The Journal - Volume Three 2022 by Whitgift School

th e Journal …Innovation

Academic Enrichment Society

volume three | 2022

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

H I S T O R Y, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

TECHNOLOGY

106

MODERN LIFE

138

THE FUTURE

156

th e Journal

It might be argued that the theme of innovation is deeply appropriate for the times we find ourselves in. Since the last edition of The Journal, the ongoing pandemic, the COP26 summit, the fall of Kabul, and the first land war in Europe for decades means that we have become more focussed on solutions than ever before. Innovations in technology have contributed to, aggravated and mitigated these major events – innovation may be said to determine the course of human history. However, innovation can take many forms. I was recently reading Hallie Rubenhold’s eye-opening book ‘The Five’. In it she offers the first detailed biographies of the five victims of Jack the Ripper in 1888. The five women have often been misdescribed (quite frankly, they have been slandered) or simply brushed over in the past 140 years by newspapers, historians and Hollywood scriptwriters. Rubenhold’s book innovates by uncovering the truth about these women – she moves them from faceless victims to human beings who had often experienced the very worst of Victorian society. Innovation is, by its very nature, challenging. As Iredia Omokaro (1KBB) explains in his article in this very volume (see the Modern Life section), innovation is “finding solutions to problems using creativity, research and critical thinking”. These three skills can be undertaken by anyone, but they can only be honed through hard work and constant self-reflection. Mr Jackson (Assistant Director of Learning and Innovation) and I wanted to give attendees at Academic Enrichment the opportunity to reflect on innovation and, in the process, further hone their creativity, research and critical thinking. As always, the students have gone above and beyond, and this volume contains 50 articles produced by students on topics which sparked their curiosity. Three articles appear just after these introductory remarks – each one exemplifies the concept of innovation in a very different way. The poetry of Luke Stephanos (4JER) and Will Cheng (4JBG) continues to reveal itself on further readings, whilst Oliver Whitaker-Jones (2STL) has captured the seeming first-person mania of creativity. These are followed by a piece of extraordinary academic writing by Russell Woods (L6JWL) – his article is brilliantly researched, insightful in its critical analysis and creative in the way it weaves together multiple lines of argument. Mr JWD Piggott Deputy Director of Learning and Innovation

Throughout all my years as a teacher, there

Consequently, we adapted our understanding

have been few endeavours that I have found

of “collaboration” to mean working as a

as fulfilling and stimulating as guiding the

community to help develop each other’s

Lower School years through the process of

projects by cooperating to give constructive

embarking on their projects for this edition of

feedback during the writing/development

The Journal.

stage. This, I hope, is a skill that our pupils continue to develop and see its value in the

The theme of “innovation” inspired us and

quest of always improving themselves.

took us into previously unexplored territories. Over the course of the Michaelmas Term,

Finally, I would like to highlight that through

we explored the meaning of “innovation”

guiding the Lower School through the process

and our individual interpretations of the

of creating their pieces on “innovation”, I

word. We also undertook a repeated process

have also undertaken my research relating

of re-imagining how we could present our

to the word. That is to say, not only have I

projects. During this process of re-imagining

learnt from their fantastic projects, but the

our new-found expertise, we focused on

quality of their work motivated me to look

considering new, dare I say, “innovative”

at the something in “my world” through a

formats to showcase our information. This

different lens. I focused on researching about

largely led to the birth of poems and creative

the pre-Columbian civilizations of Guatemala

writing – an excellent example of this can be

and Colombia (two countries in my heritage)

seen in Oliver Whitaker-Jones’ Galileo Galilei.

and discovered something incredible. I learnt

Intriguingly, our process of re-imagination

about LiDAR technology (light/laser imaging

has also seen the conceptualisation of a few

detection and ranging technology) that has

apps and businesses, which show incredible

been used with drones to take photos of

potential if given more time and resources

the jungle and has discovered a series of

in the future to be materialised. A wonderful

“lost cities”. These discoveries were either

example of this presented in this edition can

completely unknown, or would have taken

be seen Deon Minkha’s Eletico Ltd.

excessive amounts of time to unearth or find. The new technology has innovated and

In addition to instilling a culture of constant

revolutionised the field of archaeology, and in

re-imagining and trying to better what we

the process it is giving many people a greater

have previously made, one of our biggest

understanding of their ancestors. So, I would

aims in the creation of this edition of The

like to say thank you to all of the boys’ work,

Journal was collaboration. Initially, we had

and to James, for inspiring me to look for

the intention for pupils to attempt to create

innovation everywhere. It has been a wholly

a project with at least one other person –

enjoyable experience for me.

partially as a way to mitigate for the time we have spent isolating as a result of the

I really hope that you enjoy leafing through

COVID-19 pandemic. This has yielded

this edition of The Journal and are inspired

some fantastic collaborative works such as,

to look into examples of innovation in your

Lochlann Hamilton, Louis Peckham and Stevie

own world or re-imagine one of the projects

Santhiapillai’s piece on virtual reality. While

presenting its information in a new fashion.

our initial aim was for explicit collaboration,

as demonstrated in many of the projects,

Mr Christopher Jackson

physical distance, COVID isolations and time

Acting Assistant Director of Learning

constraints made this difficult in many cases.

and Innovation

HUMAN EXPERIENCES

Why?

Luke Stephanos | 4JER and Will Cheng | 4JBG

Irregularity: the curse of English;

The power of English; why is that so?

The Power of English – why is that so?

Palabras, palabras, más palabras,

Words, words, more words,

Tan lejos como ojos puedan ver.

As far as the eye can see.

Robar, romper o responder; sabrás,

Stealing, taking, replying; you’ll understand,

Palabras lo todo pueden hacer.

Words can do it all.

non verbis ducor; cum verbis duco.

I am not led by words; I lead with words.

bellum gerunt, alii, occidunt,

Some wage war, others kill

at scribo, dico, facio, fuco;

But I write, I say, I act, I create;

verba plurem potentiam habent.

For words have more power.

Ein Wort schafft einen Funken, einen Geist.

A word, creates a spark, a mind

Ein Wort führt dich durch amüsant Träume.

One word leads you through enchanting dreams.

Ein Wort kann dir ünterstuzen, Hilfe und Rat,

One word may support you, help and advice

Doch hörst du ein anderes, ist alles vernichtet

But if another is heard, everything is ruined

For only when language is distinguished,

Do its true colours show.

Galileo Galilei

Oliver Whitaker-Jones | 2STL

I muttered calculations under my breath, a

of the room and stuffed my rough working in

machine completely focused on the task in

my bag and packed the basics I would need

hand – nothing else mattered. I believed that

to depart Padua for Florence. There I could

there was so much more to our Universe–

continue with my research and evidence to

why should we be limited to this small Earth?

present to the Catholic Church without the

I looked beyond to the stars, hungry for

distraction of my family. As I hurried out of

discovery and escape from this incomplete

the door, my wife gave me one last pleading

reality. I hoped my devotion to my work

look to stay. I reluctantly turned away, having

would become the base of research in the

memories of why I had dug myself into this

future. I, Galileo Galilei, would come to be the

hole in the first place and left.

most famous scientist of my time! I looked to prove my theory of heliocentrism – that

2 years later (December 1610) …

the Earth revolves around the Sun – despite the disagreement from the foolish Catholic

I drifted in and out of sleep, fretting on my latest

church. I got back to my work with more

findings about heliocentrism. There had been

self-confidence, painstakingly checking and

much time since my departure from my family.

rechecking all formulas until I was brought out

I was roused by my servant who bore news of

of my deep thought by a harsh rap of the door.

my friend Benedetto Castelli. I immediately

I sighed, mildly irritated by this disruption, and

sat up, now excited for the news to come.

turned back to the sprawling sheets of paper

‘Sir, Benedetto Castelli reports that he was

that covered every inch of my claustrophobic

confronted by the grand Duchess of Florence on

‘study’. Yet the door was hurled open to reveal

the topic of Heliocentrism and it being against

the furious face of my wife.

the Catholic religion. He writes that he fears for his life.’ the servant read. While I should have

My heart sank deep into my chest as I turned

felt fear at this message, it almost fed my anger

to face an inevitable lecture on my lack of

and frustration towards the Catholic Church.

commitment to my family.

I was sick and tired of this certainty that the Bible spoke all truth. With this newly kindled

‘What on Earth are you doing?’ she demanded.

fire boiling up inside of me, I took to writing a letter myself to the Grand Duchess: I would

‘Working’ I muttered.

not fear death if that were to mean a better understanding of our world and its position in

‘Look at yourself Galileo – you haven’t eaten

the solar system. I would take my case to the

in days; you reek like old cabbage, and you’ve

Catholic Church and not stop until I won.

barely talked to your children ever since you began on this new idea. Please, this isn’t the

‘Your eminence, you must understand my case.

Galileo I know.’

Due to your beliefs around the Bible, you are limiting our knowledge of space massively. We

‘I have had enough – I am sick and tired of

cannot live with this ignorance – people must

your disruption of my work! How dare you try

know about heliocentrism.’ I said a month

and make me feel guilty about my family in

later, pleading my case desperately to the

my house! I am leaving!’ I pushed my wife out

Cardinal in Florence.

I WOULD NOT FEAR DEATH IF THAT WERE TO MEAN A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF OUR WORLD AND ITS POSITION IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. I WOULD TAKE MY CASE TO THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND NOT STOP UNTIL I WON. ‘We will do nothing of the kind. It Is

beauty was cold and cruel, the building and

unthinkable to alter anything said in the Bible.

architecture designed to demean and make

In fact, you have just given me a reason to

you feel so small and meaningless. The statues

accuse you of treason to the Roman Catholic

glared and scoffed; the endless rows of

Church. I shall report you to the Pope himself

columns overwhelmed me. It almost reminded

promptly. Mr Galilei, this a crime punishable

me of descriptions of Persephone’ garden in

by death.’ I gulped, suddenly aware of the

the underworld – an eerie and cruel beauty

jeopardy I was in. I glared at the man who now

where everything was simply too perfect. This

had the information to kill me. ‘You would not

fitted my beliefs about the Catholic Church

dare kill me with the amount of information

perfectly and merely angered me more to be

I have. I am too valuable to discard’ I

here. While shrouded in my thoughts, I was

desperately argued. ‘Oh no Mr Galilei, I’m

called by a clergyman. The Pope was ready

sure the Catholic Church would not mind the

to listen to my argument. I followed him for

burial of your lies – they’ll only be unearthed

a walk of about ten minutes until we reached

in a century or so by another madman like

what I knew must be the Apostolic Palace –

yourself.’

the home of Pope Paul the Fifth. We headed under a curved arch, and I was escorted into

‘Very well then, I will discuss this with the

one of the many rooms in this grand building.

Pope himself.’ There I saw him, the man with perhaps the I found myself in the Vatican a few weeks

largest influence at that moment in time –

later, waiting to have an audience with the

and the power to have me executed. He was

Pope. I gazed around at the area, stained

purely clad in white robes with his zucchetto,

glass windows with luminous shades of blue

a mozetta along with his gold pectoral cross.

and gold; towering statues and plaques while

As a sign of respect, I knelt and kissed his

looming over everything, a great obelisk in the

fisherman’s ring.

centre of the plaza. It was spectacular yet its

‘Well, you must be Mr Galilei. I have heard you have caused quite a nuisance with your ultramodern ideas for the Cardinal in Florence. He strongly recommended your execution.’ he spoke in a rather quiet voice. ‘However, I have decided that it would be unwise and foolish to execute such a bright man like you. I propose that if you denounce your scientific beliefs and fully dedicate yourself to the Holy Father, then we will allow you to live in Padua under supervision for the rest of your life.’ ‘Holy Father, you must understand that I cannot simply forget all my knowledge. The Bible states that fools despise wisdom and instruction – by locking me away, you are not anywhere near what a Pope should be.’ ‘If it merely satisfies you more, I shall merely agree to your execution. Please remember that over half of the Cardinals in Italy signed a form to order your death; if it had not been for my intervention, you would have been dead over a month ago. So, what will it be Mr Galilei, death, or a life devoted to God?’ And it dawned on me that I was not yet ready to die a martyr and I had not yet accomplished my goals. My aims were to gain a better understanding of our world for myself, not for publicity. As for others’ knowledge of this, the Catholic Church could not prevent it from getting out, it would only take a few decades or so before they would have to accept their defeat. Accepting the Pope’s offer, I signed an agreement and set off home for Padua. While living with a knowledge unbeknown to all else, I found inner peace and would be peaceful for the rest of my life. References Galileo | Biography, Discoveries, Inventions, & Facts | Britannica The hidden meaning behind the pope's clothes (cnn.com)

Innovation and the Other

Russell Woods | L6JWL

INTRODUCTION

science, I would like to offer a variety of

For as long as human history can be

my own, that of the cultural paradigm. Not

traced examples of alienation, division and

entirely divorced from the sentiment of

opposition within human society seem to be

Kuhn’s definition, this development seeks

present, yet the method, means and effects

instead to focus on the dominant socio-

of such processes are found to be radically

political circumstance of a certain time,

different. The key difference? Innovation.

finding itself to often be synonymous with

Throughout this piece I aim to demonstrate

Gramscian cultural hegemony.

the dramatic influence that innovation exerts over our conception of the Other,

Through these quantifiers of innovation I

both in processes of de-othering and of

aim to pinpoint certain innovations’ effects

othering. The ‘othering’ I am referring to is

on Othering in both process and effect,

something which should be all too familiar

attempting to consign certain elements

to returning Journal readers, acting as the

of othering to these defined areas of

prompt for the last edition. That is othering

innovation and in such a process reveal

as a process of turning something into The

truths about the interconnectivity between

Other (the Other in turn being something

innovation and the process of othering.

characterised by its complete opposition

Specifically, in realisation of the near

to a known, accepted and often generally

infinite potential breadth and depth of such

positive thing). De-othering then is the

an inquiry, I have made an effort to limit

process by which this conception of the

myself to four main instances of innovation:

Other is deconstructed, It is through these

The printing press, the European colonial

two processes that most of the effects on

paradigm, the digital age and theoretical

the idea of The Other shall be viewed.

future innovation.

Broadly, innovations that I will discuss will

EUROCENTRISM AND OUR CONCEPTION

fall under three main categories. First is

OF THE PRINTING PRESS

innovation as defined by a specific event

Initially calling upon my definition of

or invention. Such a definition is apt

innovation as invention, I begin my

for analysis of the capability of specific

investigation at the invention of the printing

inventions to catalyse a systemic change

press. The pervasive narrative surrounding

in processes of othering, yet it seems to

the printing press would link it to Johannes

fall short for the purpose of a complete

Gutenberg in 1446, yet even our conception

evaluation of how innovations effect

of this invention is shrouded by processes of

othering holistically. As such I turn my

othering still in place today. Notably that of

attention to Thomas Kuhn who bestows

a euro-centric narrative which exists entirely

upon us the concept of a paradigm shift, in

apart from the realities of history. In fact,

Kuhn’s words being "a fundamental change

the advent of movable type had occurred

in the basic concepts and experimental

before the dawn of the second millennium,

practices of a scientific discipline”.

with Bi Sheng having created what can be

However, as the scope of my investigation

described as the first printer by 998AD.

far supersedes the ostensible preserve of

Beyond this fact being little known in the

West, far more interesting to this discussion

PRINTING PRESS AND PROPAGANDA

are the huge effects this invention would

Despite the apparently innocent employ

have on Othering in the Sinosphere and

of the invention in China, the printing

beyond, half a millennium before Gutenberg.

press would soon have drastic impacts for

Early movable type machines, even hindered

conceptions of the Other. Upon the invention

by inefficiency, were still able to offer an

of the Gutenberg press we see how the

enormous expansion in the accessibility

cultural and economic conditions in Europe

of academia throughout China. Chiefly

precipitated the rise of the printing press

the dramatic increase in the supply of key

as a tool for othering. Certainly the very

Confucianist texts allowed for a massive

nature of the Gutenberg press was distinct

expansion of the Chinese civil service,

from its predecessors, with its capacity

forever changing how governance operated.

for mass production dwarfing even that

Come 1297, after 300 years of movable

of Zhen’s invention. This in conjunction

type existing, inventor/author extraordinaire

with the far more mercantile basis of 15th

Wang Zhen would, using a self-made newer

century Europe led to a phenomenon which

version of Sheng’s printing press, publish

Benedict Anderson in his book Imagined

what would become the world’s first mass-

Communities would call the emergence

produced book. Nung Shu, a treatise of the

of “print capitalism”. Print capitalism, as

agricultural practices of the day, would

explained by Anderson, is the process in

rapidly see itself disseminated through

which the capitalist marketplace proliferates

China, revolutionising agrarian practices in

the production and distribution of books

many areas of the country. Yet its impact

printed in the vernacular, with the 15th

would be felt far beyond the borders of

century spelling the beginning of the end

China. While exact timescales are unknown

for Latin as the used language. Such printing

it is accepted that at some point over the

in the vernaculars of certain localities

next 50 years copies of the text found their

created common dialects, the existence of

way to the coasts of Western Europe, where

which Anderson says is a prerequisite for

the agricultural knowledge contained would

the existence of the nation state. Anderson

be plagiarised by contemporary western

argued that any notion of shared experience

writers and promptly adopted through much

or understanding engendered by the creation

of Europe. Accredited with the rise of things

of these common dialects was ultimately a

such as three-year crop rotation in medieval

synthetic construct’ artificial, imagined. The

Europe, the influence of the printing press

basis for nations must therefore also be the

on the Other could not be clearer in my

basis for nationalism and all ensuing othering

mind, plagiarism notwithstanding we see the

that it entails. Nations and nationalism

press to have been used to incredible effect

necessitate the creation of an ‘Us vs. Them’

for academic de-othering, not only with the

dialectic upon which othering thrives.

increased academic accessibility offered in

Essentially, if we hold Anderson to be correct

China but also with the spread of ideas from

in his analysis of print capitalism, we may

opposite ends of the world.

link back othering in its, even now, most prominent manifestation, nationalism, to the invention of the printing press.

HIDDEN SIDES

The inditement of the printing press

attempt to decipher precisely what impact

does not stop here however, instead also

this had on discourse and debate. Notably

encouraging and then reinforcing the

that it takes much more time to refute a

practice of bad-faith argument and the

claim than it does to make one, so simply

degradation of productive discourse. Most

throw enough arguments at someone and

notably detailed in Mark Edward’s book

it is impossible that all will be intercepted.

Propaganda, the Printing Press and Martin

Fundamentally this understanding underpins

Luther, the role of the printing press in

the modern conception of propaganda

the Protestant Reformation would have

and disinformation as the more effective

grave consequences for all subsequent

persuasive alternative to discourse and

discourse and argument. Luther himself

complete reasoning.

would claim that “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one”, but why

ENLIGHTENMENT AND “THE FINAL

was the press so important to Luther and

FRONTIER OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE”

how did he utilise it? While true that the

The Enlightenment is what I believe

printing press would prove instrumental

to be quite clear vindication of Kuhn’s

to the dissemination of Lutheran criticism

contribution to the theory of innovation.

throughout Catholic Europe, Edward’s

During the Enlightenment there can be

contends that this is by no means the most

seen to be the greatest scientific paradigm

prominent function of the printing press.

shift of all recorded human history. Harking

Instead Edward’s stresses the novelty of the

back to my initial definition of innovation as

pamphlet form, in which revolutionary ideas

invention, the invention of the microscope

could be mass produced quickly and cheaply.

is a clear example of how innovation can be

Pamphlets of course were “by their very

an immense force for academic de-othering,

nature as objects, ideally suited to carrying

transcending the human basis upon which

a message”, that is to say that pamphlets

conceptions of the Other are often framed

could very easily hold incredible claims yet

around. Indeed when Robert Hooke would

did not offer space for substantiation of

proclaim “By the help of microscopes,

said claims. The dangers of such a nature

there is nothing so small, as to escape our

are outlined in the chapter titled The

inquiry; hence there is a new visible world

Catholic Dilemma, in which the unfortunate

discovered to the understanding”, he was

predicament of the Catholic theologian is

making no small statement. Instead, Hooke

outlined. Estranged from the Strasbourg

is saying that through the microscope

press, the centre of print in Germany,

humanity as a species can de-other on an

the Catholic theologian must attempt to

existential scale, making comprehensible

refute incredibly numerous claims made

what previously appeared to be solidly

by Luther and his contemporaries. Yet the

detached from humanity’s domain - the

very medium as described above works

microscopic de-othering of nature.

against him, for no reasoned defence or analytic decomposition of arguments from

Such sentiment is widely echoed by

Lutheran pamphlets is possible in the

that of contemporary thought, with the

same pamphlet form. From this we may

Enlightenment being treated by many as

THE CONSENSUS SURROUNDING PRINT DOES APPEAR TO BE LARGELY NEGATIVE, HOWEVER THE EFFECTS OF PRINTING FAR OUTLASTED ITS PERIOD OF NOVELTY. IN FACT, ALL ADVANCEMENTS LISTED ABOVE WERE ENTIRELY RELIANT ON THE PRESS.

the final process humanity must undergo to

Before I further develop my ambivalence

achieve a synthesis between areas of natural

surrounding the effects of advancements in

science, philosophy and religion. On the topic

the humanities on Othering, I would like to

of philosophy it is important to remember

also re-analyse my conclusion of the printing

that the Enlightenment saw every and all

press. The consensus surrounding print does

fields of academia undergo tremendous

appear to be largely negative, however the

upheaval, indeed scientific paradigm shifts

effects of printing far outlasted its period

around the age like that of the Copernican

of novelty. In fact, all advancements listed

revolution or formalisation of Newtonian

above were entirely reliant on the press.

physics often played second fiddle to cultural

Point and case is the Copernican revolution,

and social upheavals of the time, spearheaded

where Copernicus was able to acquire

by an avant-garde of intellectual discourse.

sufficient astronomical data from printed

Specifically we may look at the wealth of

copies of other studies upon which to build

literary and philosophical texts and treatises

his theories, ending the age of much of

created over the period and their potential

academia being a solitary pursuit. Elizabeth

effects and outcomes on the field of Othering.

Einstein would express, in her book The

Initially both seem to be found as sources

Printing Press as an Agent of Change, that

for de-othering: for who would deny the

the greatest boon of print in the field of

importance of the popularity of Dickensian

natural science was not the increased spread

social critique or how liberal theorists were

of knowledge but instead the absolute

right in their vindication of the des droits de

accuracy which that copied knowledge

l’homme? Is there any real claim against that

would bear to the original. So far it appears

which would say that the proliferation of

that the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe

ideas from Locke, Rousseau and Voltaire in

were an age of existential de-othering,

an increasingly literate populace did anything

finally revealing and reconciling humanity

more than encourage critical thinking and, in

to the natural world and as such innovation

the process, de-othering?

and the period itself coalesced to precipitate

such conditions for cosmopolitanism in

contemporary cultural conditions, led to

the enlightenment. Yet all may not be as it

the creation of a new scientific and cultural

appears.

paradigm. Yet such interconnectivity between the Enlightenment occurring in

A truth which rules through thoughts from

mainland Europe and the rampant colonial

Francis Bacon all the way to contemporary

endeavours pursued by the same Europeans

historians such as in Roy Porter’s book The

overseas has a far more sinister implication

Enlightenment, is that there were three

than the direct one of any colonial pursuit.

main conditions that allowed for the rise of

For this section I will generally defer to

the enlightenment age: The printing press,

ideas by Edward Said in his books Culture

nautical navigation and gunpowder. I hope

and Imperialism and Orientalism and those of

that at this point you will have some sense

Franz Fanon as set forth in The Wretched of

of how the printing press catalysed the

the Earth, while still attempting to recognise

enlightenment, however as of yet escaping

any patterns which may crop up in Othering

my enquiry have been gunpowder and

across time.

nautical navigation, a shortcoming I aim to rectify in the upcoming section.

At the start of his work Orientalism, Said offers us three ways in which orientalism

THE EUROPEAN COLONIAL PARADIGM

can be understood: (1) Orientalism as an

To explain my reluctance to granting the

academic field for studying the orient,

Enlightenment the enviable title as a period

(2) Orientalism as style of thought

of absolute de-othering, I would like to

differentiating orient from occident

draw attention to what was happening at

and (3) “a western style for dominating,

the same time: Imperialism. How could it be

restructuring and having authority over the

that during the so-called “age of reason”, the

orient”. The first method, if done correctly,

age of colonialism was also approaching its

presents itself as nothing more than a

zenith? Instead of an apparent contradiction

method of de-othering through education.

which seems to arise from this, I would

The second is of course a prime example

argue that instead these two happening

of othering, yet notably Said outlines

are inexorably linked to each other, being

how this othering is entirely based on a

entirely co-dependent and at many times

fictitious concept of ‘the orient’, with this

enjoying a symbiotic relationship. The

orient being entirely a figment of western

direct implications of colonialism on the

imagination and as such the occident, being

Other are something which requires little

opposed to what the orient stands for,

nuanced explanation, however even at

must be equivocally artificial and divorced

first glance this age of Imperialism can

from reality. The third is that which Said

be distinguished by its incredible extent.

will examine at great length through

Such a colonial paradigm is to my mind

the rest of his book, this definition’s key

the ultimate vindication to the parameters

distinction over the last being the deliberate

outlined in the question; a situation where

political intention and consequence of

specific inventions of gunpowder armaments

work surrounding the orient. Yet Said

and nautical methodology, alongside the

acknowledges that despite this apparent

confinement to knowledge created on the

is Other. Yet Fanon describes a perhaps

topic of colonial pursuits, he in fact will

far more horrific process, a process in

argue that all knowledge created under

which a people become othered to and of

the colonial paradigm, overlapping almost

themselves. A psychotherapist by profession,

entirely with the Enlightenment, is somehow

Fanon devotes a chapter of his book to

tainted by this context in which it was

explicitly linking colonial war to mental

created. The consequence of this colonial

disorders and its findings could not be

element of Enlightenment era knowledge

more conclusive. That is that the process of

being ignored by academic critique therefore

colonial rule has had such profound impact

means the subliminal implications which

on the very core of the colonial psyche that

act to define and exert control over the

they become estranged to their own self,

orient similarly live on. Specifically Said

constantly subjected to the reminder that

looks at the work of John Locke, an example

they were somehow different, lesser, Other.

compounded by James Farr’s piece The

Something of note in Fanon’s writings is his

Problem of Slavery in Locke’s Political Thought.

thoughts on the national psyche and how

Both ponder over the central contradiction

it can be “reclaimed” by colonial subjects

of Locke’s philosophy supposedly advocating

- the process by which this would be done

for natural rights of all men, yet he himself

involving a necessarily violent overthrow

not just owning slaves but on multiple

of the colonial administration and in this

occasions suggesting colonial legislation

revolutionary catharsis, the creation of

to limit their freedoms. Specifically, in

a new national identity. This however, if

formation of Carolina’s constitution Locke

accepted as both truthful and positive,

proposed that "Every freeman of Carolina

calls into question the assumed inherent

shall have absolute power and authority

moral bad associated with othering, for

over his negro slaves, of what opinion

the argument presented by Fanon not only

or religion soever". Thus ignoring this in

leans on but is based around the concept of

analysis of Locke’s philosophy leads us

nationalism and a necessary Othering.

to fail to recognise the incredible biases implanted by Locke onto his philosophies,

While I am not currently willing to absolve

failure to confront and address such a thing

nationalism or Othering of their respective

allows what Said describes as this politicised

vices, Fanon’s viewpoint is a pertinent

knowledge to continue to influence us even

reminder that ascribing any value judgement

today.

to an idea universally often ignores much of the nuance associated with its potential

Fanon distinguishes another element of

employs. On the topic of nationalism in the

the nature of othering conducted in the

colonial paradigm, an interesting phenomena

colonial paradigm. All instances of Othering

can also be seen to be occurring. This being

I have discussed to this point have involved

how the boundaries of what constitutes a

processes where the aim is to alienate a

part of your group and what of the other

certain group of people from another group

is an entirely relative to the context -

of people – the emphasis here being on

notably colonialism offered to so many

convincing one group that another group

white Europeans the opportunity to be

co-opted into the side of the elite. As so

such goals. Prime example is the existence

finely articulated by historian Gerald Horne,

of Brandolini’s law which states that "The

“England, the scrappy Protestant underdog,

amount of energy needed to refute (a false

moved toward Pan-Europeanism—or

claim) is an order of magnitude larger than

“whiteness”—incorporating Scots and Irish

is needed to produce it". This seems to

and Welsh in the first instance, those with

be nothing more than a continuation of

whom they had been warring for centuries”.

the precedent established from the very

Through this the emergence of race as a

conception of the printed pamphlet form.

divider immediately transcended ethnic tensions fuelled by dozens of generations of

The technology of today far outclasses the

conflict and hatred - through the existence

printing press in its ability to spread sheer

of a greater “Other”. A form of de-othering

quantity of information in speeds previously

occurs, in this example the notion of

inconceivable. Such technological facilitation

Europeans being more linked together by

has led to an existential crisis within the

their collective whiteness than divided

information age, where information itself

by their respective ethnic identities only

has become so widespread and so unreliable

becomes possible due to the existence of

it seems impossible to contemplate any

the aforementioned more existential Other,

objective reality. Indeed the predicament

that of the colonial subject, the oriental.

has become of such incredible proportion that many academics and polemicists have

What can truly be extracted from a subject

proclaimed that we are now entering, or

so layered and complex as othering under

already live in, a ‘post-truth age’.

the colonial paradigm? The key conclusions in my mind must be that it is necessary

Yet what does this mean for a modern

to have an increased awareness of: (1)

conception of the other? Sadly, platforms

the knowledge creation process and the

such as social media, having allowed such

often political, othering effect that it may

widespread dissemination of disinformation,

subliminally connote if not dealt; and (2)

have led to ultimate instances of othering.

Othering from the perspective of not

Such a thing is hardly a surprise considering

just the otherer but also from that of the

that often people are working off incredibly

othered. Only when adding these actions to

different understanding of what is fact

our analytic repertoire can we truly hope to

and fiction. Without some common

decipher the often enigmatic nature of the

understanding how can we hold any hope

relationship between innovation and Other.

for othering not to occur? Depressingly this issue does not end with gross negligence

OTHERING IN THE DIGITAL AGE

on the part of social media companies,

Now progressing onto the workings of

instead we are witnessing the deliberate,

the Other under our current technological

corporation sanctioned weaponization of

paradigm, I aim to present how many of the

social media for purposes of othering. Most

techniques of othering employed in the past

prominently remembered example today

persist to this day, now utilising the ever-

would be that of the Cambridge Analytica

greater capability of technology to achieve

scandal, in which Cambridge Analytica with

PARTICULARLY COMMENDABLE TODAY IS THE INCREDIBLE COLLABORATION BETWEEN UK AND CHINA BASED RESEARCH TEAMS ON THE COVID-19 VIRUS, WITH 24HOUR INSTANTANEOUS COMMUNICATION PROVING INSTRUMENTAL IN WORKING TOGETHER FOR THE BENEFIT OF HUMANITY.

the tacit consent of Facebook was able to

MODERNITY AND DE-OTHERING

identify those believed to be particularly

However, in this age of digitisation all is

susceptible to certain narratives and then

far from lost. On the contrary, our current

sell on this information to said advertisers.

technological circumstances offer us

While this may be the most discussed

a never-before-seen capability to de-

example of such a practice it was by no

other. The first example is in the field of

means the only and is by no means confined

academic de-othering. Specifically, research

to the past. One must look no further than

collaboration between the UK and other

the incredible domestic political polarisation

countries is at an all-time high, while British

occurring in the United States for proof in

politicians often find themselves plagued

this regard, where one half of the country

with isolationist rhetoric. The United

feels irrevocably Othered to the other

Kingdom Research and Innovation China

half and vice versa. Particularly in the

(UKRI China) now exists as the UK’s second

American context the creation of online

largest research partner, fast approaching on

‘echo chambers’ prevents any true good

UKRI USA. The extent of this is truly mind-

faith discourse and reconciliation between

blowing - one in every nine UK academic

sides, instead entrenching already held

papers published involve collaboration

conceptions and further distancing one side

between British and Chinese researchers,

from its counterpart. To this end the digital

only decades after the PRC re-established

age not only offers a new extent in which

any real semblance of diplomatic relations

to enact well established means of othering

with the UK. The political legacy of the

but also facilitates new forms and ideas of

Opium Wars and Yangtze Incident have not

othering.

faded from memory in the consciousness

of both the UK and China, nor the ongoing

general othering and innovation. What

disputes over the country of Taiwan and

can be said is that no specific invention is

the breaking of the Hong Kong agreement.

inherently for good or evil, othering or de-

Despite this diplomatic estrangement,

othering. Instead the effect of a given piece

technology has allowed researchers and

of technology finds itself to be near entirely

academics unparalleled access to each

dependent upon how it is used, with the

other’s research, with the goal of producing

printing press to social media all displaying

future innovation.

elements in which they are able to spread de-othering while also being widely used to

Particularly commendable today is the

deliberately do the opposite. Such varied

incredible collaboration between UK

potential seems almost certain to carry on

and China based research teams on the

into the future. Therefore my message, if it

Covid-19 virus, with 24-hour instantaneous

can be described as such, is that innovation

communication proving instrumental

itself doesn’t have direct implications for the

in working together for the benefit of

balance between othering and de-othering

humanity. However technology doesn’t

and by no means should be feared. Instead

just provide opportunities for academics,

a more conscious use of technology, as well

the social media platforms which have

as being critical to how technology is used

proved so necessary in continuing processes

on you, is key to realising the potential that

of othering also offer us incredible

innovation offers to de-other, reconcile and

opportunities to de-other and understand.

understand.

For how could one hope to understand, let alone be in constant communication with,

References:

those from areas, cultures, environments

Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? U.S.A.: Boom, 2011.

so far from our own without the gift of digital communication and media. That is to say that despite the grim examples of technology being used to Other, the capability for that same technology to deother is extreme and, if realised, could have ground-breaking impact on the state of discourse, policy and understanding in the modern age.

Edwards, Mark U. Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005. Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. New York: Grove Press, 1968. History.com Editors. “Printing Press.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, May 7, 2018. https://www.history.com/ topics/inventions/printing-press#:~:text=Created%20in%20 China%2C%20the%20printing,invention%20of%20the%20 Gutenberg%20press. O'G, Anderson Benedict R. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso, 1991. Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. Basingstoke: Palgrave, n.d. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. London: Penguin Books, 2019.

CONCLUSION A universal constant between all three areas of historical analysis is that of innovation’s incredible link to academic de-othering and

“'The White Republic': Response by Gerald Horne " Organizing Upgrade.” Organizing Upgrade, January 17, 2022. https://www. organizingupgrade.com/the-white-republic-response-by-geraldhorne/. Farr, James. “‘So Vile and Miserable an Estate’: The Problem of Slavery in Locke’s Political Thought.” Political Theory 14, no. 2 (1986): 263–89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/191463.

advancement. This is a connection which I hope will replicate itself into the future. However, the waters become murky when we attempt to rationalise the links between

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

China as a Global Superpower: History, Now and The Future

in Chinese history following the Han and

global superpower. China used to be the

Tang dynasties before. One could relate this

most advanced civilization before the 1500s

era to what we think China could become

and then, when the Industrial Revolution

in the next half century – the globe’s most

hit the West, China came to a halt. Europe

dominant superpower. This Dynasty ended

developed and then established colonies

in 1644 due to yet another rebellion when

in China. However, in the last 70 years,

the regime failed to supply its people

China has come back and is using initiatives

efficiently.

