessandambiguityarenotonlypermissible,theymaybecriticaltoaccuratelydepictthecomplexityofhumanexperience’(p.74).Rather thaninvestigatingspecificvariablesthatreflectonlyafractionofanindividual’spersonalityorbehaviour, psychodynamictheoristsfocusontheentireperson(Westen,1998)andthewholeofhumanexperience.In addition,bynotrelyingonempiricalmethods,psychodynamictheoristsstudyphenomenanotamenableto moretraditionalexperimentalmethods.Forexample,apsychodynamictheoristmightstudywhycertain peoplearedrawntohorrorstoriesandmovies(Tavris&Wade,2001).Westen,NovotnyandThompsonBrenner(2004)arguethatresearchneedstomakebetteruseofrandomisedcontrolledclinicaltrialsto testtheefficacyofpsychotherapies,andtriangulateconclusionsusingdatacollectedbyotherresearch methods,includingclinicalpractice.Indeed,ithasbeenproposedthatadvancesinneuroimagingandother physiologicalmeasurementsinclinicalpracticewillsee‘thecreationofapsychoanalysisthatintegrates biologicalandpsychologicalprinciplesintoaunifiedtheoryofhumanmentallife’(Bornstein,2005, p.335).

INTERIMSUMMARY

The psychodynamicperspective proposesthatpeople’s actions reflectthewaythoughts,feelingsandwishesare associatedintheirminds;thatmanyoftheseprocessesare unconscious;andthatmentalprocessescanconflictwith oneanother,leadingtocompromisesamongcompeting motives.Althoughtheirprimarymethodhasbeentheanalysisofcasestudies,reflectingthegoalofinterpretingthe

meaningshypothesisedtounderliepeople’sactions,psychodynamicpsychologistsareincreasinglyusingexperimentalmethodstointegratepsychodynamicthinkingwith scientificpsychology.Thisshouldalleviatethecriticism thathastraditionallybeenlevelledagainstpsychodynamic theoristsforbeingnon-empirical,violatingthe falsifiability criterion ,andusingunreliablemeasuresandapproaches.

Thebehaviouristperspective

YouareenjoyinganintimatedinneratalittleItalianplaceonMainStreetwhenyourpartnerspringsan une xpectedpieceofnews:therelationshipisover.Yourstomachturnsandyouleaveintears.Oneevening ayearortwolater,yournewpartnersuggestsdiningatthatsamerestaurant.Justasbefore,yourstomach turnsandyourappetitedisappears.

Thesecondbroadperspectivethatdevelopedinpsychologyearlyinthetwentiethcentury, behaviourism ,arguesthattheaversiontothatrestaurant,likemanyreactions,istheresultoflearning— changesinbehaviourbasedonexperience.Whereasthepsychodynamicperspectiveemphasisesinternal mentalevents,behaviourism,alsocalledthe behaviourist (or behavioural ) perspective ,focuseson the wayobjectsoreventsintheenvironment( stimuli )cometocontrolbehaviourthroughlearning. Thus, thebehaviouristperspectivefocusesontherelationshipbetweenexternal(environmental)events

andobservablebehaviours.Indeed,JohnWatson(1878–1958),apioneerofAmericanbehaviourism, considered mentaleventsentirelyoutsidetheprovinceofascientificpsychology,andB.F.Skinner (1904–1990),whodevelopedbehaviourismintoafully-fledgedperspectiveyearslater,stated,‘Thereis noplaceinascientificanalysisofbehaviourforamindorself’(1990,p.1209).

Originsofthebehaviouristperspective

AtthesametimethatFreudwasdevelopingpsychoanalytictheory,RussianphysiologistIvanPavlov (1849–1936) wasconductingexperimentsonthedigestivesystemofdogs.Duringtheseexperiments, Pavlovmadeanimportantandquiteaccidentaldiscovery.Oncehisdogsbecameaccustomedtohearing aparticularsoundatmealtime,theybegantoautomaticallysalivatewhenevertheyheardit,muchasthey wouldiffoodwaspresented.Theprocessthathadshapedthisnewresponsewaslearning.Behaviourists arguethathumanandanimalbehaviours—fromsalivationinPavlov’slaboratorytolosingone’sappetite uponhearingthenameofarestaurantassociatedwithrejection—arelargelyacquiredbylearning.Indeed, psychologistshaveidentifiedbiochemicalchangesinbraincellsandneuralcircuitsinvolvedinlearning (Martinez&Derrick,1996),oftenthroughtheuseofPavlovian-typeanimalexperiments.Forexample, researchershavedemonstratedthatinjectingratswithasubstancethatactivatesglucocorticoidreceptors— resultinginanaturalbiologicalstressresponse—enhancestherats’memoriesoftheaffectivecomponents whentheyarelearningresponsestocues(Zorawski&Killcross,2003).Researchhasalsoprogressedto thepointwhereinterventionsfocusedonneuralandbehaviouralsignalsinvolvedinre-learningoldskills lostafterabraininjuryarenowbecomingpossible(Kleim,2011).

Behaviouristsassertedthatthebehaviourofhumans,likeotheranimals,canbeunderstoodentirely withoutreferencetointernalstatessuchasthoughtsandfeelings.They,therefore,attemptedtocounter Cartesiandualism (thedoctrineofdualspheresofmindandbody)bydemonstratingthathumanconduct follo wslawsofbehaviour,justasthelawofgravityexplainswhythingsfalldowninsteadofup.

Thetaskforbehaviouristswastodiscoverhowenvironmentalevents,orstimuli,controlbehaviour. JohnLocke(1632–1704),aseventeenth-centuryBritishphilosopher,hadcontendedthatatbirth,themind isatabularasa,orblankslate,uponwhichexperiencewritesitself.Inasimilarvein,JohnWatsonlater claimedthatifheweregiven12healthyinfantsatbirth,hecouldturnthemintowhateverhewanted, doctorsorthieves,regardlessofanyinnatedispositionsortalents,simplybycontrollingtheirenvironments (Watson,1925).

Theenvironmentandbehaviour

Thedramaticprogressofthenaturalsciencesinthe nineteenthcenturyledmanypsychologiststobelieve thatthetimehadcometowrestthestudyofhuman natureawayfromphilosophersandputitintothe handsofscientists.Forbehaviourists,psychologyis thescienceofbehaviour,andtheproperprocedurefor conductingpsychologicalresearchshouldbethesame asforothersciences—rigorousapplicationofthe scientificmethod,particularlyexperimentation.

Scientistscandirectlyobservearatrunningthrough amaze,ababysuckingonaplasticnippletomakea mobileturn,andeventheincreaseinarat’sheartrate atthesoundofabellthathaspreviouslyprecededa painfulelectricshock.However,no-onecandirectly observeunconsciousmotives.Science,behaviourists argued,entailsmakingobservationsonareliableand calibratedinstrumentthatotherscanusetomakepreciselythesameobservations.Iftwoobserverscan viewthesamedatadifferently,asoftenoccurswith psychodynamicinferences,howcanascientisttestahypothesis?

Accordingtobehaviourists,psychologistscannotevenstudyconsciousthoughtsinascientificway becauseno-onehasaccesstothemexceptthepersonreportingthem.StructuralistssuchasTitchener hadusedintrospectiontounderstandthewayconscioussensations,feelingsandimagesfittogether.But behaviouristssuchasWatsonquestionedthescientificvalueofthisresearch,sincetheobservationson whichitreliedcouldnotbeindependentlyverified.Theyproposedanalternativetopsychodynamicand

PsychologistB.F.Skinnerdevelopedbehaviourism as afully-fledgedperspectiveduringthe20thcentury.

introspectivemethods:studyobservablebehavioursandenvironmentaleventsandbuildasciencearound the waypeopleandanimalsbehave.Hencethetermbehaviourism.Today,manybehaviouristsacknowledgetheexistenceofmentaleventsbutdonotbelievetheseeventsplayacausalroleinhumanaffairs. Rather,fromthebehaviouristperspective,mentalprocessesareby-productsofenvironmentalevents.

ProbablythemostsystematicbehaviouristapproachwasdevelopedbyB.F.Skinner.Buildingon theworkofearlierbehaviourists,Skinnerobservedthatthebehaviouroforganismscanbecontrolled byenvironmentalconsequencesthateitherincrease(reinforce)ordecrease(punish)theirlikelihoodof occurring.Subtlealterationsintheseconditions,suchasthetimingofanaversiveconsequence,canhave dramaticeffectsonbehaviour.Mostdogownerscanattestthatswattingadogwitharolled-upnewspaper afteritgrabsapieceofsteakfromthedinnertablecanbeveryusefulinsuppressingthedog’sunwanted behaviour,butnotifthepunishmentcomesanhourlater.

Behaviouristresearchershavediscoveredthatthiskindoflearningcanhelpcontrolsomeveryunlikely behavioursinhumans.Forexample,bygivingpeoplefeedbackontheirbiologicalorphysiological processes(biofeedback),psychologistscanhelpthemtolearntocontrol‘behaviours’suchasheadaches, chronicpainandbloodpressure(Kapitzaetal.,2010;Nestoriucetal.,2008;Palombaetal.,2011).

Metaphors,methodsanddataofbehaviourism

Aprimarymetaphorofbehaviourismisthathumansandotheranimalsarelikemachines.Justaspushing a buttonstartsthecoffeemaker,presentingfoodtriggeredanautomaticresponseinPavlov’sdogs. Similarly,openingthistextprobablytriggeredthelearnedbehaviourofunderliningandnotetaking.Some behaviouristsalsoviewthemindasa‘blackbox’whosemechanismscanneverbeobserved.Astimulus entersthebox,andaresponsecomesout;whathappensinsideisnotthebehaviourist’sbusiness.Other behaviouristsareinterestedinwhatmightoccurinthatboxbutremainunconvincedthatitisaccessible toscientificinvestigationwithcurrenttechnologies.Consequently,theyprefertostudywhatcanbe observed—therelationshipbetweenwhatgoesinandwhatcomesout.

Theprimarymethodofbehaviourismisexperimental.Theexperimentalmethodentailsframinga hypothesis,orprediction,aboutthewaycertainenvironmentaleventswillaffectbehaviourandthen creatingalaboratorysituationtotestthathypothesis.Considertworatsplacedinsimplemazesshaped liketheletterT,asshowninfigure1.2.Thetwomazesareidenticalinallrespectsbutone:pelletsof foodlieattheendoftheleftarmofthefirstrat’smazebutnotofthesecond.Afterafewtrials(efforts atrunningthroughthemaze),theratthatobtainstherewardwillbemorelikelytoturntotheleftand runthemazefaster.Theexperimentercannowsystematicallymodifythesituation,againobservingthe resultsoverseveraltrials.Whathappensiftheratisrewardedonlyeverythirdtime?Everyfourthtime? Willitrunfasterorslower?Becausethesedatacanbemeasuredquantitatively,experimenterscantestthe accuracyoftheirpredictions,andtheycanapplythemtopracticalquestions,suchashowanemployercan maximisetherateatwhichemployeesproduceaproduct.

Behaviourismwasthedominantperspectiveinpsychology,particularlyinNorthAmerica,fromthe 1920s tothe1960s.Purebehaviourismlostfavouraspsychologyagainbecameconcernedwiththestudy ofmentalprocesses.Manypsychologistsbelievethatthoughtsabouttheenvironmentarejustasimportant

FIGURE1.2 AstandardT-mazefromabehaviouristexperiment.Theexperimentercontrolstherat’sbehaviour by givingoreliminatingrewardsinonearmortheotheroftheT.

incontrollingbehaviourastheenvironmentitself(Bandura,1977a,1977b;Mischel&Shoda,1995;Rotter, 1990). Somecontemporarybehaviouristsevendefinebehaviourbroadlytoincludethoughtsasprivate behaviours(seeCalkin,2002,forareview).Nevertheless,traditionalbehaviouristtheorycontinuestohave widespreadapplications,fromhelpingpeoplequitsmokingtoenhancingchildren’slearninginschool.