China is emerging to be the world’s largest

like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to

Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

business. Will China stay forever powerful,

Nurhaci was the first emperor during the

or will they isolate themselves and stop

Great Qing and reigned from 1559-1626

opening up to the world?

however, the Qing dynasty technically only

again become a powerful force in trade and

started in 1644. When Nurhaci took over HISTORY OF CHINA AS A GLOBAL

as Emperor of China, the country was the

SUPERPOWER

richest in the world with India at roughly

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

the same wealth. The Great Qing period included some high points and low points

Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yaunzhang) founded

in the economy of China. One of the first

In 1368 the Ming Dynasty was created. The

advancements of this time was that trade

Dynasty collapsed due to a rebellion. The

started to begin with the West. In 1685,

people of China were expecting better

private maritime trading was legalized which

treatment than the Mongols, so Yaunzhang

allowed millions to trade with the West

started planning. Many things were

especially those on the coast. Before this

achieved in the Great Ming including the

moment of innovation, China and the West

erection of the Great Wall of China and the

were disconnected and could have been

expansion of global trade especially with

on two different planets. However, during

Europe. Zhu Yaunzhang wanted to create a

the Industrial Revolution from 1760-1840

new civilization in China. He was going to

the West (Great Britain and Europe) were

transform the country in ways which would

advancing more quickly than before. This

define history. Firstly, he formed a type of

was the most influential development for

society which had never been seen before

Europe in modern history. With railways

between smaller rural neighborhoods. In

being built and people being able to travel

the next two centuries, China would have

using vehicles; Europe had the chance to

doubled in population and have created the

open up to the rest of the world. Britons

wealthiest economy in the world at that

could now trade and dominate in terra-

time. This time was the third ‘golden age’

incognito countries. However, all of

the Great Ming after the Mongol-led Yuan

O T

H 18

Oliver McGuinness | 2CKL

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

Europe and many other countries or part

The Peoples’ Republic of China

of European empires were included in this

(1949-present)

progression whilst China had been left

In 1949, China was in a state of despair,

behind as an isolated country. It seemed

Japan was ruling them, and they had just lost

China was an undeveloped state compared

the war. That year, the KMT (Kuomintang)

other competitors. In 1839, the British

government and the Chinese Communist

invaded the island of Hong Kong because

party began the Chinese Civil War. Mao

China was interfering with the economy and

Zedong, leading the communist faction, won

political affairs of Britain.

the war and formed the People’s Republic of China. Mao Zedong was a firm socialist and

The Republic of China (1912-1949)

believed socialism would be more successful

At the beginning of the 20th century, the

than all other ideologies. Therefore, he

Great Qing were lacking support by their

launched one of the most important and

people. Many were, amongst other things,

most influential campaigns in China in the

furious with the Manchu-led government

20th century: the Great Leap Forward –

for allowing potential foreign aggression.

five-year scheme to establish the economy

Behind the government’s back, factions

on which modern China would innovate.

were formed and miniature armies were

Zedong saw materials which could be

quipped ready for a revolution or overthrow.

mega-farmed and sold in trade. These were

Therefore, in 1911, the year of the Xin Hai

produced like grain and steel of which there

in the Chinese calendar, the Qing Dynasty

was an abundance in China. Though this

fell to the Revolutionists and Sun Yat-Sen

meant that in China the peoples’ well-being

came to power whilst establishing the

was very low as militias forced most civilians

Republic of China. Sun Yat-Sen had a vision

to participate in the dreadful labour and

for China’s development. He wanted to

millions were beaten to death or committed

build one million miles of road and 100,000

suicide. It was a horrific time for the Chinese

miles of railway. He was determined to

people, but the economy did grow. The

turn China into a global superpower. Sun

Great Leap forward did come to an end and

Yat-Sen is respected as one of the great

was successful overall and achieved what

leaders of China and his plan to transform

Zedong envisioned.

China probably would have worked if not for the Sino-Japanese War during World

Soon after in 1976, Deng Xiaoping came to

War 2 which concluded with the killings of

be the supreme leader of the CCP. Xiaoping

300,000 civilians and the invasion of China.

and Mao Zedong were both predominantly

A great deal of transformational innovation

communist and both had great visions

would have been accomplished if not for the

for China. Deng Xiaoping was known for

Sino-Japanese war.

opening China to the West, to Asia and to the world. He was not a communist leader

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

OVER JUST BECAUSE CHINA IS CREATING NEW STRATEGIES AND WEALTH IN ITS COUNTRY, IT DOES NOT MEAN THAT OTHER NATIONS ARE NOT EVOLVING OR CATCHING UP WITH THE SUCCESS IN CHINA. who was happy to stay isolated as a country

materials to make produce. During Covid-19

and shy to trade with the West. Xiaoping

this is what happened and that is why there

was ready to change China in a way never

was the shortage (and still is to an extent) of

thought of before. And that is exactly what

computer chips and car parts.

he did. Why is China so dominant in trade?

THE CURRENT AFFAIRS OF CHINA AS A

One reason why China is the ‘world’s

GLOBAL SUPERPOWER

factory’ is that they have very low labour

It is 2022 and China looks like it is on

costs meaning that foreign countries are

track to become the most successful global

likely to have their products made in China

superpower. If you were to look on the

so that they can make more of a profit. Xi

back of a plastic product it is most likely

Jinping, the current President of China,

to say, ‘Made in China’. If you were to look

is focusing on how China can become

at a small clothing brand, you would find

the world’s largest global superpower. In

that most of the materials were imported

2013, Jinping formed the Belt and Road

from China regardless of where the actual

Initiative campaign. The concept of the BRI

product was made. One could call China

is like the Old Silk Road. It was designed to

the Manufacturing Queen or King. 30%

reroute global trade to China. The Chinese

of the country’s economic output is from

thought of this plan in 2013 and we have

manufacturing all kinds of products. The

already witnessed the impact of it. Large

rest of the world is so reliant on China, if all

constructions like a seaport in Sri Lanka

the factories closed many other businesses

have been built by the Chinese. There

would come to a halt whether they are

are many other similar projects which are

based in the US or South Africa, because

being created and they are all part of one

they would not be able to receive their

scheme. Jinping is looking to become the

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

world’s next superpower this way, by making

will range from Chinese telecom companies

countries depend on China and by agreeing

to Chinese clothing businesses. It would be

deals with less-developed countries who

irrational to say this will be a bad turn for

are not capable of taking such steps of

the world, but it would certainly change the

innovation.

lives of the next generations.

They are constructing in countries like the

The future of China as a global superpower

UAE, Egypt, Malaysia, and Indonesia and

It looks as if China will become the world’s

investing in countries like Pakistan, Russia,

largest economic superpower. In the news,

and Israel. This multi-trillion-dollar project

one can find updates on how China is

will not impact the world instantly, but over

pressing to agree the deals for the Belt Road

time change the route of global trade into

Initiative and constructing large ports and

China’s favour. The trajectory of the plan

factories. However, is China going to be able

can be seen on a map of the world because

to stay at the top and hold consistently as

China is literally making a flawless system

the world’s largest economy? Just because

which leads through China out to other

China is creating new strategies and wealth

countries. This is a major step of innovation

in its country, it does not mean that other

for China. You may be wondering what kind

nations are not evolving or catching up with

of agreements countries have reached with

the success in China. Perhaps China will fall,

Jinping. Many are deals like ‘We (China)

and their manufacturing motor will come

will build you a seaport on the coast for

to a halt. As we witnessed in the Covid-19

extremely little cost, but we will have 50%

pandemic, China was first hit and dependent

control over the port, and you can control

business over the world had to adapt

the rest’. This allows China to export/import

without key products. This would mean the

manufactured goods in ways which would

interdependence (which may be created in

not have been as easy before.

layers by the Chinese government by then) would collapse and each country would be

What does this mean for the rest of the world?

forced to adapt locally.

China is innovating faster than ever seen before. However, monopolism is never a

References

good ideology for a business or economy

https://www.economist.com/finance-andeconomics/2021/09/18/is-china-already-the-worlds-mostdominant-economy

because it dominates the market, abolishing competition and, in the end, raising prices.

https://www.statista.com/chart/20858/top-10-countries-byshare-of-global-manufacturing-output/

It is a similar theory to Amazon recreating

https://www.beltroad-initiative.com/belt-and-road/

the market into one where they are the only sellers. If China successfully emerges to be what it is seeking to be, the vast majority of economical produce will be Chinese. It

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

The Significance of History; It is beyond a school subject

Siru Huang | 4NLA

History is the study of the past, including

an accurate picture of what has happened

past events, people or places, which helps

or is happening, perhaps even anticipate

us to understand where we came from and

what will happen. Historians and those

how has the world become what it is. One

studying History, as they have not lived

must not see History as the sole study of

through the times, gather information from

wars, kings, or memorisation of dates; any

various sources which may present explicitly

references of any past materials, be it 19th-

contradicting views. They must analyse

century literature, ancient Greek philosophy,

multiple perspectives and come up with

or even theories and laws in Physics, or

their interpretations and opinions. This is

indeed a famous figure’s biography, are

much like analysing literature. Furthermore,

History.

those who study History not only examine the individual events, but they analyse

In the past, the knowledge of history has

why events happened and how have they

been perceived by leaders as the means to

happened – the intentions and potential

distinguish the educated men from those

implicit meanings behind the events, under

less so. Men who could talk about kings,

the social background. These are highly

their achievements, and wars or other

transferable skills and particularly useful

historical events with ease and fluency,

in modern society: along with the rapid

were seen as superior – granted with an

development of technology and media,

array of academic and job opportunities.

subtly seeping into our lives, becoming

However, that is only undermining the

indispensable, we inevitably come across

practicality and beauty behind History,

a lot of information every day from the

which although not as manifest as Computer

government, news, and those around us.

Science or DT, deserves greater attention

Studying History allows thus to assess the

and understanding: History is an art, from

useful and the trivial information, forming

which people could develop vital skills to

a balanced outlook of our surroundings.

live an aware, well-informed and conscious

Furthermore, to not take information at face

life in academia and the world of work;

value, and investigate the intentions and

where people could make sense of the world

causes behind its existence, to keep a clear

situations today; and lastly where one could

mindset not fluctuated by others.

learn from the past to conclude the patterns of human development.

Amongst the many philosophical questions History may pose, one of them is perhaps

Firstly, History is beyond mindless and futile

the definition of ‘truth’; this thought was

memorisation of names and dates. Studying

inspired by one of the questions posed

History allows one to develop their ability

to a classmate (who just concluded a

to assess an array of complex information

presentation on the History of Democracy)

from different sources, whereby they shape

during an Academic Enrichment session.

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

Take ‘Appeasement’ as an example; in 1938,

world. For example, if one did not have the

when Neville Chamberlain returned to

knowledge of American history, they would

England after a meeting with Adolf Hitler,

struggle to understand why it has adapted

the prime minister claimed: ‘I believe it is

to federalism, where power is scattered

peace for our time’. In his time, most of

between the central and local governments

society accepted that to be ‘true’. However

so that nobody has ultimate control of the

using hindsight, people today would say

nation. This is due to America’s history of

it is ‘false’. There are different views

being colonised by Britain under totalitarian

during different times, but which one is

rule, hence the American society advocates

true? Furthermore, people in North Korea

for freedom and democracy. The past is

believe the ‘Juche’ is the best way to lead a

deeply embedded in and influences the

nation; socialist governments such as that

present, hence, to try and understand

in China believe ‘Socialism (with Chinese

the world and resolve issues, one must

characteristics)’ is the correct approach;

investigate what led to its existence, which

whilst in the USA, people view capitalism as

ultimately is the study of History.

such. Winston Churchill once said: ‘History is always written by the winners’; therefore

Thirdly, and perhaps the most predominant

the beauty of History is perhaps nobody

argument for studying History, is to learn

knows what has authentically taken place,

from the past. Emperor Tai Zong, being

but the mainstream interpretations of

as successful as he was leading the Tang

evidence by historians are seen as the truth.

Dynasty of China into prosperity, once said: ‘Taking History as a mirror, I can see a

Secondly, History allows us to make

nation’s rise and fall in it’. History presents

sense of the world and those around

to us the mistakes, but also the wisdom

us. Like languages, acquiring the

of our predecessors, thus we could avoid

historical knowledge of another nation or

as much as the same mistakes possible

civilisation would evoke further insights

in our lives, and make sensible, insightful

into their culture and behaviour – being

decisions. Envision a world where the

more historically and culturally aware.

past is abandoned, nobody knows the

History could be seen as the ‘memory’ or

history of their country, their family or

‘experience’ of a collective, which shapes

even themselves – it is irrational. History

their action and thoughts; it augments the

is the memory of a society, without which

understanding of identity, where one may

the society would collapse as if suffering

feel inherent pride, or shame, for their

from amnesia. For example – stock traders.

ancestors (just like a child with successful,

If stock traders did not study the history

potentially wealthy parents would inevitably

and trend of the stock markets, they

feel proud). Furthermore, History reveals the

would not be able to make insightful and

logistics behind the way things exist in the

thoughtful decisions based on experience

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

and observation of the pattern, but solely

the nature and logistics in humanity. A

by luck. Similarly, if we did not study

common saying among Chinese historians

History, we would continue making the same

summarising the period of the Dynasties:

mistakes, ultimately our civilisation would

‘The empire, long divided must unite;

be static; ‘Those who do not remember

long united, must divide. Thus it has ever

the past are condemned to repeat it.’—

been.’ (‘天下大势，分久必合，合久必分’),

George Santayana (a Spanish writer and

this is another example whereby one could

philosopher).

recognise a pattern of events through studying History. In this specific case, it is

You may have heard the saying: ‘History

due to the ever-presence of class struggle,

repeats itself’, yet one could argue we are at

escalating into riots into revolution.

a height in technological development that

Ultimately, studying History allows

has never been achieved in history, thus

people to anticipate what is more likely

History cannot teach us what to do, vice

in the future, adapt to changes by making

versa even be seen as rather ‘out of time’.

insightful decisions.

However, despite we have ‘evolved’ thus far

in technology, the fundamental, biological

Before drawing this article to a conclusion,

nature of the human race has remained

I would like to add a postscript: something

almost static since the birth of civilisation

slightly less ‘serious’ and ‘academic’, but

a few millennia ago. For example, In 1929,

reflective, potentially thought-provoking,

amongst the end of the ‘Roaring Twenties’

and personal to me. Through my very

in America, on account of the presence of

limited History readings, I have found

abundant asset bubbles in the American

biographies (of course, a part of History)

economy – where the price exceeded the

great media to broaden my views of the

actual value of the goods – America and

world as a whole, not confined to my milieu;

the majority of Europe suffered from, if not,

I realise my shortness and weaknesses

the most severe economic recession ever

when reading about those who were/

recorded, known as the ‘Great Depression’.

are much more successful, thus avoiding

In 2008, a similar event took place, known

self-conceit; just like the famous words

as the ‘Great Recession’. Under an interval

of Steve Jobs: ‘Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish’;

of 79 years (bearing in mind it has only

the more I learn about the past, the more

been 13 years since the Great Recession in

I understand and appreciate the diverse

2008, up to when this article is written), the

world today, and am lured to know more

world has experienced a novel revolution

and develop. Simultaneously, the stories

in international relationships, technology

of famous figures and events inspire me,

and much more; the world went through

perhaps to start a new habit, action, or just

the Second World War, the Cold War and

something to look further into. This itself

much more, but what has not changed is

is innovation, which does not, and I believe

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

should not be exclusively interpreted as coming up with something nobody else has before. A personal change, as listed above, itself is a process of creating something new (defined as ‘innovation’) for oneself, only not macroscopically. Furthermore, innovation is about creating something new to ‘making meaning’, which could be interpreted as creating value. Establishing changes in oneself, having been inspired by History, creates value, as it brings a beneficial impact undoubted to the individual themselves, but

IF WE DID NOT STUDY HISTORY, WE WOULD CONTINUE MAKING THE SAME MISTAKES.

also those around the individual affected by this change, perhaps even the world, dependent on the future achievements of the individual. Formally, in conclusion, History develops our skills vital to an aware, well-informed, and conscious life in academia and the world of work; shapes our understanding of where we come from and why the world is what it is; to learn from the past. Lastly, quoting most famously from Isaac Newton: ‘If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants’, recapitulates the significance of studying History to us. History is the memory and experience of a civilisation, encapsulated in it the wisdom of those before us.

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

Poland-Lithuania: Europe’s Ghost Nation and the Double Edged Sword of Innovation

Daniel Bronk-Navas | L6DEC

When one thinks about Poland or Lithuania

Lithuania finds its first historical reference

today, one’s mind tends to turn to crumbling

in the Latin book Annales Quedlinburgenses

communist apartment blocks, flashy EU

in 1009 AD, as a small tribe on the Baltic

funded skyscrapers, and a prominence of

coast. In the 1200s, Lithuania underwent

right-wing political resistance to the EU,

both military reforms and, coupled with

conservative majorities, and a movement

the collapse of the Kievan Rus’ state in

decisively away from liberalism. Yet

the south, massive expansion. However,

strangely, turn back the clock 500 years,

the attainment of slaves led to social

and the then-nation of Poland-Lithuania was

differentiation, and the struggle that ensued

the core of liberal and humanitarian values

left Lithuania as a ‘Grand Duchy’ under the

in Europe. A democracy amongst nations

house of Gedimnias.

of monarchic absolutism; a constitution like that of Poland-Lithuania was never

Poland, meanwhile, was ruled by the Piast

seen again. This essay will explore the

dynasty, expanding its territory north

phenomenon that was medieval Poland-

and gaining territories such as Moravia

Lithuania and its constitution: how this

to its south. The Piast dynasty suffered a

unlikely alliance was formed, the cultural

series of fractures and partitions, meaning

blossom of the 16th and 17th centuries, the

its borders were in constant flux. This

nation at war, the deluge and decline, and

monarchical weakness allowed the Catholic

the effect of Poland Lithuania on modern

Church to extend its reach over Poland

Europe.

at the time, influencing the culture and deeply ingraining Catholic values in the

TOWARDS UNION

Polish population (something still seen in

The very first traces of the Polish Lithuanian

Poland and its population today). It was at

commonwealth can be found in 966 AD,

this early stage that the idea of nationalism

with the conversion of Duke Mieszko I of

first appeared. Under the Gedimnids, the

Poland to Christianity. Generally known as

‘Grand Duchy’ of Lithuania practiced a Slavic

‘the baptism of Poland,’ it laid not only the

branch of paganism. The last Piast monarch

foundations of the polish nation but also

was Kasimiersz III, and it is under him that

formed a bond with the Catholic Church

the first traces of the democracy in Poland

which would become extremely prevalent

can be found. A nobleman court called the

later. He founded the Catholic headquarters

Szlachta (deriving from the old polish for

in Poland at Gniezno and this consolidation

nobleman) was formed that could vote on

of power led to his crowning as Poland’s

state issues. After the rule of Kasimiersz

first King.

III, Poland’s position in Europe was greatly strengthened, however he died without

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

an heir. His uncle Louis of Anjou inherited

nobility in the voting process. Critical

the Piast throne after a succession crisis,

reforms such as the ‘Statute of Kalisz’

but mismanaged Poland and was generally

were reinforced by the voting nobility, the

unpopular. His daughter Jadwiga, however,

statute granting full legal rights to Jews in

proved to be the opposite.

Poland-Lithuania. The Szlachta lived by the sentiment of ‘Sarmatism,’ after the oriental

Originally, Jadwiga was arranged to marry

Sarmatians, thought by many at the time to

King William of Hapsburg, however the

be the ancestors of the Polish nobility. The

Polish nobility did not accept him as their

virtues of Sarmatism were a quaint living

monarch, fearing that he would neglect

style, an upholding of traditional arts and

Poland over his native Austria. Jadwiga

a championing of oriental souvenirs and

instead was married to Grand Duke Jogaila

attire for men. Poland-Lithuania, unlike

of Lithuania. Under the Union of Krewo

most European nations, took its garment

in 1385, the two were married and the

fashions from Istanbul, rather than Paris.

Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of

This unique and tolerant fusion of cultures

Lithuania thusly united. Jogaila converted

led Poland-Lithuania to attain a diverse

to Christianity and changed her name

population. In the words of French Catholic

to Władysław Jageiłło, founding the

Rulhiere, "This country, which in our day

Jagełłonian dynasty. Poland-Lithuania was

we have seen divided on the pretext of

now an official crown union, but not yet a

religion, is the first state in Europe that

state. In the following century, the Szlachta

exemplified tolerance. In this state, mosques

formed a nationwide parliament known as

arose between churches and synagogues.”

the Sejm or the Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka.

This statement was certainly not false,

The first official use of the Szlachta’s

with Catholics, Protestants, Muslims

legislative powers was during the Sejm

(Sufi), Orthodox Christians, and Jewish

assembly of 1492, voting King Jan Olbracht

communities peacefully coexisting in the

onto the throne. From 1493 onwards, the

religious tolerance of the constitution.

Szlachta would meet every two years to pass reforms, acts, or vote in rulers.

Slavery in Poland-Lithuania was abolished in the early 15th century, being replaced

THE GOLDEN AGE

instead with a ‘second serfdom’ with

As Renaissance art and ideas made their

noblemen leading ‘folwarks’ (serfs working

way north, Poland-Lithuania experienced a

the land) mainly in Lithuania. Poland-

cultural blossom in the 1500s and 1600s.

Lithuania’s economy boomed during the

The Szlachta grew in number, incorporating

15th century, with massive grain and

members of the Ruthenian and Lithuanian

agricultural exports from Lithuania, and salt,

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

linen, timber, amber, and fur exports from

Britain in the 1880s. Whilst other countries

Poland. Most of these went to Western

in Europe were based on absolute monarchy,

Europe, mainly from the Baltic port of

the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth was a

Danzig.

federal democracy made up of a parliament of voting nobles.

Poland-Lithuania had a relatively small urban population at the time in comparison to

The Sejm meetings were based off a set

the western powers. A large portion of the

of liberal values that wanted to avoid

population had moved into rural Lithuania

autocracy. One example of the Liberum Veto

after the union, carrying Polish culture with

(or Złota Wolność in Polish) – this ‘golden

them. Under the Szlachta, liberal arts, ideas,

liberty’ allowed any member of the Szlachta

and the sciences blossomed, with Nikolaus

to halt the debate process by calling out

Kopernicus publishing his magnum opus On

‘Sisto Activataem!’ – “I stop the activity!”.

the Revolutions of Celestial Spheres in 1530.

This idea was incorporated to promote

Ideas of heliocentrism spoken openly at

agreement on an issue and to keep the

the time could warrant a death penalty in

King’s power in check. Throughout the from

other countries in Europe, yet due to the

the 1492 till 1772, every Polish-Lithuanian

liberal makeup of the constitution at the

monarch was voted in by the Sejm. The

time, Kopernicus was able to publish his

revolutionary nature of the constitution

revolutionary work.

of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth inspired political philosophers such as

In 1596 after a series of political unions,

Mordewski and Stazsic. It is evident

Poland-Lithuania was made into an

through the bloom in the culture, sciences,

official state, the Polish-Lithuanian

and economy that the liberal pseudo-

commonwealth, in what is known as the

democracy of the Sejm had a positive effect

‘Union of Lublin.’ The late 16th century

on cultivating Polish-Lithuanian culture

is generally considered the zenith of the

and played a large role in forging the

commonwealth’s power. At the time, it

commonwealth’s prosperity and power in

was the second largest state in Europe,

the 16th century.

stretching from the Baltic to the Black

Sea, with a population of twelve million,

THE SEJM AND THE MILITARY

made up of Jews, Prussians, Austrians,

A large part of the role the Sejm had in

Tartars, Cossacks, Poles, Ruthenians, and

Poland-Lithuania was the management of

Lithuanians. Ten percent of the population

the military, since Poland-Lithuania and its

was eligible to vote in the Sejm, a voter

composite nations had been at war with

percentage which was only matched by

their neighbouring forces since the original

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE NOBILITY, THE KING HAD NO AUTHORITY TO DECLARE WAR. union. In fact, a driving factor for the union

the military technology in the 16th and

of the two states had been a shared enemy

early 17th century, capable of raising large

in the Teutonic Order, who held lands

armies rapidly and efficiently. In the early

along the Baltic to the north. The Teutonic

1600s, the army was made up of 25,000

Order carried out decades of pillaging and

effectives, 20,000 Cossacks. Throughout the

ransacking of both Polish and Lithuanian

1500s and early 1600s, Poland-Lithuania’s

territories in the 1300s. In 1410 the

military dominance in central Europe was

Teutonic order decided to invade Poland-

upheld by the military effectively, with

Lithuania but were decisively defeated at

victories in Livonia (1561), Klushino(1610),

the Battle of Grünwald. This battle led to the

Khotyn(1621), the Muscovite wars (1558-

decline of the Teutonic Order as more and

1634), even seizing Moscow itself from

more land was ceded to Poland-Lithuania

1610 to 1620.

and marked the beginning of PolandLithuania’s rise to become the dominant

The ability of the Polish-Lithuanian

state in central Europe.

commonwealth to wage war depended entirely on the unanimous agreement of the

The Polish-Lithuanian military was

nobles in the Sejm. Without the consent of

comprised of the armia koronna of Poland

the nobility, the King had no authority to

and the armia litewska of Lithuania. Among

declare war. For a continuous defence of

these armies there were several elite

the home territories, there was a standing

units such as the Polish ‘Winged Hussar’

army of 1500 to 3000 troops: the obrona

heavy cavalry (usually made up of nobles

potoczna. In 1565, the Sejm voted on the

of the Szlachta class) and the ‘Lithuanian

introduction of the wojsko kwarcian. This

Royal Guardsmen.’ The Polish-Lithuanian

was a war tax levied on the royal lands to

army showed an ability to develop with

maintain the obrona potoczna, which was

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

also partially funded by the King-elect.

the regime found its roots in the incredible

It was also the Sejm who chose when to

religious tolerance in Poland-Lithuania. With

levee war taxes to raise armies for foreign

the ‘Statute of Kalisz’ granting Jews full legal

wars. The latter 17th century held Poland-

rights in Poland-Lithuania, they settled in

Lithuania’s most renowned use of the elite

various territories, including Cossack ones.

‘Winged Hussar’ unit. In 1683, after 90

The Jews were seen by the majority of

days of Ottoman siege, a Polish-Lithuanian

Europe at the time as ‘Killers of Christ’ and

relief force of 80,000 men led by Jan III

subject to countless pogroms - the Cossacks

Sobieski (Polish king-elect at the time),

were against the Jews and also Catholics

opposed to the 150,000-man Ottoman

being in ‘their’ land. In 1648, the Cossacks

army. The battle culminated in the attack of

rose up in defiance of the Polish-Lithuanian

the Polish-Lithuanian force, headed by the

commonwealth in the Khmelnytsky Uprising.

largest cavalry charge in in history - some

Allied with Crimean tartars and Ukrainian

20,000 horsemen led by some 3000 Winged

peasants, the insurgent forces committed

Hussars’. Only three hours after the attack,

atrocities against the Catholic clergy and the

the Ottomans retreated. The siege of Vienna

Jewish people.

marked the high tide of Ottoman influence in Europe, from then on the empire would

The commonwealth underestimated the

wane in strength and territory.

size of the uprising, and the death of the King (Wladysław III Vasa) left the

The importance of the Sejm in maintaining

commonwealth without leadership in

the commonwealth’s power cannot be

this time of crisis. The Cossack armies

understated due to its massive influence

defeated two commonwealth forces, but

on the army. Courtesy of the Sejm, Poland-

the revolt was eventually quashed. The

Lithuania was able to maintain an army and

Cossacks saw no option other to swear

several defensive battalions at home as well

allegiance to the Czarate. Russia decided

as sizeable armies for war abroad.

to commit all its forces to the struggle and launched full attack. When in 1654 the

DELUGE AND DECLINE

commonwealth sent its main force to deal with the Cossacks, Russian armies swept in

The ‘Deluge’ in 1655 marked the beginning

through Lithuania. Sweden, an expansionist

of a rapid and tumultuous decline of the

power with an effective military at the time,

Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth from the

saw the opportunity to seize some of the

position of a major European power to a

commonwealth’s Baltic ports to finance

crippled satellite state and finally to being

its armies. In 1655, Sweden sent its main

wiped off the map entirely. The instability in

force into Poland. The commonwealth was

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

under attack from three sides and needed

weaknesses. The Deluge also ruined

leadership which the Sejm-elected King

the Polish-Lithuanian economy, and the

Jan Kazimiersz Vasa could not provide. As

ransacking and burning by the Swedes,

the commonwealth crumpled under the

Russians, and Cossacks had led to three

onslaught, Vasa fled to the Holy Roman

million deaths and the destruction of several

Empire.

prominent areas of commonwealth culture.

The Sejm decided to vote in the king of

The Deluge was the trigger for the decline

Sweden, Charles X, in hopes that Sweden

of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth-

would ensure the commonwealth safety

throughout the next century. Little was

from the Russian armies. Most territories

done politically to hinder the decline, as

swore allegiance to the Swedish king, but

Russia and the commonwealth’s neighbours

large swathes of land were taken over by

further exploited the ‘golden liberty.’ Time

the Cossacks and Russians. By 1655, most

and time again members of the Sejm were

of Poland-Lithuania was under foreign

bribed to use the liberum veto, causing an

control. After a successful guerrilla warfare

instant handbrake on the entire legislative

campaign, the commonwealth regained

process and preventing critical reforms

much of its territory, however, it was clear

from being made. As the commonwealth

to its neighbours that the commonwealth

waned, its neighbours grew stronger, and

was on the decline.

in 1764, Stanislaw II (Poland’s last king) was elected as a Russian puppet. The Poles

The Deluge laid bare the flaws in the

revolted in 1768, and Russia invaded.

commonwealth’s political system – the

Austria and Prussia took the opportunity

nobles had become too protective of their

and seized swathes of commonwealth

‘golden liberty.’ A reason for the devastating

territory for themselves, and a series of

effect of the Deluge was the inability of

Partitions in 1772, 1793, and 1795 led to

the constitution to make any reforming

the disappearance of Poland-Lithuania off

decisions since the nobles in the Sejm

the map.

were often inclined to oppose the King to keep his power in check. The economy

THE EFFECT OF THE COMMONWEALTH

and government remained decentralised

The Sejm’s weakness had led to catastrophe

to appease the Szlachta, a clear weakness

in the Deluge and the ensuing century,

during times of invasion. The events of

with the partitions marking the end of the

the Deluge, whilst not being the final

commonwealth. However, the influence of

blow to the commonwealth, exposed to

the Sejm and the commonwealth are still

its neighbouring countries its political

felt in Poland today. Due to the prominence

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

THE PROMINENCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH LED TO A SHIFT AWAY FROM THE CONCEPT OF POLAND AS A MULTIFAITH, ETHNICALLY DIVERSE NATION LIKE IT HAD BEEN DURING THE TIMES OF THE COMMONWEALTH, AND TOWARDS A PRECURSOR TO MODERN ETHNONATIONALISM. of the Catholic Church in Poland, Poles felt

instigated by the Poles under the partitions

that even with no nation state they still

(most notably in 1831 and 1863). Poland

had a force to rally behind. In the Partition

was in a unique position in Europe, having a

times, the Church served as a cultural

nation and ancestral homelands, but without

anchor for Poles. The Partitions led to a

a state. The Partitions, and the cultural

flare in Polish nationalism, with ideas of the

rallying point that the Church served as

commonwealth being romanticised through

during them, led to a change in what it

arts and poetry, and many Poles seeing their

meant to be Polish. The prominence of the

country as the ‘Christ of Nations,’ one day to

Catholic Church led to a shift away from the

rise again.

concept of Poland as a multi-faith, ethnically diverse nation like it had been during the

Polish people were, throughout the 19th

times of the commonwealth, and towards

century, not alone in their romantic ideals

a precursor to modern ethnonationalism.

about the struggle for a nation-state,

The effects of this are still felt in Europe

and the extent of the nationalism which

today, as Poland remains one of the most

pervaded the Polish people at the time

nationalistic countries to this day.

can be seen through the number of revolts

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

The current governing party Prawo i

In conclusion, the democracy that made

Sprawiedliwość is right-wing and has most

up Poland-Lithuania’s constitution was a

of its support from rural Poland with its

key factor in its unmatched religious and

deep-rooted Catholic traditions. In 2017,

ethnic diversity at the time, a reason for the

Poland’s Independence Day parade made

cultural and scientific boom in its golden

world headlines due to signs displaying

age, and yet the greatest reason for its

nationalistic slogans such as ‘Death to the

downfall. Poland-Lithuania fell victim to its

enemies of the fatherland,’ with 60,000

own lofty ideology, creating a system that

people on the march waving red flares

avoided autocracy to the extent where it

and Polish flags, leaving no doubt of the

was laughably easy for foreign powers to

nationalistic roots still deep within Polish

manipulate it.

society. Prawo i Sprawiedliwość has exploited idea that Poland is once again under control, but now by the European Union. This was a key factor in their voting campaign in 2015, that after years of Soviet control preceded by earlier centuries of foreign powers fighting to erase Poland’s existence, Polish people were once again on the brink of subjugation. This idea proved very popular, especially amongst Poland’s traditional rural population, and was a major factor in PiS’s gaining of the vote in 2015, and a reason for PiS’s breaking of several E.U. laws in recent years. The EU has even invoked Article 7 to try to strip Poland of its voting rights – a motion only stopped by Hungary’s use of its veto. The effects of the partitions and centuries of nonexistence of a polish state are still clearly visible today, in the form of a society with deep seated nationalism and a fear of once again ending up under foreign control.

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

The end of the American Century?

Matthew Dokoupil | L6NJC

The period between bounded by the end of

Firstly, to understand what has changed in

the Second World War and the present is

the last few years, we need to understand

often referred to as the American Century,

what has driven Chinese growth in the last

representing the period of time during which

few decades, after all the development

the United States had enjoyed true primacy

from an economic backwater to global

on the global stage, even during the Cold

superpower is hardly a subtle one. In fact,

War (the reality of that particular conflict

Chinese economic power has been the

was that the United States almost constantly

cornerstone of its capacity to project power,

possessed the military, technological and

and so understanding it is the fundamental

economic edge over the USSR), and has

key to the struggle between the two powers,

been the global status quo for much of

and as such will receive the most attention,

the last 100 years. The extent of American

but before this it is briefly worth discussing

primacy is evident in many lenses, whether

the military dimension of the struggle.

that be the power of American military institutions, the markets of Wall Street

In any conflict between superpowers, the

or the cultural exports of Hollywood and

military strength of each is a crucial gauge of

Broadway, but increasingly the rise of

relative power, and in this regard the United

China has called the existence of American

States is significantly ahead of China. The

hegemony since 1991 into question.

United States possesses by a considerable margin the most powerful naval and air

This article intends to explore the

forces of the modern era, these theatres

dichotomous struggle for global primacy

are focused on as the most important in any

between the incumbent United States and

conflict between the two, and at least for

a rising China, and to postulate the ultimate

now this is likely to remain the case, as the

victor of this struggle. Of course, before

United States currently spends 250-300%

any discussion can take place, it must be

more than their Chinese counterparts (the

clarified that by no means can this be

exact amount is unclear and varies annually).

understood as a comprehensive predictor

Currently the United States has far more

of the future, but more as an educated

capacity to act on a global scale. It would

guess as to what may be in the decades to

be unthinkable to imagine in the current

come. The reason this article will focus on

world a Chinese invasion of Iraq, but the

China is that of all the national powers in

United States despite being geographically

existence currently, only China possesses

further than China from Iraq is more than

the present capacity to challenge the

capable of launching such an invasion, so it

United States. Russia is too economically

is evident that the United States presently

and demographically stagnant to match the

possesses a more developed military, and

United States into the future, and India is

a more developed capacity to project its

currently too economically underdeveloped

military power – in a similar vein you would

to contend, so the most obvious remaining

be surprised to find Chinese vessels sailing

contender is China.

the Eastern Seaboard, but American carrier

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

taskforces sailing the South China Sea are a

that China will ever surpass the United

regular occurrence.

States without a continuity of the growth that has propelled it thus far.

However, it must not be forgotten that the current capacity of the battle between

To suggest a trend for Chinese economic

the United States and China is more than

growth, the conditions that first allowed

anything a battle of economics. This is

the country to grow so rapidly must firstly

true for two reasons. Firstly, because the

be examined. China first began its rapid

long-term capacity to develop and maintain

economic growth in full towards the end

a modern military force is dependent on

of the 1970s, though the groundwork for

economic success and innovation, and

this had been laid as early as 1971. The

secondly because the main way China is

foundation here was the integration of

attempting to spread its influence is through

China into the global economy, led by the

economic means, for instance through the

incremental lowering of trade barriers by

Belt and Road Initiative.

the United States through the 1970s. This allowed China into the global market system,

The Belt and Road Initiative is a series of

and through integration with that system

infrastructure projects, all strategically

it became the “workshop of the world”.

centred around China. These projects are led

The manufacturing it increasingly took on

by Chinese companies in foreign nations and

after it was opened up to export to the

aim to bring greater influence to the Chinese

world propelled its industrial and economic

government by integrating foreign countries

growth, and its position as a manufacturing

more closely into Beijing’s economic sphere

powerhouse was what propelled it through

by creating infrastructure links centred

the remainder of the 20th century.

around the Chinese market. This process took off particularly strongly Since the main catalyst of China’s rise

after the death of Mao in 1976, at which

has been its rapid economic growth (the

point a series of reforms geared at

economy has grown to over forty-times its

increasing economic performance were

1978 value) it is worthwhile looking at its

introduced under Deng Xiaoping, including

prospects for growth, as it seems unlikely

a liberalisation of enterprise in the country,

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

OVER THE NEXT 15 YEARS SOME PROJECTIONS ESTIMATE THAT CHINA WILL GAIN 130 MILLION SENIOR CITIZENS AND LOSE 70 MILLION WORKING AGE-ADULTS. even going as far as allowing foreign

than contributed to the state, and a high

companies to operate in “Special Enterprise

number of economically active workers,

Zones” in the coastal regions of the country,

creating perfect conditions for a productive

which further stimulated the rapid growth

manufacturing economy. Between its

of commercial megacities throughout the

integration into the global economy, its

Eastern regions of the country.

enormous and productive population, and the resources of the country itself, it seems

However, it would be foolish to consider

China is set up for an immensely prosperous

these factors in isolation of what has

21st Century.

historically been the great advantage of China, namely its simply enormous

However, this is not all positive for China.

resources, whether that be minerals, crops

In fact, it may well be facing a serious

or even people. The first two are useful

economic crisis over the coming years. Like

and even crucial in supporting a modern

a tsunami coming across the horizon, China

industrial manufacturing economy, but the

now faces an imminent demographics crisis.

enormous population it possessed during

The population that carried its economy to

the late 20th and early 21st centuries

become the most productive on the planet is

was absolutely instrumental in China’s

now aging, and with their aging comes two

enormous growth, in particular the specific

problems. Firstly, that they will be leaving

demographics of that population. Not

the workforce to become pensioners, which

only did it have a population numbering in

the state will have to provide for, and

the billions, but it also had an incredibly

secondly that the succeeding generation is

high number of working adults relative

far smaller, as alluded to earlier, than their

to its population of seniors and children

predecessors, as a result of the One Child

as a result of two distinct policies: an

Policy and declining birth rates even after its

encouragement of large families early in the

lifting as economic development increases

years of the CCP as well as the introduction

of the One Child Policy later. This left the

This is nothing short of a catastrophe.

country with a low proportion of economic

Over the next 15 years some projections

“burdens”, i.e. people who drew from rather

estimate that China will gain 130 million

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

senior citizens and lose 70 million working

international law, have increasingly put

age-adults. That is approximately the entire

China at odds with its neighbours, as well as

population of the UK lost, and twice that

the United States. This has created a world

many gained as economic liabilities. This

increasingly unfriendly to Beijing, so whilst

will either necessitate a massive increase

it attempts to expand into foreign markets

in government spending on social care, or a

and exploit African resources, it increasingly

reduction in the provision of care likely to

isolates neighbours such as Vietnam or

stoke unrest.

the Philippines, where opposition to the government’s pro-China stance has become

Another major crisis facing China is their

a hot-button electoral issue. This threatens,

already faltering economic growth. In

and has already started, to create action

the early 2000s the Chinese government

to cut China out the world’s crucial supply

reported growth figures consistently

chains. Look no further than the rush to

hovering between 10-20%, a very impressive

fund microchip production domestically

pace of growth, but one that has taken

in the West or the elimination of Huawei

a nosedive in recent years, reaching as

from 5G infrastructure in several countries.

low as about 2% in recent years. This

China’s assertiveness is making enemies

combined with the imminent tsunami spells

with the system it needs to survive.

out a potential catastrophe for China’s ambitions, which is made even worse by

Ultimately, I would argue that China is

falling productivity and potentially even

unlikely to ever surpass the United States.

negative growth. On the first point, the rate

The economic factors it once depended

at which China is increasing productivity is

on are unreliable, and it now faces a

steadily decreasing, according to estimates

demographics crisis compounded by slowing

from both the World Bank and CEIC. This

growth, falling productivity trends and an

represents a problem when combined with

increasingly hostile neighbourhood. Given

the next point, namely that government

China’s reliance on so many of these factors

spending in infrastructure has been the main

for its previous success, it seems unlikely

driver of economic growth. The economy has

such a trend can survive without them.

not been growing without elevated levels of government investment, and when combined

References

with crawling productivity, this represents a

https://www.gov.uk/government/news/huawei-to-be-removedfrom-uk-5g-networks-by-2027

crucial hurdle to Chinese growth. And to top it all off, beyond all its economic woes it also faces an increasingly hostile world. The open belligerence of the Chinese

https://www.cnbc.com/2019/09/19/china-economyproductivity-is-next-growth-engine-says-world-bank-report.html https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/ article/3158194/chinas-economic-growth-biggest-challengebeijing-2022-senior https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/ article/3152786/china-gdp-slowdown-third-quarter-growthramps-fears-more

government towards Taiwan in particular,

https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2021-10-01/ end-chinas-rise

but also to other countries in the South

https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/china/labourproductivity-growth

China Sea over its claims to the “Nine Dash

https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china

Line” of territorial waters in defiance of

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

The Fall of the Samurai

William Brotherhood | L6CHC

The Samurai have been dominant in Japanese

However, many factions such as the western

society (as the warrior class and eventually

samurai from the Choshu, Satsuma and

the educated aristocracy) since 1192 with the

Tosa domains opposed this change, calling

military coup by the Shogun, military dictator

for a return of power to the Emperor

of Japan. As the warrior class they played a

who had been a political figurehead until

vital role in Japan’s bloody history, not only in

this point. They not only objected to the

defending it from Mongol invasions in 1271

embracing of western ideas and the unequal

and 1281 but also in bloody civil conflicts

treaties, but also the introduction of

during the Sengoku period. In the peaceful

foreigners to Japan. They had become used to

times of the Tokugawa, they became the

isolation over the past 250 years and blamed

educated elite, writing poetry, notably in

the outsiders for their problems. In 1868,

the form of Haiku. Even in the present day,

they forced Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the current

with the class having been abolished over

Shogun and ruler of Japan, to hand over

150 years ago, they still have a resounding

all political power to the Emperor, who

impact on Japanese society, especially in

was until then simply a figurehead. While

businessmen who follow similar qualities

Yoshinobu had initially hoped to allow his

of respect, loyalty, courage, trust, patience,

family to maintain influence by handing

tolerance, and perseverance. What is often

over power peacefully to the emperor, it

overlooked is that this once influential class

soon became clear (after an imperial decree

was virtually eradicated from Japanese

pushed forward by the western samurai to

society in only 20 years.

abolish the house of Tokugawa) that this would not be the case. Yoshinobu therefore

From 1603 to 1868, Japan and the samurai

launched a military campaign against the

had enjoyed prosperous isolation under the

Emperor to seize the capital in what became

Tokugawa Shogunate. Japan was the most

known as the Boshin war.

urbanised in the world (10-12%) and literacy rates were high, with even 40-50% of the

This conflict very quickly turned in the

lower peasant and merchant populations

favor of the imperial forces who defeated

being literate. However, this prosperous

an army three times their size at the Battle

isolation was ended when Commodore

of Toba-Fushimi on the 28th of January

Matthew Perry of the US Navy entered Edo

1868 near Kyoto. They then proceeded to

Bay demanding Japan be opened to the

Edo (now Tokyo) and captured Yoshinobu

outside world. At first only two new ports

himself. Those loyal to Yoshinobu briefly

were opened to the US, however soon more

formed the Republic of Enzo on the northern

ports and foreign residences were forced

island of Hokkaido before eventually being

upon Japan. Eventually, the Tokugawa

defeated at the battle of Hakodate.

Shogunate began to westernize the country creating a western style fleet of eight

Following the war, many of the Tokugawa

steam warships, hiring French engineers to

loyalists were given clemency of their

build two arsenals, and modernizing the army

actions and many were allowed to take

under a French military mission.

positions in the new government. This war has later been romanticized as the

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

“Bloodless Revolution” due to the relatively

Initially, the conflict, named after the

low deaths of only 8,200 people from Japan's

Satsuma domain, consisted of raids by

population of 34 million at the time.

students of Saigo against various imperial facilities such as the Somuta Arsenal.

However, after the war, the Emperor went

However, it quickly escalated to the first

back on the policy of expelling the foreigners

major conflict at the siege of Kumamoto

and instead modernized Japan with the aim

Castle. Despite contrary expectations,

of eventually repealing or renegotiating the

the recently formed demoralized peasant

unequal treaties that the West had forced

conscript army were able to effectively

on Japan. This split the new government

hold out against the sieging army and even

into two factions: those loyal to the Emperor

managed to sortie out to capture supplies.

and those who still wished to expel the

Ultimately, the conscripts were able to

foreigners. One of these was Saigo Takamori,

hold back the sieging army until another

one of the most senior members of the

imperial army forced Saigo to retreat. In

House of Satsuma which had been one

his retreat, Saigo fought several smaller

of the three main houses supporting the

battles leaving samurai to conduct guerilla

Emperor. He saw the increasing uselessness

warfare behind him and forcing his army out

of the samurai in modern Japan and wished

of encirclements by forces landing by boat

to find them at the very least a meaningful

behind him. He eventually retreated to

and beneficial death by going to war with

Kagoshima with only 500 samurai out of the

neighboring Korea. He even went as far

original 10,000. Here he made his final stand

to offer to go to Korea himself; an act

against the imperial forces. After repelling

so insulting he would be forced to be killed

the initial frontal assault, Saigo was left dead

for provoking war between Japan and

to either seppuku (ritual suicide) or bullet

Korea. However, his proposals were refused

wounds and only 40 samurai remained. These

and he, along with many other samurai,

last samurai made a final suicidal charge

quit their positions in the government.

into the imperial army where they were

He instead created a private paramilitary

immediately killed by gunfire ending the

school in Kagoshima called the Shi-gakko to

rebellion.

support the many ex-samurai and expolice officers who lived in the Satsuma

The immediate effect of the rebellion was

domain. Support for this private academy

that the samurai class was rendered obsolete

eventually became so high that 132

as warriors by the imperial army. During

branches were established throughout the

the rebellion, this conscript army proved it

region, essentially making it independent

could stand up to the old warrior class at

from imperial rule by 1877. The imperial

the siege of Kumamoto Castle and in further

government, fearing rebellion, sent two

battles. Throughout the intermediate period

police officers to investigate, but they

between the two conflicts, the emperor had

were captured and confessed under torture

also begun centralizing the government,

to being ordered to assassinate Saigo,

“persuading” many of the Daimyos to return

sparking the bloody Satsuma Rebellion

their land to the emperor in 1869. All land

that eliminated the Samurai class.

was controlled by the Emperor by 1872.

H I S TO RY, P O L I T I C S A N D E C O N O M I C S

Efforts to truly abolish the samurai began in 1873 with samurai stipends being more heavily taxed and the option offered to exchange their stipends for government bonds. The exchange was finally made compulsory by law. Any doubts about the place of the samurai, who with 1.9 million people were still a sizable force, were put to rest with the end of the Satsuma Rebellion. The samurai that remained were able to become teachers, administrators, officials and other educated roles. Though, while the title of “Samurai” was abolished, many still had elitist attitudes about their ancestry. This whole event comes as the beginning of the larger Meiji Restoration, as the feudal system kept in place by the Shogun was abolished. Following this, Japan was able to industrialize due to massive centralization efforts such as the unification of language to create a “standard language” and a public education system to both educate and encourage loyalty to the Emperor. This education system spring-boarded the industrial revolution that followed, turning Japan into the first modernized great power in Asia (until its defeat in 1945) and allowing it to effectively compete with British and Chinses manufacturers of textiles.

THE SAMURAI THAT REMAINED WERE ABLE TO BECOME TEACHERS, ADMINISTRATORS, OFFICIALS AND OTHER EDUCATED ROLES.

O, NP, OELTI H RO A TMUI R HRI E SL T IOGRI Y T I C S A N D LE ICTOE N CE S

Isaiah’s Prophecy

Charlie Kennedy | 4HML

But even if we knew all that, it begs the

suffering, yet we considered him punished

question, why did people believe him? For if

by God, stricken by him, and afflicted. But

we are to analyse this historically, we must

he was pierced for our transgressions,

be under the assumption that the miracles

he was crushed for our iniquities; the

did not literally happen and the myths in

punishment that brought us peace was on

the Bible are just that, myths. So how does

him, and by his wounds we are healed.” –

one man and twelve apostles change the

Isaiah 53 4-5

minds of so many? Before I begin, I want to

“Surely he took up our pain and bore our

make the record clear, I am an agnostic who spent the first decade of his life attending

Jesus, it is truly remarkable how accurate

Sunday Church services, and while I do not

a prophecy can be. The ink on the texts of

agree with it, I do not condemn or disregard

Isaiah defined the largest religion to ever

the prospect of Jesus being the actual

influence the world. 2.382 billion people

Son of God. I simply seek to find the most

have faith in Jesus at least to some degree

historic answer to Jesus, which will result

– but even then, what people believe is

in the historical explanation for Christianity

incredibly divided. Some believe in the

as a whole and provide context behind

literal truth of the Bible, scanning the words

what jumpstarted the largest religion ever

as if they were watching the events unfold

recorded in history.

Going back to the question of who is Jesus? To put simply, he was far more likely a

angels truly descended to the Shepherds

violent revolutionary that advocated for

of Galilee but more for what it means and

the expulsion and slaughter of Rome and

what they are supposed to draw from it.

all those that support them than a peaceful

However, buried deep beneath the piles of

advocate of peace and endurance. For the

to their faith – caring less for whether the

long answer however, I will explain the

and offshoots, lays a question. A question so

political climate of Roman Judea, look at

important that its answer would principally

the physical appearance of Jesus and then

change Christianity as a whole.

theorise who he was based off the writings

different Christian interpretations, exegesis,

of the Gospels and prophesies of the Old Testament, as well as key clues provided by

what is his legitimacy for being a martyr to

the historical context of some conventions,

so many, but the actual historicity of Jesus.

such as the Crucifixion which was

The four adopted gospels of the Bible (Mark,

exclusively for the crime of sedition (High

Matthew, Luke, John) never touch on Jesus’

Treason and incitation of rebellion), which is

past – except for the Nativity, the sole focus

quite obviously an unfitting execution for a

is on the three years of his life from the

peaceful proclaimed messiah.

Who is Jesus? Not what he is perceived as or

IG L

in front of their eyes; some believe that there is a fundamental moral component

Written 700-740 years before the time of

Baptism to his Crucifixion. And even then, how (on a historical level) did he gain the

However, once all this evidence is compiled,

reputation as Son of God and become so

I will paint a picture of what changed

influential for thousands of years to follow?

everything. I will explain how his image

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

became so vastly different and perhaps equally as important, what arose from his lobbying? THE GEO-POLITICAL CLIMATE OF JUDEA 1ST CENTURY There is undisputable evidence that the Romans did not care at all for the Judean province. It was a completely insignificant part of the Empire, a “hole in the corner” according to Roman Statesmen Cicero. Its main purpose was to provide a buffer state between Asia Minor, Parthia, and Egypt, but its society, culture and most importantly

increase for those in extreme poverty, as

religion, were disregarded. Rome setup the

well as unmanaged drought and famine from

basis for governance and an edictal system,

Galilee to the Judean countryside. These

as well as infrastructural improvements for

factors pushed the social order in Judea to

the ports and the city of Jerusalem, for it

the brink of collapse, but genuine interest in

was the provincial capital.

revolution was still isolated to a few groups. There are a couple reasons for this. Firstly,

The Romans were aware of the discontent

is the fear of the regime; for while the Jews

the Jews had but they had no interest in

had always been a technological haven, the

appeasement. Rome very happily allowed

might of the Romans was intimidating enough

the corrupt Jewish Priest class to have

that most thought the chances of success

influence and power over the province in

were nought. A comparison could be those

return for compensation. In the eyes of the

under the Nazi regime. In March 1933, the

Romans, they were gaining another source

SDP (Social Democrat Party) were able to

of income while being able to outsource the

establish protests as large as 200,000. By

management of a populace they did not care

July, with the establishment of the Gestapo,

for. But in the eyes of the Jews, this was an

the abolishment of dozens of ‘un-German’

act against their God.

mayors and members of the Reichstag, people became fearful and felt no other

The most significant factors causing the

option than to comply (which is incredibly

discontent were over taxation, obvious

fair and should not be mistaken for genuine

corruption in the Jewish aristocracy

love of the Reich, even though its undeniable

(temple leadership was unjust and caused

that the Nazi party was successful in building

widespread injustice and poverty), private

domestic and international trust).

land seizures, high unemployment (most

likely a direct cause of Rome’s ignorance of

The other reason for this apathy toward an

the province, which resultantly meant the

outright rebellion was because it opposed

social and economic policies in the province

Jewish values. In Exodus 17, it talks of Holy

were weak), major displacements and a large

War being something initiated by God. And

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

as there was no speaker of God and the

lot of evidence points to him having been

ministry was corrupt, there was no Godly

in the lowest point of society and was

initiation of rebellion. To start one without

practically a slave. Reza Aslan describes

his clear consent and support would be a

Nazareth as “a village of mostly illiterate

sign that people were walking away from

peasants, farmers and day laborers; a place

God rather than trying to reunite with

that doesn’t exist on any map.” Aslan’s

them. This could be a reason for why people

findings led him to believe that Jesus

accepted Jesus as the Messiah so easily, as

belonged to the “lowest class of peasants

it was the excuse people were looking for

in 1st century Palestine, just above the

to start plotting their freedom. People had

indigent, the beggar, the slave”. Considering

no reason to be sceptical of Jesus as they

Jesus’ social status, I have no doubt in my

would much rather convince themselves that

mind that he was part of the 97%

he really is the son of God so that they can

of Jews that could not or write in 1st

finally overthrow their Roman oppressors.

century Palestine.

WHO WAS JESUS HISTORICALLY?

The Gospels write Jesus as a carpenter

For the astute out there, you may have

or stone mason, but an architect of these

realised that Jesus was not white, nor did

designs would not have been in the lowest

he walk around in clear silky bathrobes,

classes of peasanty. It is far more likely

speaking in archaic English. I thought that

that Jesus was a labourer who for little

if I were going to analyse Jesus historically

remuneration spent his days building

and correctly, I would have to involve the

infrastructure and buildings, possibly for

physical appearance and culture as well

the Romans. It is this kind of exposure

– which is what I will dedicate the first

which makes the idea of Jesus developing

segment of this section to.

revolutionary ideas very possible, as he would have been at the forefront of

In 2001, Medical Artist Richard Neave along

the Priest’s corruption and the Roman’s

with a team of Israeli and British forensic

oppression, with very little sympathy to be

anthropologists and computer programmers

developed for either one. It is speculated

tried to replicate Jesus through our records of

that Jesus would have become involved with

1st Century Palestine Jewish features. They

the Zealots some time in his late twenties,

concluded that Jesus was roughly 5 feet 5

just in time for the Baptism, where he

inches tall, with brown eyes, black hair, olive-

would commence the last three years of

brown skin, very short hair, and a trimmed

his life advocating revolutionary thoughts,

beard. The image you can see was the

proclaiming himself as Messiah, gathering

simulated result of their findings; far from the

support and most interestingly, killing

traditional image of Jesus, and if we can be so

Romans and their supporters.

mistaken over what Jesus looked for, we can be far more mistaken over what he stood for.

ZEALOTS The Zealots were a political movement,

In terms of his day-to-day life up until the

developed somewhere toward the end of

event known as the ‘Baptism of Jesus,’ a

the 1st century B.C and the 1st Century

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

C.E in Palestine, which grew into a form of

too general. There were many proclaimed

Second Temple Judaism. Their main goal was

messiahs but what has set Jesus of Nazareth

to incite rebellion in the Judean Province

apart is just how well he fulfilled the other

and overcome the occupying Romans. They

prophecies, which inevitable led to people

were built off the justification of a Holy

joining his cause.

War and likely used Jesus as a platform to proclaim God’s support, as he quite clearly

Jesus was perceived as the living

grew popularity amongst Jews at a very

embodiment of the Warrior King,

quick pace. Their main concern regarded

descendent of David (as predicted by the

in national and religious independence

Prophets), as he was a messiah which

for the Holy Land and sought out a ‘true

both carried the blade and promoted its

Jewish’ kingdom to the point that even Jews

usage. His leadership over the Zealots

which had been known to collaborate or

and followers of the New Law fulfilled

seek peace with Romans, were considered

his reference as a King. But even Jesus’

enemies.

death brought about a huge influx of new supporters and followers because he

The term Zealot (religiously) is now

fulfilled Isaiah 53, “He was pierced for our

associated with any religion which develops

transgressions, he was crushed for our

to the point that it refuses other beliefs, but

iniquities; the punishment that bought

it is very possible that the Zealots were not

us peace was on him, and by his wounds

this radical. While Zealotry did impose the

we are healed.” There is no doubt about

removal of all Romans and collaborators,

the execution and crucifixion of Jesus (as

it is incredibly like the way a resistance

will be explained later), and resultantly,

group wanted to oust Nazis and their

the idea that this man, this revolutionary

collaborators. Once you associate yourself

being the actual son of God, grew like

with an enemy, you will be marked as such.

wildfire and inspired many for the upcoming rebellion just 27 years after his supposed

EVIDENCE

death date. His death and his life were

The Prophecy of Isaiah

correctly predicted by the Old Testament

The Prophecy of Isaiah helps to justify

and suddenly there was little doubt among

why Jesus was such a hit to Jews in Judea.

the Judean Jews that they had been in

Considering the prophecy was written

interaction with the Lord and that what he

roughly 700-740 years before Jesus and

desired was their self-determination.

it spoke of a great warrior king, there is

If we assume Jesus adopted the idea of

no surprise that this violent revolutionist

being the Messiah, then Isaiah was the

proclaiming himself to be the son of God

perfect tool for the Zealots to use and

would be believed, as he was predicted

gather a following, for no one could deny

by the Old Testament. For example, Isaiah

Jesus’ similarity to the prophecy.

prophesises the Coming of God in Isaiah

17:3 “And this is life eternal, that they might

The Good Samaritan

know thee the only true God, and Jesus

One of the largest problems faced with this

Christ whom thou has sent” – but this is far

entire line of thought is that the Gospels

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

THE TERM ZEALOT (RELIGIOUSLY) IS NOW ASSOCIATED WITH ANY RELIGION WHICH DEVELOPS TO THE POINT THAT IT REFUSES OTHER BELIEFS, BUT IT IS VERY POSSIBLE THAT THE ZEALOTS WERE NOT THIS RADICAL. seemingly depict Jesus very differently from

context, support the idea of Jesus’ zealotry.

a violent revolutionist, but if you apply the

Let us start with the symbolism of the

context I have provided, then you can see

‘Bloody Way,’ a route from Jerusalem to

the underlying Zealotry in his words. As I

Jericho, which was renowned for its active

analyse the following Gospels, approach

Zealot presence and frequent crime. This is

them under the assumption that Jesus was

supposed to inspire people and give them

constantly spreading the message of anti-

faith that it is possible to overcome the

Roman and priest sentiment, because this

Romans. The fact that those ambushed there

will provide the context which the early

were most often enemies of the Zealots, its

Church and Gospel writers tried to remove

integration into the story is the bases for

after the failure of the Judean Revolt and

the stories entire underlying message, ‘Our

the distancing of the early church (this

enemies are Rome and if we band together,

will be explained later). Additionally, I

we will win.’

recommend reading these parables first, as it will provide better context behind each

Let us start with evidence for ‘Our enemies

section, as I cannot provide the word for

are Rome.’ Luke 10:31-32 both speak of

word analysis of each of these parables.

bystanders that did not help the victim. “A priest happened to be going down the

Luke 10:25-37, otherwise known as ‘The

same road, and when he saw the man,

Good Samaritan’, tells the story of a Jew

he passed on by the other side.” There is

walking down the Bloody Way before

never any doubt in the Bible (even in its

being ambushed by robbers. He sat there

unchanged state) that Jesus did not like the

helplessly for hours, watching a Levite and

Jewish Priest class, for he knew they were

a Priest pass him, until finally a Samaritan

corrupt and that they were responsible for

(enemy of the Jews) saved him and brought

the oppression the Jews faced. The fact

him into recovery. This contains many hints,

that it was a Priest that passed the injured

which when combined with the historical

man and felt no sympathy for him, is a

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

suggestion of the Priest classes association

ONE OF THE ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS TO A REBELLION IS ASSURING THAT WHEN YOU DO REVOLT, YOUR ORGANISATION HAS SUPPORT.

with the Romans and their ‘true’ priorities. The second person to cross, (Luke 10:32) is a Levite, a descendent of the Jewish tribes. While you would expect the Jew to be depicted as a hero, it makes a lot more sense that he is not. His passing depicts two important points; one, if you collaborate with the Romans and you relish in the Roman occupation, you are labelled as a sinner; two, if you are a Jew but you do not help your fellow Jews in this great fight, you are labelled as a sinner. This is designed to place pressure on people – push them toward joining the cause. The next piece of evidence is Luke 10:36-37, “Which of these three do you think was a neighbour to the man that fell into the hands of the robbers?” The expert in the law replied, “The one who had mercy on him”. To paraphrase, this is effectively saying “Who did right when faced with the Roman’s beatings? The Samaritan.” The implications being that the Romans are the band of robbers, a ‘dirty plague to society’ that makes their income of robbing Jews. The second implication, which links together with ‘If we band together, we will win’ seems to be that the tribes of Roman Judea need to unite. There is one common enemy for the Jews and the Samaritans – the Romans that occupy them. It was the Samaritan that helped the Jew against the Romans in the story, and the same thing needs to happen in real life. In Luke 10:34, it tells us that the Samaritan “went to him [the injured Jew]and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine.” It tells us that the Samaritans are not our enemies, but our friends. A potential ally in the upcoming campaign that we can rely on for reinforcements (bandaged his wounds) if need be.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Finally, Luke 10:37, we end on a note of

increase the overall odds of success. If

sedition. “Jesus told him, “God and do

Jesus simply said, “These are our enemies,

likewise.” Jesus tells the people to spread

we won’t stop until they’re dead,” then the

the message to others. Incite the revolution

Zealots would be limited to whatever public

and prepare people for the ultimate

support they already had, for repentance

sacrifice.

does not seem to be an option.

The Parable of the Lost Lamb (Luke 15)

The Parable of the Lost Lamb, when provided

Luke 15:1-2 “Now the tax collectors and

with the historical context, is not a message

sinners were gathering around to hear Jesus.

of repentance to God but a message to

But the Pharisees and the teachers of law

repent to the new cause. While it may be

muttered, “This man welcomes sinners and

disguised behind the words “It’s what God

eats with them.”

wants”, that does not really matter. It is a platform for recruitment; everyone needs

A common theme among these parables is

to do their part for the success of the

the distinct separation of different groups.

revolution and only if we cooperate with one

Here it is most obvious – there are the

another do we stand a chance. The enemy

Pharisees and lawmen opposing the tax

are those that cannot be convinced to

collectors and ‘sinners’; but there is a deeper

change, those that can are just ‘lost sheep’.

message which neatly ties in with The Good Samaritan. ‘We must be united’. Jesus refers

The Parable of the Two Sons

to these group of sinners as ‘lost sheep’ and

The Parable of the Two Sons is a

that we must rejoice when they repent. It is

condemnation of those that are not working

obvious to any organised resistance that you

toward the cause. It is already clear from

are working against completely unbalanced

the previous parables that the Zealots were

elements. Until you openly revolt and make

persistent and incredibly active. They would

your first move, you lack much or any

pressure those that were not doing their

territory, resource, soldiers, and equipment.

part, which becomes clear in this parable.

One of the essential ingredients to a rebellion

Matthew 21:32 “John came to show you

is assuring that when you do revolt, your

the way of righteousness, and you did not

organisation has support. The most common

believe him, but the tax collectors and the

form of support gathered in historical

prostitutes did. And even after you saw

accounts of rebellion is that of the military,

this, you did not repent and believe him.”

such as a turncoat general, band of the armed

In verse 31, Jesus tells the people that “the

forces or assets such as aircraft detachments

tax collectors and prostitutes are entering

and naval taskforces. The idea of this parable

the Kingdom of God ahead of you” These

is to make it clear that joining the cause is

two verses combine to give us a very clear

an option and that you do not have to be

image that if you do not do your part, you

the enemy. The Pharisees were powerful

will not walk the path of righteousness. In

– securing them over to the people’s fight

a realm filled with Jews lusting for eternal

would definitely provide both funding and

life and in complete awe at the messiah

a following, two things that would greatly

standing before them, this is a very worrying

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

THOSE WHO SUFFERED THIS FATE WOULD BE TIED TO A LARGE WOODEN BEAM AND SUSPENDED IN SUCH A WAY THAT UNLESS THEY PULLED THEMSELVES UP, THEY WOULD BE UNABLE TO BREATH. THE EVENTUAL CAUSE OF DEATH WAS ALMOST ALWAYS ASPHYXIATION AND EXHAUSTION. possibility. No doubt, the message ‘you did not repent’ and ‘prostitutes are entering the

Matthew 5-7 focuses on the Sermon on

Kingdom of God ahead of you’, are designed

the Mount – supposedly a gathering held

to push people into action. It is no use

by Jesus on the Mount of Beatitudes in

claiming you oppose the Romans if you do

Northern Israel at the Korazim Plateau. It

not first show it.

is a collection of teachings that Jesus told to all who would listen, talking about the

The use of prostitutes is particularly

faults of the Old Law and the New Law

interesting, as it is obvious that prostitution

that God wanted all to follow. With this

is seen as sinful within the society around

alone, based off the findings we have, Jesus

Jesus, and that prostitution is a prime

talking about the differences between

example of poverty and instability. This

the Old Law and the New Law was more

is used to show the effects of Roman

likely a condemnation of the Old Law

occupation – leaving people in complete

because it is what was used by the despised

disarray and deprivation – a warning for

Jewish Priest Class. The New Law was the

what could follow to those (like in the story)

implementations that would follow their new

who do not heed to Jesus’ words.

government, once Judea was free.

The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7)

The Sermon on the Mount opens with the

The Sermon on the Mount is one of the

Beatitudes which, once applied with historical

more important examples of Jesus’ zealotry,

Zealot context, provide a very different picture

as it puts on full display Jesus’ motivations

to what the Gospels wrote it as.

and the manipulation made by the Early

Church (see section ‘Early Church Reforms’

Matthew 5:5 “Blessed are the meek, for they

for context).

will inherit the earth.” This is a suggestion

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

that the meek (humble, lower class) which

Judas was without doubt a member of the

have always been the prime victims of the

extremist Zealots, often depicted as carrying

Roman oppression, will be the inheritance of

a ‘Sica’ (a broad-curved blade) and with a

the Earth. The Earth is likely referring to the

club in Matthew 26:46 “While Jesus was still

Holy Land as that is the land of the Jews and

speaking, Judas, one of the twelve, arrived,

the land of God, which is all that matters to

accompanied by a large crowd, armed with

them. If we apply this with the context of a

swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests

revolution of the people against the upper

and elders of the people.”

and corrupt priests, the message becomes obvious. The oppressed and poor will take

He was certainly a violent man, and while

the Holy Land.

Simon is doubtable (to be explained), he certainly was a Zealot. Which is where it

Matthew 5:9 “Blessed are the peacemakers,

becomes tricky, for as you probably know

for they will be called children of God” is

and just heard in Matthew 26, Judas is seen

not talking about peacemakers in the sense

in the Bible as the traitor who betrayed

of pacifists. Peacemakers or peacekeepers

Jesus to the authorities and would never be

are militaristic terms; they are designed to

forgiven. However, it should be remembered

create peace by resolving conflict. Consider

that this is coming from the four gospels

the example of UN Peacekeepers – their

the Church has included within the Bible

primary role is to bring peace to areas of

(there were other gospels written). The Early

conflict, tension, and instability. Roman

Church purposely reformed many of the

Judea fell into all three of these categories

Biblical stories (see section ‘Early Church

and God’s people, the peacekeepers, will

Reforms’) – this change made Judas (and

resolve that, by returning Judea to a stable

therefore the entire Zealot movement)

state.

appear villainous. My evidence for Judas’ innocence comes from one of the less

The Apostles

known and excluded gospels: the Gospel

Moving on from the Parables, we now

of Judas. Within this gospel, the series of

move to the specific evidence that points

events turns differently; Jesus asks Judas

to the Apostles as having been Zealots –

to betray him to the authorities before the

which is incredibly vital evidence toward

events of the Last Supper and goes to the

this thesis for it begs the question, ‘If

point to glorify Judas as Jesus’ favourite and

Jesus was truly a pacifist and did not

most dedicated disciple.

stand against persecution, then why were his most trusted and important followers

Another strong defence for Judas was that

violent revolutionists?’. It would be a clear

Matthew, who of all the Gospels describes

juxtaposition between the two, and not so

the betrayal the most and condemns

easily rebuttable.