Twocontributionsofthebehaviouristperspectivetopsychologycannotbeoverestimated.Thefirstisits focusonlearninganditspostulationofamechanismformanykindsoflearning:rewardandpunishment. Behaviouristsofferafundamentalinsightintothepsychologyofhumansandotheranimalsthatcanbe summarisedinasimplebutremarkablyimportantformula:behaviourfollowsitsconsequences.Thenotion thattheconsequencesofouractionsshapethewaywebehavehasalongphilosophicalhistory,butthe behaviouristswerethefirsttodevelopasophisticated,scientificallybasedsetofprinciplesthatdescribethe wayenvironmentaleventsshapebehaviour.Thesecondmajorcontributionofthebehaviouristapproach isitsemphasison empiricism —thebeliefthatthepathtoscientificknowledgeissystematicobservation and, ideally,experimentalobservation.

INTERIMSUMMARY

The behaviouristperspective focusesonlearningand studies thewayenvironmentaleventscontrolbehaviour. Behaviouristsrejecttheconceptof‘mind’,viewingmental eventsasthecontentsofablackboxthatcannotbe

Thehumanisticperspective

knownorstudiedscientifically.Scientificknowledgecomes fromusingexperimentalmethodstostudytherelationship betweenenvironmentaleventsandbehaviour.

Humanistictheoriesfocusontheuniquenessoftheindividual.AbrahamMaslow(1908–1970)and Carl Rogers(1902–1987)aretwokeyfiguresinhumanisticpsychology.Theybothemphasised selfactualisation —theideathatpeoplearemotivatedtoreachtheirfullpotential.The humanistic perspecti ve representsanoptimisticviewofhumanexperience.Itassumesthatpeopleareinnatelygood and willalmostalwayschooseadaptive,goal-directedandself-actualisingbehaviours.

AbrahamMaslow,akeyfigureinhumanisticpsychology,emphasisedtheideathatpeoplearemotivatedtoreachtheir full potential.

Originsofthehumanisticperspective

Duringthe1950sandespeciallythe1960s,anapproachtopersonalityemergedasanalternativeto psychoanalysis andbehaviourism.Unliketheseapproaches,humanisticapproachesfocusonaspectsof personalitythataredistinctlyhuman,notsharedbyotheranimals.Howdopeoplefindmeaninginlife?

Howcantheyremaintruetothemselvesamidlifelongpressurestoaccommodateotherpeople’swishesand preconceptions?Manyhumanisticpsychologistsarguethatscientificmethodsborrowedfromthenatural sciencesareinappropriateforstudyingpeople,whoseactions,unlikethoseoffishorasteroids,reflectthe waytheyunderstandandexperiencethemselvesandtheworld.

Metaphors,methodsanddataofthehumanisticperspective

Ahumanisticmetaphoristhatlifeislikeabottleofmilk—thecreamalwaysrisestothetop.Imaginea young mangrowingupinapoverty-strickenhomeenvironment.Helongstostudyatuniversitybutdoes nothaveanyfinancialsupportorresourcestoassisthim.Theyoungmanenjoysstudyinganddoeswell inschool,despitethebarriershishomeenvironmentpresents.Helongstoattenduniversitytofulfilhis lifelongdreamofbecomingalawyertohelpunderprivilegedchildren.Whywillthismanstrivehardto realisehisgoalsandambitions?Accordingtohumanistictheory,hewilldosotobecomeaself-fulfilled individualandreachhisfullpotential.Heisdrivenbyadesiretoachieveallthatheiscapableof—itdoes notmatterthathecomesfromadisadvantagedhomeenvironment.

Thehumanisticapproachfocusesontheindividual’suniqueperspectiveandexperience.Humanistic theoristsbelievethatpeoplearenotpowerlessvictimsofexternalforcesbuthaveaninnatedesireto improvethemselvesandfulfiltheirownpotential.Thegoalspeoplesetforthemselvesareinfluenced bytheirownpersonalandsubjectiveexperiences.Theycanbechosenconsciouslyaspeoplestriveto self-actualise.Asaresult,humanisticmethodstypicallycentreonhelpingindividualstounderstandtheir uniqueframeofreferenceandworktowardsachievingtheirdesiretobethe‘best’thattheycanbe.The humanisticapproachisverymuch person-centred andreliesonthetherapistshowing empathy .Theidea is totreatpeoplewithrespectandwarmth,stressingeveryindividual’sfreedomtomaketheirownchoices. Helpingpeopletoconsciouslyanddeliberatelysetself-actualisationgoalsmodifiestheirbehaviour.

Thedataofhumanistictheoryincludethethoughts,motivesandactionsthatreflectaperson’sinnerdrive torealisetheirfullpotential.Humanistsassumethatpeoplewillactinwaysthathelpthemtoachievetheir lifegoals.Theyemphasisethecentralroleofconsciousnessinshapingourbehaviours,assumingthat personalexperienceisapowerfulmediumforpeopletobecomemoreself-awareandself-directed.

Thehumanisticperspectiveemphasisestheuniquenessofindividualsandtheirpotentialforpersonal growth.BothRogers(1959)andMaslow(1962)assertedthattheprimemotivatorofallhumanbehaviour isself-actualisation—aninnatetendencythatwehavetowardsfulfillingourpotential.Accordingtothis perspective,thewayinwhichpeopleperceivetheirownworldsdeterminestheirbehaviour.Humanistic theoristsbelievethatpeopleexperienceproblemswhenthereisadiscrepancybetweentheir self-concept andthe idealself .Thiscanoccurwhenourexpectationsexceedourachievements.Thehumanistic approach readilylendsitselftotherapybecauseitfocusesontheperson’simmediateexperience.However, somecriticshaveviewedthisperspectiveasnaivebecauseitassumesthatpeoplearebasically‘good’and willgrowifgiventheopportunity.Thenumberofpeopleinjailsallaroundtheworldisoneargumentthat peopledonotalwaysactthisway.

INTERIMSUMMARY

The humanisticperspective emphasisestheuniqueness of theindividualandfocusesontheperson’simmediate experience.Humanistictheoristsassertthatpeoplehave freewill—thefreedomtomakechoicessothattheycan

Thecognitiveperspective

fulfiltheirpotential.Accordingtothisperspective,people aremotivatedtoachievepersonalgoalssothattheycan fulfiltheirtruepotential.

Psychologyunderwenta‘cognitiverevolution’duringthe1950sto1960s.Todaythestudyof cognition , orthought,dominatespsychologyinthesamewaythatthestudyofbehaviourdominatedinthemiddle ofthetwentiethcentury.Indeed,thehistoryofpsychologycouldbeviewedasaseriesofshifts:from the‘philosophyofthemind’oftheWesternphilosophers,tothe‘scienceofthemind’intheworkofthe structuralists,tothe‘scienceofbehaviour’intheresearchofthebehaviourists,tothe‘scienceofbehaviour

andmentalprocesses’incontemporary,cognitivelyinformedpsychology.Thehumanisticapproachof the 1950sand1960swasashiftawayfromthe‘science’ofpsychologytowardsafocusontheunique experiencesofeachindividual.The cognitiveperspective focusesonthewaypeopleperceive,process and retrieveinformation.CognitivepsychologyhasrootsinexperimentsconductedbyWundtandothers inthelatenineteenthcenturythatexaminedphenomenasuchastheinfluenceofattentiononperception andtheabilitytorememberlistsofwords.Gestaltpsychology,too,wasarguablyacognitivepsychology, initsfocusonthewaypeopleorganisesensoryinformationintomeaningfulunits.

Inlargemeasure,though,thecognitiveperspectiveowesitscontemporaryformtoatechnological development—thecomputer.Manycognitivepsychologistsusethemetaphorofthecomputerto understandandmodelthewaythemindworks.Fromthisperspective,thinkingis informationprocessing : the environmentprovidesinputs,whicharetransformed,storedandretrievedusingvariousmental ‘programs’,leadingtospecificresponseoutputs.Justasthecomputerdatabaseofabookstorecodesits inventoryaccordingtotopic,title,authorandsoon,humanmemorysystemsencodeinformationinorder tostoreandretrieveit.Thecodingsystemsweuseaffecthoweasilywecanlateraccessinformation.Thus, mostpeoplewouldfindithardtonamethetenthprimeministerofAustralia(buteasiertonametheprime ministerresponsibleforintroducingthesame-sexmarriageplebiscite)becausetheydonottypicallycode primeministersnumerically.

Totesthypothesesaboutmemory,researchersneedwaysofmeasuringit.Onewayissimple:aska questionlike,‘Doyourememberseeingthisobject?’Asecondmethodismoreindirect:seehowquickly peoplecannameanobjecttheysawsometimeago.Ourmemorysystemevolvedtoplacefrequently usedandmorerecentinformationatthefrontofourmemory‘files’sothatwecangettoitfaster.This makessense,sincedustyoldinformationislesslikelytoberelevanttoourimmediateenvironment.Thus, responsetimeisausefulmeasureofmemory.

Forexample,oneinvestigatorusedbothdirectquestionsandresponsetimetotestmemoryforobjects seenweeksormonthsbefore(Cave,1997).Initially,sherapidlyflashedmorethan100drawingsona computerscreenandaskedparticipantstonamethemasquicklyastheycould.Thatwastheparticipants’ onlyexposuretothepictures.Inasecondsession,weeksormonthslater,shemixedsomeofthedrawings inwithothersthestudentshadnotseenandaskedthemeithertotellherwhethertheyrecognisedthem fromtheearliersessionortonamethem.Whenaskeddirectly,participantswereabletodistinguishtheold picturesfromnewoneswithbetter-than-chanceaccuracyasmanyas48weekslater;thatis,theycorrectly identifiedwhichdrawingstheyhadseenpreviouslymorethanhalfthetime.Perhapsmorestriking,as figure1.3shows,almostayearlater,theywerealsofasteratnamingthepicturestheyhadseenpreviously thanthosetheyhadnotseen.Thus,exposuretoavisualimageappearstokeepittowardsthefrontofour mentalfilesforaverylongtime.

Responsetimeinnamingdrawings48weeksafterinitialexposure.Thisgraphshowsthelengthof time participantstooktonamedrawingstheysaw48weeksearlier(‘old’drawings)versussimilar drawingstheywereseeingforthefirsttime.Responsetimewasmeasuredinmilliseconds (thousandthsofasecond).Ascanbeseen,at48weeks—nearlyayear—participantswere fasteratnamingpreviouslyseenpictures.

MAKINGCONNECTIONS

Howdopeoplerecognisetheabstractobjectinthispainting asadog?Accordingtocognitivepsychologists,people categoriseanobjectthatresemblesadogbycomparingit

toexamplesofdogs,generalisedknowledgeaboutdogs, ordefiningfeaturesofdogsstoredinmemory(chapter11).

FIGURE1.3

Source: Ca ve(1997).

Thecognitiveperspectiveisusefulnotonlyinexaminingmemorybutalsoinunderstandingprocesses such asdecisionmaking.Whenpeopleenteracarshowroom,theyhaveasetofattributesintheirminds: forexample,smoothride,sleeklook,goodfueleconomy,affordableprice.Theymustalsoprocessagreat dealofnewinformation(thecardealer’sdescriptionofonemodelasa‘realsteal’,forinstance)andmatch itwithstoredlinguisticknowledge.Thisallowsthemtocomprehendthemeaningofthedealer’sspeech, suchastheconnotationof‘realsteal’(frombothhisviewpointandtheirs).Indecidingwhichcartobuy, theymustsomehowintegrateinformationaboutmultipleattributesandweightheirimportance.Aswewill see,someoftheseprocessesareconsciousorexplicit,whereasothershappenthroughthesilentwhirring ofourneural‘engines’.

APPLYANDDISCUSS

Afour-year-oldisabouttograbalollyofftheshelfatashop, and hisoldersistersays,‘No,don’ttakethat.Thatwould bestealing’.

•Howwouldapsychologistfromabehaviouristperspectiveexplainbothchildren’sbehaviour?Howdidtheir learninghistoryshapetheiractions?

•Howwouldapsychologistfromacognitiveperspective explaintheirbehaviour?Whatmadethefour-year-old thinkthatinsidethislollywrapperwouldbesomething tasty?Howdidtheolderchildlearntoresistsuch temptationsandtoviewstealingaswrong?