Judas more than any other, was a former Roman employee and tax-collector: which

The first piece of evidence are Judas and

likely meant he and Judas potentially had

Simon, who are quite literally known as

juristically opposed views; which could be

Judas the Zealot and Simon the Zealot.

enough to get Matthew to slander him.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Simon the Zealot is another one that

of a ‘peaceful’ acclaimed messiah. That is

requires justification, for many debate

because Crucifixion WAS NOT for the crime

whether he was a Zealot in the sense of

of proclaiming to be the Messiah, it was

revolution or in the sense that he was

solely for the crime of sedition and banditry;

religiously zealous. However, I believe that

in other words, those who rebel and those

there is sufficient reasoning to assume

than incite rebellion. If Jesus (as the Gospels

Simon was indeed a member of the Zealot

claim) had been executed by the High Priests

party and it all comes down to Luke 22:38

for his claim to being Messiah, then he would

(another account of Jesus’ last night), “See,

have been privately executed, but we have

Lord, here are two swords”. Immediately

enough evidence to point to the fact that a

following this, Peter (another very possible

man by the name of ‘Jesus of Nazareth’ was

Zealot, who is constantly violent and

definitely executed by crucifixion. There is a

carries weaponry as well) cuts off the ear

recorded letter by Roman Judean Governor

of Malchus. The second blade here is never

Pontius Pilate himself, who talks of the

explained, but as Judas, the only other one

crucifixion of a man called ‘Jesus of Nazareth’,

we can guarantee was armed, was opposing

as well as records from senator Tacitus, who

Jesus at that moment, the second sword was

in his 15th book, refers to Pontius Pilate’s

most likely Simon’s. No pacifist would carry

execution of a man named Jesus.

a blade, and no pacifist would lead a group of Zealots. So here we see, three members

So, if the crucifixion is indisputable and

of the Apostles, all with enough evidence to

we know that it was solely for the crime of

suggest they were Zealots – being led by a

Sedition, meaning high treason and incitement,

supposed pacifist. This is a strong indication

then what does this mean? It must mean that

that Jesus’ political beliefs went beyond

Jesus was viewed as a Bandit. We know that

peace and suggested Jesus’ more violent

Jesus’ most trusted disciples were Zealot

intents for the Pharisees and Romans.

Bandits and that there are many hints of incitement within the gospel stories; this

The Crucifixion

reasoning cannot take you anywhere but

This is where the damning evidence arises,

the conclusion that Jesus must have been in

with the execution method of Crucifixion.

collaboration with or possibly held membership

Those who suffered this fate would be tied to

or leadership of the Zealot movement.

a large wooden beam and suspended in such

a way that unless they pulled themselves

REASONING

up, they would be unable to breath. The

An execution that sparked revolution

eventual cause of death was almost always

Jesus spent three years trying to incite a

asphyxiation and exhaustion (although the

revolution and, although he never saw it, his

Romans on standby pitied Jesus and gave

effort was not in vain. His death satisfied

him a merciful death rather than let him

any doubt for the people, for he had just

hang there any longer). Only the most vile

fulfilled the one corresponding feature of

and terrible people would be left to such a

all Messianic prophecies in the Old

horrible fate; only those who had committed

Testament; God would come to Earth and

high treason against Rome. A fate not fitting

die for our sins.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

MANY NATIONALISTS HAD JUST SEEN THEIR CHANCE OF INDEPENDENCE LOST AND MANY OTHERS SAW THEIR MESSIAH DIE, WHICH IN TURN CAUSED TENSIONS TO RISE TO A BREAKING POINT OVER THE NEXT COUPLE OF DECADES. In April, 33 C.E, Jesus of Nazareth was

the year, the Jewish rebellion had expelled

crucified for sedition and in the eyes of

Romans from Jerusalem and defeated a

many, proved himself to be God incarnate,

punitive Roman force in the Beth-Horon

as at every turn, he had walked the words

Pass, commanded by Gallus, the imperial

Isaiah had spoken 700 years before and

legate of Syria. There was now no local

his charismatic personality and inspirational

Roman opposition in the province, and they

speeches dug into the minds of his followers.

finally extended their liberation to the ends of Galilee and Judea.

Many nationalists had just seen their chance of independence lost and many others saw

For a brief time, the Jewish people

their Messiah die, which in turn caused

celebrated the liberation of the Holy Land

tensions to rise to a breaking point over the

and the removal of intruders on God’s land.

next couple of decades. After Jesus’ death

A revolutionary government was setup in

Zealotry became far more popular, as it was

the newly founded state, but unknowingly to

their agenda and ideas which spearheaded

them now, it would only last three years.

the Jewish Revolt in 66 C.E. The Zealots grew support to the point that they could

After word reached Rome of Judea’s fall;

finally begin their revolt against the

Emperor Nero sent Prefect Vespasian to

Pharisees and against the Romans.

recapture it, Jerusalem’s fall risked inspiring rebellion in other provinces. If the rebellion

The Jewish Revolt (66 C.E)

was crushed, revolutionaries in Asia Minor

In the last months of 66 C.E, tensions

and North Africa may lose confidence in

reached a breaking point, after Romans

their cause.

sacked the Temple of Jerusalem for silver. The Jews accumulated into armed groups

Vespasian, joined by Titus, entered Galilee

during massive anti-taxation rallies, merging

in 69 C.E with the full might of 7 legions

into a strong rebel force. Before the end of

behind them; Legio X Fretensis, the

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Syrian Legion as well as 5 smaller legions

would rather die for God than submit to

(roughly, 60-80,000 men). They opposed

another Roman rule.

the Judean Provisional Government Forces, who were hastily put together at word of

The outcome of the rebellion brought about

the impending invasion. This consisted of

the full attention of the Romans but for all

25,000 combined Volunteer and Armed

the wrong reasons. The oppression of the

Guard, 6,000 Adiabene Warriors, 15,000

Roman Empire escalated beyond anything

peasants and 5,000 Idumeans (roughly

the Jews had once suffered as they now

51,000 men).

found themselves under the tight grip of martial law and the vengeance of Nero’s

Josephus headed the Jewish forces at

tyranny. Overall, the rebellion had left them

Jatapata and, at the sight of the Roman

far worse than they had ever been before.

army, fled to Fort Jatapata. Soon, Josephus

was forced to give himself up and Roman

Early Church Reforms

forces swept through the nation, until

The Jews believed in their Messiah’s

they reached Jerusalem. Jerusalem would

message; and with his ideas and

not be an easy engagement, and its fierce

revolutionary thoughts, dedicated

resistance is partially why the Romans were

themselves toward the self-determination

so ruthless against the city populace once

of the Holy Land. The cost was far greater

they had seized it. The siege consisted of

and far worse than they had hoped for,

multiple segments, as the defenders fell

and the painful memories of the messages

back on the three different city walls. The

Jesus had given still surrounded the minds

Old city walls fell within days, and the

of those that had heard him all those

population still within the lower parts of Old

decades ago. Those dedicated to the

Jerusalem were slaughtered. The Second

Second Temple derivation of Judaism –

extension held on for a long time, but

aware of the flaws that were present even

eventually the Jewish forces were routed

without the Romans, realised that their

from the wall and were forced back to the

image would need to be separated from

Temple, allowing the Romans to occupy New

the catastrophic consequences of Zealot

Jerusalem and a second slaughter began.

Revolutionism. The most logical option was

When the Temple finally fell, the fortress of

not to clear the image of Jesus (who many

Masada became the last standing ground for

still remembered and still believed to be

the Provisional Government forces as the

the Messiah) but to change it. They would

Jewish state collapsed around them. The

write him instead as a strong opponent to

fortress was an incredible feat of Jewish

all violence, someone who did not believe

architecture and technology, holding out

in undermining government and someone

with a simple garrison of the last remaining

who opposed Zealotry. They could not

960 fighters and a few hundred women and

simply make up such a massive array of

children. It was not until April of 73 C.E that

new events, so rather than do that they

Flavius Silva and Legio X finally enter the

instead opted to remove the historical

fortress, just to find the remains of a mass

context and manipulate Jesus’ choice of

suicide committed by the defenders, who

words. This explains why the Gospels

ETHICS & POWER

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

are so contradicting in the information

CONCLUSION

they provide; for they have still left clear

In conclusion, everything is inconclusive. I

evidence of Jesus’ revolutionary ideology

have tried to paint a vivid picture of Jesus

but also the newly added and engineered

the Zealot Warrior and display whatever

context which implies him to be a pacifist.

evidence I have; but unfortunately, there

But even then, as displayed in the last

is simply not enough to go on. The few

section, by adding back the historical

confirmations we have are that 1) Jesus

context, you can retrieve the lost words of

existed 2) Zealots existed 3) There was a

Jesus and what he meant by phrases such as,

link. The real question is how close they

‘Blessed are the peacemakers’.

were linked and to what extent he identified with their cause. The dozen or so parables I

The Church of James and the European

looked over for clues and hundred(ish) total

extension of Paul committed to this new

Bible passages I read though, all followed the

thinking and changed the course of history

hermeneutical approach of assuming that

forever. No longer would Jesus be known

Jesus was a Zealot. I believe the evidence

as Jesus the Zealot – he was now Jesus the

was sufficient and that at a minimum, it

Pacifist. Their most prominent justification

could call into question the legitimacy of the

was to proselytise (conversion and spreading

status quo Jesus. It simply does not make

of one’s beliefs). Most people would not

sense that Jesus would claim such lengths of

be content with Zealotry when they could

pacifism when he surrounded himself with

see the effect it had on Judea; more people

known Zealots; and that we say he died on a

would be satisfied with the idea that people

Cross for claiming to be Son of God, when we

are bad and that they ignored Jesus’ pacifism

know that Cross was reserved for sedition.

and sealed their own fate.

Regardless of how accurate this research truly is, I can firmly say that I am more

Whether or not that was a pressing factor

convinced than ever that Jesus was a Zealot

on the radical Christianisation of Europe, I

Warrior above anything else.

am not sure; but the new image and work of the Early Church to reform what the New Law stood for is certainly apparent, and only lost works or works not considered legitimate by the ministry still speak about Jesus’ potential Zealotry and the full extent of his disciple’s zealotry.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Applied Morality – Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Thomas Lofthouse | 4TPW

On the 6th and then on the 9th August 1945,

of the Christian God in her opposition to

two nuclear bombs were dropped on the

this bid to honour a man she saw as an evil

Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki;

murderer. She did, however, have another

the result, the deaths of nearly 230,000

plank of opposition to the bombings, and in

people. What kind of justification is there to

turn Truman.

take the decision to carry out such an act? In the thoughts of many… none.

'Each nation that has "liberal" abortion laws has rapidly become, if it was not already, a nation of

The aforementioned bombings, which

murderers.'

undoubtedly brought a final end to World War Two, are arguably one of the greatest

This quotation underlines a key belief of

atrocities ever committed. They symbolise

hers, and many Catholics, on the subject

the destructive power of mankind, but

of abortion or, as they might describe it,

were they enacted without just cause? This

murder. To understand the significance of

essay will discuss the idea of morality, and

this to her, we must first appreciate that,

examine the rationale for the bombings.

throughout her life, she and her children have

It will consider the work of scholars such

protested against and demonstrated in front

as Elizabeth Anscombe, and Father Ted

of abortion clinics. Two of her children were

Hesburgh, and at the same time analyse

even imprisoned for the manner in which

the Allies’ justification and reasoning.

they did so. Now, we can comprehend how

This essay will be broken down into two

much of a sin that this must have seemed to

principal subsections: the combined Christian

her. In the bombings, many innocent people

philosophy of Anscombe and Hesburgh, and

were killed; children, mothers, civilians, and

the Allied justification for the bombing.

unborn babies. Terminated by the radiation, or deformed, part of a generation was lost

CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY

to this evil. Anscombe believed that this sin

Elizabeth Anscombe was a 20th century

revealed the UK and the US as murderers, as

Catholic philosopher, who is regarded as

they were responsible for the attacks. This

one of the finest minds of that century. In

now leads us onto the very important topic of

1956, when Oxford University declared their

the subsequent effects of the radiation.

wish to give President Truman an honorary

degree, Anscombe was outraged. Her view

For many days, months, years, and in some

on the matter, as a Catholic, was that as

cases decades after the bombings, scores

he had ordered the bombings of Hiroshima

of people succumbed to radiation poisoning

and Nagasaki, he was responsible for the

that they, or even their parents, suffered.

absolutely horrendous – indeed blasphemous

The effect of this was devastating, and even

– murder of hundreds of thousands of

the Allies had no idea that it was going to

innocents. She believed that there was no

occur. To many, it was shameful. Only when

justification for committing such a heinous

mutilated corpses, injured people, and

act, and referenced the ten commandments

stricken children lay at the side of the road

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

THERE WERE MANY did we, as a people, start to see, and realise,

FACTORS IN THE

the consequences of what had been done.

LEAD UP TO THE

Father Ted Hesburgh, in a talk in 1988,

BOMBINGS THAT

discussed the danger of nuclear arms, and made reference to the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. Here, he discussed editorials written in popular magazines, the impact of what had been done, and future implications. He noted the way in which the bombings had been commended,

CONTRIBUTED TO THEIR EVENTUALLY HAPPENING.

scientists marvelling at their advancements, soldiers worshipping the power of these

It is arguable here, that after the Japanese

new weapons, and many men sharing these

aggression in the Pacific, and refusal to

adulatory beliefs. The bombings were though,

surrender, even when warned of what may

in his view, immoral, and a great sin.

come, that it was perfectly ethical of the largely Christian USA to launch the attack, as

As he talked about the tragedy that was, in

a cure for this Japanese sin, and destruction.

his eyes, the mass murder of these innocent

However, it is unlikely Hesburgh would have

people, we can see a likeness to the beliefs of

fully supported this idea, as he was such a

Anscombe. Both Christian philosophers, they

staunch opponent of nuclear warfare.

discussed the sin that this mass murder was, the immorality of it, and in Hesburgh’s case,

To summarise, Anscombe and Hesburgh both

he came to a firm conclusion that the attack

disagreed with the bombings of Hiroshima

was morally wrong. Meanwhile Anscombe

and Nagasaki, both concurring that they

argued that there is no such concept as right

were unethical, morally disgusting, and

or wrong, and that it is simply subject to

unnecessary. However, Hesburgh did have

shibboleths. She believed more in a semi-

more sympathy for the justifications for war,

formed idea of cause and effect.

and worried more for the future of man, not solely for the souls or lives of those who were

Father Ted Hesburgh saw the threat of the

affected by it. In contrast to this, Anscombe,

future more clearly though, highlighting

ironically the un-ordained Christian, worried

the dangers of relying on computers, and

more for the individuals who were so horribly

their operators, not to destroy the world.

affected, and discussed the problems around

This, to him, was a moral travesty. In 1988

sin within the context of the aftermath of

he supported complete and multilateral

the attacks. Together, it is likely that these

disarmament. Further, he debated whether

philosophers represent the majority opinion of

there is ever any justification for war, and

a large Christian demographic, aiding us in our

cited St Augustine’s belief that war is only

understanding of the moral dilemmas of these

justifiable when a remedy to sin, not as a sin.

bombings from their theological perspective.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

ALLIED JUSTIFICATION

to the last man. To many, this is best

There were many factors in the lead up to the

characterised by the infamous kamikaze

bombings that contributed to their eventually

(literally “divine wind”) attacks launched on

happening. President Truman, who gave the

American naval vessels. This wish to die in

order on the advice of his military advisors,

battle rather than surrender was an issue for

was led to believe that the bombings would

the American forces, as after the Americans

save the lives of countless US troops, and

had left Japan many years before, the spirit

were also the best thing to do economically.

of the samurai re-emerged. This led the Allies

Scientists had however underestimated the

to believe that if they were to invade, they

resulting effects of the radiation on the people

would encounter heavy losses, both in terms

of Japan. Although numerous American and

of men and money. One study suggested US

British lives were undoubtedly saved, was it

fatalities of up to 800,000 men. This led the

right to kill so many Japanese people?

Americans inexorably towards the decision to bomb Japan.

One of the reasons that the Allies did not want to invade Japan for was their fear of

Another reason for the decision to drop atomic

the consequences of “Japanese War Spirit”. In

bombs was the potential economic impact

short, it was thought to be highly likely that

of a full-scale invasion. It would cost copious

the people of Japan would continue fighting

amounts of money to launch such an operation,

to the last man and child, and this is well

and the resources required would be logistically

documented in the later years of the war.

demanding to move around. But is this sufficient justification in moral terms? If we are

During the final years of the Second World

prioritising money, over the lives of hundreds

War, there were food and resource shortages in

of thousands, what have we come to?

Japan, with children and other non-combatants sometimes reduced to consuming protein via

The Allied high command issued an ultimatum

sucking boils on their skin, and other wounds.

to Japan, demanding their surrender, in which

They drank filthy water, ate very little, and yet

they described what they would do. Did the

were determined to keep going. This originated

Japanese refusal to surrender then give them

from the age of the Shogun, and in particular,

sufficient justification to launch those

the height of the samurai. In this era, under

planes with their fateful and as yet unseen

Oda Nobunaga, unifier of Japan, the Buddhist

nuclear payload?

faith was eliminated, and the Shinto religion reigned unchecked as the singular religious

In this essay’s opinion, yes. The Japanese

organisation within Japan. Carried forward

were given ample time to surrender,

with this religion, and down lines, was the

multiple opportunities in fact. Their cause

spirit of the samurai.

was hopeless and they knew it. It was not a matter of whether they lost the war, but

The samurai believed that surrender was

when. Alas, they did not face up to this harsh

dishonourable, and often armies fought

reality, and we all know what came next. It

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

is evident in the actions of the USA, that

In conclusion, this essay believes that the

there was no overwhelming urge to bomb

bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945

Japan, albeit there were a few trigger-happy

were morally acceptable, and that they were

generals. There always are, but they rarely

the inevitable result of all other means to

prevail. There was no wish to kill so many

bring the War in the Pacific to an end being

people, although it is often overlooked that

exhausted. Any country in a similar position

more died in the more conventional fire-

would have prioritised the lives of its own

bombing of Tokyo in March 1945 than in

men, and those of its allies.

either of the August atomic bombings, and that did not bring the Japanese war leaders

The philosophy of Anscombe, analysed, is

to their senses and to surrender. There has

that of rather archetypal Christian ethics.

been remorse expressed for the actions of

She lamented the aftermath, and the actions

the USA. Still, though, was it right?

of Truman, but it is unclear whether she directly opposed the war overall. Father

The conclusions of this essay are that there

Hesburgh had more sympathy with the

were good reasons for the Allied forces

bombings, and had greater worries for the

to take this course, both logistically and

future. He believed, using the Augustinian

economically, and, more compellingly,

theory of a just war, that they may have

in terms of preserving the lives of Allied

been morally acceptable, as the Allied war

soldiers. However, there is still the moral

was a remedy to sin, that is, the Nazi/Axis

dilemma of what else might have been done.

sin. Overall, having considered the view of

Could the Allies have dropped one bomb, and

the military and political decision makers at

waited for the aftermath to be felt; were two

the time, and those that reflect the theology

really necessary? The abridged rationale of

of the dominant religion at the time, that is

the Allies can be reduced to this: to mount

Christianity, the conclusion that this essay

an invasion would be costly, wasteful of

arrives at, is as stated before. The bombings

men, and foolish; the Japanese expressed

were acceptable given the particular

no wish to surrender, despite having been

circumstances. They were effectively the

given many opportunities to do so; and the

lesser of two evils – atomic bombs versus

hesitation shown by the Allied high command

invasion – in terms of a means finally to end

demonstrated an appreciation of the extreme

this devastating global conflict. However,

nature of the attack they were contemplating.

that is not to say that such a decision

That is why, ultimately, this essay believes

would be justified in other circumstances.

that morally, the Allies did not do wrong,

This is a morally nuanced and grey area

but they could perhaps have tempered the

where there is unlikely ever to be a clear right

necessary devastation by pausing for longer

or wrong answer.

after the Hiroshima bombing.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

What limits, if any, should we place on the right to freedom of expression?

Sebastian Oshisanya | L6LCM

Humanity has always been obsessed with

question of whether Freedom of Expression

freedom of expression. It is an idea which

is worth less than other Freedoms that this

has for long time played an important role

essay will focus on.

in shaping the role of the state over the individual and has even led to economic

This conflict between various Freedoms

repercussions for certain industries – as

is showcased by the 2004 case between

shown by the UK government’s recent ruling

Anthony Norwood, member of the British

on Halogen light bulbs which prevent them

National Party (BNP), and the UK. This case

from “being placed on the market” to tackle

concerned a poster that Norwood had put

climate change. While for a good cause, is

up on his flat window which displayed an

an infringement on those companies’ ability

image of Twin Towers on fire accompanied

to sell their products which ultimately

by the words “Islam out of Britain – Protect

raises the question of whether Freedom

the British People”. With this being a

of Expression is worth less than other

clear act of islamophobia, Norwood was

Freedoms and should therefore be limited.

convicted by the European Court of Human Rights under the Public Order Act (1986).

Before we proceed in answering this

A verdict which could not be overturned

question, however, it is important to note

by Norwood’s protests over Freedom of

what Freedom of Expression is defined

Expression as Human rights are designed to

as in the law. The European Convention

protect religious groups as much as one’s

on Human Rights defines Freedom of

right to Freedom of Expression. This case

Expression as a universal right where

highlights the conflict between different

everyone can criticise the state whilst

Freedoms – especially one’s right to

the state still can have a say in what is

prohibition of discrimination as put by the

being broadcasted through the media.

European Convention on Human Rights.

This freedom is also said to come with

responsibilities “in the interests of national

John Stuart Mill however disagrees with

security, territorial integrity or public safety,

this apparent bias towards other Freedoms

for the prevention of disorder or crime, for

in On Liberty, where he says that: “If the

the protection of health or morals, for the

arguments of the present chapter are of

protection of reputation or rights of others,

any validity, there ought to exist the fullest

for preventing the disclosure of information

liberty of professing and discussing, as a

received in confidence or for maintaining the

matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine,

authority and impartiality of the judiciary.”

however immoral it may be considered.”

It is this notion that Freedom of Expression

Mill is saying that any doctrine should be

holds responsibilities and this repeated

able to be seen by the public no matter

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

how immoral it may seem because, as

“LGBTIQ Freedom Zone”. This example of

author George Orwell says, “If liberty

the prohibition of Freedom of Expression

means anything at all, it means the right

reveals the conflict between Freedom of

to tell people what they do not want to

Expression (sexual preference) and Religion

hear.” However, it is important to note

in this case. Poland, being a historically

Mill’s notion of “The Harm Principle”

Catholic country as far back as the Polish-

when discussing his views on Freedom

Lithuanian Empire in 1596, has always been

of Expression. Mill argues that “the only

guided by religious principles. Catholicism

purpose for which power can be rightfully

has always been at the centre of Polish

exercised over any member of a civilized

society which raises the question of whether

community, against his will, is to prevent

the Polish should sacrifice their way of

harm to others” which plays into the idea

doing things (no matter how immoral) for a

that Freedom of Expression carries with

minority of people.

it social responsibilities in the greater interest of Humanity and law. However,

Someone like Friedrich Nietzsche would say

the threshold for what is harmful seems

that this sacrifice for the minority’s Freedom

to be ambiguous. What is harmful for one

of Expression is worth it. In Thus Spoke

person is different to what is harmful for

Zarathustra Nietzsche argues that for people

the next, meaning that “The Harm Principle”

to reach the best versions of themselves,

proves to lack the decisiveness to determine

they must be released by the shackles of the

what limits we should place on Freedom of

society they live in. As the main character

Expression if any should be placed at all.

Zarathustra says to his followers in his book “I now go alone, my disciples! You too go

Freedom of Expression also accounts for

now, alone!” emphasising Nietzsche’s belief

one’s freedom to express their sexual

that it is by rejecting what you know or have

preference and this has proven to be

been taught that you obtain the freedom to

problematic in Poland with the introduction

express yourself. However, many Catholics

of “LGBT-Free Zones” in some Polish

would argue that Catholicism aims to guide

provinces. This coupled with Prawo I

people down a righteous path that leads

Sprawiedliwość (PiS) president Andrezj Duda

them to the best version of themselves and

signing the so-called “Family Charter” which

that rejecting Catholicism would be a rash

prohibits same-sex couples from adopting

and ill-advised decision to make because

children as well as comprehensive sexuality

of a want to increase one’s Freedom of

education in schools. This caused the EU

Expression. I think, however, that, like

to threaten Poland’s EU membership and

the example between Norwood and the

to declare that the whole of the EU is a

UK, the Polish “LGBT-Free Zones” cannot

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

WHAT IS HARMFUL FOR ONE PERSON IS DIFFERENT TO WHAT IS HARMFUL FOR THE NEXT. be justified through this logic because I

suffered a broken skull. And whilst the

believe that Freedom of Expression should

intention to prevent such an event from

be limited on the basis that what has been

occurring again is well-guided, this ruling

said is discriminatory – an idea that I will

is simply wrong. First, the measures that

explore in the conclusion of this essay. As

Semenya would have to take to participate

Harry S. Truman said, “Once a government is

in the eight-hundred metres again go

committed to the principle of silencing the

against World Health Organisation advice.

voice of opposition…it becomes a source of

They described testosterone lowering

terror to all its citizens and creates a country

interventions as “contrary to international

where everyone lives in fear."

medical ethics and human rights standards”. The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS)

Caster Semenya has also had her Freedom

has also admitted that its “panel found that

of Expression prohibited by law (within

the DSD Regulations are discriminatory

sports). Her problems arose when World

which is backed up by the United

Athletics implemented a new policy for DSD

Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)

(differences of sexual development) athletes

who say that the verdict “is just unjust

which outlined that testosterone levels

discrimination”. Limiting Semenya’s Freedom

had to be less than 5 nmol/L to compete

of Expression as a female athlete does

in elite events between 400m and a mile.

not do female athletics any favours as the

This meant that the two-time Olympic gold

limitations enforced on Semenya constitute

medalist in the Women’s eight-hundred

discrimination.

metres could not compete in the event she was fastest in the world in. Semenya took

So, what limits, if any, should we place on

her case to the Court of Arbitration for

the right to freedom of expression? It is my

Sport (CAS) and then the Swiss Supreme

view that all people should have the right

Court, failing both times to overturn the

to express themselves if that expression

ruling. This means that she is now limited

does not constitute discrimination. What

to one-hundred metre, two-hundred metre

is discrimination? To me, discrimination is

and long-distance races as opposed to her

anything which undermines the integrity

preferred event, the eight-hundred metres.

of another group of people whether it be intentional or unintentional. The severity

This ruling could be said to help prevent

of discrimination depends on the context

potentially harmful events from happening.

of the situation where discrimination has

For instance, in 2014 Fallon Fox – who is a

occurred. However, people like Salman

transgender female – beat Tamikka Brents

Rushdie may argue that “What is freedom of

in an MMA fight to the extent that Brents

expression? Without the freedom to offend,

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

it ceases to exist” and to this I say that I

References

am aware of this argument but believe that

1. Anne frank house. (2021). ‘Where do we draw the line between freedom of expression and discrimination?’ [online] annefrank.org. Available at: https://www.annefrank.org/en/ topics/discrimination-and-equal-rights/where-do-we-drawline-between-freedom-expression-and-discriminat/ [Accessed 13 Oct. 2021]

discrimination is different. For example, take the explicit nature of Nabokov’s novel Lolita. Nabokov is not degrading a specific group of people in his work. It may be harmful in the sense that it may influence someone to copy Humbert Humbert after reading the book, but I believe that censoring the novel because of the deviant acts within it would be doing a disservice to the majority who regard Lolita as a great piece of literature. It is important that discrimination is prohibited so that we can all live in a society where we have the freedom to express ourselves without fear of judgement or prejudice. As author Shannon L. Alder said, “Confidence is knowing who you are and not changing it a bit because of someone’s version of reality is not your reality.”

2. Dannreuther, A. (2016). ‘Free Speech Explained in 5 Human Rights Cases’. [online] eachother.org.uk. Available at: https:// eachother.org.uk/5-things-learned-free-speech-cases/ [Accessed 13 Oct. 2021] 3. Doody, K. (2021). ‘Halogen bulbs banned in UK from October - and could cost £100 to replace’. [online] DorsetEchoe. Available at: https://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/ news/national/uk-today/19613277.halogen-bulbs-banned-ukoctober---cost-100-replace/ [Accessed 21 Nov. 2021] 4. Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2017). ‘What is the European Convention on Human Rights?’. [online] equalityhumanrights. Available at: https://www. equalityhumanrights.com/en/what-european-conventionhuman-rights [Accessed 13 Oct. 2021] 5. European Convention on Human Rights. (2013). ‘European Convention on Human Rights’. [online] echr.coe.int. Available at: https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf [Accessed 1 Nov. 2021] 6. Hamilton Fraser. (2021). ‘When is a definition a crime?’. [online] hamiltonfraser.co.uk. Available at: https:// hamiltonfraser.co.uk/knowledge/when-is-a-definition-a-crime/ [Accessed 13 Oct. 2021] 7. Kuyateh, M. (2019). ‘Values in Society and Religion’. [online] Grin. Available at: https://www.grin.com/document/480695 [Accessed 28 Oct. 2021]. 8. Lightbulbs Direct. (2021). ‘Halogen Light Bulb Ban September 2021’. [online] lightbulbs-direct. Available at: https://blog.lightbulbs-direct.com/halogen-light-bulb-banseptember-2021/ [Accessed 22 Nov. 2021] 9. Purohit, B. (2021). ‘When transgender fighter Fallon Fox broke her opponent's skull in MMA fight’. [online] sportskeeda. Available at: https://www.sportskeeda.com/mma/news-whentransgender-fighter-fallon-fox-broke-opponent-s-skull-mmafight [Accessed 22 Nov. 2021] 10. Savulescu, J. (2019). ‘Ten ethical flaws in the Caster Semenya decision on intersex in sport’. [online] The Conversation. Available at: https://theconversation.com/tenethical-flaws-in-the-caster-semenya-decision-on-intersex-insport-116448 [Accessed 28 Oct. 2021]. 11. Smith, D and Torres, L. (2006). ‘Timeline: a history of free speech’. [online] The Guardian. Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/05/religion.news [Accessed 21 Nov. 2021] 12. Van Mill, D. (2021). ‘Freedom of Speech’. [online] plato. stanford.edu. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ freedom-speech/#HarPriFreSpe [Accessed 13 Oct. 2021]

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

How has religion shaped our world?

Victor Gloux | L6JMA

Religion has been a part of life so long as

intangible world, a supernatural world, leaves

humans have existed. How has it affected

the perplexed homo sapien with only one

our development, our expression of emotions

conclusion: that their essence is separate

and our conflicts? What if it never came

to their bodies and these souls roam the

to be? This question has not received true

forests, the seas, the valleys aiding them in

consideration because of its subjective

their hunts and travels. Hunter gatherers

nature in a world driven by facts and science.

could now make sense of the unknown, of

Is it because we fear an answer that reveals

the supernatural. This also explains the birth

man’s greatest fear: the unknown?

of religious rites. Precious tools, mollusk

However, before considering its effects

shells, bones and stones were buried along

on our world through the ages, we need

with the dead. These objects carried sacred

to consider “What is religion?” Whilst we

traits, traits that would aid the departing

cannot give an objective definition, we can

souls in the afterlife. This primitive instinct

look at what it means to different people

of assessing our environment to survive

around the world. Why do we need it, what

allowed the world’s first religion to emerge.

purpose does it serve? All these questions

Dreams of buried mothers and fathers gave

help us mold the key to unlock the door to a

us a new understanding of the strange world

new interpretation of our world to push us

around us, a sort of coping mechanism. What

past our current realm of thought, to evolve.

this birth of animism represents for humans is the start of a long and complex evolution,

THE BEGINNING

much like the evolution of Earth’s species, of

Religion can be traced back to before the

religion into what it is today.

great wars, before our first democracies,

before the creation of the society we have

GOD AND HUMANS

today, before books, before everything.

The relationship between humans and the

The first signs of religion can be dated back

idea of a god or multiple gods has evolved

300,000 years to the emergence of homo

since the emergence of homo sapiens but

sapiens, but more specifically their fascination

how exactly did this symbiotic relationship

with the soul. This was the beginning of

shape the history of our world? To truly grasp

Animism – attributing an intangible essence

this idea, we must understand our image of

or soul to all things, human or not. In other

a god (or, perhaps, our image of ourselves).

words, the world's first religion and one

As Reza Aslan perfectly puts it in his book

that has seen its beliefs evolve across the

‘God: A Human History of Religion’, our

globe. Anthropologist Edward Burnett Taylor

journey with religion ‘can be viewed as one

(1832-1917) theorized over the spark igniting

[...] remarkably cohesive effort to make sense

beliefs such as animism and he concluded

of the divine by giving it our emotions and

in his book ‘Primitive Culture’, “nothing but

our personalities.’ What he means is that we

dreams and visions could have ever put into

reflect our traits, our qualities and (in certain

men’s minds such an idea as that of souls”.

cases) our faults onto these deities to satisfy

Visions of deceased kin in a familiar yet

what Ludwig Feuerbach described as our

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

desire to experience the divine as an image

Whilst the history is fascinating, what is

of ourselves. This explains why a ‘humanized

particularly interesting is the effects religions

god’ has been and is still a central part in the

can have on the populations of the world.

religions of the world. And this is the key to

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three

understanding how it has shaped history. Our

biggest Abrahamic religions, all believing

deepest desires became those of the gods, our

that there is only one God (although having

hatred became the hatred of the gods. This

different names within each religion) who

connection then establishes a way in which we

first manifested himself to Abraham the

justify our actions, actions which have altered

patriarch. These common roots would lead us

history into what it is today. And what does

to believe that only a positive communication

this say about human psychology? Have our

of beliefs could exist between all three

ethics sprung from religion or from ourselves?

religions and yet hundreds of years of conflict

Our justifications for ‘religious wars’, were

exist not only between but within each

they to satisfy the desires of the gods or

religion. This begs the question: ‘Can multiple

merely a means for humans to acquire what

religions truly ever coexist?’. Or, to go even

they wanted, with or without a god? Would

further, when considering the Schism of 1054

history look the same without religion?

whereby Christianity in Europe saw a great divide in political and religious ideologies,

THE CRUSADES (1095-1291)

‘Can one true religion ever exist?’. On the

The Holy Crusades from the 11th Century

contrary, in the Crusades’ case, the common

to the end of the 13th Century saw

sense of ‘threat’ to their Christian identities

Western European Christians oppose the

saw Western Europeans unite to push back

Muslim expansionism that had taken place

the Seljuk Empire and aid fellow Christians of

throughout today’s Middle East, North

the East. Declared by the Council of Clermont

Africa, and Mediterranean Europe. Although

in 1095, any who committed to aid the

the exact causes of these crusades remain

Christians of the East would receive plenary

debated, the invasion of Antioch in Syria

indulgence. Thus the Holy Crusades began,

(now south-central Turkey) and specifically

and 200 years of religious wars followed,

the capture of the Antioch Church by the

shaping Christian and Muslim influence along

Seljuk Empire in 1085 was cause for outrage

with art, literature, and the importance of

amongst the Christians of Western Europe.

religion in political decision making.

The significance of the Antioch Church comes from the fact that according to the New

To say religion was a motivation for conflict

Testament, this was where Jesus’ followers

is misunderstanding its philosophy. Neither

were first referred to as ‘Christians,’ thus

the Quran, the Bible nor the Torah preach

its nickname ‘The Cradle of Christianity.’ As

war; however, they do teach the faithful

pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other sites of

about the importance of justice, protecting

Christian importance became too dangerous,

those weaker than themselves and serving

the realization that action had to be taken

the interests of their God, hence justification

initiated 200 years' worth of holy wars.

for holy wars such as the Crusades. This

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

is perhaps where the misunderstanding of

interests or not. And the absolute faith in

religion as justification for war may arise

a leader explains the long-lasting presence

from. The blurred line between man and

of theocracies in the world as a lack of

God’s desires from our interpretation of the

challenge towards one's methods of ruling

divine as a reflection of ourselves makes a

makes change unlikely. It is difficult to

seemingly ‘religious’ war solely human. The

imagine a world where absolute power

unfortunate existence of two distinct sides

given to individuals becomes a force solely

seemingly justifies religious war since it aims

for good. Such influence requires perfect

to protect the identity of either religion. The

leadership to exist peacefully amongst

difference in culture, geography and history

other such governments, something no

shapes these identities and hence conflict

human can provide due to our arguably

arises. But without any form of religion to

imperfect nature.

start with, would these wars that influenced the way our world developed through the

But does this philosophy of conflict and

centuries have looked any different and

absolutism arise from religion or simple

would their outcomes alter the world we

human greed? There are plenty of examples

know today?

of dictatorships, governments or conflicts that have not arisen from religious intentions.

THEOCRACY

Capitalism and economic factors have long

For thousands of years up until the

been driving factors behind wars and

19th Century, theocracy had been the

political reform and with great significance.

predominant method of ruling in Europe

Social identity and the development of

and Asia. Originating from the Greek Θεὀς

nations has risen from collective struggle,

(Theos) meaning ‘God’ and κρατἐω (krateo)

one which encompassed the peasants and

meaning ‘to rule,’ it is a form of government

working class throughout the 18th-20th

whereby absolute power is placed upon

centuries. These huge stepping-stones are

a deity, often taking the form of a human

synonymous with the decline of religious

intermediaries. Whether these beings,

influence over the people and secularism

such as the Pharaohs, Roman Emperors,

developing with the likes of George

monarchs, and other religious leaders, were

Holyoake. In short, religious factors have

gods in human form is not the focus. The

been dominant in shaping the course of

key here is the fact one person can have

history up until the Late Modern Period

absolute power over an empire or country,

(mid-18th century) where secular

a key that is facilitated by religion. Absolute

interpretations of the world started

faith and trust given to a deity in turn

developing over religious ones. Whether

means absolute faith and trust given to one

Ancient History and the Middle Ages are

ruler and thus absolute influence of their

more important over the Late Modern

population. This absolute influence over

Period when considering their respective

the people of a nation can be a powerful

significance in shaping the world of today is

force for war or reform, to fulfil the leaders’

up to your own interpretation.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

RELIGION: AN ART IN AND OF ITSELF?

alluding to the belief that humans were made

Religion is fundamentally an expression

in the likeness of God. The attention to detail

of emotions aimed at communicating

really captures what religious art is: the

with others to make sense of a strange

mutual love expressed by both humankind

world. For millennia, artists have aimed to

and God. Creazione di Adamo attempts

encapsulate what religion means, who or

to help believers feel closer to God, a skill

what god is and the significance of religion

which requires tremendous thought and

in their lives. Describing an ineffable being

imagination, a skill made possible when truly

in words is complex enough but to go as far

passionate, as was Michelangelo.

as associating an image to a god is pushing the bounds of art to its limits, allowing for

To take another example, Muslim prayer

some wonderful masterpieces. It is the

mats (sajjād) are characterised by a symbol

pure fascination with the supernatural

representing the prayer niche of a Mosque

which cannot simply be observed and

(mihrab) which is to be pointed towards

communicated that opens the world to

Mecca. However, rather than being a simple

limitless possibilities, a few of which have

mat, it allows Muslims to pray in isolated

seemed to bridge our way to a better

peace and upon closer inspection, the

understanding of God and religion. To both

seemingly symmetrical art reveals itself to

the believers and non-believers, the question

be quite the opposite. This is due to the fact

of the existence of God has allowed us to

Allah (God) is perfect and its perfect nature

evolve our way of thinking, to question what

cannot be imitated, for it is unique to Allah.

is and what is not. That, in and of itself, is art.

Such objects may not be sacred in the same way relics are, but their significance and

GOD AND HUMANS IN ART

utility render them far more meaningful than

One way in which religion and art have

they may first appear to be. This need to

manifested themselves together is by

praise their Gods through paintings, prayer or

representing God as a human (often a man)

pilgrimage is art in and of itself and inspires

and humankind attempting to touch God,

others to adopt the same approach and

to feel the connection millions appreciate

universally appreciate the one who brought

but struggle to express. The most iconic of

them life. The philosophy around art and

these would be Michelangelo’s Creazione di

religion encourages a better understanding of

Adamo (creation of Adam) forming part of

the world and to appreciate what is given to

the Sistine Chapel’s ethereal ceiling in the

us, a philosophy that has and will continue to

Vatican, Rome. Painted between 1508-1512,

inspire many more in the never-ending quest

it is venerated as one of his greatest artworks

to find the true meaning of religion.

and has been appreciated by millions since. The genius behind this artwork is how much

CONCLUSION

detail can be observed and the Christian

What would a history deprived of religion

beliefs encompassed by it. For example,

look like? What would our world look like

God is represented as a white-bearded man,

without the huge influence it has on politics,

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

culture, and art? Without the instinct to think beyond the realm of the real, there would be no imaginative literature, no mystical art. Or a novel approach to art would influence our outlook on the world. The common status quo religion had provided would never have been put in place and in turn never challenged to develop the scientific theories and philosophies of today. The complex emotions of fear of the unknown would never push us to investigate what was beyond the visible world. Would humankind have a different type of religion with or without deities? Would they be much different to the governments of today with rules and important, authoritative figures dictating what we can and cannot do? The truth is that there is no truthful answer because religion is all we have ever known. Would we even be human?

GOD IS REPRESENTED AS A WHITE-BEARDED MAN, ALLUDING TO THE BELIEF THAT HUMANS WERE MADE IN THE LIKENESS OF GOD.

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Origins of Christianity

Spike Wyatt | L6RHG

Christianity, the largest religion on the

Judaism as it is from where most of its key

planet. With over two billion Christians in the

ideas originate (in fact Jesus himself was

world (around 31% of the whole population),

a Jew) and key Jewish texts and traditions

it is a global juggernaut which dominates

are ingrained in Christian culture such as

North and South America, Europe, Oceania,

Sunday being a holy day, fasting and baptism.

and all of Africa below the Sahara. It is

However, there is a clear ideological divide

festivals and traditions such as Christmas,

in Christianity and Judaism. In the Christian

Easter and fasting are ingrained in western

Bible, Jesus is used to rewrite and remove

culture, while its ethics and politics are the

certain Jewish practices or beliefs that St.

basis for western society. Words such as

Paul (and other leading figures) may have

“sin” and “holy” are implanted in the English

disagreed with. Hence practices such as

language and biblical quotations like “thou

animal sacrifices were directly criticised by

shalt not kill” or “love your neighbour as you

Jesus as way of ideologically separating this

love yourself” are known by all. There is not

new blossoming religion from Judaism. So

a human alive who does not know the name

instead, this theological revisionism would

“Jesus”. The question is: where does this

suggest that despite some similarities, the

religion come from? If you found the origins

two are fundamentally opposed with each

of Christianity and how it evolved, then you

religion evolving as Christianity spread

would find the ‘truest’ form. However, it is

westwards and began to separate itself from

not as simple as that. Christianity has many

Judaism. Both religions absorbed the regional

influences, some hundreds of years apart,

views and beliefs and so began to distance

and you will see that Christianity, like all

themselves from one another as they grew in

ideas, morphs society, and is morphed by

separate parts of Europe.

society. Hence this article is an analysis of the evolution of Christianity whether in fact

With that out the way, let us have a look at

Christianity does have an origin.

the beginning: Jerusalem around 31 to 33 AD. Jesus Christ, the alleged Son of God,

But before we get to Christianity itself,

was crucified and two days later he was

we must first examine its roots in Judaism.

resurrected and ascended to heaven. This

Many Christian ideas and texts either come

is the beginning of Christianity as Jesus’

from Judaism or are inspired by Hebrew

resurrection fulfilled the Hebrew messianic

texts and ideals. Stories such as Noah’s

prophecies legitimising him as the son of God

ark come from Judaism, as do ideas such

and by extension Christianity as a whole. This

as the Ten Commandments, the idea of a

begins the Apostolic age (around 30 – 100

messiah who will rid the Jews (and then

AD), called as such since this is the time in

the Christians) of their oppressors (the

which Jesus’ apostles were still alive. A key

Egyptians and the Romans respectively) and

figure is St. Paul who wrote and compiled the

the idea of a Holy Land with it being Israel

New Testament deciding what is part of his

for them both. In fact, the Old Testament

Christianity. This age is a rejection of Hebrew

is taken from the 24 books of the Hebrew

ideology, a revision of what Christianity is

Bible. One would logically assume that the

and a change in the ethics and practices of

most accurate form of Christianity is in fact

the religion. One might argue that since this

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

is the closest chronologically to Jesus and his

the next paradigm shift: St. Thomas Aquinas

teaching making it the closest ideologically

and the integration of classical philosophy

to Jesus’ teachings because as time increases

into Catholicism.

religious beliefs, and beliefs in general, begin to stray from the original idea. However,

During the 13th century, Aquinas synthesised

this form of Christianity was an ideological

Aristotelean and Platonic thinking into

mess. The faith was still emerging, there was

the Christian theology. Aquinas took key

no unity between groups. Regional variants

ideas from these two philosophers and

formed because of this disconnection. A

‘Christianized them’ to fit into Church

key reason for this fragmentation is lack of

canon. For example, he took Plato’s theory

a centre body which established the beliefs

of another higher realm of existence calling

and laws of Christianity. One could argue

this Heaven and that which resided in this

that this initial disconnect is a key reason

realm God. He took Aristotle’s theory of

Christianity today has so many variations as

cause and effect and the idea of the first

even when a governing body was established

cause which he called God. This to many is

(the Catholic Church and the papacy), there

the true form of Christianity as Catholicism

was still so many regional denominations all

has never strayed philosophically from

with differing ideals. So therefore, the truest

Aquinas’ ideas and only adapted ethically

form of Christianity must be further forwards

as society’s morality changed. In fact, many

in time.

of Aquinas’ ideas are not at all evident in prior Christian thinking and only further

However, before the next paradigm shift in

justifies the argument that he created true

Christianity, there is a large amount of history

Christianity. One might argue that since it

to get through. After the death of Jesus,

is still the backbone of not only Catholicism

Christianity began to spread across Europe

but Christianity as a whole (with ideas not

and Africa gradually gaining traction despite

seen in any prior work) we can deduce him

facing significant oppression from the Roman

to be the trigger for a paradigm shift in

Empire until 380 AD when Christianity

Christianity. However, while many of his core

became the Empire’s state religion following

ideas are still part of modern Catholicism,

the Edict of Thessalonica. When the Roman

many of his ethics and more specific views

Empire was split in two, the Western empire

have been either modified or redacted such

adopted what would become Catholicism

as his Five Ways, the five proofs for God. In

while the Eastern empire (better known as

fact, one could argue that the synthesisation

the Byzantine empire) which became what

of classical philosophy into Catholicism only

would be Orthodox Christianity (specifically

makes his form of Christianity less like the

Eastern Orthodoxy). When the Western

original ideas and beliefs of Jesus. Then

empire collapsed in 476, Catholicism began

again, who is Jesus? A religious sceptic might

to develop as the dominant denomination as

argue that Jesus is a mouthpiece for St. Paul

it spread across Western Europe during the

who just happened to be a local priest whom

Dark ages as the church ‘split’ into Western

St. Paul morphed into the son of God. A more

Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy during

fitting paradigm shift would be the rise of

the 1054 East-West schism. This leads us to

Protestantism and disestablishmentarianism

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

in England. [Editor: See Charlie Kennedy’s

which leads me to my overall conclusion:

article on Jesus in this volume of The Journal]

the attempt to designate a cut-off point in an idea or construct (such as a religion) is an

During the 16th century German theologian

ultimately meaningless endeavour.

Martin Luther proposed reformation within the church: a shift from the archaic ideology

This is because ideas evolve. Your morals and

and traditionalism within the church and

ethics are constantly changing be it due to

a move towards a more modern church.

new scientific discoveries, a shift in societal

This gave way to the rise of Protestantism

norm or an individual revelation. At the end

in England with Henry VIII’s spilt from the

of the day, Christianity, like all other religions,

Catholic church which led to the rise of the

is an idea, and an idea which is constantly in

Church of England, a church which aimed to

motion. The Catholic Church, for example,

separate itself from the perceived frivolity

has the Catechism which compiles the

and luxury of Catholic architecture and ideals

Church’s official doctrine over time, such

to a faith which better suited the common

as announcing that capital punishment is

man. This deliberate shift from traditionalism

“an attack on the inviolability and dignity

which many perceived to be stunting

of a person”. If you look at modern day

intellectual and social development laid the

Catholicism and Protestantism, you shall

foundation for the Age of Enlightenment and

find that their ideas are always present in

the associated enlightenment philosophers

each other’s religion. Religions are morphed

who fundamentally changed the way we

by their people just as their people are

perceived God and Christianity, like David

morphed by them. As people spread, ideas

Hume and Immanuel Kant. Many argue this

spread and ideas evolve. To draw a line under

to be modern Christianity as due to its more

Christianity and say that there is a ‘true’ form

socially liberal and ‘modern’ form of the

of Christianity is to deny the very nature

religion, it is practised by many in Western

of Christianity itself. One could argue that

Europe and North America. In fact, Protestant

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is just

ethics and morality have begun to creep

as influential as Protestantism or St. Aquinas’

into Catholicism. However, just like with St.

revisions because they are equally important

Aquinas’ and St. Paul’s revisions, Lutheran

in the evolution of Christianity. Christianity

Protestantism would still be classed as overly

does not have origins; Christianity is in a

strict and archaic by our standards as Luther,

constant cycle of change and shall never stay

however liberal he may be compared to

the same.

the Catholic Church, was writing over 500 years ago. His ethics are still going to be fitting of those of the time rather than ours

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Why does the Modern World need literary critics?

Quentin Aude-Lange | L6AMT

Oscar Wilde described truth as “rarely pure

and inferior intellectuality through not giving

and never simple”, and this is particularly

the natives the opportunity to express things

applicable to literature due to its ability to

in a way accepted by Conrad’s European

create different readings and blur meaning.

culture. This adheres to colonial ideas of the

Literary critics help readers develop a further

“native mind”, developed by Lord Cromer,

understanding of works they are reading and

who said that “His [the Oriental’s] reasoning

develop deeper thoughts about these texts.

is of the most slipshod description” . The

Because literature is often inaccessible, a

overall effect of such blatant racism, amid

first-hand reading without criticism can lead

the BlackLivesMatter movement, particularly

to misunderstandings, which may encourage

present because of social media, is a very

extremism and have dangerous socio-political

shocking one, and this might lead to some

consequences. Nowadays, when social media

wanting to censor the novella.

can catalyse the spreading of extremist ideas, literary criticism’s guiding hand is crucial to

However, some critics defend Conrad as

help prevent the potential impacts of serious

someone who attacked imperialism. Conrad

misconceptions. Moreover, the modern world

writes that “the conquest of the earth, which

needs new the insights and ideas about

mostly means the taking away from those

literature which criticism creates, as these

who have a different complexion or slightly

enriching reactions to literature help advance

flatter nose than ourselves, is not a pretty

the modern world.

thing”, which ridicules colonial motivations. The metaphor of, “a tranquil waterway

An infamous example of a text which

leading to the uttermost ends of the earth…

can create a variety of understandings

lead into the heart of an immense darkness”,

and misunderstandings due its thematic

roots immorality in Belgian Congo to the

complexity and a vivid clash of paradigm

immorality within the European psyche

beliefs, is Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.

through the symbolism of the Thames

Modern readers are faced with a wall of

as the heart of European culture. Watts

racism when Conrad describes the natives

notices that “Of all people…the happiest,

as, “a whirl of black limbs,” a “mass of hands

healthiest, and most vital are the group of

clapping of feet stamping of bodies swaying”,

blacks”. Combining this with the immorality

where Conrad repeatedly uses synecdoche

of the colonials, this forms a chiasmus that

to reduce the natives to the physical.

the white people are morally dark, and the

Throughout the novella, Conrad doesn’t let

black people are morally white. Furthermore,

the natives speak, except for “Mistah Kurtz

Conrad’s narrative method is such that the

– he dead” and “Catch ‘im… Give ‘im to us…

barrier of racist language is not Conrad’s

Eat’im”, which have “incorrect” syntax and

language, but Marlow’s. Although we might

only talk about death and cannibalism. This

conclude that Marlow is racist, some would

furthers the impression of pure physicality

argue that we cannot claim that Conrad

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

was racist. Overall, Conrad seems also to be

of the European psyche is simplifying the

firmly critical of imperialism and its cruelness,

complexity of pre-colonial Africa, which

perhaps leading to some praising Conrad for

is racist. This outweighs Watts’ argument,

his anti-imperial, humanistic message.

as the racism of associating black skin with moral darkness makes Watts’ point

Conrad therefore has an ambivalent attitude

about natives being the happiest minor in

towards colonialism. Readers must therefore

comparison to this approach to Conrad’s

merge Marlow as a wise man “in the pose

literary methodology. The defence that the

of a meditating Buddha”, sympathising with

racist language is Marlow’s, not Conrad’s is

the natives on the shores, with Marlow

weak, as evidence of associating blackness

who calls the natives, “devils of the land”.

with evil is evident in the plot, as well as the

A pattern of religious imagery continues

end of the novella through the metaphor

from Marlow ridiculing the “pilgrims”

of the Thames, both of which cannot be

of imperialism, deeming colonialism as

Marlow’s racism.

“something to bow down to” to when an unknown narrative voice likens him to a

Thus, by critically analysing Heart of Darkness

Buddha. This continuation through the

and reading literary criticism, we have

narrative shift suggests that overall Marlow

furthered our understanding of the novel.

is in fact one of these cruel “pilgrims” and

If readers are confused, they can turn to

is therefore as immoral as those on the

literary criticism’s guidance, and make their

forefront of colonialism. Furthermore, Singh

own readings with its help. Had we not

and Achebe point out the structural racism

considered literary criticism, we might’ve

within the novella. Singh argues that Conrad,

completely forgiven Conrad and unjustly

“equates the primate with the evil and

ignored the racist language; we might’ve

physical blackness…with spiritual blackness”;

censored Conrad for his racist language and

the way in which Conrad transfers the

unjustly ignored parts where he is clearly

Hobbesian evil that the forest symbolises

anti-imperialist. The modern world needs

to a native who “stood looking…like the

this because both options of reading without

wilderness itself” associates the natives with

literary criticism don’t start progressive

the vegetation that “rioted on the earth”, the

conversations about the novel, don’t enrich

word “rioted” connoting ideas of physical,

us as readers or people, and could propagate

simple revolution against “civilized” society.

racism or censorship. The helping hand of

This racist assumption makes Conrad’s point,

criticism has thus firstly acted as a safety

albeit against imperialism, based on racism.

net for misunderstandings and has enriched

Achebe argues that “Africa is to Europe as

us by providing alternative ideas about

the picture is to Dorian Gray”, so the way in

the novel we have encountered first-hand,

which Conrad uses Africa as a background,

which is important in the modern world

which is objectifying, to explore the fall

because of the perilous ramifications of

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

misunderstanding Heart of Darkness might’ve

sexism, in which case criticism does become

had.

a hindrance. Literary critics and the body of literary criticism must be unbiased, as

However, the argument that literary critics

critics biased by exclusive ideologies such as

serve as a teaching hand just to correct

racism or sexism might give value judgments

any grave misunderstandings or readings

not necessarily from literature itself, but

seems insufficient, as we must also consider

its origin, and might ignore parts of texts

criticism as a progressive process – after all,

which don’t adhere to their ideals. Until

“criticism exists because it gives pleasure

recently, Conrad was almost solely praised as

to those who perform it…[and] read it”. The

a master of the psychological novel, Edward

existence of criticism itself suggests a more

Garnett proclaiming it to be “an analysis of

positive, progressive need for criticism in the

the white man’s morale, when he is set loose

modern world.

from European restraint”, reading the novel only from a colonial perspective. Literary

Diverse schools of criticism provide different

critics can only benefit the reader and

ways of looking at literature. New Criticism,

benefit society if they are unbiased, which

pioneered by T.S Eliot, focuses on close-

makes them not a hindrance but a medium

reading and structural relationships within

for development. Responding to Watson’s

works of literature. Achebe and Singh analyse

supposition then, although the critic does

Heart of Darkness within Post-Colonialism,

serve as a “middleman”, this role is crucial

which examines colonialism’s damaging

as, if the critic is unbiased, it doesn’t cut

impacts on pre-colonial civilizations. Whilst

ties between author and reader but builds

these methods of looking at works of

new ideas for the reader to build new ties.

literature are distinct, they are all driven by

Moreover, there is still the responsibility

a thirst for deeper connection with a work

within the reader to not let extremist ideas in

of literature, and all provide, in their own

pieces of literary criticism dictate their morals

ways, concepts about literature which can

and actions. “Criticism, of course, does not

help a reader understand and appreciate

prevent lies from being told” and although

literature to a higher degree. A weakness

literary criticism might, in some cases, argue

arises with this argument; as Watson

for extreme ideas which could promote

supposes, “the very existence of critic as

racism or sexism, there must still exist

middleman between poet and reader is an

responsibility within the reader to formulate

impertinence”, and thus the critic might in

his opinion on that literary criticism.

some sense prevent rather than help the

Therefore, literary critics are needed because

interaction between reader and literature.

of how they, if they are unbiased, provide

This turns to how literary criticism can be

fascinating insights into all kinds of literature

biased by the prejudices of those wishing to

which propels the modern world forward

uphold exclusive ideologies such as racism or

by shining new light on both old and new

R E L I G I O N , E T H I C S A N D L I T E R AT U R E

literature. New insights into literature are

LITERARY CRITICS CAN ONLY BENEFIT

needed for the progress of the modern world, as they help develop ideas which determine culture, politics, and life in general: key parts of the modern world.

THE READER AND

In conclusion, literary critics are to the reader

BENEFIT SOCIETY

needed in the modern world. Critics “correct”

IF THEY ARE UNBIASED, WHICH MAKES THEM NOT A HINDRANCE BUT A MEDIUM FOR DEVELOPMENT.

as teachers are to the pupil; their function is grave misunderstandings when literature is less accessible to the reader, and to provide new fascinating insights into literature which pupils mightn’t have thought of and enriches them. Criticism is therefore vital for the modern world because the modern reader is in a time where social media can catalyse the prevalence of such misconceptions, because of its global reach and rapid transmission which facilitates the communication of such ideas, and the facility to portray misunderstandings in a way that seems correct toviewers. Therefore, the corrective hand that literary criticism provides is needed now more than ever; Literary criticism “might contribute in a modest way to our very survival”.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

The Human Impact on Animal Evolution

Sam Moorhouse | L1TJD

In the past, due to the interference of humans,

IMPACT OF FARMING AND PESTICIDES

animals have had to evolve in order to survive.

While pesticides are most commonly

Humans are an ongoing threat to the other

associated with bugs that eat our farmed crops,

inhabitants of Earth, as such certain creatures

bedbugs are another animal that has evolved

and organisms have had to evolve to survive.

to survive the changes brought about by

pesticides. They have evolved to become more resistant to the pesticides we have created to

An example of this is how a species of white-

deal with them by increasing the thickness of

winged moths evolved to have black wings.

their exoskeletons and mutating other natural

The moths camouflaged onto trees to hide

defences in response to the poisons we use.

IMPACT OF INDUSTRY

from predators, however during the industrial

Domestication is one of the most common

leading to them being obvious targets for the

and well-known cases of humans bringing

birds that preyed on them. The species’ change

about animal evolution. Domestication is the

to black wings was brought about due to flukes

act of taming an animal and keeping it on a

in the genetic codes of some moths giving

farm or as a pet. Humans have domesticated

them black wings. These moths were more

cats, cows, dogs, pigs, goats, chickens, sheep,

therefore survived to pass on this gene to their

ducks, and pigeons. This could be to make

camouflaged to the soot-covered leaves and

revolution black soot gathered on the trees

farming them easier or more efficient, or to make them less dangerous and cuter looking

wings died before they could pass on the gene.

to make them better pets.

young, whereas the moths born with white

IMPACT OF URBANISATION AND THE

have created huge metal structures to carry

FUTURE

electricity which are covered in tin. Tin is

Humans have also inadvertently domesticated

poisonous to most plants, but some plants

wolves into foxes by building big cities which

have recently evolved to be able to survive

provide less of their normal diet of wild

on or near these tin structures.

animals such as deer and hares. However, the

Another example of this is how humans

cities provide the foxes with another source of food: our food waste. Other animals such as

Some female elephants have also evolved

racoons have also evolved in this way.

IMPACT OF HUNTING

not to have tusks, this was already a known Humans have now brought about climate

chance of being born with them. Due to

change, a new and dangerous threat to all

poaching, the chance of this has increased

species. Animals will once again have to

drastically to 33%. This is because female

evolve in order to survive. We are now more

elephants born without tusks will get less

aware than ever of the struggles animals face

attention from hunters. However, the

and how they have adapted to work around

downside of this is that it is lethal to male

these problems. But will climate change be too

elephants to be born with no tusks.

deadly for even the most adaptive creatures?

phenomenon, but females only had an 18.5%

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

The Universe

Shauyra Arora | L1TJD

UNIVERSE

then divides into smaller, swirly clumps. As

The Universe is everything that exists

each clump continues to collapse the material

– phenomenal planets, shimmering stars,

in it becomes hotter and hotter when it

gigantic galaxies, and the space between

reaches about 10 million degrees Celsius

them. Even the never-ending time is part

(around 18 million Fahrenheit), a nuclear

of the Universe. No one knows how big

reaction starts, and a new star is made.

the Universe is, or where it starts and

The death of a star begins when it burns

ends. Everything is so far away from our own

up all of its hydrogen fuel. Larger stars

little planet that light from stars and galaxies

are often very hot, so they burn fuel more

can take billions of years to reach us, so we

rapidly, so they only shine for a few millions

see the Universe as it looked billions of years

of years. Smaller stars are much cooler, so

ago. But we can also use this information to

they use their fuel more slowly and can shine

discover how the Universe began and how it

for billions of years.

might end. The Big Bang was the beginning of our Universe. Before the Big Bang there was

PLANETS

no ‘before’ because time and space did not

A planet is a large object that orbits a star.

exist anywhere, they only came into existence

To be a planet, an object must be massive

after the Big Bang. In the first three minutes

enough for gravity to have squeezed into a

of the Universe’s life the temperature cooled

spherical, or round, shape. It must also be

from being unbelievably hot (as hot as a

large enough for gravity to have swept up

burning ball of flames) to less than 1 billion

any rocky or icy objects from its path, or

degrees Kelvin (1 kelvin = -272.15˚C). In that

orbit. Some spherical objects that orbit the

same amount of time, it expanded from a

sun may be classified as dwarf planets since

billion times smaller than an atom to the size

they have not cleared their neighbourhood in

of our Milky Way Galaxy. I believe there is

their orbit. Planets form from particles in a

still more about the Universe to be discovered

disc or gas and dusk, colliding and sticking

as it is always expanding. Although we think

together as they orbit the star.

we may know so much about it, we may also know so little as every day when we think we

SPACE

understand the universe, something new

Space is a silent void of blackness that

is discovered.

consumes everything around us. It begins at the top of our atmosphere. Although

STARS

unimaginably vast, silent, and largely empty

Most stars are born in a huge cloud of gas

place it has many amazing properties. Space is

and dust, called a nebula. Nebulae come in

a huge and vast vacuum (a vacuum is a place

one colour they might turn into different

without any air or gas). On Earth, air transfers

colours which can either absorb or reflect the

heat from one place to another but in space

radiation from new-born stars. In a majestic

there is no air to distribute heat all around.

blue nebula, light is reflected by small dust

This means that sunlit areas of space are

particles. A red nebula is caused by stars

extremely hot. Even in places far from stars

heating the dust and gas. The story of a star’s

and planets, space still contains scattered

life begins when a nebula begins to shrink,

particles of dust or a few hydrogen atoms.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

CONCLUSION This concludes that we may not know all there is to know about the Universe as we have seen new things discovered every month. The Universe consists of many fascinating things like planets, stars, galaxies and space itself. I feel fascinated about the Universe and I am curious about what is out there and whether there are other beings who live somewhere in the Universe alongside us.

SPACE IS A SILENT VOID OF BLACKNESS THAT CONSUMES EVERYTHING AROUND US.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Eletico Ltd.

Deon Minkah | 1KDH

INTRODUCTION

usage, and therefore set realistic targets for

The climate crisis is a message of impending

you. These targets will be encouraged by the

doom, something that looms over us

app and tell you to do simple actions such

influencing our actions in everything we

as turning off the light. In completing these

do. Endless protests, the blocking of roads

targets, you will receive points, that can be

and disruption of tubes and trains, the

used to redeem, gifts and premium services.

climate argument has become somewhat

In addition, your efforts will be realised as if

of a pest to some. But then you see the

you collect enough ‘points’ you are able to

wildfires ravaging through forests hungry for

redeem bigger gifts and rewards.

destruction and you see mudslides washing down whole villages and you feel like you

HOW DOES ELETICO GET PEOPLE TO

want to do something to help; but I assure

MAKE CONSCIOUS CHOICES?

you, fear not because we have a secret

Background research implies that apps

weapon: innovation.

like Eletico may promote customers to make changes to their lifestyle if they are

I am sure many of you reading this feel as

rewarded immediately and promptly. To

such. There are many things happening

ensure that cohesion between customers

around the world due to climate change

making choices and earning points, we aim

and these need to be solved. Many changes

to make processing and earning of points

you can make would be too drastic to make

as immediate as possible. This will promote

immediately and even if you do make a

and most likely lead to more customers

drastic change, how much of a difference

doing more actions within the home to earn

is that going to make to the international

points. The more the users become hungry

effort? That is why we came up with Eletico.

for points, the more they perform actions that will reduce their carbon emission.

WHAT IS ELETICO?

We hope that this will lead to customers

Eletico is an eco-friendly reward scheme

establishing a routine.

in an app that motivates users to make climate-conscious choices at home. It will

THE SCIENCE BEHIND ELETICO’S

motivate users make choices at home that

REWARD SYSTEM

will help the global climate change effort.

However, according to Brainfacts.org, it is

Many people overlook turning off the lights

not the reward that influences your emotion

while at home, or switching off plugs in

and reaction, it is the expectation of the

the house, or turning off the taps. These

reward. If you expect a reward to be great,

simple actions may not make too much of a

and it is not, of course you are not going

difference on a small scale but make a big

to feel amazing. If you expect an average

difference on a large scale.

reward, and it turns out to be good, you will feel happier. Your expectation is key to

HOW DOES IT WORK?

your reaction and emotions when rewarded.

You, an unsuspecting human being, connect

Scientific studies found that people who

your smart meter to the Eletico app. This

had expected an amazing reward and had

will allow the app to monitor your electricity

received an amazing reward tended to feel

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

less happy than people who had expected

particular device, it would set you a target

a bad reward and received a good reward.

of, for example, turning off all switches and

According to Brainfacts.org, “the brain’s

lights in the house, to try and prevent the

reward system reinforces behaviours

waste of energy. This would also mean you

associated with rewards and prevents

wouldn’t have to stop using that device to

behaviours leading to punishment.”

make a difference.

This is what makes Eletico so attractive and

According to Utility Design, we waste a

more effective than the tried-and-tested

whopping £4.4 billion as a nation due to

ways of attempting to cut down on energy,

leaving the lights on. It may seem obscure or

such as taxes, which might not always work,

weird in some way, but it is true. On average

as it creates a more negative impact on

a person could save £66 a year from that

you. Eletico, instead of punishing you when

£4.4 billion wasted on lights in the UK. A

you do it wrong, motivates you to make

simple action, a movement of the hand can

differences and rewards you when you do

save you £66 a year. When people leave the

it right. Programmes like ULEZ only make

lights while asleep it equates to 8,985,000 kg

people upset and do not help make them

of carbon dioxide per night in for 4.7 million

commit to the climate fight, according to The

people. The emissions that are left behind by

Guardian, it affects them negatively. That is

simple action, or inaction, are preventable,

not to say that these measures taken by the

and Eletico will help people to make the

Mayor of London are pointless but only solve

choices that will help the eco-friendly fight.

a fraction of the problem. SUMMARY? WILL ELETICO MAKE A REAL

To summarise, we think that Eletico has the

DIFFERENCE?

potential to become one of the best apps for

If at least 100 people are using the Eletico

saving money on bills in the world, and while

app at any one time, and each of them use

it may be just an idea at the moment, there is

10 kWh (kilowatts per hour) on different

no doubt that it can become a reality. It uses

appliances a day, if each of them manages to

the power of science for your own benefit

save 2kWh, that is 200 kWh saved. To put

and progression.

that into perspective you would be able to power 1250, 50-inch televisions.