Originsofthecognitiveperspective

Thephilosophicalrootsofthecognitiveperspectivelieinaseriesofquestionsaboutwhereknowledge comes fromthattheancientGreekphilosophersfirstraisedandthatBritishandEuropeanphilosophers ponderedduringthelastfourcenturies(seeGardner,1985).Descartes,likePlato,reflectedonthe remarkabletruthsofarithmeticandgeometryandnotedthatthepurestandmostusefulabstractions— suchasahypotenuse,piorasquareroot—couldneverbeobservedbythesenses.Rather,theminditself appearedtogeneratethiskindofknowledge.Otherphilosophers,beginningwithAristotle,emphasised theroleofexperienceingeneratingknowledge.Lockeproposedthatcomplexideasarisefromthemental manipulationofsimpleideasandthatthesesimpleideasareproductsofthesenses,ofobservation.

ThebehaviouristsroundlyrejectedDescartes’viewofanactive,reasoningmindthatcanarriveat knowledgeindependentlyofexperience.Cognitivepsychologists,incontrast,areinterestedinmanyof

thequestionsraisedbyDescartesandother rationalistphilosophers ,whoemphasisedtheroleofreason in creatingknowledge.Forexample,cognitivepsychologistshavestudiedthewaypeopleformabstract conceptsorcategories.Theseconceptsarederivedinpartfromexperience,buttheyoftendifferfromany particularinstancethepersonhaseverperceived,sotheymustbementallyconstructed(Medin&Heit, 1999).Childrencanrecognisethatabulldogisadog,eveniftheyhaveneverseenonebefore,because theyhaveformedanabstractconceptof‘dog’thatgoesbeyondthedetailsofanyspecificdogsthey haveseen.

Metaphors,methodsanddataofcognitivepsychology

Boththecognitiveandbehaviouristperspectivesvieworganismsasmachinesthatrespondtoenvironmental inputwithpredictableoutput.Somecognitivetheoriesevenproposethatastimulusevokesa seriesofmini-responsesinsidethehead,muchliketheresponsesthatbehaviouristsstudyoutsidethe head(Anderson,1983).However,mostcognitivepsychologistsrelyondifferentmetaphorsthantheir behaviouristcolleagues.Whenthecognitiveperspectiveemerged,perhapswhatdifferentiateditmostwas thatitfilledtheblackboxofthebehaviouristswithsoftware—mentalprogramsthatproduceoutput.

Manycognitivepsychologistsusethebrainitselfasametaphorforthemind(e.g.,Bassett&Gazzaniga, 2011).Accordingtothisview,anideacanbeconceivedasanetworkofbraincellsthatareactivated together.Thus,wheneverapersonthinksoftheconcept‘bird’,acertainsetofnervecellsbecomesactive. Confrontingastimulusthatresemblesabirdactivatespartofthenetwork;ifenoughofthenetwork becomesactive,thepersonconcludesthattheanimalisabird.Apersonislikelytorecogniseasparrow asabirdquicklybecauseitresemblesmostotherbirdsandhenceimmediatelyactivatesmostofthe‘bird’ network.Correctlyclassifyingapenguintakeslongerbecauseitislesstypically‘birdlike’andactivates lessofthenetwork.

Aswithbehaviourism,theprimarymethodofthecognitiveperspectiveisexperimental,albeitwithone importantdifference.Cognitivepsychologistsuseexperimentalprocedurestoinfermentalprocessesat work.Forexample,whenpeopletrytoretrieveinformationfromalist(suchasthenamesofcitiesor towns),dotheyscanalltherelevantinformationinmemoryuntiltheyhittherightitem?

Onewaytoexplorethisquestionisbypresentingparticipantswithaseriesofwordlistsofvarying lengthstomemorise,suchasthoseinfigure1.4.Participantsarethenaskedifparticularwordswereon thelists.Ifparticipantstakelongertorecognisethatawordwasnotonalongerlist—whichtheydo— theymustbescanningthelistssequentially(thatis,itembyitem),becauseadditionalwordsonthelist takeadditionaltimetoscan(seeSternberg,1975).

FIGURE1.4

Givingparticipantsinastudytwolistsofcitynamesprovidesatestofthememory-scanning hypothesis. Dubboisnotoneitherlist.IfanexperimenteraskswhetherDubbowasonthelist, participantstakelongertorespondtolistAthantolistBbecausetheyhavetoscanmoreitemsin memory.

Cognitivepsychologistsprimarilystudyprocessessuchasmemoryanddecisionmaking.Cognitive research canalsousecognitiveconceptsandmetaphorstoexplainamuchwiderrangeofphenomena (Sorrentino&Higgins,1996).Forexample,cognitiveresearchersdocumentthatthewaypeoplethink abouteventsplaysasubstantialroleingeneratingemotions(Davisetal.,2010).

INTERIMSUMMARY

The cognitiveperspective focusesonthewaypeopleperceive, processandretrieveinformation.Cognitivepsychologistsareinterestedinhowmemoryworks,howpeople solveproblemsandmakedecisions,andsimilarquestions. Theprimarymetaphororiginallyunderlyingthecognitive

perspectivewasthemindasacomputer.Inrecentyears, manycognitivepsychologistshaveturnedtothebrainitself asasourceofmetaphors.Theprimarymethodofthe cognitiveperspectiveisexperimental.

Theevolutionaryperspective

•Theimpulsetoeatinhumanshasabiologicalbasis.

• Thesexualimpulseinhumanshasabiologicalbasis.

•Caringforoffspringhasabiologicalbasis.

•Thefactthatmostmalesareinterestedinsexwithfemales,andviceversa,hasabiologicalbasis.

•Thehigherincidenceofaggressivebehaviourinmalesthaninfemaleshasabiologicalbasis.

•Thetendencytocaremoreforone’sownoffspringthanfortheoffspringofotherpeoplehasa biologicalbasis.

Mostpeoplefullyagreewiththefirstofthesestatements,buthavegrowingdoubtsastheymovedown thelist.Thedegreetowhichinbornprocessesdeterminehumanbehaviourisaclassicissueinpsychology calledthe nature–nurturecontroversy .Advocatesofthe‘nurture’positionmaintainthatbehaviouris primarily learnedandnotbiologicallyordained.Otherpsychologists,however,pointtothesimilaritiesin behaviourbetweenhumansandotheranimals,fromchimpanzeestobirds,andarguethatsomebehavioural similaritiesaresostrikingthattheymustreflectsharedtendenciesrootedinbiology.Indeed,anyonewho believesthesightoftwomaleteenagersbrawlingbehindthelocalhighschoolfortheattentionofa populargirlisdistinctivelyhumanshouldobservethebehaviouroframsandbaboons.Aswewillsee, many,ifnotmost,psychologicalprocessesreflectaninteractionofnatureandnurture.Biologicaland geneticfactorspredisposepeopleandotheranimalstocertainphysicalandpsychologicalexperiences. Itistheenvironment,however,thatoftendeterminesthedegreetowhichthesepredispositionsactually manifestthemselves.

APPLYANDDISCUSS

Humans,likeotheranimals,takecareoftheiryoung.

• Isthisbehaviourinstinctive?

•Howmightabehaviouristexplainthesamephenomenon?

The evolutionaryperspective arguesthatmanybehaviouraltendenciesinhumans,fromtheneedtoeat to concernforourchildren,evolvedbecausetheyhelpedourancestorssurviveandrearhealthychildren.

Why,forexample,areyoungchildrensoupsetbyseparationfromtheirparents?Fromanevolutionary perspecti ve,adeepemotionalbondbetweenparentsandchildrenstopsthemstrayingtoofarfromeach otherwhilechildrenareimmatureandvulnerable.Breakingthisbondleadstotremendousdistress.

Likethefunctionalistsattheturnofthecentury,evolutionarypsychologistsbelievethatmostenduring humanattributesatsometimeservedafunctionforhumansasbiologicalorganisms(Buss,2000).They arguethatthisisastrueforphysicaltraits—suchasthepresenceoftwoeyes(ratherthanone),which allowsustoperceivedepthanddistance—asforcognitiveandemotionaltendenciessuchasachild’s distressovertheabsenceofparents.Theimplicationforpsychologicaltheoryisthatunderstandinghuman mentalprocessesandbehavioursrequiresinsightintotheirevolution.

Originsoftheevolutionaryperspective

Theevolutionaryperspectiveisrootedinthewritings ofCharlesDarwin(1859).Darwindidnotinventthe conceptofevolution,buthewasthefirsttoproposeamechanismthatcouldexplainit— natural selection .Darwinarguedthatnaturalforcesselect traitsinorganismsthatareadaptiveandarelikely tobepassedontotheiroffspring. Adaptivetraits arecharacteristicsthathelporganismstoadjustand survi veintheirenvironment.Selectionoforganisms occurs‘naturally’becausethosenotendowedwith featuresthathelpthemadapttotheirparticularenvironmentalcircumstancesarelesslikelytosurviveand reproduce.Inturn,theyhavefeweroffspringtosurvive andreproduce.

Aclassicexampleofnaturalselectionoccurredin Birmingham,Liverpool,ManchesterandotherindustrialcitiesinEngland(Bishop&Cook,1975).Alightcolouredvarietyofpepperedmoththatwascommonin ruralareasofBritainalsopopulatedmostcities.Butas Englandindustrialisedinthenineteenthcentury,lightcolouredmothsbecamescarceinindustrialregionsand dark-colouredmothspredominated.

Howdidthishappen?Withindustrialisation,theairbecamesooty,darkeningthebarkofthetreeson whichthesemothsspentmuchoftheirtime.Light-colouredmothswerethuseasilynoticedandeatenby predators.Beforeindustrialisation,natureselectedagainstdarkermothsbecausetheywereconspicuous onlight-colouredbark.Now,however,darkermothsblendedbetterintothebackgroundofthedarktree trunks(figure1.5).Asaresult,theysurvivedtopassontheircolourationtothenextgeneration.Over decades,themothpopulationchangedtoreflectthedifferentialselectionoflightanddarkvarieties.Since Englandhasbeencleaningupitsairthroughmorestringentpollutioncontrolsinthepast30years,the trendhasbeguntoreverse.

FIGURE1.5

Thenaturalselectionofmothcolour.AsenvironmentalconditionschangedinindustrialEngland, so, too,didthemothpopulation.In(a),wheretwopeppermothsrestonthedarkbarkofanoak treeinManchester,thedarkermothisbettercamouflaged.Withindustrialisation,darkermoths werebetteradaptedtotheirenvironments.Incontrast,(b)showsalight-colouredoakbarktypical ofruralWales,wherethelightmothisextremelydifficulttoseeandhencebetterabletoevade itspredators. )b( )

CharlesDarwinrevolutionisedhumanselfunderstanding in1859byrewritingthefamilytree.

Thepepperedmothstoryhighlightsacrucialpointaboutevolution:becauseadaptationisalways relati vetoaspecificenvironment,evolutionisnotsynonymouswithprogress.Atraitorbehaviourthat ishighlyadaptivecansuddenlybecomemaladaptiveinthefaceofevenaseeminglysmallchangeinthe environment.Forexample,anewinsectthatentersageographicalregioncaneliminateaflourishingcrop, justasthearrivalofawarliketribe(ornation)inapreviouslypeacefulregioncanrenderpriorattitudes towardswarandpeacemaladaptive.PeoplehaveusedDarwinianideastojustifyracialandclassprejudices (‘peopleonwelfaremustbenaturallyunfit’),butsophisticatedevolutionaryargumentscontradicttheidea thatadaptationorfitnesscaneverbeabsolute.Adaptationisalwaysrelativetoaniche.

Ethology,sociobiologyandevolutionarypsychology

IfDarwin’stheoryofnaturalselectioncanbeappliedtocharacteristicssuchasthecolourofamoth,can it alsoapplytobehaviours?Itstandstoreasonthatcertainbehaviours,suchasthetendencyofmoths torestontreesinthefirstplace,evolvedbecausetheyhelpedmembersofthespeciestosurvive.Inthe middleofthetwentiethcentury,thefieldof ethology ,whichstudiesanimalbehaviourfromabiologicaland evolutionaryperspective(Hinde,1982),begantoapplythissortofevolutionaryapproachtounderstanding animalbehaviour.