It is not an app that, like others, is designed to get you to part with more money, but,

What makes Eletico special is that it finds

is focused on the world as well as saving

out where you use energy the most, and sets

you money.

you a target for just that one thing. This is significantly better than just setting yourself

Sources:

a goal such as ‘I want to reduce my energy

https://www.brainfacts.org/thinking-sensing-and-behaving/ learning-and-memory/2018/motivation-why-you-do-the-thingsyou-do-082818

usage this month by X amount’, as you would not know where to focus on to reduce it. But, with Eletico, if it found that the majority of your energy usage came from using a

www.theguardian.com https://www.utilitydesign.co.uk/blog/leaving-lights-on/

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Remote Farming App

Jasper Clack | 2GLD

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROPONICS OVER TRADITIONAL FARMING TECHNIQUES? ˃Up to 90% more efficient use of water Production increases 3 to 10 times in the same amount of space ˃Many crops can be produced twice as fast in a well-managed hydroponic system ˃Decreasing the time between harvest and INNOVATION THROUGH AN APP

consumption increases the nutritional value

I have had the idea of creating an app

of the end product

from which you can control farming remotely: Remote Farming. It uses advanced

˃Indoor farming in a climate-controlled

technology such as hydroponics which is an

environment means farms can exist in places

environmentally friendly farming process as

where weather and soil conditions are not

it uses 90% less water than standard farming

favourable for traditional food productions

procedures.

can be used for growing things all year round

WHAT IS HYDROPONICS? Hydroponics is a type of horticulture and a subset of hydroculture which involves growing plants (usually crops) without soil, by using mineral nutrient solutions in an aqueous solvent. Terrestrial plants may grow with their roots exposed to the nutritious liquid, or, in addition, the roots may be physically supported by an inert medium such as perlite, gravel, or other substrates. HOW IS HYDROPONICS A POSITIVE CHANGE? Hydroponics is affordable as no soil is needed and as the crops are grown in controlled environments, there are few insects and other external factors that are potentially harmful. Consequently, there is less use of pesticides and less chance of disease.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

THE HARVEST TOOL ON THE APP The harvest tool is a tool on the app monitors when the plant is ready to harvest, and it allows the user to remotely harvest and cut it using machines. This is tool means that it is easier than ever to harvest crops and requires little to no human intervention. OTHER FUNCTIONS On the app you can see how people around the world are farming through a network of app users. You can even do games against friends to see who can save the most water. HOW THE REMOTE FARMING APP LINKS TO INNOVATION I believe that this app links with this term’s theme of innovation as it is using technology in a new way to help the environment and produce crops on a larger scale. This means there is more food for the world which theoretically could mean that there is less world hunger. Moreover, it also means that some farmland can be used for other purposes such as reforestation or housing. This would obviously benefit the world.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

The Envelope Theorem

Scofield Chan | 4JBG

BACKGROUND

a £157.349102 million profit, we can use 1

Optimization Problem = The finding of the

minute. I present to you:

best solution to a problem of all feasible solutions.

THE ENVELOPE THEOREM To understand the envelope theorem, it is

Discrete Optimization = Optimization

essential to first understand some simple

where an object such as an integer (a

differentiation.

number without a fractional component), a permutation (an arrangement of members

As an example, if we knew the sum of the

of a set, usually a variable, into a sequence

values of goods X and Y to be 80, and their

which can be linear/non-linear), or a graph (a

product to be a maximum, we can infer:

structure amounting to a number of objects which are correlated, otherwise the values are known as vertices). Continuous Optimization= Optimization where set of continuous variables, otherwise known as a continuous functions, is found, including constraint optimization (the finding of the best solution with hard constraints in which the value of a function is limited to a range of a variable, such as f(x) = 7 having a range of x of 1,…,m , where m is an unknown. The value of x is 1 ≤ x ≤ m, therefore the value of f(x) is limited to f(1≤x≤m) ) or a multimodal distributional problem (a problem with a distribution of values or even variables

Maximisation from Uniform Sum 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

of 1+ modes). Constraint optimization = The optimization of a function (objective) with respect to specific variables, or the constraints on those variables.

4 x

5 y

f(product)

Notice how when the variables x Minimisation fromvalues UniformofDifference

and 500 y are equal, and at the lowest on average, the0 value of f(product) is highest. 1

-500

There is no other combination of values in -1000

Why do we need optimization at all? One

f(product)>1600, only (x,y)=(40,40)=1600.

may believe that one can test all possible

Therefore (40,40) is the maximum point. This

values to a problem, but think twice and

is the goal of a reward function, to maximise

one will realise that there is an uncountable

product given a uniform value using changing

infinite number of variables. To save us from

variables in range.

-1500 -2000

having to spend forever to determine the number of £0.9 biscuit sales needed to make

f(product)

Minimisation from Product 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

81 1

200 0

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

4 x

5 y

f(product)

Minimisation from Uniform Difference 500 0

-500

If we knew that the difference in the values

-1000

of good x and good y to be 80, and their

-1500

product to be a minimum, we can infer:

-2000

Maximisation from Uniform Sum

1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

f(product)

Minimisation from Product

4 x

5 y

f(product)

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

Minimisation from Uniform Difference

4 x

500 0

-500

5 y

f(sum)

Notice how when the values of variables x and y are at their mean, the value of f(sum) is lowest.

-1000

There is no other combination of values in

-1500

f(sum)<80, only (x,y)=(40,40)=80. Therefore

-2000 x

(40,40) is the minimum point. This is the goal

f(product)

of a cost function, to minimise cost given a uniform value using changing variables in range.

Notice how when the values of variables from Product x and y are atMinimisation their mean, the value of 900

If we knew that the sum of a number and its

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

reciprocal to be a minimum, given that > 0,

f(product) is lowest. 800

we can infer:

There is no other combination of values in f(product)<-1600, only (x,y)=(–40,40)=–1600. Therefore (–40,40) is the minimum point. This is the 1goal2of a 3cost 4function, 5 6 to minimise 7 8

x value y f(sum) changing cost given a uniform using

variables in range. If we knew that the product of the values of Minimisation from Sum from Reciprocal

good x and good y to be 1600, given that x and y > 0, and their sum to be a minimum, we can infer:

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

4 x

5 x-1

f(sum)

Area Proportional to Dimensions 12000

10000 8000 6000

Minimisation from Sum from Reciprocal 6 5

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

4 3 2 1 0

x-1

f(sum)

Notice how when the values of variables x and y Area Proportional to Dimensions

are at their mean, the value of f(sum) is lowest. 12000

the river in front of his mansion. He does not 10000

There is no other combination of values in f(sum)>2, only (x,x–1)=(1,1)=2. Therefore (1,1) is the minimum point. This is the goal of a cost function, to minimise cost given a uniform

need to fence off the river because he wants 8000 to6000 stare at fish. What are the dimensions of 4000field that has the largest area? the 2000 0

value using changing variables in range.

Width (m)

Length (m)

Area (m^2)

Find the dimensions of a rectangle with largest possible area, given that its perimeter is 400 metres: Minimisation from Sum from Reciprocal 6 5 4 3

Area Fenced Proportional to Dimensions

4000

3500

x-1

f(sum)

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Area Proportional to Dimensions

12000

2 Width (ft)

10000

4 Length (ft )

Area Fenced (ft^2)

8000 6000

Notice how when the values of the width

4000

is twice the of the length, the area is the

2000 0

largest. Our equation involves x∝2y or x = 2y 1

3 Width (m)

Length (m)

Area (m^2)

where k = 2. Actually, the values are equal considering that the fence only has 3 sides.

Notice how when the values of the length

There is no other combination of values

and width are equal, and at the lowest on

where area ≥ 2000000m 2. So (2000, 1000)

average, the area is the largest. Our equation

is the maximum point, and the optimal set of

involves x∝y or x=y where k=1

dimensions.

Proportional to Dimensions There isArea no Fenced other combination of values

Ielonn Musc wants create a rectangular field

where area ≥ 10000m 2. Therefore (100,100) 3500

of area 2000000 ft 2 along the river in the

4000

is the maximum point, and 100 x 100 are the

front of his mansion but he does not know

optimal dimensions. 2000

how much fencing he needs. He does not

3000 2500

need to fence off the river because he also

1500 1000

500 Dgeph Baezoz has 4000 feet of fencing and

wants to stare at fish. How much fencing

he wants 1 to create 2 3a rectangular 4 5 fence 6 along 7

does he need at minimum?

Width (ft)

Length (ft )

Area Fenced (ft^2)

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Fencing Needed Proportional to Dimensions 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Width (ft)

Length (ft )

Fencing Needed (ft)

Area Fenced Proportional to Dimensions 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Width (1000 ft)

Fencing Needed Proportional to Dimensions

Length (1000 ft)

Area Fenced (1000000 ft2)

Notice how when the values of the width

35000

is twice the of the length, the toarea is the Distance from Origin In Relation Coordinates

30000

largest. Our equation involves x∝2y or x=2y 8

25000

6 where k=2.

20000

15000

10000

0 There is no other combination of values

5000

-2

Width (ft)

Length (ft )

where area ≥ 32 x 10 6 m 2. So (8000, 4000) is -4 -6 the maximum point, and the optimal set of

Fencing Needed (ft)

-8

dimensions.

Notice how when the values of the width is twiceArea theFenced of theProportional length, the area is the to Dimensions

Distance from Ori gin

largest. Our equation involves x∝2y or x = 2y 35

Find the coordinates of the point on the line

30 where k = 2.

y=3x+5 that is the closest to the origin.

25 20

15 There is no other combination of values 10

where fencing ≤ 4000m. So (2000, 1000) is 5 the maximum point, and the optimal set of 0 1

dimensions.

Width (1000 ft)

Length (1000 ft)

Area Fenced (1000000 ft2)

Leeu Yonghow has three types of animals on his farm: cows, sheep. He wants Distance frompigs, Originand In Relation to Coordinates

to8 separate each type of animal into three 6 separate pens using 32000 m of fencing. Find 4

the maximum total area of the three pens he 2 0 can make with fencing. 1 2 3 4 5 -2

-4 -6 -8 x

Distance from Ori gin

There is no other combination of values where distance ≤ (5√2)/2 . So (-1.5, 0.5) is the maximum point, and the optimal set of dimensions.

30 25 20

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

15 10 5 0

Width (1000 ft)

Length (1000 ft)

Area Fenced (1000000 ft2)

the slope is the highest, and calculate the

Distance from Origin In Relation to Coordinates

maximum value of the slope at that point.

8 6 4 2 0 -2

-4 -6 -8 x

Distance from Ori gin

Find the coordinates of the point on the line y=5+x that is the closest to the point (7,8). Old Mc Donald has a semi-circular plot which has a radius of 10 metres. He decides to build a rectangular McDonald’s fast-food restaurant in the plot. What are the dimensions of the rectangle he can make with the largest area? (Let x m be half the length of the rectangle, and y m be the width of the rectangle.)

Distance from (7,8) In Relation to Coordinates 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

3 X

5 y

Distance from (7,8)

There is no other combination of values where distance ≤ 2√2. So (5, 10) is the

As a matter of fact, the maximum area of a

maximum point, and the optimal set of

quadrilateral within a regular circular shape

dimensions.

(circles, semi-circles, quarters) is always equal to radius2. Using multiple instances we can

There is a curve with the equation 6x2-

thus prove Amax = r2.

x3+10. Find the point on the curve where

So, how does this all relate to the Envelope Theorem? In an optimisation problem,

Therefore, the value function of P1 must be

we want to find the value of an objective

(by substitution):

function, and its change, if a parameter changes. Say that Caffeinshop were to begin increasing its price, Δp>0, then profit P1 will change by Δp. This is instinctive. Some may

This equation does consider the firm’s

believe that this is not correct:

response in output quantity to the change in price in the form of (δq ̂)/δp. The change in

When the firm changes the price, it may

profit p due to change of quantity q is shown

also change the quantity. This is where the

as δπ/(δq ̂(p) or δπ/δq, equal to 0, because

Envelope Theorem comes into play. The

when price = market cost where p = C(q), an

Envelope Theorem is a mathematical tool

increase in quantity is proportional to the

that can evaluate change of variables at given

change in price, therefore proportional to the

points. On two-variable axes, of x and y, we

change in cost. In the end, v’(p) = q.

can mathematically describe all optimal (not limited to maximum and minimum) points of

This is proof of the Envelope Theorem (a

values of x given any possible value of y.

theorem being a mathematical statement or tool that has been proved correct), which shows that the change in quantity at an increase of price

The above function, also known as the value

of a price-taking firm is equal to 0.

function of f(x,y), is also written as F(y), which describes the value of x given any value of y.

The Envelope Theorem states:

Given that, we know that the maximum profit max π considering price p and quantity q is equal to quantity x price – quantity x cost. Here we assume that all produced products.

In this case, y is the constant as seen from the denominator being δy, explained by the fact that we are trying to find the value x

We assume that C(q) is the cost function.

given a constant of y. This means that the

Since, in this equation, price p is the

above equation differentiates with respect

parameter, C’(q) = p. This is explainable in the

to y, and only with respect to y, hence it is

sense that Caffeinshop is a price-taking firm

partially differentiated.

where the base price of a product is equal to the market cost.

Total differentiation is the sum of the terms that are partially differentiated, defined as:

Caffeinshop chooses the quantity of output

at q where cost = price, proving it to be a

This is not optimisation as y is being entered

price-taking firm which gives as much as it

indirectly. All terms in the equation are

takes. Therefore, P1 = q, so we write the

differentiated for their derivative, but not by

solution function for P1 as:

y. Therefore, only direct effects matter when

evaluating change in parameters at their

and be obliterated by flames for no particular

optimum points.

reason, and less than 13% of the population will have clean water next month, Joe could

According to Shephard’s Lemma,

increase the price of water by 4 AFN per litre or decrease the price of water by 4 AFN per litre. Assuming that the population is willing to pay

The Hickisan demand function (or compensated

any price to buy water, calculate the theoretical

demand function, is the demanded quantity

change in profit in each case where he does

as a solution to minimise expenditure, or

not change the quantity of output. and how the

cost, while delivering utility) is equal to the

maximum possible quantity would change if he

derivative of the expenditure function (a

were to change the price, if he decides to stay

function to find the minimum expenditure for

at 40 AFN profit.

> 0 utility). Here, e = expenditure, p = price, u = utility. This is proved by the Envelope Theorem. Given that the expenditure is represented by a Lagrangian, Since the ratio of change in expenditure to the change in price in accordance to the utility δe/δp(u) is equal to that of an unknown Langrangian, (thus we can assume to be anything), to the change in price in

He could sell 960 litres more the month after

accordance to utility δL/δp(u), we know that

from the profit he gained, while staying at 40

the Hicksian demand x^h is the minimum,

AFN monthly profit.

proving Shepard’s Lemma as the first equation to be true. Suppose Joe were the owner of a shop which sold distilled water in Afghanistan, where 87% of the population does not have access to clean water (as of 2016 data, I believe Afghanistan is much more developed now). Every month, Joe sells 3000 litres of water for 8 AFN each. He

He would have to sell 2760 less litres the month

buys water from a secret Dezkoe supermarket

after in order to achieve a break-even or a profit.

for 4 AFN/L. He sells all the water he buys. However, he is taxed 4% and he pays 4000

This has been my beginner’s learning guide

AFN per month of rent of his shop. He pays

to Optimisation and the Envelope Theorem.

7000 AFN per month of rent for his apartment

I have learnt about optimisation fully and

including internet, garbage, and electricity. (Yes,

started looking at the Envelope Theorem,

his monthly revenue is 40 Afghani) If the largest

while being able to prove it, and use it to

water supplying company were to explode

solve other problems.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Relativity

Matthew Hughson | L6AMT

In 1905 and 1915 respectively, Einstein

an issue with Newtonian mechanics

published his ground-breaking theories

(where the speed of the light would be

on special and general relativity. In

affected by the speed of the measuring

his first theory, the theory of special

source) and acted as a catalyst for relativity

relativity, Einstein was able to build off

to be discovered.

Maxwell’s discovery of electromagnetism and the constancy of the speed of light.

THE FALL OF GALILEAN

This ultimately led to the fall of Galilean

TRANSFORMATIONS DUE TO THE

transformations, the finding of mind-

CONSTANCY OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT

blowing relativistic phenomenon such as

Pre-relativity, methods to find relationships

time dilation and length contraction and

between different frames of reference

his infamous mass-energy equation where

were based on Newton’s laws and known

E=mc². However, in his theory of general

as Galilean transformations. Whilst, even

relativity which he later published, Einstein

with relativity, these equations still hold for

went on to show how an observer in an

small velocities, as soon as the velocities

accelerating reference frame is no different

become significant and indeed at the speed

than an observer situated in a gravitational

of light, Galilean transformations are shown

field and that gravity can be viewed as

to crumble.

being the warping of spacetime which ultimately “tells” matter how to move. In this

This can easily be shown in the case of

essay, I will try to give a brief description

velocity addition. If we consider two sources

of Einstein’s two theories and show how

approaching each other at 0.6c (or 0.6 times

he was able to come to these remarkable

the speed of light), according to Galilean

conclusions.

transformations, the relative velocity would be the addition of these two velocities,

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND THE

being 1.2c. However, this is an unattainable

CONSTANCY OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT

velocity as nothing can travel faster than

In 1864, a Scottish scientist named James

the speed of light. This, therefore, led to

Clerk Maxwell published his four equations

the birth of the Lorentz transformations

on electromagnetism. These equations

which are able to use the constancy of the

combined electricity and magnetism into

speed of light to determine relationships

one force known as the electromagnetic

between different frames of reference at

interaction. Maxwell was able to show that

high velocities. A key part of the Lorentz

an electromagnetic wave consists of electric

transformations and the equations of special

and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular

relativity is given by the Lorentz factor or

to each other and, crucially for relativity,

gamma which has the equation γ=1/√1-v 2/

showed that the speed of light in a vacuum

c 2. (v and c are the relative velocity and

is the same for all observers, given by the

the speed of light respectively). Note that

equation c=√(1/(ε 0μ 0)) (where ε 0 and μ 0

for low velocities γ=1. This is why Galilean

are constants being the permittivity and

transformations still hold at low relative

permeability of free space respectively). This

velocities. However, as the relative velocity

constancy of the speed of light highlighted

approaches the speed of light, c, γ→∞,

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

which is also the reason why the speed of

where the fourth dimension is given by

light is the cosmic speed limit and cannot

time. Therefore, every event will be given

be overcome. An example of a Lorentz

by coordinates (x,y,z,t). We know from

transformation is the transformation for

Pythagoras’s theorem that ∆s 2=x 2+y 2+z 2

measurement of position where x'=γ(x-vt).

(where the distance in space= ∆s), however,

x and t are the measurements of position,

distances in space are not agreed on by

and time in frame A and x' is the differing

all observers. Incredibly, when space and

position of the event measured in frame A’.

time are merged into spacetime, this leads

Note that the reverse transformation also

to a constant quantity which one space

applies where x=γ(x+vt). But importantly,

dimension is shown by the equation

this transformation shows us that, contrary

ct' 2-x' 2=ct 2-x 2 (note that both values on each

to previous beliefs, two differing reference

side of the equation equal the spacetime

frames need not agree on the same position

interval). The other main invariant quantities

for an event in spacetime. The relativistic

are rest mass, proper length and proper

velocity addition equation is given by

time. Rest mass and proper length are

u'=u-v/1-uv/c 2, (where u’ is the approaching

defined as the mass and length of a body

velocity, u is the velocity measured in

measured in a frame where the object is

frame A and v is the velocity of frame A’

at rest and are given the symbols m o and l 0

as measured by frame A). This equation

respectively. Similarly, proper time is the

leads to a value for the relativistic velocity

shortest possible time interval for events to

equalling 0.88c and therefore being under

occur in and is the time between two events

the value of the speed of light.

measured at the same point in space. There are other invariant quantities such as charge,

THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

however these are not related to mechanics

There are two hugely important postulates

so can be ignored for now.

upon which the theory of special relativity is based. The first postulate is that the

RELATIVISTIC PHENOMENON- TIME

speed of light in a vacuum is the same

DILATION AND EINSTEIN’S LIGHT CLOCK

for all inertial observers, and the second

EXPERIMENT

is that all inertial observers agree on the

A key method that Einstein used to justify

same laws of physics. Note that an inertial

both of his theories was his use of thought

observer simply means that they are not

experiments. These thought experiments

accelerating so are either travelling at a

were based on sound mathematical theory

constant velocity or are stationary (therefore

so are argued to be just as effective

Newton’s laws apply). Before we begin

as experimental evidence, although

looking at phenomenon such as time dilation

some evidence has also been found for

and length contraction, it is important to

Einstein’s theories, so they are not entirely

introduce some constant or invariant values.

theoretical. One of his most famous thought

The first invariant quantity is given by the

experiments is given by his light clock

separation in spacetime or the spacetime

experiment which is used to show that

interval. When we talk about spacetime,

moving clocks run slow or time dilates.

we are imagining a four dimensional “map”

Fig (1) shows a light clock as seen by an

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

RELATIVISTIC PHENOMENON- LENGTH CONTRACTION Another phenomenon predicted by special relativity is that for an object moving at relativistic (high) velocities, the object’s length is measured to be shorter than its proper length. This can be extended to Fig (1)

actual distances travelled, where, for a moving observer, the distance travelled will

observer at rest and one travelling with a

contract to a smaller value.

relative velocity v. Length contraction is given by the equation It is called a light clock as each time the light

l=lo/γ. Note that length contracts by the

hits the mirror, the clock ticks, leading to a

same amount that time dilates. This can

measurement of time. In the first example,

be used to explain why for an object

the time is measured by an observer at rest

moving at high velocity, it can still reach an

with the clock and is the proper time, given

impossible distance in the time given. For

by the equation ∆t 0= l/c.

example, our detection of muons (a type

However, in the second example, due to the

sufficient proof for both time dilation and

relative velocity of the observer, the light

length contraction. A muon has a lifetime of

has had to travel a horizontal distance vt'

roughly 2 microseconds. However, muons

and by Pythagoras’s theorem if we know

are still able to somehow travel all the way

that t'=l'/c, then t'=√vt' 2+l 2/c. We can square

from our atmosphere to the Earth’s surface

this equation and then factorise usingt' 2 to

and be detected. In our reference frame, it

of particle of the lepton family) have been

show that t' 1-v /c =l /c but, from earlier

appears that the lifetime of the muon has

on, we know that l 2/c 2 = ∆t 02.

dilated in order to allow for it to reach the

Therefore, t' 2 1-v 2/c 2=∆t 02 and by dividing

to be in a stationary reference frame to the

surface. However, if we imagined ourselves

t' =∆t 0 /1-v /c .

muon, we would measure its lifetime to be

Finally, from this, t'=(∆t0)/√(1-v2/c2 ) or t^=γ∆t0

as the atmosphere would move with respect

which is the equation and proof for time

to the muon, we would measure the length

dilation. Note that due to γ, as mentioned

of the atmosphere to be length contracted

earlier, at low velocities, simply equals 1

by the same proportional amount that time

meaning that no time dilation is experienced.

dilates, allowing it to reach the Earth’s

This time dilation leads to some pretty mind-

surface successfully.

the proper time of 2 microseconds, however,

warping revelations such as if you were to

travel to our nearest galaxy, Andromeda, at

THE MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE AND

just under the speed of light, while it may take

RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS

you only roughly a year to make the journey,

Newton’s second law, F=ma, tells us that

2.5 million years would have passed on earth.

a constant resultant force will give us a

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

also becomes infinitely large. Note that the

EINSTEIN CHANGED OUR PERSPECTIVE ON HIGH VELOCITY PHYSICS AND INTRODUCED US TO A COMPLETELY NEW MOULD

total energy of the object also consists of the rest energy of the object given by E=m 0

c 2 and therefore the equation for relativistic kinetic energy is: E k=(γ-1)m 0 c 2. From this

equation, Einstein showed that energy can be converted into mass and vice-versa. It is this exact principle which allows for nuclear power to be such a powerful method of energy production. A common question that arises from E=m 0 c 2 is how a photon of light can have energy as

it is a massless particle. However, the energy of a photon is given by different equations.

OF MECHANICS

From quantum mechanics we know that

ENTIRELY.

the equation: E=hf, or E=hc/λ (where h

the energy of a photon can be given by is Planck’s constant, f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength of the light). The

constant acceleration. Therefore, it tells us

energy of the light can also be related to

that if a constant resultant force is applied

its momentum by the equation E=pc. this

to an object of mass, m, this should cause

can also be shown for objects of mass.

it to experience a constant acceleration

For these objects, p=γm 0v and E 2=p 2 c 2+

and allow it to exceed the speed of light.

m 02c 4 (note that p is the momentum). On

However, we know that it is impossible

judgement, through his theory of special

to exceed the speed of light and so for

relativity, Einstein changed our perspective

relativity, a new equation is required. In

on high velocity physics and introduced us

Einstein’s theory, as an object approaches

to a completely new mould of mechanics

the speed of light, the resultant acceleration

entirely.

produced for a given force applied becomes smaller and smaller, preventing the speed

THE THEORY OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

of light from being reached and overcome.

AND THE EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE

The equation for the total energy of the

A fundamental principal behind the theory

object is given by E=γm 0 c 2. By now it should

of general relativity is the equivalence

hopefully be clear that it is the Lorentz

principle. The equivalence principle states

factor which prevents the speed of light

that there is absolutely no difference

from being reached and overcome by an

between an accelerating frame of reference

object with mass because as the velocity of

and a frame of reference which is stationary

the object tends towards infinity, the energy

in a gravitational field. In order to prove

required to cause the object to accelerate

this, one of Einstein’s thought experiments

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

are once again used. To show this principle

needs to have two thin windows directly

is true, we need to consider a person

opposite each other and at the same

standing in a rocket, holding a tennis ball

height. If the observer in the rocket is in an

and unable to see out into space. There are

inertial frame of reference (he is travelling

two different scenarios for the observer.

at a constant velocity or stationary) the

In scenario one, the rocket is accelerating

light will enter the rocket and then hit the

upwards at a value a ms -2 whereas in the

opposite window as it travels in a straight

second scenario, the rocket is at rest on a

line. This is pretty self- explanatory for a

planet with a gravitational field strength

rocket which is stationary in space; if the

of the same magnitude (a ms ). In both

light enters the window horizontally, it

scenarios, if the tennis ball is dropped,

will leave the rocket at the same angle,

the person inside the rocket will perceive

travelling through the other window and

these scenarios as being identical. This is

therefore travelling in a straight line. In

because in scenario one, whilst to an outside

order to prove this to be the same for a

observer the rocket comes up to meet the

rocket travelling at a constant velocity we

ball accelerating at a value of a ms-2, to the

need only remember that the laws of physics

observer inside the rocket it seems that the

must hold for all inertial reference frames

ball has accelerated downwards towards the

(2nd postulate of special relativity) and that

floor with magnitude a ms-2. Similarly, in

there is absolutely no difference between

the second scenario, the gravitational field

a stationary object and one travelling at a

causes the tennis ball to fall downwards,

constant velocity (Newton’s first law). This

accelerating with a magnitude of a ms-2

all changes when we consider how light will

towards the floor of the stationary rocket.

be affected in a rocket accelerating upwards.

These scenarios can be extended to the

Due to the fact that the rocket’s velocity is

actual observer inside the rocket who, in

increasing, this will mean that the light will

both scenarios, will feel exactly the same

hit a point inside the rocket that is below

force downwards. Therefore, we have

the window. Therefore, to the observer in

shown that there is no difference between

the accelerating rocket, it will appear that

an accelerating frame of reference and a

the light has followed a curved trajectory,

gravitational field. The consequences of this

or the light has been bent. We know from

principle cannot be overstated, allowing for

the equivalence principle that there is no

mind-warping effects such as gravitational

difference between an accelerating frame

time dilation and the bending of light in

of reference and a stationary frame of

gravitational fields.

reference in a gravitational field, therefore

-2

showing that light will also be bent in a

THE BENDING OF LIGHT IN A

gravitational field with the strength of

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

the gravitational field determining the

If we once again consider an observer

magnitude by which the light’s path is

inside a rocket, we can show that light

changed. This thought experiment and

bends in accelerating reference frames

proof for the bending of light may seem

and gravitational fields. However, for this

quite abstract. However, it has been shown

thought experiment to work, the rocket

by experimental evidence to be true. For

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

CONTRASTING ENORMOUSLY TO THE NEWTONIAN VIEW OF GRAVITY AS A FORCE, EINSTEIN SUGGESTED THAT GRAVITY WAS IN FACT NOT A FORCE, BUT INSTEAD IT WAS THE WARPING OF SPACETIME. example, we are able to see light from

to run slightly faster than the atomic clocks

behind black holes due to the fact that the

on the surface of the earth due to the

huge gravitational field produced by the

fact that the gravitational field strength

black hole causes the light ray’s path to

decreases with distance from the surface of

be severely deflected and for it to be bent

the Earth, given by the equation g=GM/r2

all the way around the object (provided

(where M is the mass of the Earth, G is the

it doesn’t go past the event horizon from

gravitational constant and “r” is the distance

which it is impossible for light to escape).

from the Earth’s surface). This phenomenon

This is known as gravitational lensing.

can be proven by looking at red shift. In wave theory, red-shift is described as the

GRAVITATIONAL TIME DILATION

apparent change in frequency of a wave

Gravitational time dilation is perhaps one of

due to the relative motion between the

Einstein’s most incredible discoveries and

source and the observer. However, Einstein

has been the subject of many sci-fi films

suggested a different explanation for why

such as Christopher Nolan’s Interstellar.

light is red shifted as it moves away from

It predicts that time dilates near massive

massive objects known as gravitational red

bodies such as, in the case of Interstellar,

shift. In this method he uses the fact that

black holes. This phenomenon has been

in order to escape the gravitational effects

experimentally proven on airplanes such

of the massive object, energy must be

as in the Hafele-Keating experiment where

transferred to gravitational potential energy

the atomic clocks on airplanes were found

and the total energy of the light must fall. As

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

E=hf, a decrease in energy will correspond to a decrease in frequency of the wave and an increased wavelength, hence causing it to be shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. If we consider this light to be a way of measuring the time, (e.g., the time for each full oscillation is how time is measured) an observer standing far away from the gravitational field would perceive his fellow observer’s “light clock”, which is near the gravitational field, to be running slow due to the fact that gravitational time dilation has occurred. In fact, this gravitational red shift of light is given by the equation ∆f/f=g∆h/ c2 for a constant gravitational field. Note that ∆h is the change in height and f is the

THANKS TO EINSTEIN AND HIS THEORIES OF RELATIVITY, A WHOLE NEW WAY OF THINKING ABOUT THE

original frequency of the light.

UNIVERSE WAS

THE WARPING OF SPACETIME AND

CREATED.

BLACK HOLES Contrasting enormously to the Newtonian view of gravity as a force, Einstein suggested

gravitational force of the Sun and the Earth’s

that gravity was in fact not a force, but

tangential instantaneous velocity causing

instead it was the warping of spacetime.

the Earth to constantly undergo circular

This idea of gravity as the warping of

motion, in general relativity, the earth is

spacetime created an entirely new method

considered to be travelling in a straight line

of describing events in our universe. Before

through spacetime. However, due to the

we begin, it is important to note the two key

large mass of the Sun, spacetime is curved

rules about spacetime curvature. The first

around it meaning that what initially was a

rule states that mass determines the extent

straight-lined path for the Earth’s trajectory

of the warping of spacetime. A greater mass

has been curved by the Sun’s mass, causing

leads to greater gravitational effects which

it to undergo a circular orbit around the Sun.

therefore causes the curvature of spacetime

to be more extreme. The second key rule

THE EXTREME EXAMPLE OF BLACK HOLES

states that spacetime can be thought of as a

A black hole is an object in which the effects

map that tells objects how to travel through

of gravity are so extreme due to the large

it. Objects will take the shortest possible

mass that spacetime is warped to such an

path through spacetime, meaning that they

extent that it folds in on itself. This results

will follow the curvature. This can be used

in the creation of a singularity where all

to explain the orbit of the Earth around the

the mass is concentrated into a single point

Sun. Whereas, in the Newtonian view, the

of infinitesimally small volume. Spacetime

Earth orbits the Sun due to the centripetal

curvature near a black hole is so intense that

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

after a point, known as the event horizon,

CONCLUSION

not even light can escape. Therefore,

Thanks to Einstein and his theories of

anything that travels past the event horizon

relativity, a whole new way of thinking

has a sealed fate and has ventured past the

about the universe was created, allowing

point of no return (disregarding quantum

us to develop incredibly accurate systems

theory). It should be intuitive that as we

such as GPS systems and discover incredibly

travel nearer and nearer to the event

complex objects such as black holes

horizon, the velocity to avoid being sucked

which have now been proven to exist by

in, known as the escape velocity becomes

the photos taken by the event horizon

higher and higher. This event horizon is

telescope. Therefore, the effects and

the point at which the escape velocity

innovation that the theories of relativity

required is equal to the speed of light and

produced cannot be overstated as they

is also known as the Schwarzschild radius.

allowed for a whole new branch of physics

Interestingly, unlike in many relativistic

to be created and are still being used to

equations, the value of the Schwarzschild

this day to discover and explain the further

radius can be calculated using Newtonian

curiosities present in the universe.

theory. In Newtonian mechanics, the escape velocity is given by the equation v= √2GM/r, by rearranging this and equating the value of the escape velocity to the speed of light, c, we find the Schwarzschild radius, r, to be given by the equation r=2GM/c 2. Finally, as mentioned previously, as a consequence of gravitational time dilation, an observer far away from the black hole would perceive time to slow down for his fellow companion bravely venturing towards the singularity. This time dilation is given by the equation t'=∆t 0/√1-Rs/r, where Rs is the

Schwarzschild radius and r is the distance from the singularity of the venturing observer.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Infinity and Mathematical Phenomena

Aria Zia-Gharib | L6AMT

WHAT IS INFINITY AND HOW CAN WE

Achilles gives the tortoise a substantial

CHALLENGE IT?

head start, for example, 50m. Given that

Infinity. It’s a word that has many meanings.

they both travel at a constant but different

The Oxford Dictionary defines infinity

velocity (with Achilles travelling faster than

as ‘the state or quality of being infinite’,

the tortoise), Achilles will end up reaching the

whereas the mathematical definition

tortoise’s initial position. In the time taken

describes infinity as ‘a number that is

for Achilles to reach the tortoise’s initial

greater than any assignable quantity or

position, the tortoise has travelled forward,

countable number’. The definitions are very

albeit not far, for example, 1m. For the next

different in terms of the characteristics that

motion, for Achilles to complete the journey

the word possesses, however both are still

from his second position to the tortoise’s

very viable definitions of the word. Infinity

second position, Achilles must travel half of

in its general case is a concept with no

that distance to be able to travel the other

bounds (i.e., endless), however we can look

half (to reach the tortoise). However, in the

at this and ‘disprove’ it whilst still obeying

time that it takes to reach halfway to the

its definition in every way possible.

tortoise’s second position, the tortoise moves forward again, and the cycle continues. The cycle will continue until numbers become so infinitesimally small that Achilles might end up becoming quite mad that he cannot reach the tortoise. But if we were asked if Achilles would ever catch up to the tortoise, we would obviously say yes, but with Zeno's paradox we are saying that to mathematically complete a journey you must complete half of it first, hence it becomes a paradox. The way this paradox shows motion is an illusion

(1.1 Zeno’s Achilles and the tortoise paradox)

is that to start moving you must be able to travel half of the distance of the total

In this section, I will analyse three ideas that

distance, however because Achilles will never

explore the concept of infinity. Starting with

be able to travel half of the distance of the

Zeno’s well-known example, ‘Achilles and the

full distance in this race then that means that

tortoise’. This paradox not only challenges

Achilles cannot move at all.

the idea of infinitesimal values, but also challenges the idea that motion is an illusion.