Forexample,severalspeciesofbirdsemitwarningcriestoalerttheirflockaboutapproachingpredators; someevenbandtogethertoattack.KonradLorenz,anethologistwhobefriendedaflockofblackjackdaws, wasonceattackedbytheflockwhilecarryingawetblackbathingsuit.Convincedthatthebirdswerenot simplyoffendedbythestyle,Lorenzhypothesisedthatjackdawshaveaninborn,orinnate,tendencyto becomedistressedwhenevertheyseeacreaturedanglingablackobjectresemblingajackdaw,andthey respondbyattacking(Lorenz,1979).

Ifanimalbehaviourscanbeexplainedbytheiradaptiveadvantage,canthesamelogicbeapplied tohumanbehaviour?HarvardbiologistE.O.Wilson(1975)christenedanewandcontroversialfield called sociobiology ,whichexplorespossibleevolutionaryandbiologicalbasesofhumansocialbehaviour. Sociobiologistsand evolutionarypsychologists ,whoapplyevolutionarythinkingtoawiderangeof psychological phenomena,proposethatgenetictransmissionisnotlimitedtophysicaltraitssuchasheight, bodytypeorvulnerabilitytoheartdisease.Parentsalsopassontotheirchildrenbehaviouralandmental tendencies.Someoftheseareuniversal,suchastheneedtoeatandsleeporthecapacitytoperceivecertain wavelengthsoflight.Othersdifferacrossindividuals.

Aswewillseeinlaterchapters,researchin behaviouralgenetics —afieldthatexaminesthegenetic and environmentalbasesofdifferencesamongindividualsonpsychologicaltraits—suggeststhatheredity isasurprisinglystrongdeterminantofmanypersonalitytraitsandintellectualskills.Thetendencies tobeoutgoing,aggressiveormusicallytalented,forexample,areallunderpartialgeneticcontrol (Loehlin,1992).

Perhapsthefundamentalconceptinallcontemporaryevolutionarytheoriesisthatevolutionselects organismsthatmaximisetheirreproductivesuccess. Reproductivesuccess referstothecapacitytosurvive and produceoffspring.Overmanygenerations,organismswithgreaterreproductivesuccesswillhave manymoredescendantsbecausetheywillsurviveandreproducemorethanotherorganisms,including othermembersoftheirownspecies.Centraltoevolutionarypsychologyisthenotionthatthehuman brain,liketheeyeortheheart,hasevolvedthroughnaturalselectiontosolvecertainproblemsassociated withsurvivalandreproduction,suchasselectingmates,usinglanguage,competingforscarceresources andcooperatingwithkinandneighbourswhomightbehelpfulinthefuture(Tooby&Cosmides,1992).

Forexample,wetakeforgrantedthatpeopleusuallytendtocaremoreabout,anddomorefor,their children,parentsandsiblingsthanfortheirsecondcousinsornon-relatives.Mostofyouhaveprobably receivedmorefinancialsupportfromyourparentsinthelastfiveyearsthanfromyourauntsanduncles. Thisseemsnatural—andwerarelywonderaboutit—butwhydoesitseemsonatural?Andwhatarethe causesofthisbehaviouraltendency?

Fromanevolutionaryperspective,individualswhocareforotherswhosharetheirgeneswillhavemore oftheirgenesinthegenepoolgenerationslater.Andthegenesinvolvedinpromotingthatcaringtendency inthoseindividualswillbepreferentiallypassedonaswell.Asaresult,thecaringtrait(orpredisposition forit)willalsobepassedon.Thus,evolutionarytheoristshaveexpandedtheconceptofreproductive successtoencompass inclusivefitness ,whichrefersnotonlytoanindividual’sownreproductivesuccess b utalsotheirinfluenceonthereproductivesuccessofgeneticallyrelatedindividuals(Hamilton,1964).

Accordingtothetheoryofinclusivefitness,naturalselectionfavoursanimalswhoseconcernforkinis proportionaltotheirdegreeofbiologicalrelatedness.Inotherwords,animalsshoulddevotemoreresources andoffermoreprotectiontocloserelativesthantomoredistantkin.Thereasonsforthispreferenceare strictlymathematical.Imagineyouaresailingwithyourbrotherorsisterandwithyourcousin,andthe

shipcapsizes.Neitheryoursiblingnoryourcousincanswim,andyoucansaveonlyoneofthem.Who will yousave?

Mostreaders(afterabriefflickerofsiblingrivalry)optforthesiblingbecausefirst-degreerelatives sharemuchmoregeneticmaterialthanmoredistantrelativessuchascousins.Siblingssharehalfoftheir genes,whereascousinsshareonlyone-eighth.Incrassevolutionaryterms,twosiblingsarewortheight cousins.Evolutionselectstheneuralmechanismsthatmakethispreferencefeelnatural—sonaturalthat psychologistshaverarelyeventhoughttoexplainit.

Atthispoint,youmightobjectthattherealreasonforsavingthesiblingoverthecousinisthatyouknow thesiblingbetter;yougrewuptogether,andyouhavemorebondsofaffection.Thisposesnoproblem fortheevolutionarytheorist,sincefamiliarityandbondsofaffectionareprobablythepsychological mechanismsselectedbynaturetohelpyouinyourchoice.Whenhumangeneswereevolving,close relativestypicallylivedtogether.Peoplewhowerefamiliarandlovedwere,moreoftenthannot,relatives. Humanswhoprotectedothersbasedonfamiliarityandaffectionwouldbemoreprevalentinthegene poolthousandsofyearslaterbecausemoreoftheirgeneswouldbeavailable.Thus,accordingtothe evolutionaryperspective,individualsaresimplyactingaccordingtotheirgeneticmake-upandinherent tendencies.

Metaphors,methodsanddataoftheevolutionaryperspective

Darwin’stheoryofnaturalselectionispartofatraditionofWesternthoughtsincetheRenaissancethat emphasises individualself-interestandcompetitionforscarceresources.Perhapsthemajormetaphor underlyingtheevolutionaryperspectiveisborrowedfromanothermemberofthattradition,sixteenthcenturyphilosopherThomasHobbes(1588–1679).AccordingtoHobbes,wittinglyorunwittingly,weare allincompetitionforsurvival,sexualaccesstopartners,andresourcesforourkinandourselves.

Evolutionarymethodsarefrequentlydeductive;thatis,theybeginwithanobservationofsomethingthat alreadyexistsinnatureandtrytoexplainitwithlogicalarguments.Forinstance,evolutionistsmightbegin withthefactthatpeoplecarefortheirkinandtrytodeduceanexplanation.Thismethodisverydifferent fromexperimentation,inwhichinvestigatorscreatecircumstancesinthelaboratoryandtesttheeffectof changingtheseconditionsonbehaviour.Manypsychologistshavechallengedthedeductivemethodsof evolutionarypsychologists,justastheycriticisepsychodynamicexplanationsofindividualcases.They arguethatpredictingbehaviourinthelaboratoryismuchmoredifficultandthereforeconvincingthan explainingwhathasalreadyhappened.

Theevolutionaryperspectiveasksbasicquestionsaboutpsychologicalprocessesthatdirectourattention tophenomenawemighteasilytakeforgranted.Whydowethink,feelorbehavethewaywedoasopposed tosomeotherway?Theevolutionaryperspectivesuggestsasingleanddeceptivelysimpleprinciple:we think,feelandbehaveinwaysthathelpedourancestorsadapttotheirenvironments,andhencetosurvive andreproduce.

INTERIMSUMMARY

The evolutionaryperspective arguesthatmanyhuman behavioural tendenciesevolvedbecausetheyhelpedour ancestorstosurviveandreproduce.Psychologicalprocesseshaveevolvedthroughthenaturalselectionoftraits thathelporganismsadapttotheirenvironment.Evolutionselectsorganismsthatmaximisetheirreproductive

success,definedasthecapacitytosurviveandreproduceaswellastomaximisethereproductivesuccessof geneticallyrelatedindividuals.Althoughthemethodsof evolutionarytheoristshavetraditionallybeendeductiveand comparative,evolutionarypsychologistsareincreasingly usingexperimentalmethods.

Itisinterestingtocomparethefiveperspectivesonpsychology.Consider,asastart,thefollowing summary.

•ThepsychodynamicperspectiveoriginatesfromtheworkofSigmundFreudandarguesthatbehaviour islargelytheresultofunconsciousmotivesandearlyexperiences.Psychoanalytictherapyinvolves inferringunderlyingwishes,motivesandfearsfromanindividual’sconscious,verbalisedthoughtand behaviour.

•ThebehaviouristperspectiveoriginatesfromtheearlyworkofPavlovandSkinnerandfocuseson learning—examiningthewaytheenvironmentshapesbehaviour.Behaviourtherapistsadvocatethat experimentalmethodsareneededtoadvancescientificunderstandingofhumanbehaviour.

TABLE1.2

•Thehumanisticperspectiverepresentsanoptimisticviewofhumanbehaviourandfocusesonthe uniqueness oftheindividual.BothMaslowandRogersemphasisedself-actualisation—thebeliefthat peoplearemotivatedtoreachtheirfullpotential.Humanistictherapistsareperson-centred,showing empathytohelpindividualsrealisetheirpotentialforpersonalgrowth.

•Cognitivepsychologyfocusesonthewaypeopleperceive,processandretrieveinformation.Descartes’ interestintheroleofreasoningincreatingknowledgepromptedcognitivepsychologiststoexamine howmemoryworksandhowpeopleformabstractideas,solveproblemsandmakedecisions.

•TheevolutionaryperspectivestemsfromtheworkofDarwinandemphasisesnaturalselection,whereby adaptivebehaviouraltraitsarepassedthroughgenerationstohelpindividualsadaptandsurviveintheir environments.

Thekeyfigures,basicprinciples,metaphorsandmethodsofthefiveperspectivesonpsychologyare alsodescribedintable1.2.

Keyperspectivesonpsychology

Perspective Keyfigures Basicprinciples Metaphors

Psychodynamic SigmundFreud Behaviourislargelythe r esultofunconscious processes,motivation andearlyexperiences.

Behaviourist B.F.Skinner Behaviourislearned and selectedby itsenvironmental consequences.

Humanistic CarlRogers Behaviourand experience areshaped bytheneedtoselfactualise,tofulfilone’s innerpotential.

Cognitive RenéDescartes (Descartes’ early philosophicalquestions ledmanycognitive psychologiststo emphasisetherole ofreasonincreating knowledge)

Behaviouristhe pr oductofinformation processing:storage, transformationand retrievalofdata.

Evolutionary CharlesDarwin Psychologicalprocesses r eflectevolutionary processofnatural selection.

Consciousnessislike the tipofaniceberg; themindislikea battlegroundforwarring factions.

Humansandother animals arelike machines;themindis likeablackbox.

Lifeislikeabottleof milk —thecreamalways risestothetop.Thisis anoptimisticviewof behaviour,emphasising thateveryoneaimstobe the‘best’personthey canbe.

Themindislikea computer; enduring patternsofthoughtare likesoftware.

Methods

Interpretationofverbal discourse, slipsof thetongue,dreams, fantasies,actionsand postures;casestudies; limitedexperimentation

Experimentationwith humans andother animals

Person-centred therapeutic approach thatemphasises empathy,acceptance andrespectforthe individual

Experimentationwith humans; computer modelling

Lifeislikearace for survivaland reproduction.

Deductionofexplanations fortraitsand behaviours;crossspeciesandcrossculturalcomparisons; limitedexperimentation

Themajorperspectivesintable1.2haveallmadesignificantcontributionstomodernpsychology. This explainswhymostcontemporarypsychologistsdonotadheretoonesingleintellectualperspective. Instead,amoreintegrative,unifyingtheme—the biopsychosocialmodel —hasgainedwideacceptance. This modelviewsbiologicalprocesses(genetics,neurotransmittersandevolution),psychologicalfactors (learning,personalityandmotivation)andsocialforces(family,culture,genderandethnicity)asinterrelated.Itseesallthreefactorsasinfluencesinseparablefromthemajorperspectives(figure1.6).

Whyisthebiopsychosocialmodelsoimportant?Astheoldsayinggoes,‘Afishdoesn’tknowit’sinthe water’.Similarly,asindividualslivingaloneinsideourownheads,weareoftenunawareofthenumerous interactingfactorsthataffectus—particularlyculturalforces.