Another good example challenging the mysterious idea of infinity is Hilbert’s

Zeno’s paradox describes a situation in which

paradox of the Grand Hotel, or ‘the infinite

Achilles in is a footrace with a tortoise.

hotel’. Hilbert’s aim was to show how

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

(1.2 Filip Saidak’s proof) unbelievably hard it is to wrap your head

This means that everyone will be in a room

around the concept of infinity. He created

that is an even number, hence leaving all the

an idea of a hotel with a countably infinite

odd number rooms vacant. Problem solved;

number of rooms that is filled with a

the infinite number of bus passengers are

countably infinite number of guests which is

now in all the odd number rooms that carry

run by a very hard-working dedicated general

on ad infinitum. The next day, the general

manager. We can assume that the hotel is

manager is woken up to the sight of a car

full because a simple idea of maths is that a

park with countably infinite places that

number taken away from itself is zero (i.e.,

is holding countably infinite buses with a

∞ - ∞ = 0) hence there is zero room. One day,

countably infinite number of people in each

the general manager must deal with a guest

of them. The general manager is confused

who wants a room in the hotel. Knowing

and doesn’t know what to do and is afraid

that it would be so much harder to make

he might lose his job, until he remembers

the guest travel all the way up the infinite

that there are infinite prime numbers after

staircase to the next vacant room the hotel

remembering Euclid’s statement that there

manager thinks of great idea to make the

are infinite prime numbers. He knows this is

person in room 1, move to room 2 and the

true because of Filip Saidak’s proof (diagram

person in room 2 to move to room 3 etc. ad

1.2, above) of infinite prime factors which

infinitum (forevermore – Latin). So, for the

states that lets let n and n+1 be consecutive

general case the guest in room ‘n’ moves to

integers, they must be co-prime hence the

room ‘n+1’. So, now the general manager can

product of that number will be n(n+1), we can

relax now, right?... Well not really because as

continue this by just adding another factor

he gets ready for bed, he realises that a bus

of n with however many 1s. This proves

rolls up in front of the hotel. Inside the bus

that there are infinite prime factors hence

is an infinitely countable number of people

infinite prime numbers. So, this means that

waiting to experience the bizarre staple of

the hotel manager can put all the guests in

the make-believe world ‘the infinite hotel’.

the prime number rooms, problem solved!

The general manager, questioning his career

Now, I know that might have shown one way

choice, quickly thinks of a solution to this

of fully explaining infinity but, this whole

circumstance. The general manager realises

paradox is based off what is known as the

that this problem can be solved by making

‘lowest level of infinity’. This is also known

all the guests move to the room number that

as, the countable infinity of natural numbers:

is double their room number. For example,

basically counting 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. This just

the person in room 1 goes to room 2 and

shows how hard of a concept infinity is to

the person in room 2 goes to room 4 etc.

grasp. Some could argue that we are putting

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

a bound on infinity by making it countable,

THE BABYLONIANS, LEADING TO THE

however we can just move that countable

‘DISCOVERY’ OF PI

bound forward by one, then by one

The Babylonians, famously known for their

again, etc.

sexagesimal numeral system (base 60), which is where the modern understanding of 60

Before concluding this section, I would like

seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an

to talk about an idea that has a finite bound

hour come from. The idea that counting

but with infinite value associated with it.

itself is an infinite process must have been

This unusual case is that of ‘Gabriel’s horn’ or

enough for them as it is an integral part of

‘Torricelli’s trumpet’, which is a concept of a

our understanding of time as we know it.

geometric shape that has a finite volume but

Thanks to the Babylonians, we can exist

has an infinite surface area. The equations for

‘infinitely’. However, The Greeks came across

which are shown in the diagram 1.3 (above).

the Babylonian ideas of sexagesimal counting

This is because the volume will stop counting

in fractions with 60 as their denominator

when the horn thins out until it isn’t hollow

and questioned (whilst also trying to avoid

anymore. But the surface area will still be

tackling the idea of infinity) if it was possible

able to be counted hence making it infinite.

to find the area under a curved line (what we

This shape, albeit impossible to engineer, is

might now today as basic integration as part

quite interesting because it just shows that

of calculus). The Greeks understood that it

infinity can exist from finite objects.

was possible to find the area under a linear line as we could simply just put a finite, easily

GREEK IDEAS OF INFINITY FROM

countable value on the bound that we are counting to. However, the Greeks posed the following questions: what if we were trying to find the area under a curved surface? Where does the curve stop? Does it turn forever? How are we supposed to generalise this turning motion into a simple formula? After trying to find the area between a curved line and a countable bound, the Greeks thought it would be better to try and

(1.3 Gabriel’s Horn)

find the area that is inside a circle. Before going further, you might ask how a circle was a given concept at a time when pi did not ‘exist’. Archimedes was the first person to find an approximate value of pi with arbitrary accuracy (i.e., he found pi as a value that

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

The Golden Ratio is a mathematical phenomenon that was first (recorded) used (1.4 circumference and diameter)

in Ancient Greece by the Greek sculptor and mathematician, Phidias (500BC-432BC).

would then go on to be approximated further).

The Golden Ratio (much like every other

The Greeks utilised pi and described it as

mathematical phenomenon) always existed

the ratio of the circle’s circumference to its

in nature, for example, the formation of

diameter, hence the area of the circumference

a rose and its petals follows the Golden

of any circle being 2πr. This value would then

Ratio (diagram 1.5). Phidias first used the

be further experimented on by the Indians,

golden ratio during the construction of the

the Chinese and almost a millennium after

Parthenon. This shows how impressive it is

its initial idea coming to fruition, pi ‘became’

that something as small as a rose, follows the

(because it technically always was) an

same geometrical architecture as something

irrational number, i.e., a number that cannot

as awe-inspiring as the Parthenon. The

be defined as a singular fraction as it became a

Golden Ratio’s name comes from the fact

number with an infinite number of values after

that it is a perfect spiral in the sense that

the decimal point with repeating sequences of

the proportions of the spiral remain constant

values, a truly infinite concept of maths that

throughout its expansion. It is therefore

nobody truly understands how amazing its

perfect for making art, and has been used

discovery is.

by many artists. Notably, as a polymath, Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) utilised

HOW MATHEMATICAL PHENOMENA ARE

his knowledge of proportions and used the

USED TO INNOVATE OUR SOCIETY.

Golden Ratio when painting the Mona Lisa.

Maths is the building block of all life on Earth, it existed before everything. Maths is

In addition to art and architecture, we can

not an invention, it was not innovated, maths

observe how mathematical phenomena have

just exists, and we have utilised it to innovate

innovated our society by looking at everyday

several ground-breaking revelations that

activities, for example, cooking. Without

shape our society today.

maths, you would not be able to prepare most of the food that you eat. Whether it is (1.5 The

something as simple as pouring ½ a cup of

Golden Ratio

water into flour to make batter, or adding

with rose

one part of flour for every two parts of sugar

petals)

when baking a cake, we need to understand the idea of ratios. Ratios, such as the Golden Ratio, have formed a massive part of our society.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

(1.6) Maths can also define what people see

‘beautiful’. Fractals exist in Euclidean space

as ‘beautiful’. It should go without saying

and possess a property called self-similarity,

that ‘beauty is in the eye of the beholder’,

or expanding symmetry, and therefore we

however, it is scientifically proven that

see areas of higher detail in image 1.6. If we

humans perceive faces that are more

zoomed into these areas, we would see that

symmetrical more beautiful.

the series of geometric patterns repeat and hence it becomes a fractal. This fractal in

Have a look at this shape in image 1.6, it

image 1.6 actually possesses three types of

is hard to deny that it looks beautiful. The

symmetry, self-similarity (as just mentioned

very idea that we find this shape beautiful

), reflectional and rotation symmetry.

calls upon a plethora of mathematical

Fractals are also fascinating because they are

discoveries. For this explanation, I will

infinitely deep, no matter how infinitesimally

narrow it down to just two: symmetry and

small the numbers become, because as we

fractals. As mentioned before, symmetry is

know numbers can go up and down and

desired when seeking beauty, but how do

increase or decrease with a certain factor as

we know that something is symmetrical. It

much as we want, hence making it infinite.

is very difficult to pinpoint the discovery of symmetry to one name, but there is one

Another mathematical idea that has widely

name that many people regard as the person

innovated our society today and how it

who discovered the language of symmetry,

runs is Pythagoras’ Theorem. As the name

Évariste Galois (1811-1832). Galois, a French

suggests, it is associated with the Greek

mathematician, discovered that the algebraic

philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras.

solution to a polynomial is associated to the

However, the idea of a²+b²=c² was utilised

groups of permutations that the roots of the

well before Pythagoras. Around 1900BCE,

polynomial possesses. In Layman’s terms, this

the Babylonians made a purpose of this

was the building block that the mathematical

idea, but it was Pythagoras who took it a lot

world needed to figure out symmetry. In his

further and figured out Pythagorean triples.

short life, Galois discovered a concept that,

The building that you are in right now uses

without it, we would not be able to do a

Pythagoras’ Theorem. In architecture it is

lot of the things we do today. For example,

used as it shows when there is a perfect 90°

without symmetry, we would struggle to

right angle between two sides and opposite

drive safely. This is because the road must be

the hypotenuse that subtends from these

perfectly symmetrical in its linear direction

two lines. This just shows that an idea as easy

because otherwise cars would not be able

to grasp as Pythagoras’ Theorum has uses

to drive in line with everyone else. Moving

that are far less easy to perform, like building

onto fractorals, one of the most beautiful

an apartment complex, or creating 3D models

Mathematical discoveries in my opinion,

for a character in the next big video game.

and this links to the idea of symmetry being

100

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

(1.7) One last Mathematical Phenomenon that

We can thank an infinite, but definitely

shaped our society are Maxwells Equations.

finite, number of people for the general

These are four equations derived from

mathematical processes that we use in our

the Scottish mathematician James Clerk

everyday life without knowing it. Whether

Maxwell (1831-1879). Maxwell derived these

the Babylonians, the Greeks, The Persians,

equations with the intent of correcting some

The Indians, The Egyptians, The Chinese or

of the already known equations that were

even just Albert Einstein, we use their life’s

used in physics at the time. From these four

work, day-in day-out. Everything is Maths

equations, humans were able to develop MRI

and there are an infinite number of ways we

machines, that have been able to detect brain

can use it to our advantage because humans

damage and brain trauma in patients. They

already have.

have also been used to develop computers, which have completely transformed our

References

world. These equations also helped in the

https://asiasociety.org/education/understanding-world-throughmath

generation of electricity for commercial and domestic usage across the world. CONCLUSION To summarise through this hopefully

https://primes.utm.edu/notes/proofs/infinite/Saidak.html https://www.goldennumber.net/golden-ratio-history/ https://www.britannica.com/science/ratio https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-tech/mystiquemathematics-5-beautiful-maths-phenomena https://education.blurtit.com/2566294/how-do-we-usesymmetry-in-our-daily-lives

informative article, I hope that I have

https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/ story/equations-that-changed-the-world-341043-2016-09-14

been able to convey the idea that without

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/maxwellsequations-in-present-form/

mathematics, humans would have nowhere near the level of advancements that we have now. Mathematics is the building block of life, whether how organic molecules bond together in our DNA, or how our

‘Numbers and Infinity: A Historical Account of Mathematical Concepts’ by Ernst Sondheimer and Alan Rogerson Hermann Weyl’s ‘Levels of infinity: Selected Writings on Mathematics and Philosophy’ – Edited and with an introduction by Peter Pesic Fractal shape image: By Brirush - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28199647

connective tissue is so tough. Maths was a main reason why all of that is possible. As mentioned many times throughout the article, mathematics existed well before anything, even at the Big Bang, the idea that the creation of the universe happened in a fraction of a figure of time, is maths. The idea that we see things because of the angle that light enters our eyes is maths.

101

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

Is Mathematics an Invention or a Discovery?

Joe Reynolds | L6RHG

INTRODUCTION

unit 60. Both societies invented a form of

Mathematics is defined by the Oxford

mathematical language, so this suggests the

dictionary as “the science of numbers and

idea of invention over discovery. However,

shapes”, or “the process of calculating

I would argue that this language is only

using numbers.” I believe the former can

a method of describing the fundamental

be interpreted in two main ways. Firstly,

mathematical laws of reality. Therefore,

mathematics could be the process of

while these civilisations did invent ways to

discovery and understanding of fundamental

describe mathematics, they did not invent

laws of nature. By contrast, mathematics

mathematics since what they invented was

may be seen as the language and systems

a form of expressing the mathematics that

we have invented to try to understand

they discovered.

our universe. This poses the question: is mathematics an invented language or a

MATHEMATICAL PHENOMENA

fundamental discovery?

Our reality contains a plethora of phenomena that we have discovered,

In order to come to an answer to this

however, we are still unable to explain

question, throughout this article I will

the links between nature and many of

analyse mathematical notation and laws.

these phenomena. These unexplained

Moreover, I will also explore a case study

links therefore allude to the idea that

of a community that has a very limited

mathematics is simply a collection of laws

understanding of mathematics as this will

and systems that exist, and that we are

help highlight the differences between the

endeavouring to understand what we

notions of invention and discovery.

have discovered, and innovation will lead to greater future understanding. Some

ANCIENT MATHEMATICS

examples of these phenomena are the

Research has projected that numbers as a

Fibonacci Series (and the Golden Ratio);

concept has only existed for approximately

Pi; and Euler’s number. All of these

10,000 years. The ancient civilisations

phenomena have been discovered, and

that developed their own systems of

while we understand how they work; we

mathematics and implemented them

are yet to be able to explain why they

into their society suggests the idea of an

occur in nature in such a uniform fashion.

invention of mathematics; specifically, the

In my opinion, this is most effectively

invention of unique systems and notation

demonstrated by the Fibonacci Series, a

that are commonly shared in a society.

sequence discovered by Leonardo Fibonacci

These include the Ancient Egyptians who

in which each new term in the series is the

used a numerical system of base unit

sum of the previous 2 terms:

10 and the Old Babylonians of Ancient Mesopotamia who used a system of base

102

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21… etc.

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

RESEARCH HAS PROJECTED THAT NUMBERS AS A CONCEPT HAS ONLY EXISTED FOR APPROXIMATELY 10,000 YEARS. every other term is negative starting from When plotting a Fibonacci spiral, each term

the first term. Complex numbers are the

is converted into a square of side lengths

combination of real numbers and roots of

of the term value and these are placed

negative numbers or “imaginary” numbers.

around a central 1 by 1 square, rotating

Using imaginary number terms for the

around the central square as the terms

Fibonacci series, we can plot terms on an

increase. This forms a spiral that is found

Argand diagram and the same spiral forms.

in nature, for example, in the forms of snail

This proves that imaginary numbers have

shells. Additionally, the series itself is found

links to nature as they suit the Fibonacci

in nature such as flower petals following

series, showing that the numerical system

the series for each layer, rabbit pairs

of complex numbers was discovered, not

reproducing according to the series, etc. This

invented.

shows how mathematics is deeply integrated into nature and we as humans are in the

Overall, phenomena within mathematics

process of discovering and understanding

show us that all forms of mathematics can

these fundamental laws.

be linked to discoveries in nature. This leads us to the conclusion that mathematics

Many people would consider such elements

itself is the combination of fundamental

and complex numbers as human inventions.

discoveries that work in conjunction with

However, the Fibonacci series disputes this.

each other to form the intricate systems and

This is because, using the rule for the series,

rules we develop our understanding of and

we can plot negative terms for the series.

work towards expanding.

The terms decreasing from term 1 are: CASE STUDY: MUNDURUKU TRIBE 1, 0, 1, -1, 2, -3, 5, -8, 13, -21… etc.

Not all humans have the same deep understanding of mathematics. In remote

The pattern is that the negative terms of the

parts of the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil,

series are almost symmetrical to the positive

there are many tribes that exist within

terms of the series. The difference is that

their own small communities, separated

103

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

THIS SHOWS THAT THE AMERICAN CHILDREN PLACED THE NUMBERS IN A LINEAR SCALE AND THE MUNDURUKU PLACED THEM IN WHAT IS KNOWN IN MATHEMATICS AS A LOGARITHMIC SCALE. from wider global society. This means that

In Alex Bellos’ book, “Alex’s Adventures

knowledge from Western civilisation has

in Numberland”, he talks about meeting

not leaked into their communities and their

a man named Pierre Pica who visited the

own customs and traditions have not been

Munduruku. In the book, Bellos describes

influenced to change. An example of a

experiments and one in particular stood

tribe that links to my question is the

out to me. Pica conducted a test and

Munduruku tribe.

compared how American and Munduruku children viewed numerical intervals. The test

The Munduruku is a tribe of 7,000 people

showed that American children placed each

who all live in the Amazon Rainforest.

number from 1 to 10 at equal intervals on

There is a wide variety of cultural

a number line. By contrast, the Munduruku

differences between Western society and

children placed each new number at a

the Munduruku. However, one stands out:

smaller distance away from the previous.

their language. There are no tenses, no

This shows that the American children

plurals, and no words for numbers above 5 –

placed the numbers in a linear scale and the

anything above 5 is described by their word

Munduruku placed them in what is known

for “many”. This suggests their society has

in mathematics as a logarithmic scale. This

neither invented nor discovered large areas

is because the Munduruku as a society

of “mathematics” as we know it. This helps

have adapted to observe their closest

us analyse the Munduruku to understand

surroundings much more intently than

if a lack of mathematical knowledge is due

surroundings further away for the purpose

to them not discovering or not inventing

of efficiency and survival. This means the

mathematics.

way they visualise their surroundings is in a logarithmic fashion as objects become

104

S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S

less and less important to the Munduruku the further away they are. This experiment shows that logarithmic thinking is a discovered concept as the Munduruku are not consciously plotting the numbers in this way and therefore, logarithms are a discovered concept themselves. Overall, this shows that the Munduruku, while they do not show complex levels of mathematics, they have still discovered elements of mathematics that they implement in their lives; this is both consciously and subconsciously. This helps solidify the idea that mathematics is discovered, not invented. MY OPINION Throughout history, mathematics has been constantly expanding in both breadth and depth. This has taken the form of new discoveries of phenomena or fundamental laws that suit our rules and systems. While we may invent new ways of describing these discoveries, such as calculus notation, I believe mathematics is inherently a collection of discoveries. To summarise, mathematics is the combination of the discovery of fundamental laws and phenomena of our universe and the invention of notation and systems to describe and use these discoveries for future innovation. References “Alex’s Adventures in Numberland” by Alex Bellos https://www.britannica.com/science/mathematics/Ancientmathematical-sources

105

TECHNOLOGY

Rollercoasters and How They Work

Ollie Rollinson | 1KDH

TYPES OF ROLLERCOASTERS

have to choose what audience your ride is

There are many different types of

targeting. If you want it to be a kids’ ride, the

rollercoasters:

rollercoaster will be quite small and tame.

˃ Inverted – a steel rollercoaster where

If you want your ride to be for the older audiences, it will be tall, forceful, fast, and

riders hang under the track ˃ Sit-down – a standard rollercoaster where

maybe have some inversions or launches.

riders sit down ˃ Wing – where trains are located on either

2. Material/type: The two primary materials to make a

side of the track ˃ Launch – a rollercoaster that uses air, LSM

rollercoaster are wood and steel. If you want

(linear synchronous motors), LIM (linear

a more quintessential experience, choose

induction motors), hydraulics, or an air-

a wooden rollercoaster. If you want steel,

powered launch to propel the train up the

a more popular material in later times, you

track

could add elements such as inversions, tight

specially designed train that enables riders to stand up whilst on the ride ˃ Flyer – the trains are angled up so that they are parallel to the track, making it feel

banked turns and have a generally smoother ride.

˃ Stand-up – a rollercoaster that uses a

3. Train/cart type: If you choose the wooden type, you will most likely use the common wooden train, with

like you are flying

˃ Hyper – a rollercoaster over 200ft in

wheels over and under the track. But if you want a steel rollercoaster, you have a much

airtime hills and elevated banked turns

wider option of what type of rollercoaster you want. This could be a single-rail one

and a layout made of either airtime hills or

(with wheels on either side of the track),

tight/long banked corners

an inverted one, a sit-down, a stand-up, a

˃ Strata – a rollercoaster over 400ft in

launched one etc. a train will most likely

˃ Giga – a rollercoaster over 300ft in height,

height, and a layout usually consisting of

coincide with what type you choose, but

(Top Thrill Dragster in Ohio and Kingda Ka

most trains have wheels that roll on the top

in New Jersey), both of which consisting

and the bottom of the track.

height. Only two of these have been made

of only a launch and a top hat (a tall pointy

hill).

THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING A

106

4. Manufacturers These can play a huge role in whether your ride is popular or not. There are more steel

ROLLERCOASTER

manufacturers than wooden manufacturers,

There are five main steps of designing a

making the steel coaster market more

rollercoaster:

populated. Choosing a manufacturer can be tough if you do not know what you want,

1. The intended audience:

but if you know you want intensity, call

Before designing the rollercoaster, you

Intamin. If you know you want reliability, call

TECHNOLOGY

My mind is a tornado

NOT ENOUGH G-FORCE COULD MAKE THE ROLLERCOASTER BORING, WHEREAS TOO MUCH G-FORCE CAN MAKE THE ROLLERCOASTER TOO FORCEFUL HENCEFORTH NO ONE WILL GO ON IT. Bolliger And Mabillard (B&M), or if you know

making it accelerate. When the track starts

you want a cheap yet thrilling coaster, call

going upwards, gravity applies downforce

Premier Rides or Gerstlauer.

on the train, causing it to decelerate. Each hill after the initial chain lift or launch of

5. Track layout

a rollercoaster must be smaller or else the

Layouts can either be simple or complex,

train will stall or roll back. Inversions cannot

based on the manufacturer you have chosen.

be entered too quickly, or the rider will

An example of a simple layout would be

experience unbearable positive g-force.

an L-shaped layout (usually used on hyper coasters or giga coasters), or an out-and-back

G-FORCE

layout (also widely used on hyper or giga

G-force plays a big factor in the excitement

coasters). Complex layouts are normally more

and the enjoyability of a rollercoaster. Not

creative and can be compact or spread-out,

enough g-force could make the rollercoaster

with more unique elements that fit the area

boring, whereas too much g-force can make

in which the ride is situated.

the rollercoaster too forceful henceforth no one will go on it. There are three types of

THE PHYSICS BEHIND A

g-force:

ROLLERCOASTER

˃ Laterals – force asserted on a rollercoaster

A rollercoaster constantly converts between gravitational potential energy (energy gathered by travelling upwards and lost by

whilst travelling horizontally at speed, usually with an unbanked corner ˃ Positives – the sensation of being pushed

travelling downwards) and kinetic energy

back into your seat whilst a rollercoaster

(energy gathered by gaining speed and lost

is either accelerating or entering a tight

by slowing down). The rapid changes in altitude makes changing between these two

banked corner or an inversion ˃ Negatives – force asserted whilst travelling

energy stores normal. When a rollercoaster

over the apex of a hill, fondly nicknamed by

descends, gravity pulls the car downwards,

enthusiasts as ‘airtime’

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TECHNOLOGY

MAINTENANCE

Wooden rollercoasters cost more to

Rollercoasters are like cars; they need to be

maintain than steel ones because wood is

checked every year or two. If they are not

not as robust as steel, and wood can rot

checked, they can start to become unreliable

and decompose. Therefore, theme parks

and rough. The brakes, chain lift/launch

often opt for steel rollercoasters instead of

system, track profiling, and the trains need to

wooden ones. On the other hand, wooden

be regularly inspected to make sure that the

rollercoasters are cheaper to manufacture

ride is in operating condition. Chain lifts must

because wood is less valuable than steel,

be oiled to prevent them from getting stuck,

and companies are making huge leaps in

brakes must be checked to ensure that they

the innovation of wooden rollercoasters,

work and that the train does not just roll past

adding inversions, and even in some cases,

them, track profiling needs to be inspected

making them a hybrid (wooden supports with

annually because tracks can get to a point

steel track). This is known as the iron horse

where a repair would be ineffective, and the

treatment.

ride would have to be destroyed.

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TECHNOLOGY

Skyscrapers: How high can we build?

Priyian Ganeshalingam | 1WRJ

Contrary to what many people believe,

travelling distances exceeding 500m high.

skyscrapers are more than height and

The reason behind this is that the weight of

luxury. It is thought that by 2030 there will

the steel ropes becomes so large that more

be 1.4 billion urban dwellers, and with city

ropes are needed to carry the original ropes.

space being more expensive than ever, the

As a result, most skyscrapers feature sky

most practical solution might be to build

lobbies which are reachable from ground

up. Additionally, some people say that you

level. A second lift is then needed to carry

can judge a city’s economic growth by the

people onwards to higher levels.

number of buildings and cranes in its busiest areas, more building sites means more

The latest innovation to overcome this

economic growth. However, the desire to

problem, is a unique type of rope that

build high comes with its challenges and I

consists of a carbon fiber core, which is

will be discussing these and some of the

covered by a high-friction coating. This

innovations used to overcome them.

method has outstanding results; it weighs only a fifth of the conventional steel rope

FOUNDATION

and can reach a height of 1 kilometre! This

The foundation of any building is key to

is not the only breakthrough in this area, as

its structural integrity and inadequate

a revolutionary new design called ‘Magnetic

foundations could lead to cracks and limit a

Levitation Lifts’ could take over in the future.

building’s height. Taking into consideration the nature of the earth at the construction

Magnetic Levitation Lifts use an entirely

site is key. In areas with soft or poor soil

new method that could make the average

conditions, the foundation may require

traction lift a part of history. Magnetic lifts

special concrete to anchor the building

would be more efficient, and its design is

into the ground when it encounters the

currently being developed. It is a system of

elements. An example of this on a big scale

transportation that uses two sets of magnets

is the Burj Khalifa (currently the world’s

(which do not actually touch the lift). This

tallest building) which, due to corrosive

technology is already being put to good use

salt water underground, uses a concrete

in Japan’s fastest bullet trains, which run

foundation that does not allow salt water to

at speeds up to 311 km per hour! They use

pass through. Other skyscrapers overcome

‘Maglev’ technology, to carry the carriages

issues by digging 85 metres deep to find

along tunnels horizontally, and this could be

suitable bedrock and because of this, no

applied vertically for lifts.

two foundations are the same. Although they cannot be seen from ground view,

WIND

foundations are vital to a skyscraper.

Wind is an essential factor designers must keep in mind when planning the

LIFTS

dimensions for skyscrapers. Depending on

The common traction lift, which uses

place and time, the wind can reach high

steel ropes to pull itself up, has difficulty

speeds hundreds of metres in the air, which

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TECHNOLOGY

can cause the tallest of buildings to sway

The second major ‘cost’ of skyscraper

uncontrollably. The way around this is using

construction is the human cost. According

aerodynamics to force air around its sides

to statistics from the UK government,

and the Burj Khalifa is a great example of a

in the period 2020/21, 39 workers were

building that uses this technique. As with

fatally injured in the construction industry

lifts, there are solutions, although some are

in the UK: the most out of any industry.

more efficient than others.

This doesn’t mean that building sites are dangerous, but you must consider safety of

An example of an alternative method is

such constructions a challenge, even though

seen in Taipei 101 (a 500m tall building in

most companies take the right precautions.

Taiwan) which uses a tuned mass damper weighing in at 726 tons! The steel sphere

The third ‘cost’ is environmental cost:

is suspended between the 88th and 92nd

how the construction and materials of a

floors by eight cables and took approximately

skyscraper affect the world. Researchers at

a year to complete. Essentially acting as a

University College London’s Energy Institute

gigantic pendulum, it cuts out any vibrations

have noticed that high-rise buildings use

by slightly swinging back and forth. This is

more energy per square metre than low-rise

meant to counter any motion of the building

equivalents and emit twice as much carbon.

and is highly effective. At Taipei 101, the

To overcome this, super insulated fabrics are

pendulum can move five feet in any direction,

being developed and energy from renewable

reducing the sway by 30 to 40 percent.

sources preferred. To minimize carbon emissions during building, low carbon

COST

construction materials such as the cement

One of the more obvious pitfalls of building

substitute Ground Granulated Blast Furnace

any superstructure is cost, and not just

Slag can be used for the concrete structure.

the financial cost. The most obvious ‘cost’, understandably, is monetary and one of

CONCLUSION

most expensive buildings in the world, The

I personally think that we have no

Abraj Al Bait Towers in Saudi Arabia, cost

challenges left unsolved that we could

15 billion dollars. To put it into context,

possibly face when, not if, we decide to

this complex of seven skyscrapers costs 10

build higher than ever before. With our

times the amount that it took to design and

population undoubtedly growing at a steady

construct the Burj Khalifa. Profit must be

incline, I have no reason not to believe that

quite important to investors but the latest

more skyscrapers are in our future.

statistics show some shocking finds in this area. Notably, according to the Council on

References

Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, around 29

Skyscraper Manual: From concepts to construction methods. Builders' Workshop Manual, 2020 by Alexandra Wynne and Dave Parker.

percent of Burj Khalifa is vacant. This leads

110

to the dilemma of the prestige vs practicality

https://www.kone.com/en/news-and-insights/stories/thesecret-is-in-the-rope.aspx

of skyscrapers.

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140530-hoe-high-upcan-skyscrapers-go

TECHNOLOGY

The Space Race HOW IS THIS RELATED TO INNOVATION? This is related to innovation because many new ideas, creations, and inventions for development in space technology arose during the Space Race. The first country to have a man on the moon inevitably had the most innovation.

Dylan Williams | 1WRJ

˃ 15th December 1970 – USSR Venera 7 soft-lands on Venus ˃ 23rd April 1971 – First manned space station Salyut 1 is launched ˃ 2nd December 1971 – USSR Mars 3 softlands on Mars ˃ 17 July 1972 – USSR Soyuz and US Apollo spacecrafts dock, symbolically ending the

WHAT WAS THE SPACE RACE?

Space Race

The Space Race was a competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the USA to

WHAT HAPPENED IN THE SPACE RACE?

try and achieve superior space travel over

The USA had announced that they were

each other.

going to launch a satellite into space. The USSR shortly followed this statement by also

THE TIMELINE OF THE SPACE RACE:

announcing that they were going to launch

˃ 29th July 1955 – The USA announces that

a satellite into space. The USSR launched

it will launch space satellites ˃ 2nd August 1955 – The USSR announces

Sputnik 1 on the 4th of October 1957, which became the first ever Earth-orbiting satellite.

it will launch space satellites, starting the

The USA finally launched their first satellite

Space Race

by launching Explorer 1. The US were in the

˃ 4th October 1957 – The USSR launches Sputnik, the first artificial satellite ˃ 31st January 1958 – The USA launches its first satellite, Explorer 1 ˃ 12th April 1961 – Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space ˃ 5th May 1961 – Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space ˃ 25th May 1961 – President Kennedy sets

Space Race. Following this, the USA also launched SCORE, the first ever communication satellite. The USSR launched Luna 1, which actually escaped the orbit of the Moon, and instead started to orbit the Sun. On the 12th September 1959, the USSR launched lunar 2, which became the first space-craft to reach the surface of the Moon. On the 12th April 1961, the first man, Yuri Gagarin,

out the aim of landing a man on the Moon

travelled to space on a Soviet spacecraft.

by the end of the 1960s

However, the Space Race was not only a

˃ 18th March 1965 – Alexey Leonov undertakes the first space walk from

series of success stories. Many astronauts lost their lives in the pursuit of innovation.

Voskhod 2 ˃ 3rd February 1966 – the USSR Luna 9 is

INVENTIONS THAT CAME FROM THE

the first spacecraft to soft-land on the

SPACE RACE:

Moon

Water purification systems:

˃ 21st December 1968 – Apollo 8 is the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon ˃ 20th July 1969 – Apollo 11’s Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin are the first

The water purification filtration system invented in the 1970s by NASA to purify astronauts’ water is still used all over the world nowadays.

men to walk on the Moon

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TECHNOLOGY

Wireless headphones: During the 1960s, NASA developed wireless headphones to improve communication without worrying about tangled wires. This innovation is still being developed today, leading to ever more sophisticated

SPACE RACE WAS

headphones.

NOT ONLY A

Computer mouse:

SERIES OF SUCCESS

In the 1960s NASA developed the computer mouse as computers are very important in rocket launches. They wanted to have an easy way to interact with and control the computers. Over time this invention has

STORIES. MANY ASTRONAUTS LOST

been developed further.

THEIR LIVES IN

Ear thermometers:

THE PURSUIT OF

These were invented to make sure that astronauts did not pick up any diseases, and to stop them spreading if they did. When astronauts had high or low temperatures, they isolated themselves until they were better. The technology used was infrared, which is now widely used as an ear thermometer. Adjustable smoke alarms: The adjustable smoke alarm was invented in the 1970s just after the USA landed its first men on the Moon. NASA invented this device to ensure that the smoke alarm only went off when there was an actual problem. This invention has been developed further to be used in houses, notably for smoke alarms found in the kitchen.

112

HOWEVER, THE

INNOVATION.

TECHNOLOGY

Mechanical Keyboards

William Burke | 2MCB

INTRODUCTION

generally considered the best for gaming.