Source: Sanderson andHuffman(2019).

MAKINGCONNECTIONS

Biopsychosocialforcesand acculturative stress

Haveyoueverlivedinordreamedofemigratingtoanother country? Ifso,youprobablyimagineyourselffullyenjoying alltheexcitementandadventure.Buthaveyouconsidered thestressandstressorsthatcomewithadaptingtoand survivinginanewculture?

Internationaltravellers,militarypersonnel,immigrants, refugees,individualswhomovefromonesocialclassto another,andeventhenative-bornmayfallvictimtothe unspokenandunforeseenstressorsofadjustingtheirpersonalandfamilyvalues,culturalnorms,andevenstyle ofdresstothenewordominantculture.Theserequired adjustmentsarereferredtoasacculturation,whereasthe associatedstressiscalledacculturativestress.

Naturally,thistypeofstressplacesgreatdemandson theindividual’sbiological,psychologicalandsocialwellbeing—thebiopsychosocialforces(Berryetal.,1987;Corona etal.,2017;Zvolenskyetal.,2016).However,thedegree ofacculturativestressdependspartlyonthemethodof

APPLYANDDISCUSS

Patrioticfeelings—deepaffectionforone’snation,tribeor gr oup—arecross-culturallyuniversal.Howmightpsychologistsfromthefollowingperspectivesexplainthis?

•Psychodynamic

INTERIMSUMMARY

Althoughthedifferentperspectivesofferradicallydifferent waysofapproachingpsychology,eachhasmade distinctivecontributions.Theseperspectiveshaveoften developedinmutualisolation,buteffortstointegrate aspectsofthemarelikelytocontinuetobefruitful,par-

copinganindividualchooseswhenenteringanewsociety (seechapters17and21).

Author,actor,comedianandpainter,AnhDo,cameto Australia withhisfamilyasarefugeein1980.

Source: SandersonandHuffman(2019).

•Behaviourist

•Humanistic

•Cognitive

•Evolutionary

ticularlyinclinicalpsychology.Thebiopsychosocialmodel recognisesthatthereisusuallynosinglecauseforour behaviourorourmentalstates.Rather,biological,psychologicalandsocialprocessesareseenasinterrelatedand interactinginfluences.

1.5PsychologyinAustraliaandNewZealand

LEARNINGOUTCOME1.5 Discuss theeducationalrequirementsforpsychologistsandoutlinetheirmost commonworksettings.

Webeganthischapterwithalookatthehistoryofpsychologyandhowpsychologydevelopedfrom philosophy.Weconsideredthecontributionsofdifferenttheoreticalperspectivesandshowedhoweach approachcanbeusedtoexplainhumanexperience.Nowthatyouareawareofwherepsychologycame from,youcanbetterappreciatewherepsychologyisheadingaswemovefurtherintothetwenty-first century.Inthefollowingsections,weexaminetheeducationalqualificationsrequiredtobecomeafully registeredpsychologistandconsiderthemaingoalsofprofessionalassociationsforpsychologistsworking inAustraliaandNewZealand.Wewilloutlinethemajorspecialisationsinthedisciplineandconsiderthe variouscareeroptionsforpsychologygraduates.

Educationandtrainingtobecomeapsychologist

BecomingaregisteredpsychologistabletopractiseinAustraliatakesaminimumofsixyears.Youmust f irstcompleteauniversitydegreeinpsychologyandthengainacceptanceintoanhonoursorpostgraduate psychologyprogram,whichisacompetitiveprocesstypicallybasedonyourgradepointaverageinyour undergraduatedegreeinpsychology.Typically,registrationasapsychologistinvolvesstudentscompleting 5yearsofstudyplusoneadditionalyearofinternshipofsupervisedpractice(5+1pathway).Alternatively, studentswhohavecompletedanhonoursdegreeinpsychologycansubsequentlycompletea2-yearMasters program(5thand6thyearsofstudy),acombinedMasters/PhDorDoctorateprogramtobecomeregistered asapsychologist.

Whicheverpathwayyouchoose,yourprogrammustbeaccreditedbytheAustralianPsychology AccreditationCouncil(APAC;seeAPAC,2019).Endorsementinaspecialistareaofpractice(e.g., clinicalpsychology)requiresyoutoundertakeadditionalsupervisionafteryoufinishyourdegree. (SeetheAPSwebsiteforfurtherinformation:www.psychology.org.au/Training-and-careers/Careers-andstudying-psychology/studying-psychology/Study-pathways).ThePsychologyBoardofAustralia(2013) implementedanationalpsychologyexaminationfrom1July2013toensureallaspiringpsychologists possessaminimumlevelofknowledgeofpsychology(seePelling&Burton2017).

Source: Psychology BoardofAustralia(2020).

TopractiseasapsychologistinAustralia,youarelegallyrequiredtoberegisteredwiththenational registrationschemethatcameintoplacein2010(www.ahpra.gov.au/Registration.aspx),replacingthe formerstateregistrationboardscheme.Youcannotcallyourselfapsychologist(orlegallyusethetitle)

Figure1.7showsthepathwaystoregistrationasapsychologistinAustralia.

FIGURE1.7

ThepathwaystoregistrationasapsychologistinAustralia

untilyouarefullyregisteredwiththenationalpsychologyboard.Thenewnationalregistrationand accreditation systemappliesto15healthprofessions,includingpsychologists.AccordingtotheNational HealthWorkforceTaskforce(2010),thisschemeenableshealthprofessionalstomovearoundAustralia moreeasily,providesgreatersafeguardsforthepublicandpromotesamoreflexible,responsiveand sustainablehealthworkforce.

InNewZealand,psychologistsworkinginthepublicsectormustberegisteredwiththeNewZealand PsychologistsBoard,whichalsoinvolvesaperiodofsupervisionontopofuniversitytraining.Clinical psychologistsregisteredwiththeNewZealandPsychologistsBoard(NZPB)havecompletedaminimum ofaMastersinPsychologyandapostgraduatediplomaorequivalentinclinicalpsychology.Registration isnotcompulsoryforotherpsychologists,butishighlyrecommended(seeNZPB,2021).

UnderAustralianandNewZealandlaws,peopleinthesameregisteredoccupationscanworkandmove freelybetweenthetwocountries.Asaresult,becomingaregisteredpsychologistinoneofthesecountries entitlesyoutopractiseintheother.

ETHICALDILEMMA

YouhavejustfinishedaBachelorofPsychologydegree and havebeenacceptedintoanhonoursprogramfor thefollowingyear.Forthepastthreemonths,youhave beendoingvolunteercounsellingworkattheStVincentde Paulcharityonweekends.Mostofyourfriendsthinkitis wonderfulthatyouarestudyingpsychologyandoftenshare

theirproblemswithyou.Oneofyourfriendshasbecome verydepressedrecentlyandhascometoyouforhelp.

•Areyouqualifiedtogiveprofessionalpsychological advicetoyourdepressedfriend?

•Whatadvicecanyougivetoyourfriend?

Thedifferencesbetweenpsychologistsandpsychiatrists

Peopleareoftenunsureaboutthedifferencesbetweenpsychologistsand psychiatrists ,orthinktheyarethe same.Thetwodisciplinesarebothconcernedwithmentalhealthissuesbutthereareimportantdistinctions betweenthem.

Psychologyisdefinedasthestudyofhumanbehaviourandmentalprocesses.Akeyaspectofthis definitionistheconnectionbetweenthebody(humanbehaviour)andthemind(mentalprocesses). Psychologists areconcernedwithwhypeoplebehavethewaytheydo—thethoughtprocessesthat underpin behaviour.Theybasetheirunderstandingofbehaviourontheresultsofscientificresearchand investigations.Broadlyspeaking,psychologistsareinterestedinthethoughtprocessesthatgovernhuman behaviouringeneral.Bycontrast,psychiatristsareinterestedmoreinthenarrowerfieldofmentalillness.

Thereareimportantdifferencesinthetrainingandqualificationsneededforbothdisciplines.Psychiatristsaremedicaldoctors.Theyfirstcompleteageneralmedicaldegree,thendofurtherspecialiststudy inthefieldofpsychiatry.Becausetheyaremedicaldoctors,theyareabletoprescribemedicationtotreat mentalillnesses.Psychologistsdonothavemedicaldegrees.Theytypicallyundertaketertiarystudyinthe fieldofhumanbehaviour.Aftercompletingtheirstudies,theythencarryoutasetamountofsupervised worktogainregistrationasaqualifiedpsychologist.Psychologistsarenotabletoprescribemedication.

INTERIMSUMMARY

Aregistered psychologist inAustraliahascompletedaminimum ofsixyears’studyinanAPAC-accreditedpsychology program.Psychologistsareconcernedwithwhypeople behavethewaytheydo;theystudyhumanbehaviourin tertiaryinstitutionsandcompleteaperiodofsupervised practicetogainregistration.

Majorsubdisciplinesinpsychology

Psychiatrists aremedicaldoctorswhospecialiseinthe study ofpsychiatry.Clinicalpsychologistsandpsychiatrists willoftendealwiththesametypesofperson,buttheir methodsoftreatmentwilldiffer.Psychologistsdonotuse medicationtotreatmentalillnesses.Incontrast,psychiatriststypicallyadheretothemedicalmodeloftreatmentand mayprescribemedicationtotheirclients.

Psychologistscanapplytheirunderstandingofhumanbehaviourtoawidevarietyofareas.Acommon misperception isthatpsychologistsonlytreatpeoplewithmentalillnessesanddisorders.Thisisfarfrom thetruth.Muchofthetime,psychologistsworkwithmentallyhealthypeopletohelpthemimprovethe

waytheyfunction.Thiscanofteninvolvehelpingpeopledealwithstressfulordifficultsituations.For e xample,someonemightneedhelpcopingwiththedeathofalovedone.Oraneliteathletemayneedhelp inmentalpreparationforanimportantsportingevent.

However,psychologistsdonotjustworkwithpeopleone-on-onetoprovidecounsellingfortheir personalproblems.Theyalsodealwithgroupprocesses,suchasinteractionsinfamilies,largecompanies andorganisations.Inthesecases,psychologistshelptoanalysewhypeoplebehavethewaytheydoingroup situations.Forexample,psychologistsmayprovidecounsellingtoacoupleexperiencingrelationship problems.Theymayworkwithasportingteamtodevelopstrategiesforimprovingmotivation.Theymay alsoworkwithcompaniestoidentifyworkingarrangementsthathelpstafftobecomemoreproductive.

Psychologistsmayundertakeanynumberofactivities,includingthefollowing:

•counsellingindividuals,couplesandgroups

•administeringpsychologicalteststoassesspeople’sthoughtprocessesandstateofmind •planningtreatmentprogramstoaddressproblemsidentified

•providingservicestoorganisationssuchasanalysingstaffmoraleandmotivation

•assessingpeople’ssuitabilityforparticularroles,suchasjobselectionprocesses •carryingoutacademicresearchtohelpbetterunderstandhumanthoughtprocesses •planningprogramstoeffectsocialchange.

However,peoplewhostudypsychologyatuniversityarenotalwaysintendingtoworkasapsychologist. Studentsfromavarietyofotherdisciplines,includingnursing,education,humanresources,occupational therapy,physiotherapy,socialworkanddentaltherapy,maytakepsychologycoursesaselectivestowards theirdegrees.Anunderstandingofhumanbehaviourandthoughtprocessescanbeextremelyvaluable topeopleinnumeroussituationsandroles.Manypeople,therefore,studypsychologytoimprovetheir performanceinotherjobsandoccupations.

Withinthebroaddisciplineofpsychology,therearemanyfieldsofspecialisation,includingthe relativelynewfieldofpositivepsychologydemonstratedintheTuriaPittstorythatopenedthechapter. Differentpsychologistsadoptdifferentperspectivesintheirapproachtostudyinghumanbehaviour.The majorsubdisciplinesaresummarisedintable1.3.

TABLE1.3 Majorsubdisciplinesinpsychology

Subdiscipline Examplesofquestionsasked

Biopsychology :investigatestherelationshipbetweenbiology, behaviour andmentalprocesses,includinghowphysicaland chemicalprocessesaffectthestructureandfunctionofthe brainandnervoussystem

Clinicalpsychology: focuses onthenatureandtreatmentof psychologicalprocessesthatleadtoemotionaldistress

Cognitivepsychology: examines thenatureofthought, memory,sensationperceptionandlanguage

Communitypsychology: examines howsocietyinfluences individuals,groupsandorganisationswithaviewto understandingthementalhealthandwellbeingofpeopleand thecommunityasawhole

Conservationpsychology :studiesthereciprocalrelationships betweenhumansandnature,withafocusonchanging attitudesandbehaviourstoencourageconservationofthe environment

Counsellingpsychology: pr ovidesdiagnosisandassessment, short-andlong-termcounsellingandtherapytoindividuals, couples,families,groupsandorganisations

Cross-culturalpsychology :focusesonhowculture influences humanbehaviourwithaviewtoexplainingthe similaritiesanddifferencesinhowpeoplethink,feeland behaveacrosscultures

Howarememoriesstoredinthebrain?Dohormonesinfluence whether anindividualisheterosexualorhomosexual?

Whatcausesdepression?Whatimpactdoeschildhoodsexual abuse haveonlaterfunctioning?

Whatcausesamnesiaormemoryloss?Howarepeopleableto drive acarwhileengrossedinthoughtaboutsomethingelse?

Howdoesintergenerationalmentoringinfluencethewellbeing of disenfranchisedyouthinalternativeeducation?Howdoes volunteeringinfluencethementalhealthandwellbeingofolder peopleincommunity?

Whydopeoplerecycle?Howcansocietychangetohelp conserve theenvironment?

Howdointerestsandscholasticabilitiesinfluencecareer decision making?Howdoesstressaffectbehaviour?

Whatchild-rearingpracticesaresimilaracrosscultures?What emotions areuniversallyunderstoodandexpressedbypeople fromallcultures?Dopeoplefromdifferentculturesexperience paininthesameway?WhatimpactdoestheCOVID-19 pandemichaveonthementalhealthofyoungchildrenacross theworld?

Culturalpsychology :focusesonhowindividualsareshaped by theirculturebyexamininghowculturalpractices,norms, values,meaningsandsocialstructuresinfluencetheway peoplethink,feelandbehave

Developmentalpsychology: studies thewaythought,feeling andbehaviourdevelopthroughthelifespan,frominfancy todeath

Educationalpsychology: examines psychologicalprocesses inlearningandappliespsychologicalknowledgein educationalsettings

Forensicpsychology: pr ovidesservicesincriminal,civiland familylegalcontextsrelevanttothepreventionandtreatment ofcriminalbehaviour

Healthpsychology: examines psychologicalfactorsinvolvedin healthanddisease

Indigenouspsychology :emphasisesexaminingpsychological phenomenainanecological,historicalandcultural context.Indigenouspsychologyexaminestheknowledge, skills,strengthsandbeliefsthatIndigenouspeopleswithina givencultureholdaboutthemselves

Industrial/organisationalpsychology: examines thebehaviour ofpeopleinorganisationsandattemptstohelpsolve organisationalproblems

Personalitypsychology: examines people’senduringwaysof respondingindifferentkindsofsituationsandhowindividuals differinthewaytheytendtothink,feelandbehave

Positivepsychology: examines thestrengthsandvirtuesthat makeindividuals,organisationsandcommunitiesflourishand appliesthisknowledgetohelppeoplethrive

Socialpsychology: examines interactionsofindividual psychologyandgroupphenomena;examinestheinfluence ofrealorimaginedothersonthewaypeoplebehave

Sportpsychology: focuses onwaystoenhanceperformance inindividualathletes

Howdoculturalgroupsexperienceandexplainmentaldistress? How doyoungpeoplefromaparticularculturalgrouplearnand internalisegenderroles?

Canchildrenrememberexperiencesfromtheirfirstyearoflife? Do childrenindaycaretendtobemoreorlesswell-adjusted thanchildrenrearedathome?

Whydosomechildrenhavetroublelearningtoread?What causes someteenagerstodropoutofschool?

Howdoespsychologicalabusesufferedasachildrelateto crimes committedinadulthood?Canvictimsofsuchabuse beconsideredpsychologicallyunfitiftheycommitcrimesin adulthood?

Arecertainpersonalitytypesmorevulnerabletodisease?What factors influencepeopletotakeriskswiththeirhealth,suchas smokingornotusingcondoms?

Whatmeasurementtoolsareappropriateforassessingthe social andemotionalwellbeingofAboriginalandTorresStrait Islanderyouth?

Aresomeformsofleadershipmoreeffectivethanothers?What motivates workerstodotheirjobsefficiently?

Towhatextentdoesthetendencytobeoutgoing,anxiousor conscientious reflectgeneticandenvironmentalinfluences?

Whatindividualtraitscontributetoasenseofhappinessand fulfilment? Howdosomepeopleremainoptimisticintheface ofextremehardship?Whatishappinessandhowdoweknow whenwearehappy?

Whenandwhydopeoplebehaveaggressively?Canpeople behave inwaysindicatingracialprejudicewithoutknowingit?

Whydosomeathletes‘choke’underpressure?Howcan competition bringoutthe‘best’inanathlete?

Contemporarypsychologyisincreasinglyfocusedontherolecultureplaysinthementalhealthand wellbeing ofindividualsacrossthelifespan.ThisisespeciallyimportantinAustraliaandNewZealand, wherecolonialismnegativelyimpactedthewellbeingofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander(Dudgeon etal.,2014)andM ā ori(Smith,2021)peoples.Recognisingculturalstrengthsandusingculturally sensitiveassessmentandinterventionsiscriticalforpsychologicalresearchersandpractitionersworking inpartnershipwithFirstNationspeoples.AccordingtoesteemedAustralianIndigenouspsychologist, ProfessorPatDudgeon,assessingandstrengtheningthewellbeingofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander peoplesrequiresaholisticapproachthatacknowledgestheimportanceofculture,kin,community,country andspirituality(Dudgeonetal.,2017).ThisapproachisoftenatoddswithWesternisedapproaches formerlyusedtoassessand‘treat’mentalhealthissuesinIndigenouspeoples.Indeed,existingpsychologicaltheoriesoftenrepresenttheculturaltraditionsofEuropeandNorthAmericaandaretherefore notnecessarilyuniversal.Incontrast,Indigenouspsychologiesincorporatemeaningandcontextintothe researchdesignandaimtodescribe,explainorpredictpsychologicalphenomenafromwithinagiven culture’sworldview(seechapters2,3,4and5).

Asdiscussedearlierinthischapter,positivepsychologyisanemergingfieldthatfocusesonthe conceptsofmentalhealthandwellbeing,lifepurposeandvirtues(Vella-Brodrick,2011).Itsleaders, MartinSeligmanandChristopherPeterson,publishedagroundbreakinghandbookof24strengthsof

character—orpositivetraitsreflectedinactions,thoughtsandfeelings—groupedintosixcorevirtues: wisdom andknowledge,courage,humanity,justice,temperanceandtranscendence(Peterson&Seligman, 2004).Withinarelativelyshortperiod,thepresenceofpositivepsychologyhasbecomequitepronounced. Therearespecificcentres,conferencesandjournalsintheareaofpositivepsychology.Mainstream psychologyisalsostartingtodedicatespaceandfundingforworkonpositiveconstructs.

Therearemanyapplicationsofpositivepsychologyintherealworld,includingclinicalpsychology andeducationfields(e.g.,Clancyetal.,2015;Norrishetal.,2013),placesofemployment(Williamsetal., 2015)andinvariousfamilyandcommunityprograms(e.g.,Marquesetal.,2011).Membersofthegeneral publichavealsoshownakeeninterestinpositivepsychologywithseminarsandtelevisionprogramssuch as‘MakingAustraliaHappy’(broadcastontheABC,seehttps://iview.abc.net.au/show/making-australiahappy)beingwellreceived(seeGrant,2011).

Positivepsychologyisnotwithoutitscritics,however,despitethegrowingempiricalresearchsupport fortheeffectsofpositiveinterventionsinclinicalandeducationalcontexts.Morerigorousresearchis neededtoestablishpositivepsychologyasascience(Rusk&Waters,2013)andtheAPShasoutlined specificrecommendationsforassimilatingpositivepsychologywithmainstreampsychologytoadvance ‘amorecontinuousandcompletementalhealthpracticeandresearchinthefield’(Vella-Brodrick,2011).

Professionalassociationsforpsychologists

BothAustraliaandNewZealandhavepeakbodiesthatrepresenttheprofessionanditsmembers— the AustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS),establishedin1966andtheNewZealandPsychological Society(NZPsS),establishedin1967.TheAPS(www.psychology.org.au)hasmorethan27000members (APS,2021).Itsprincipalaimistorepresent,promoteandadvancepsychologywithinthecontextof improvingcommunitywellbeingandscientificknowledge.PeoplestudyinginanAPAC-accreditedhigher educationcourseareeligibleforstudentmembership.Associatemembershipisavailabletopsychology graduateswithanhonoursdegreeorequivalent.Fullmembershiptypicallyrequirescompletionofan accreditedandapprovedpostgraduatedegree.MembershipoftheAPSisvoluntary.TheAPSisnot involvedintheregistrationprocess.RegistrationwiththeAustralianHealthPractitionerRegistration Agency(AHPRA)—whichmanagestheregistrationprocessforthePsychologyBoardofAustralia—is compulsoryifyouwanttopractisepsychologyinAustralia(seePsychologyBoardofAustralia,2021).

TheNZPsS(www.psychology.org.nz)istheprofession’speakbodyinNewZealand,andhasmore than1500fullmembersand700studentmembers.Tobeeligibleforfullmembership,youmusthavean honoursdegreeorhigherinpsychologyorequivalentqualificationsorexperienceapprovedbytheSociety. Peoplestudyinginanapproveduniversitycourseareeligibleforstudentmembership.

AnotherprofessionalbodyinAustralia,knownastheAustralianIndigenousPsychologistsAssociation (AIPA),isapeakbodyprovidingrepresentationforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpsychologists andstudentsinAustralia.Longstandingdisparitiesinsocialandemotionalwellbeingandmentalhealth outcomesexperiencedbyIndigenouspeoplesinAustraliastimulatedAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander psychologistsfromacrossAustraliatomeetinMelbourneonthe28thofMarchin2008.Thismeetingwas thefirsttimeAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpsychologistshadformallymettogether.Themeeting waschairedbyProfessorPatDudgeon.Atthemeeting,aunanimousdecisionwasmadetoformAIPA undertheauspicesoftheAustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS).AIPAwasformallylaunchedattheAPS conferenceinHobartonSeptember242008(AustralianIndigenousPsychologistsAssociation,2021).

InAugust2019,theAIPA(AboriginalCorporation)registeredwiththeOfficeoftheRegistrarof IndigenousCorporations.ThisrepresentedanimportantstepforAIPAasanindependentorganisationand peakbodyfocusedonachievingequitableparticipationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples inpsychology.In2022,AIPAbecameregisteredthroughtheAustralianCharitiesandNot-for-profits commission(AustralianIndigenousPsychologistsAssociation,2021).

Overthelast14years,AIPAhasestablisheditselfasastrongvoiceinAboriginalandTorres StraitIslandersocialandemotionalwellbeingandmentalhealth.AIPAhaveplayedanintegralrolein representingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpsychologistsonnationalworkinggroupsandboards toimproveculturalsafetywithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplesanddecolonisemental health(Edwigeetal.,2022).Inaddition,AIPAhaveprovidedleadershiponthehistoricAPSApology toAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples(AustralianPsychologicalSociety,2016),itsBlackLives Matterstatement(AustralianPsychologicalSociety,2020),andReconciliationActionPlan.AIPAhas,and continuestobe,animportantprofessionalbodyleadingchangestopromoteamoreinclusivepsychology thatisresponsivetotheneedsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples.

TherearemanybenefitsinbelongingtotheprofessionalbodiesthatrepresentpsychologistsinAustralia and NewZealand.Thesebodieshelpestablishandenforcehighstandardsfortheprofession.Theyact astheprofession’speakbodyandspeakonbehalfofmemberstogroupssuchasgovernmentsandthe media.Membershipallowsyoutoplayapartinensuringthatstandardsofeducationandconductremain high.Membershipalsoprovidesopportunitiestonetworkwithotherpsychologists,accessawiderange ofresourcesandsupportservices,remainuptodateonthecurrentknowledgeinspecialistareasand contributetothefutureoftheprofession.Consequently,manypsychologistsalsoseekfullmembership ofoneormoreoftheninecollegesoftheAPS.Eachcollegerepresentsaspecialexpertiseinanarea ofpsychology:ClinicalPsychology,ClinicalNeuropsychology,CommunityPsychology,Counselling Psychology,EducationalandDevelopmentalPsychology,ForensicPsychology,HealthPsychology, OrganisationalPsychology,andSportsandExercisePsychology.

TheAustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS)andtheNewZealandPsychologicalSociety(NZPsS)arethepeakbodies that representpsychologistsinAustraliaandNewZealand.

INTERIMSUMMARY

Therearemanyfieldsofspecialisationwithinthediscipline of psychology,includingclinicalpsychology,community psychology,healthpsychology,developmentalpsychology andsportpsychology,amongothers.Eachmajorsubdisciplineasksdifferentquestionsabouthumanbehaviour.

EMPLOYABILITYSKILLS

AnAPACfoundationalcompetency(1.1.i.)focuseson ‘the historyandphilosophyunderpinningthescienceof psychologyandthesocial,cultural,historicalandprofessionalinfluencesonthepracticeofpsychology’(APAC, 2019,p.11).

•Howdoesyourunderstandingofthehistoryandphilosophyunderpinningthescienceofpsychologyinfluence thewayyouthinkaboutpsychologyasaprofession?

•Howmuchofyourchoicetostudyatuniversitywas influencedbyfreewill,nature,rationalismandreason versusdeterminism,nurture,empiricismandemotion?

Careersinpsychology

TheAPSandNZPsSarethepeakprofessionalbodies thatrepresentpsychologistsinAustraliaandNewZealand. Theseprofessionalassociationshelpestablishandenforce highstandardsintheprofession.

•Ifaclientwasstrugglingtoquitsmoking,howwouldthe philosophicalissuescoveredinthischapterhelpyouto understandtheirstruggle?

•Whichtheoreticalperspectivecoveredinthischapter areyouleaningmoretowardsatthisstageofyourpsychologycareer,andwhydoesthisperspectiveappeal toyou?

Thereisawiderangeofcareeroptionsavailabletopsychologists.Thestereotypeofapsychologistis someone whoprovidespersonalcounsellingtoindividualsinprivatepractice.Inreality,thisisonly oneofahugenumberofrolesthatpsychologistscanplay.Youfindpsychologistsworkinginmany publicandprivatesectororganisations,suchashospitals,prisons,humanresourcedepartments,defence organisations,sportingteams,universities,jobrecruitmentagencies,communityhealthservicesand governmentdepartments.RegisteredpsychologistscandeliverservicesundertheAustraliangovernment’s psychologyMedicaresystem,thusensuringthatallAustralianscanaccesseffectivetreatmentformental healthproblemsunderthenation’shealthsystem(seeAustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare,AIHW, 2021).InNewZealand,clinicalpsychologyrepresentsoneofthefastest-growingfieldsinthediscipline, withthemajorityofpsychologistsemployedasclinicalpsychologists(Evans,2002).

Manypeoplewhostudypsychologyworkinjobsinwhichtheyarenotcalled‘psychologists’but still applytheknowledgetheyhavegainedthroughtheirstudiesandworkinpsychology-relatedfields, includingcounsellingandbusiness.Forexample,acompanymightemploysomeonewithpsychological qualificationsasitshumanresourcesmanager.Youmaynotneedtobeafullyregisteredpsychologistto workintheseroles.Yourpreferredcareerfuturemayevolveovertimeasyourliferoleschange,and youwilldevelopandstrengthenexistingskillandknowledgesetsbyexpandingonyourcurrentlife andprofessionalexperiences.In2016,theAPSInstituteofficiallylauncheditscontinuingprofessional development(CPD)opportunitiesforpsychologistsandotherhealthprofessionalsacrossAustralia(see https://psychology.org.au/aps-cedp-conf/2021/program/cpd).

Eachyear,theGraduateCareersCouncilofAustralia(GCCA)conductstheGraduateDestination Surveytoexaminetheactivitiesofnewuniversitygraduates.In2017thesurveyshowedthatabout 60percentofpsychologybachelordegreegraduatesseekingfull-timeemploymenthadfounditwithin fourmonthsofcompletingtheircourse.Thisfigurerisestomorethan84percentforgraduatesof higherresearchdegrees(GCCA,2018).Themediansalariesforpsychologybachelordegreegraduates were$57600(GCCA,2018),althoughthiscanrange upw ardstoaround$75000(PayScale,2021).Forpostgraduatediplomainpsychologygraduates,themedian salarywas$75000;formaster’scourseworkgraduates,themediansalarywas$74000;andforPhDs,the mediansalarywas$80800(GCCA,2015a,2015b).

ThejobprospectsforpeoplewithpsychologyqualificationsinAustraliaarestrong.Therehasbeencontinuedstrongdemandforpsychologistsinarangeof differentjobs.Figure1.8summarisesthekeyindicatorsfortheprofessionofpsychology.

•In2020,therewereabout36100peopleemployedaspsychologistsinAustralia.Thisnumberisexpectedtoincrease to44500by2025.

•52percentofthesepeopleworkfull-timeandearnonaverage$1857perweek(beforetax).

•Thereisstrongemploymentgrowthpredictedoverthenext5years.

•Jobprospectsforpsychologistsarestrong,witha20percentincreaseinprospectspredictedoverthenext5years. Source: JobOutlook(2020).

INTERIMSUMMARY

Thereareawiderangeofcareeroptionsavailableto psychologists andanumberofwebsitesprovideusefulinformationaboutgraduatedestinationandindustry

employmenttrends.Contemporarypsychologistscanwork inavarietyofsettings,includinghospitals,organisations, privatepracticeanduniversities.

APPLYANDDISCUSS

Oneofthemanywaysthatyoucanhelpmanageyourtime is tocreateastudyscheduleora‘to-do’listtoprioritise yourstudytasks.Onyouruniversitycoursewebsiteforthis subject,youshouldbeabletocompleteanexerciseand createyourownpersonalto-dolist.

•Whatarethekeytasksyouneedtodo?

•Whyiseachtaskimportanttoyou?

•Whatrewardwouldyouexpectaftercompleting eachtask?

•Whatdatesshouldeachtaskbecompletedby?

FIGURE1.8 Keyindicatorsfortheprofessionofpsychology

Facts,theoriesandperspectivesin psychology

AtaleistoldofseveralblindmeninIndiawhocameupon an elephant.Theyhadnoknowledgeofwhatanelephant wasand,eagertounderstandthebeast,theyreachedout toexploreit.Onemangrabbeditstrunkandconcluded, ‘Anelephantislikeasnake’.Anothertoucheditsearand proclaimed,‘Anelephantislikealeaf’.Athird,examining itsleg,disagreed:‘Anelephant’,heannounced,‘islikethe trunkofatree.’

Psychologistsareinsomewayslikethoseblindmen, strugglingwithimperfectinstrumentstotrytounderstand thebeastwecallhumannature,andtypicallytouchingonly partoftheanimalwhiletryingtograspthewhole.Sowhy dowenotjustlookat‘thefacts’insteadofrelyingon perspectivesthatleadustograsponlythetrunkorthe tail?Becausewearecognitivelyincapableofseeingreality withoutimposingsomekindoforderonwhatotherwise seemslikechaos.

Theimportanceofperspectivecanbeillustratedbya simpleperceptualphenomenon.Considerfigure1.9.Does itdepictavase?Theprofilesoftwofaces?Theanswer dependsonyourperspectiveonthewholepicture.Werewe nottoimposesomeperspectiveonthisfigure,wewould seenothingbutpatchesofblackandwhite.Yourability toseebothfiguresissimilartoapsychologist’sabilityto studybehaviourandmentalprocessesfromanumberof differentperspectives.

ThispicturewasusedbyaGermanschoolofpsychologyintheearlytwentiethcentury,knownas Gestalt psychology .TheGestaltpsychologistsarguedthatperception isnotapassiveexperienceakintotakingphotographic snapshots.Rather,perceptionisanactiveexperienceof imposingorderonanoverwhelmingpanoramaofdetails byseeingthemaspartsoflargerwholes(orgestalts).

Onsimpleperceptualtasks,then,thewaypeopleunderstandspecificdetailsdependsontheirinterpretationofthe objectasawhole.Thisisequallytrueofcomplexscientific observations,whichalwaysoccurwithinthecontextof abroaderview,atheoreticalperspective.Wehaveseen earlierhoweachperspectiveoffersinsightsintowhypsychologistsbelievewhattheybelieve.

Totakeaclinicalexample(anexamplefromthetherapeuticpracticeofpsychology),apatientwithanirrationalfear, orphobia,ofelevatorsistoldbyonepsychologistthattheir problemstemsfromthewaythoughtsandfeelingswere connectedintheirmindasachild.Asecondpsychologist

FIGURE1.9

Anambiguousfigure.Theindentationin the middlecouldbeeitheranindentation inavaseoranose.Inscience,asin everydayperception,knowledgeinvolves understanding‘facts’inthecontextofa broaderinterpretiveframework.

informsthemthattheirproblemisaresultofanunfortunate connection betweensomethingintheirenvironment,an elevatorandtheirlearnedresponse—avoidanceofelevators.Athird—examiningthedata,noless—concluded thattheyhadfaultywiringintheirbrainthathasledto irrationalanxiety.

Whatcanwemakeofthisstateofaffairs,inwhich expertsdisagreeonthemeaningandimplicationsofa simplesymptom?Andwhatconfidencecouldanyonehave inseekingpsychologicalhelp?Thealternativeisevenless attractive:apsychologistwithnoperspectiveatallwould betotallybaffledandcouldonlyrecommendtothispatient thattheytakethestairs.Perspectivesarelikeimperfect lensesthroughwhichweviewsomeaspectofreality.Often theyaretooconvexortooconcave,leavingtheirwearers blindtodataontheperipheryoftheirunderstanding.Withoutthem,however,wearetotallyblind.

SUMMARY

1.1Definepsychology.

• Psychology isthescientificinvestigationofmentalprocessesand beha viour.Understandingapersonmeanspracticing‘triplebookkeeping’—simultaneouslyexaminingtheperson’sbiological make-up,psychologicalexperienceandfunctioning,andcultural andhistoricalmoment.

1.2Discussthecontributionsofbiopsychologyandthe socioculturalperspective.

• Biopsychology (or behaviouralneuroscience )examinesthe ph ysicalbasisofpsychologicalphenomenasuchasmotivation, emotionandstress.The socioculturalperspective emphasises social interactionandtheculturaldeterminantsofbehaviourand mentalprocesses.

• Culturalpsychology focusesonthepatternsinbehavioursand ho wcultureinfluencesthosebehaviours,andcross-culturalpsychologistsexaminethesimilaritiesanddifferencesinbehaviours amongvariousculturalgroups.Biologyandcultureformthe boundaries,orconstraints,withinwhichpsychologicalprocessesoperate.

1.3Outlinethehistoryofpsychology.

• Aclassicquestioninheritedfromphilosophyiswhetherhuman actionischaracterisedby freewill or determinism —thatis, whether peoplefreelychoosetheiractionsorwhetherbehaviour followslawfulpatterns.Arelatedissueisthe mind–body pr oblem —thequestionofhowmentalandphysicalevents interact.

• The fieldofpsychologybeganinthelatenineteenthcenturyas experimentalpsychologistsattemptedtowrestquestionsabout themindfromphilosophers.Mostsharedastrongbeliefinthe scientificmethodasawayofavoidingphilosophicaldebatesabout thewaythemindworks.Amongtheearliestschoolsofthought werestructuralismandfunctionalism. Structuralism ,developed byEdwardTitchener,attemptedtouseintrospectiontouncover thebasicelementsofconsciousnessandthewaytheycombine withoneanotherintoideas(i.e.,thestructureofconsciousness). Functionalism lookedforexplanationsofpsychologicalprocesses intheirrole,orfunction,inhelpingtheindividualadapt totheenvironment.

1.4Distinguishamongthemajortheoreticalperspectives inpsychology.

• A paradigm isabroadsystemoftheoreticalassumptionsthata scientif iccommunityusestomakesenseofadomainofexperience.Psychologylacksaunifiedparadigmbuthasanumber ofschoolsofthought,or perspectives ,whicharebroadways of understandingpsychologicalphenomena.Apsychologicalperspective,likeaparadigm,includestheoreticalpropositions,shared metaphorsandacceptedmethodsofobservation.

• The psychodynamicperspective originatedwithSigmundFreud. From apsychodynamicperspective,mostpsychologicalprocesses thatguidebehaviourareunconscious.Thus,consciousnessislike thetipofaniceberg.Becauseaprimaryaimistointerpretthe meaningsormotivesofhumanbehaviour,psychodynamicpsychologistshavereliedprimarilyoncasestudymethods,although

KEYTERMS

adapti vetraits Atermappliedtotraitsthathelporganismsadjust to theirenvironment.

behaviouralgenetics Afieldthatexaminesthegeneticand en vironmentalbasesofdifferencesamongindividualson psychologicaltraits.

ongoingeffortstoapplymorerigorousmethodstopsychodynamic conceptsarelikelytoprovefruitfulinintegratingtheseconcepts intoscientificpsychology.

• The behaviouristperspective focusesontherelationshipbetween en vironmentalevents(or stimuli )andtheresponsesoftheorganism. Skinnerproposedthatallbehaviourcanultimatelybeunderstoodaslearnedresponsesandthatbehavioursareselectedon thebasisoftheirconsequences.Aprimarymetaphorunderlying behaviourismisthemachine;manybehaviouristsalsoconsiderthe ‘mind’tobeanunknowableblackboxbecauseitscontentscannot bestudiedscientifically.Theprimarymethodofbehaviouristsis laboratoryexperimentation.

• The humanisticperspective emphasisestheuniquenessofthe indi vidualandfocusesontheperson’simmediateexperience. Accordingtothisperspective,peoplearemotivatedtoachieve personalgoalssothattheycanfulfiltheirtruepotential.Asa result,humanisticmethodstypicallyfocusonhelpingindividuals tounderstandtheirownuniqueframeofreferenceandwork towardsachieving self-actualisation ,definedasthefulfilmentof thewholerangeofneeds.

• The cognitiveperspective focusesonthewaypeopleprocess, store andretrieveinformation. Informationprocessing refersto taking inputfromtheenvironmentandtransformingitintomeaningfuloutput.Ametaphorunderlyingthecognitiveperspectiveis themindasacomputer,completewithsoftware.Inrecentyears, however,manycognitivepsychologistshaveusedthebrainitself asametaphorforthewaymentalprocessesoperate.

• The evolutionaryperspective arguesthatmanyhumanbehavioural procli vitiesexistbecausetheyhelpedourancestorssurvive andproduceoffspringthatwouldbemorelikelytosurvive. Naturalselection isthemechanismbywhichnaturalforcesselect traits inorganismsthathelpthemthriveintheirenvironment. Thebasicnotionofevolutionarytheoryisthatevolutionselects organismsthatmaximisetheir reproductivesuccess ,definedasthe capacity tosurviveandreproduce,andmaximisethe reproductive success ofgeneticallyrelatedindividuals.Theprimarymethods aredeductiveandcomparative,althoughevolutionary psychologistsareincreasinglyrelyingonexperimentalmethods.

• Althoughthefivemajorperspectiveslargelydevelopedindependently,eachhasmadedistinctivecontributions.The biopsychosocialmodel recognisesthatthereisusuallynosingle cause forourbehaviourorourmentalstatesandthatbiological, psychologicalandsocialprocessesareinterrelatedandinteractinginfluences.

1.5Discusstheeducationalrequirementsforpsychologists andoutlinetheirmostcommonworksettings.

• Youmustregisterwithapsychologists’registrationboardto practiceasapsychologistinAustraliaandNewZealand.The careerprospectsforpsychologistsarestrong.Psychologistswork inavarietyofsettings,includinghealthandcommunityservices, education,governmentadministrationandprivatepractice.The vastmajorityofpsychologistshavechosentobecomemembers ofthepeakbodiesthatrepresentpsychologists,tohelpestablish andenforcehighstandardsintheprofession.

behaviourism Seebehaviouristperspective. behaviourist or behaviouralperspective Theperspective pioneered byJohnWatsonandB.F.Skinner,whichfocuses ontherelationshipbetweenobservablebehaviours andenvironmental.

biopsychology or behaviouralneuroscience Thefieldof in vestigationthatexaminesthephysicalbasisofpsychological phenomenasuchasmotivation,emotionandstress;alsocalled behaviouralneuroscience.

biopsychosocialmodel Amodelthatrecognisesthatthereis usually nosinglecauseforourbehaviourorourmentalstatesand thatbiological,psychologicalandsocialprocessesareboth interrelatedandinteractinginfluences.

Cartesiandualism Thedoctrineofdualspheresofmindandbody.

cognition Thoughtandmemory. cognitiveperspective Apsychologicalperspectivethatfocuseson the waypeopleperceive,processandretrieveinformation.

conservationpsychology Thestudyofthereciprocalrelationships between humansandnature,withafocusonchangingattitudes andbehaviourstoencourageconservationoftheenvironment.

criticalthinking Askillthatinvolvescarefullyexaminingand analysing informationtojudgeitsvalue,assessingbothits strengthsanditsweaknessesandconsideringalternative explanations.

cross-culturalpsychology Afieldthatfocusesonthepatterns— the similaritiesanddifferences—amongvariousculturalgroups andhowtheyinfluencebehaviours.

culturalpsychology Afieldthatfocusesonthepatternsin beha viours,andhowcultureinfluencesthosebehaviours.

empathy Thecapacitytounderstandanotherperson’sexperience, both cognitivelyandemotionally.

empiricism Thebeliefthatthepathtoscientificknowledgeis systematic observationand,ideally,experimentalobservation. ethology Thefieldthatstudiesanimalbehaviourfromabiological and evolutionaryperspective.

evolutionaryperspective TheviewpointbuiltonDarwin’s principle ofnaturalselectionthatarguesthathumanbehavioural proclivitiesmustbeunderstoodinthecontextoftheir evolutionaryandadaptivesignificance.

evolutionarypsychologists Specialiststhatapplyevolutionary thinking toawiderangeofpsychologicalphenomena.

falsifiabilitycriterion Theassertionthatwhenresearchersare testing hypotheses,theymustframetheminsuchawayasto allowforthemtobeprovenfalse,andthatifthisdoesindeed occur,thenalogicalresultisthatthetheoryonwhichthe hypothesisisbasemustbemodifiedordevelopedinsomewayso astobecomeclosertothetruth.

freewill or determinism Thephilosophicalquestionofwhether people actonthebasisoftheirfreelychosenintentions,or whethertheiractionsarecausedordeterminedbyphysical processesintheirbodiesorintheenvironmentinwhichtheylive.

functionalism Anearlyschoolofthoughtinpsychologyinfluenced by Darwiniantheorythatlookedforexplanationsof psychologicalprocessesintermsoftheirrole,orfunction,in helpingtheindividualadapttotheenvironment.

Gestaltpsychology Aschoolofpsychologythatholdsthat perception isanactiveexperienceofimposingorderonan overwhelmingpanoramaofdetailsbyseeingthemaspartsof largerwhole(orGestalts).

humanisticperspective Anapproachtopersonalitythatfocuseson aspects ofpersonalitythataredistinctlyhuman,notsharedby otheranimals.

idealself Aperson’sviewofwhatsheorhewouldliketobe.

Indigenouspsychology examinespsychologicalphenomenainan ecological, historicalandculturalcontext,emphasisingthe knowledge,skills,strengthsandbeliefsthatIndigenouspeoples fromwithinagivencultureholdaboutthemselves.

inclusivefitness Thenotionthatnaturalselectionfavours or ganismsthatsurvive,reproduceandfosterthesurvivaland reproductionoftheirkin.

informationprocessing Thetransformation,storageandretrieval of environmentalinputsthroughthoughtandmemory.

introspection ThemethodusedbyWundtandotherstructuralists in whichtrainedparticipantsverballyreportedeverythingthat wentthroughtheirmindswhenpresentedwithastimulusortask; moregenerally,referstotheprocessoflookinginwardatone’s ownmentalcontentsorprocess.

localisationoffunction Theextenttowhichdifferentpartsofthe brain controldifferentaspectsoffunctioning.

mind–bodyproblem Thequestionofhowmentalandphysical e ventsinteract.

naturalselection AtheoryproposedbyDarwinwhichstatesthat natural forcesselecttraitsinorganismsthathelpthemadaptto theirenvironment.

nature–nurturecontroversy Thequestionofthedegreetowhich inborn biologicalprocessesorenvironmentaleventsdetermine humanbehaviour.

paradigm Abroadsystemoftheoreticalassumptionsemployedby a scientificcommunitytomakesenseoutofadomainof experience.

person-centred CarlRogers’therapeuticapproachthatfocuseson the individual’sphenomenalworld.

perspectives Broadwaysofunderstandingpsychological phenomena, includingtheoreticalpropositions,sharedmetaphors andacceptedmethodsofobservation.

positivepsychology Thefocusonunderstandingandharnessing positi veemotionsandactivelystimulatingconditionsthat producevalued,subjectiveexperiencesthathelppeopleflourish. psychiatrists Specialistswhohavemedicaldegreesandprescribe medication totreatmentalillness.

psychodynamicperspective TheperspectiveinitiatedbySigmund Freud thatfocusesonthedynamicinterplayofmentalforces. psychodynamics Aviewanalogoustodynamicsamongphysical forces inwhichpsychologicalforcessuchaswishes,fearsand intentionshaveadirectionandanintensity.

psychologicalanthropologists Peoplewhostudypsychological phenomena inotherculturesbyobservingpeopleintheirnatural settings.

psychologists Professionalswhoexaminewhypeoplebehavethe w aytheydo;theyconsiderthethoughtprocessesthatunderpin behaviour.

psychology Thescientificinvestigationofmentalprocessesand beha viour.

rationalistphilosophers Philosopherswhoemphasisetheroleof reason increatingknowledge.

reproductivesuccess Thecapacitytosurviveandproduce of fspring.

self-actualised Peoplearemotivatedtofulfilthewholerangeof needs thathumansexperience.

self-concept Anorganisedpatternofthoughtandperceptionabout oneself.

sociobiology Afieldthatexplorespossibleevolutionaryand biological basesofhumansocialbehaviour.

socioculturalperspective representsamodernapproachto psychology thatemphasisessocialinteractionandthecultural determinantsofbehaviourandmentalprocesses.

stimuli Objectsoreventsintheenvironmentthatelicitaresponse in anorganism.

structuralism Anearlyschoolofthoughtinpsychologydeveloped by EdwardTitchener,whichattemptedtouseintrospectionasa methodforuncoveringthebasicelementsofconsciousnessand thewaytheycombinewitheachotherintoideas.

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1 Def inestructuralismandexplainhowitdiffersfrom functionalism.

2 Describethekeypremisesofthepsychodynamicperspective.

3 Compareandcontrastthemajorcontributionsofthebehaviourist andcognitiveperspectives.

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS

1 Comment onthephilosophicalissue‘freewillversusdeterminism’.Dopeoplemakefreechoicesoraretheiractionsdetermined byforcesoutsideoftheircontrol?

APPLICATIONQUESTIONS

1 Outline thebenefitstobegainedfrommembershipofprofessional associationssuchastheAustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS) ortheNewZealandPsychologicalSociety(NZPsS).

2 OutlinethecurrentcareerprospectsforpsychologistsinAustralia andNewZealand.

WEBSITES

1 The AustralianPsychologicalSociety(APS):www.psychology. org.au

2 TheNewZealandPsychologicalSociety(NZPsS):www. psychology.org.nz

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Extract:©Seligman,M.E.P.,&Csikszentmihalyi,M.(2000). Positivepsychology:Anintroduction. AmericanPsychologist , 55,5–14.ReprintedbypermissionofAmericanPsychological Association.

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