“Why would you spend so much money on

A tactile switch has an increase in force

a keyboard?” is one of the most common

over the fist half millimetre and then the

questions that I get when talking to people

force drops and the switch glides down

about my own interest, and while to some

to bottom while making little to no noise.

people it may seem ludicrous to spend

Clicky switches, which are objectively the

upwards of two or three hundred pounds

worst, have the same tactile feedback as on

on a keyboard. My love for mechanical

a tactile switch but also have loud audible

keyboards only grew when I got to build

feedback in the form of a metallic click

my first personal board. It is a very specific

sound.

hobby and lots of enthusiasts can become unhappy about anyone talking badly of the

WHAT DIFFERENT SIZES OF KEYBOARDS

hobby, but I love it for the creativity that

ARE COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE?

you arises from configuring your board in

There are a lot of sizes and layouts for

whatever range of colours you like, and

keyboards. Some very compact and some

however you want to personalise you board

with all the keys, buttons, functions and

to really make it yours.

knobs that you could ever hope for but for all intents and purposes, the largest size

WHAT ARE SWITCHES AND WHAT DO

we will talk on is the 100% layout. The

PEOPLE MEAN WHEN THEY TALK

aforementioned 100% layout is the standard

ABOUT DIFFERENT SWITCHES AND

for office keyboards and many standard

SWITCH TYPES?

keyboards. It is considered the “norm” in

The switch of a mechanical keyboard is

terms of keyboard layouts. It features your

the small plastic and conductive metal

main cluster of numbers, alphas (the main

contraption below the keycap that allows

letters), modifiers (the spacebar, shift,

you to register a keypress on the computer.

backspace, etc.), the function or F row, with

Switches are made up of five parts including:

arrow keys and a number pad on they far

the stem, the top housing, the bottom

right. Then we go down to the 1800 layout

housing, the spring, and the contact

or the 95% layout where most of the 100%

leaf. The top and bottom housings hold

keys remain but there are no gaps between

everything together, the spring provides

anything and the arrow keys interfere with

resistance to the stem, which holds the

your main typing area, creating a shorter

keycap and glides down, pushing the

right shift key. The next is the TKL (ten

contact leaf together therefore registering

keyless) or 80%, this is the same as the

a keypress. The different switches are used

100% but has no number pad on the right to

to give variety to sound and feel. There

save space. The next one down is the 75%

are three main switch types: linear, tactile

board where it is just like the 1800 board

and clicky. Linear switches have a long

but like on the TKL it has no number pad,

smooth actuation where the key goes down

and this personally is my favourite layout.

at a consistent weight. These switches are

Smaller still is the 65% where it is the same

113

ALTHOUGH MOST LANGUAGES AND COUNTRIES HAVE A STANDARD ORDER OF KEYS, THE DIFFERENCE IN LAYOUTS DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE STILL CANNOT FULLY AGREE ON THE BEST LAYOUT. as 75% but with no F row on top. The 60%

a little bit disconcerting for experienced

is considered as the standard mini compact

typers and it can be difficult to adjust –

keyboard where you just have the small

just ask anyone who has typed on a French

main cluster form a full sized 100% board.

keyboard. The order of the alpha keys is to

The smallest two are 40 and 45% where you

have the most used ones in the middle and

have the same as on the 60 and 65% boards

the less used ones further out. As such,

with no numbers at all.

other popular layouts include COLMAK and AZERTY, which both originated from

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QWERTY LIFE

Russia. Although most languages and

The last thing that I am going to discuss

countries have a standard order of keys,

upon is the different layouts of the keys

the difference in layouts demonstrates

themselves and where they are placed on

that people still cannot fully agree on the

the board. The Standard is QWERTY, which

best layout, and the advent of personalised

is used by the English-speaking world. Using

keyboards further highlights that this is

alternate key layouts is often considered

something that is changing.

Tesla; How It Sells Big But Advertises Little

Sam Butler | 2ERW

There are few – if any – companies as

of gravity, greater engine density and a

synonymous with innovation as Tesla.

more efficient battery management. Tesla

Despite global success and continually rising

vehicles also have a slightly different design

stocks throughout a global pandemic, Tesla

which includes putting batteries in the back

refuses to spend big - or at all, for that

of the car rather than in a flat pack at the

matter – on advertisement. This has not

bottom’. This allows a more balanced weight

affected sales in the least but does seem a

proportion in the car.

bit strange for a company of such calibre. Being innovative is not just limited to their

Tesla stopped accepting Bitcoin for any sales

product inventions, but also in the unique

on May 13, 2021 due to its large energy

way that the company has been built.

consumption. Despite this step forward in aiding the global effort against climate

Their method of advertisement – or

change, the company is far behind major

method of not advertising – has led to

American rivals General Motors and Ford

one of the most successful companies

in ‘reporting carbon-emissions’ and ‘setting

ever seen by the car-making industry.

carbon-reduction targets.’ GM and Ford

Tesla spends on average triple the R&D (or

not only set ‘ambitious’ targets for carbon

research and development) compared to

neutrality, but fully disclose their carbon

other car companies1, which just shows

emissions each year. Tesla, when releasing

how important product innovation is

emission figures, show their data as a graph

to the company. They also have a well-

(therefore not precisely releasing figures)

known relationship with battery company

and it is often done from previous years. This

‘Panasonic’, which allows them to develop

makes it difficult to pin down Tesla’s exact

new car batteries all year round. In 2020

carbon production for the current year.

alone, despite the Coronavirus pandemic, Tesla spent $1.491b on R&D, an increase

In 2018, Tesla was fined 139,500 USD

of more than 11% from the previous year.

because of malfunctioning burners releasing

The ‘Cybertruck’ can be used as a great

high levels of Nitrous oxide between 2013

example of not over-selling the product

and 2016. This did not affect the years to

itself, but it instead using it as a form of

come, as Tesla’s current revenue of around

getting attention2. Tesla also produced the

11.96 billion USD per year, according to

most electric car parts in 2019 and 2020,

MarketWatch5, was nearly a full 100%

according to Forbes3.

increase on the figure from the same time period a year previously. It is viewed as a

This alone would make Tesla one of the most

miracle that the Tesla brand exposure and

successful companies in the business, yet is

PR did not become greatly affected by this

just treated as a side-plan by the company

story, and that Tesla Marketing figures for

itself. The architecture of the car gives it

2015 show that Tesla spent 58.3 million US

the edge over its market competitors for a

dollars on advertisement, but the average

number of reasons – such as a ‘lower centre

market rival, for example BMW, spent

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TECHNOLOGY

almost $200 million – nearly four times as

for electric vehicles’. CEO Elon Musk said

much – on advertising.

on the Tesla website that the first model would have been mass-produced if it

Also in 2018, SpaceX launched its ‘Falcon

could have been, but this was impossible

Heavy Rocket’ into orbit. This was viewed

for a startup company designing its first

live by millions. But the real masterplan of

car. Tesla has been in competition with

this was that the rocket then proceeded to

China for years, and in particular, ‘NIO’.

release a Tesla ‘Roadster’ into orbit. Elon

This was a company founded in 2015 that

Musk’s masterplan of combining the two

manufactures ‘premium electric vehicles’

businesses that he owned was marketing

and was previously dubbed ‘the Chinese

genius. It did not cost him a penny in

Tesla’. Another Chinese market rival is Geely,

advertising to launch the car from out of the

which also owns Volvo and Lotus, as well as

rocket, but it was seen all over the world,

Polestar cars. It remains to be seen which

and the press coverage from the surprise

brand will become the biggest electric car

event is said to have made Tesla millions

company in the world, but the company that

over the next couple of weeks following it.

does come out on top will likely be the most innovative and not necessarily the biggest

However, it is not clear that Tesla’s global

spender on advertisement. Tesla have re-

success was purely down to this. There is

invented the model – it is no longer all about

an element of luck involved, as there were

who spends the most on marketing, but who

no other companies like Tesla, and with the

is able to keep up with innovation of car

environmental aspect of car manufacturing

models.

coming under scrutiny, an electric car company was bound to establish itself

References

sooner or later.

1. https://evannex.com/blogs/news/innovation-culture-tesla-rd-spending-versus-other-automakers

It is estimated that the electric vehicle industry is supposed to grow to a net worth of 700 billion USD in 2026. Tesla’s first vehicle demonstrated the genius behind a global success. Instead of making a car easy to mass-produce and affordable, it created a car that would ‘create a demand

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2. https://hbr.org/2020/02/lessons-from-teslas-approach-toinnovation 3. https://www.forbes.com/sites/ greatspeculations/2020/01/03/how-does-tesla-spend-itsmoney/?sh=7ec0307625daz 4. https://www.themarketingish.com/newsletter/teslaadvertising 5. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/tesla-stock-extendsbounce-after-wedbush-boosts-price-target-to-match-thestreet-high-11637329401

TECHNOLOGY

Why Virtual Reality Could Be A Problem In The Near Future

Jayden Lawrence | 2CKL

In 1968, Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull

body, eye, and face tracking, which is more

created the first ceiling-mounted virtual

data than ever before. Some breaches have

reality headset. But as technology advanced,

collected data of upwards of 600 million

virtual reality became a bigger thing, with

users, and if a security compromise like this

products such as the Oculus Quest 2 (now

happens again, Meta and its community

known as the Meta Quest 2) being released

could be in massive trouble.

in late 2020. Recently, Facebook announced a rebranding of their company to Meta,

ISSUES WITH SOCIETY

which introduced a new virtual environment

A part of me thinks that this world is not

named the Metaverse.

ready for the Metaverse. This virtual reality world may seem too realistic for some of

ISSUES WITH THE COMPANY

us, which may cause us to forget the real

At first glance, this new virtual world

world we are living in. When you put on

seemed like a great idea. It allowed you to

your virtual reality headset, you can pick

easily communicate with your friends from

and choose how you look. You can be

a long distance, in a better way than any

short, tall, have black, brown, blonde, or

communication app can do it now. It allowed

red hair, remove or add freckles, change

you to play games, complete work and even

your weight and do so much more which is

share your screens, all in virtual reality.

just not possible in the real world. In VR,

However, we must not forget the company

you can act like you have money, even if

that is pitching this new idea to us. This is a

you are unemployed. In VR, you can look

company that is known to take and sell your

like a celebrity, even if you are unknown

data, and if you give them incorrect data,

in the real world. I feel like this will be too

they have been known to ban Facebook

misleading for some.

accounts and even prevent headsets from working. Facebook makes around 98.5% of

There is proof to further back up my point

their revenue from digital advertising. Have

that the world isn’t ready for this new world.

you ever had an ad served to you that was

Social media platforms such as Instagram

related to something you searched or posted

and Facebook use your data to show you

a few days, hours, or even a few minutes

the things that you will agree with. This is

ago? That may have been Facebook’s doing.

a manipulative move by these platforms to keep you scrolling for as long as possible, as

Facebook has had eight data breaches, and

that is what earns the companies money. If

most of them have happened in the last four

you were being served content that you did

years, meaning that they have a history of

not agree with, you would be more likely to

not protecting your data properly. In the

leave the platform. However, when these

future, this could be extremely dangerous.

companies serve you this content, they are

The Meta Quest 3 has rumours of full-

disinforming you in a very subtle manner. By

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TECHNOLOGY

SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS SUCH AS INSTAGRAM AND FACEBOOK USE YOUR DATA TO SHOW YOU THE THINGS THAT YOU WILL AGREE WITH. only showing posts that the platform knows

CONCLUSION

you will like, it is giving you a false sense

In conclusion, I do not think that the

of intelligence, as you start to think that

metaverse will be safe. This generation

the internet agrees with you. With the new

seems to be lost, with the rise of things such

Metaverse, this culture will be encouraged

as Twitter’s “Cancel Culture”. This generation

further, giving everyone a false sense of

is growing up with technology, and having

intelligence, meaning that no one will ever

too much of it exposed to them will make

learn anything.

them love their electronics too much and addictions will form. There will be a rise in

There is one thing I am certain about,

unemployment and depression. My advice

and it is that if people start to become

to anyone reading is to only use your

too consumed in this new universe, it will

headset in moderation, as it is easier than

become an addiction. Rather than this

ever to become addicted to this piece of

Metaverse just being a quick distraction

developing technology.

from the natural stress of life, people will instead start to favour their online personality over their real one and forget who they are. THE ADVANTAGES OF THE METAVERSE I am not saying that the Metaverse is bad in any way, shape or form. It is great for many things. You can now interact like never before, with both friends and strangers. You can collaborate and work together with ease, and feel like you are actually in an office. You can have fun in games such as Echo VR, Beat Saber and PokerStars VR. Moderation in these worlds is also easier than ever with AI and machine learning development. There are so many other ways that the Metaverse will help the world as opposed to hindering it, but I think that the cons outweigh the pros.

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TECHNOLOGY

Virtual Reality

Lochlann Hamilton | 2OMR

Virtual reality is an innovative idea that

and time of a trip to Africa, i.e., the balance

utilises screens to immerse the user in a sort

between the actual experience and the time

of sensory experience, almost creating a new

and money spent achieving the experience is

‘reality’. While the technology is still fairly

more evenly spread.

new, it seems likely that we will see more of this ever-growing technology in the near

Another benefit that comes from virtual

future. In fact, we predict, we will become

reality is how it helps deal with therapy,

more reliant on this accessible altered reality,

trauma, phobias and disorders. This means

and we will adapt it to our more dependent

that due to its tailor-ability (it can be whatever

lifestyles in the future, due to its increasing

you want it to be), it allows for the process

development in the realm of convenience.

of exposure therapy, in which the patient

Virtual reality has the capacity to bear this

experiences their fears, which in turn helps

dependency, since it is extremely helpful, and

to create a resistance against their fear. This

some could say beneficial in many different

could revolutionise the way we deal with

ways. In this essay we will explore the benefits

therapy. It can be introduced more quickly

and negatives of virtual reality and people’s

and compound the benefits received into a

opinions on it in order to decide whether we

smaller space of time. In fact, virtual reality

could see it in our lifestyles in the near future.

is currently being used as a form of exposure therapy, in which the subject is exposed

As for the benefits of virtual reality, the

to their phobia or the root their trauma or

majority fall in the category of ‘accessibility’.

conditions around it. It is already being offered

In other words, one main reason we see virtual

to patients who are suffering from phobia or

reality in a good light, is due to its accessibility

trauma and has been deemed successful on

and convenience where we may be limited

Vietnam War combat veterans (verywellmind.

to a certain area or place. Thinking about

com), and a number of other people who

playing a game of football, you could press a

have experienced similar trauma or have

few buttons and play a game of football with

PTSD. This has also helped with phobias

virtual reality, which starts immediately and

such as arachnophobia, claustrophobia, fear

is a good use of time, or we could wait for

of driving etc, due to its ability to recreate a

others to be able to play a game, walk to the

situation or place that the patient knows is

park, put on our shoes, warm up, slide in the

safe (verywellmind.com). Normally, this type

mud and walk home, which takes more time

of virtual reality is observed and supervised

overall. Exercising using virtual reality might fit

by a therapist, but Professor Daniel Freeman

better into our collective busy lifestyles due to

developed a program in which the therapist

ability to utilise the best of your time. Another

was included in the virtual reality experience.

example is, on the Oculus Quest 2 (virtual

This can be a better use of time, and make it

reality headset), there is a game called Gorilla

feel like less of an experiment and more of

Tag. Now for us to play Gorilla Tag, which, bear

a game for the patient. Freeman ran a study

in mind, is not a real thing, you would have

with people who had a fear of heights for 30

to travel to Africa, whereas in virtual reality

years and, after 5 sessions each lasting around

you could do virtually anything with a push

2 hours, those who underwent the therapy

of a button and you don’t have the expense

showed a 68% average reduction in their fear

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TECHNOLOGY

of heights (bbc.co.uk). This shows the success

disproportionate to the cons, the cons still

of this field of therapy, and how it just could

present issues; issues that should be fixed.

prove extremely helpful.

But it still could prove majorly beneficial, if we could just manage the time we spend, be

While virtual reality has proven itself helpful

aware of our needs and be able to ask for help

and beneficial, there are negative effects that

when it seems like too much.

come with using virtual reality. One of the most obvious risks of virtual reality is bumping

NINTENDO SWITCH V REAL LIFE

into objects. While you are immersed, you

EXERCISE EXPERIMENT. WHO WILL WIN?

cannot see where you are going, and that

In this experiment I completed 3 different

results in an interaction with a misplaced

exercises to see which one tired me out the

object that could cause harm. This presents a

most (in terms of my Heart rate).

further issue, as it implies it will require a big open space, which may not be available at the

The two

time you wish to use it. This in itself presents

games I

an inevitable inconvenience, as its need for

downloaded

open space to function may pressurise a user

on the Nintendo

to purchase more living space in order to have the necessary conditions for the virtual reality

Switch to complete this were ‘Jump Rope

to function.

Challenge’ and ‘Fitness Boxing 2’. Firstly, I quickly want to mention the game styles and

Another issue is known as the vergence-

how engaging they were. Jump Rope Challenge

accommodation, which is a problem linked to

was a very simple game, where you would

the misconception of the distance of objects.

move your hands in a circular motion (like you

This can be dangerous as you are interacting

would if you were skipping in real life) and

in another world and objects are made to

jump simultaneously. If done correctly, it would

look further away than they are. Returning to

really tire you

virtual reality, a study from the University of

out! The other

Leeds showed that 20 minutes of exposure to

game was

virtual reality affected the ability for children

Fitness Boxing

to be able to discern the distance of objects.

2 – a much

Another concern is that it may increase

more complex

global myopia (short sightedness), also due

game, but enjoyable none the less! You could

to the objects being made further away than

change instructors, view your achievements

they are, which was predicted to affect one

throughout the course of the game, and of

in three of the world’s population in 2020

course enter a boxing simulator where your

(sciencefocus.com).

coach would talk to you and give advice on where you are going wrong. I think what set

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Now we have seen the pros and cons to

this game apart from the Jump Rope Challenge

virtual reality, we think it is fair to say that

was how realistic I found it – it was just like

virtual reality could be a great addition to

being in a 1v1 session, the graphics were clean,

our lifestyles. And even if the pros seem

and I really put a sweat on once I was done!

TECHNOLOGY

On Fitness Boxing 2, I completed 3 5min workouts, and calculated an average BPM of 152. Then, on the Nintendo Switch, I skipped for 5 minutes without stop and came to a heart rate of 136. Finally, I completed 3 5min

EXERCISING

workouts with a 3 min gap in between.

USING VIRTUAL

These workouts consisted of:

REALITY MIGHT FIT

Jumping Jacks (40 secs) and Plank (20 secs) 1 Arm Burpees (40 secs) and Plank (20 secs) High Knee Squats (40 secs) and Plank (20 secs) Lunges (40 secs) and Plank (20 secs) Burpees (40 secs) and Plank (20 secs) And from these workouts I calculated an average BPM of 156. WELL, WHAT DOES THIS TELL US? The results from this experiment showed to be extremely similar, which tells us that technological sporting activities are probably the way to go in the future, because they are

BETTER INTO OUR COLLECTIVE BUSY LIFESTYLES DUE TO ABILITY TO UTILISE THE BEST OF YOUR TIME.

successful! It is incredible to see how far we’ve come over the last 30 years, and it is quite a scary prospect thinking about where we will be in the next 30 years! But some people are anti this way of thinking- they argue that the workouts will be less about the exercise and more about the tech. But what side are you on? CONCLUSIONS To conclude, we have learnt that virtual reality has many pros and cons. It is a lot more accessible than actually playing a football match and it still leaves you doing just as much exercise in many cases. However, it has been proven to cause short sightedness in people and people could bump into objects around them when they have the VR headset on. In my opinion, virtual reality is the way forward as long as we eradicate those errors.

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TECHNOLOGY

Is Hydrogen the Future of Sustainable Aviation?

Siddhant Roy | 3AWL

REACHING NET ZERO As climate change is causing problems across the world such as extreme weather, loss of biodiversity and wildfires, nations are committing to go net zero by 2050. While aviation is only responsible for 2.5% of global carbon emissions, it is one of the difficult to decarbonise (Henderson, 2021). Even though we have managed to make

www.airbus.com, 2021

airplanes more fuel efficient over time, they still emit a huge volume of carbon

where high temperature steam combines

dioxide and in 2019, airplanes released

with natural gas to extract hydrogen. This

over 1,000,000,000 tonnes of CO2. The

method is very inefficient and produces

high energy density of kerosene, which

carbon dioxide as a waste product.

is 12,000 Wh/kg (Neutrium.net,2014),

Electrolysis is 80% efficient and a more

remains unrivalled. In comparison, lithium-

eco-friendly method to produce hydrogen

ion batteries have an energy density of

as it only produces hydrogen and oxygen. In

just 265 Wh/kg (Clean Energy Institute,

electrolysis, water molecules are separated

2000). Therefore, current lithium-ion

into its constituent atoms using an electric

batteries cannot be used to power an

current that flows from the anode to the

average commercial jet such as the Boeing

cathode across a circuit. The two electrodes

777. However, hydrogen has an energy

are separated by an electrolyte. At the

density of 14,000 Wh/kg (Rocky Mountain

anode, water molecules are oxidised and

Institute, 2019) and is eco-friendly when

separated into oxygen and H+ ions. The

combusted or used in a fuel cell, which

hydrogen ions travel across the electrolyte

makes it a possible replacement for

to the cathode where they combine with

kerosene. Companies such as Airbus and

the electrons to form H2 molecules. The

ZeroAvia are already working on hydrogen

advantage of using electrolysis is that

propulsion with the hope of developing a

no carbon dioxide is emitted during the

hydrogen powered passenger plane within

process if the electricity used is produced

the next decade. Airbus has revealed three

with renewable sources such as wind or

hydrogen plane concepts for its ZeroE

solar. However, the process is energy

project, which are expected to enter service

intensive, and the cost should be decreased

by 2035. ZeroAvia hopes to introduce its

significantly to be competitive with steam

first 20-seater commercial jet by 2023 and a

reforming. (ENERGY.GOV, 2019)

100-seater by 2030. HYDROGEN STORAGE

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PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN

Since hydrogen gas has a low density, it

Currently, 99% of all commercial use

has an energy density by volume that is

hydrogen is produced by steam reforming,

significantly less than kerosene. This means

TECHNOLOGY

fuel tanks containing hydrogen need to

travel through an external circuit and power

be significantly larger. This will result in

electrical components before going to the

increased surface area causing increased

cathode. At the cathode, O2 molecules

aerodynamic drag, which will reduce fuel

are split into 2 oxygen atoms, which are

efficiency. To decrease the volume of the

negatively charged. They combine with

fuel tank, the gas must be compressed to

the hydrogen ions and electrons to form

790 times atmospheric pressure or liquified

water (H2O). (https://www.howstuffworks.

by cooling it to -253°C (Real Engineering,

com and https://www.howstuffworks.com/

2018). The tanks must be built to withstand

jonathan-strickland-author.htm, 2000).

the pressure of hydrogen compressed to 250-350 bar or insulated to keep liquid

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell

hydrogen below its 20 Kelvin boiling point.

has only half the power per unit weight of

This adds extra weight to the fuel tank,

current gas turbines, which have 3.7 kW/kg.

which means liquid hydrogen makes up

Solid oxide fuel cells have a higher efficiency

only 18% of the total tank weight, while

but weigh significantly more than PEM

kerosene is 78% of the total tank weight. To

fuel cells. However, their higher efficiency

be competitive with fossil fuels, hydrogen

will compensate for their increased weight

fuel tanks must be lighter, so the hydrogen

in longer duration flights. The operating

is at least 28% of the total tank weight.

temperature of an SOFC is 800°C while

This means that the airplane can carry more

a PEM cell has an operating temperature

fuel instead of carrying the weight of fuel

of 100°C. The excess heat can be used to

tanks. To compensate for the increased

power a gas turbine. To make sure that

aerodynamic drag, a blended wing fuselage

the fuel cells obtain enough oxygen, the

design will increase the lift. Manufacturing

outside air must be compressed and to

the airplane with lighter materials such as

prevent the compressor from wasting the

carbon fibre will also decrease aerodynamic

power available for propulsion, lithium-ion

drag. (Kramer, 2020)

batteries can be used to provide power for the process. (Kramer, 2020)

HYDROGEN PROPULSION The chemical potential energy of hydrogen

IS HYDROGEN THE FUTURE OF

can be converted to electrical energy using

SUSTAINABLE AVIATION?

a fuel cell, which will power a turbofan

Hydrogen is certainly the best replacement

engine. Hydrogen can also be burnt as fuel

for kerosene due to its unrivalled energy

in a combustion chamber releasing high

density of 14,000 Wh/kg, which is

temperature steam. A fuel cell is made

significantly higher than lithium-ion

from an anode, cathode, electrolyte, and

batteries or kerosene. It is also carbon free

a catalyst. At the anode, hydrogen is split

since the only waste products of hydrogen

into H+ ions and electrons by a catalyst.

fuel cells are water and heat. However,

The hydrogen ions travel through the

the process of producing, liquefying (or

electrolyte to the cathode and the electrons

compressing) and using hydrogen fuel cells

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TECHNOLOGY

to power an engine has a huge energy loss.

References

In the best-case scenario, 33% of the initial

www.airbus.com. (2021). Why hydrogen is the most promising zero-emission technology | Airbus. [online] Available at: https:// www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/news/2021-01-why-hydrogenis-the-most-promising-zero-emission-technology [Accessed 23 Nov. 2021].

energy is lost and up to 56% in the worstcase scenario (Real Engineering, 2018). This means that the operating cost of a hydrogen powered airplane will be substantially higher than an airplane powered by kerosene or lithium-ion batteries. Fuel tanks storing hydrogen must be made lighter, so hydrogen can make up a higher proportion of the tank, increasing the power to weight ratio. There are other potential solutions to increase the power to weight ratio such as the blended wing fuselage design, which has a wide aerofoil shaped body, which increases lift and minimises drag. This allows the airplane to have greater payload (Nasa. gov, 2019). If the energy loss from hydrogen production to propulsion can be decreased, hydrogen airplanes can operate at a cost that is competitive with fossil fuels and replace kerosene to become main propulsion method for airplanes.

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Clean Energy Institute (2000). Lithium-Ion Battery | Clean Energy Institute. [online] Washington.edu. Available at: https:// www.cei.washington.edu/education/science-of-solar/batterytechnology/ ENERGY.GOV (2019). Hydrogen Production: Electrolysis. [online] Energy.gov. Available at: https://www.energy.gov/eere/ fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis. Henderson, C. (2021). The hydrogen revolution in the skies. [online] www.bbc.com. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/ future/article/20210401-the-worlds-first-commercialhydrogen-plane. https://www.howstuffworks.com and https://www. howstuffworks.com/jonathan-strickland-author.htm (2000). How Fuel Cells Work. [online] HowStuffWorks. Available at: https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternativefuels/fuel-cell.htm. Kramer, D. (2020). Hydrogen-powered aircraft may be getting a lift. Physics Today,Hydrogen-powered aircraft may be getting a lift: Physics Today: Vol 73, No 12 (scitation.org) Nasa.gov. (2019). NASA - Blended Wing Body Fact Sheet. [online] Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/ news/factsheets/FS-2003-11-81-LaRC.html. Neutrium.net. (2014). Specific Energy and Energy Density of Fuels – Neutrium. [online] Available at: https://neutrium.net/ properties/specific-energy-and-energy-density-of-fuels/. Real Engineering (2018). The Truth about Hydrogen. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=f7MzFfuNOtY. Rocky Mountain Institute. (2019). Run on Less with Hydrogen Fuel Cells. [online] Available at: https://rmi.org/run-on-lesswith-hydrogen-fuel-cells/. Uiuc.edu. (2019). Fuel Cells. [online] Available at: http://butane. chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/Environmental/L11/2.html.

TECHNOLOGY

The Environmental Impact of Rocket Launches and How We Can Solve It

Maxwell Juen | 2CKL

I first came across rockets when I was 6,

exhaust is released into the stratosphere

when everyone in my class was excited

(12km – 50km) and the mesosphere (50km –

about everything to do with rockets. Apollo,

85km) where it can stay for at least 3 years.

NASA, ISS, you name it. Everyone, including

The hot temperatures during launch and

me, wanted to become a famous astronaut,

re-entry (where the protective heat shields

to be the first at something in space. The

of the spacecraft burn up) can also convert

first to step on Mars, the first to step on

nitrogen in the air into reactive nitrogen

Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, or to

oxides. These gases and particles have many

be the first to discover how humans could

negative effects on the atmosphere such as

colonise Mars. For everyone, the prospect

the breakdown of water vapor which convert

of going into space and being the first to

ozone into oxygen. Furthermore, it depletes

step on something was exciting. However, at

the ozone layer which shields life on Earth

only 6, none of us knew the environmental

against UV radiation.

damage that rockets cause the world. When spaceships are launched, hardly anyone

RS-25 Engine

notices how much damage they do to

Another rocket engine, the RS-25, which

Earth, and there have not been any greener

is NASA’s main rocket engine, and is also

solutions to solve the amount of greenhouse

the prime rocket for flight proven, high-

gases going into the atmosphere. This is

performance engines used to propel NASA’s

what I am trying to find out today so in

rockets. Four of these rockets are at the

the future we can launch many rockets to

bottom of the rocket power the rocket on an

enhance our knowledge about space, and

eight-and-a-half-minute climb to space with

to see if there is a planet that is like an

more than nine hundred thousand kilograms

alternative to Earth.

of thrust. It uses liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, like the BE-3 propellant, which make

PROBLEMS WITH ROCKETS

it the most powerful rocket in the world. When NASA launches its rockets, it emits

BE-3 Engine

more carbon dioxide in a few minutes than

When a rocket is launched into space,

an average car would in more than 200 years.

enormous quantities of water vapor are

After a rocket launch, there is a white exhaust

produced by burning the BE-3 propellant (a

cloud that fills the air, which goes into the

rocket engine which uses liquid oxygen and

atmosphere. Despite staying there for only

liquid hydrogen) which produces CO2, soot,

a few days, it deteriorates the atmosphere

and some water vapor. This nitrogen-based

quickly, resulting in a weaker atmosphere.

engine, which is used in Blue Origin’s engine, the VSS Unity and the Falcon rockets, emits

EMERGING PROBLEMS

compounds that contribute to air pollution

With space tourism and climate change

closer to Earth. Roughly two-thirds of the

becoming a possible outcome in the

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TECHNOLOGY

future, rockets such as Virgin Galactic

contribute to global warming. This leads

and SpaceX need to be greener and more

to a depleted ozone layer which would

environmentally friendly to overcome

absorb less sunlight, therefore heating the

the thought of the ozone layer being

stratosphere less.

destroyed. For instance, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 burns through about 112 tonnes of refined

SOLUTIONS?

kerosene (a combustible liquid from petrol) emitting about 336 tonnes of carbon

Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen – The

dioxide. This is the equivalent of driving

green but weak fuel

your car about 70 times around the world.

From the perspective of the environment,

If space tourism becomes increasingly

it hardly gets better than liquid oxygen

popular, there could be up to 1,000 launches

and liquid hydrogen (LOx/LH2). The fuel’s

per year in the future. Therefore, rockets

exhaust is almost entirely made of water

need to change to be greener in terms

vapor, the effects in the atmosphere have

of greenhouse gases emissions. Virgin

been extensively studied. The impacts are

Galactic’s VSS Unity uses a hybrid propellant

almost zero. While the LOx/LH2 is quite

comprised of a carbon-based fuel, hydroxyl-

explosive, it has a low energy density. This

terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), and

means that lifting a rocket off the ground

nitrous oxide (laughing gas). These engines

using LOx/LH2 would require huge tanks.

are relatively simple and safe to operate,

Therefore, large rockets such as ESA’s Ariane

however scientists are not impressed with

5 and 6 and NASA’s SLS have additional

the environmental side effects. This is

solid boosters to overcome the initial pull of

because they generate a lot of soot, and

Earth’s gravity.

work like a candle. Soot particles can affect

126

how the atmosphere absorbs heat. Soot

Methane – The fuel that leaks

particles get injected into the higher layers

In the future, methane-based rocket

of the atmosphere where they can remain

propellers might help to become greener.

forever. However, the SpaceX Falcon uses

Even though methane is a known greenhouse

a series of reusable rockets that propel

gas, it burns more cleanly and provides more

the crew into orbit while using liquid

energy than LOx/LH2. Methane could soon

kerosene and liquid oxygen. Burning these

replace hydrogen in launches as despite

propellants provides the energy needed to

being a potent greenhouse gas, methane as

launch rockets, however it simultaneously

rocket fuel seems to be an environmentally

generates greenhouse gases and air

friendly fuel because of its burning efficiency.

pollutants. The combustion of the VSS Unity

Some studies, however, show that methane,

and Falcon produces CO2, soot, and water

as it is transported in the form of gas, could

vapor. What’s more, CO2 exhaust emissions

leak into the atmosphere from gas pipes.

and soot trap heat in the atmosphere also

Since it is 80 times more lethal than carbon

TECHNOLOGY

dioxide, the leaked gas could speeds up

Lastly, an American company named bluShift

climate change.

Aerospace flew its first rocket prototype Stardust 1.0, which uses solid biofuel made

Biofuels – The Solution?

from agricultural waste. The test rocket

Several companies are experimenting with

reached less than one mile in altitude.

sustainable alternatives made from waste or biomass. A UK company named Orbex

THE FUTURE

builds a 3D –printed micro-launcher that

In the future, there may be further

runs on biopropane (petrol from biomass).

advancements to space discovery, from

Recently, they have discovered that the

space colonisation to travelling to the

technology might produce 86% less in

next galaxy. Who knows what we could

emissions compared to a similar sized

discover in a hundred years, but hopefully

rocket engine. The study concluded that

any discovery will be aided by more

the biopropane-fueled engine produced

environmentally friendly space travel.

less soot than rockets burning RP-1 (rocket fuel). Soot particles are also a worry as they, unlike carbon dioxide emissions, impact the temperature of the higher layers of the atmosphere. Another UK company named Skyrora experimented on an alternative to RP-1 called Ecosene, made of non-recyclable plastics. The company has tested and found that burning this fuel would produce up to 40% less emissions, including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, soot and sulphur.

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TECHNOLOGY

Why Hypixel Skyblock is the Start of the Meta-Verse

Amir Gulubayli | 4NLA Ashfi Dewan | 4NLA

Ever since Facebook changed their name to Meta and announced the Metaverse, we have been wondering if this already exists in the form of Hypixel Skyblock (not to be confused with the typical Minecraft skyblock game mode). For those who do not know, Hypixel Skyblock is a Minecraft game mode where you work your way up society - becoming richer,

Fighting at the end

stronger and better. There are many links between Skyblock and the Metaverse, but

˃ You can fight monsters and bosses

also real life.

˃ You can fish unique sea creatures ˃ You can farm all types of crops

WHAT CAN YOU DO IN HYPIXEL

˃ You can forage a lot of trees sustainably

SKYBLOCK?

˃ You can mine a whole range of ores

There are a multitude of activities to do in Hypixel Skyblock: ˃ You can build up your own home island from the ground into anything you want ˃ You can travel and explore across the Hypixel Skyblock world

Fishing at night

The map of the Hypixel Skyblock world

128

The farming islands

TECHNOLOGY

These are a few of the activities which you

Skyblock has that the Metaverse could not

can do among many others which you can do

replicate as well as Skyblock:

with friends, guild members and community members who you may come across. This

EVENTS, HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

brings to our second point:

OF HYPIXEL SKYBLOCK. Hypixel Skyblock, believe it or not, has

THE SOCIAL ASPECT

an arguably more functional government

Assuming you have seen the Metaverse

than we have, with new mayors being

trailers, society and interactions with other

democratically elected every week or

people is a key focus. There are a two main

so. Each mayor has a different perk and

reasons for this, the first being that it would

introduces events such as a fishing festival,

be more realistic with real life, and secondly

a mining fiesta, a spooky festival, a treasure

so that it is more enjoyable. Hypixel Skyblock integrates community and teamwork in many places meaning that you can have fun with your friends, talking, interacting and working together towards a common goal. It may not be in VR and other people are block characters, but it does not affect the social aspect of it and nor does it mean that the ability to customise does not exist. CUSTOMISING

The Government Building and

It is already a Minecraft feature to be able

current elected mayor

to change your character’s skin to whatever you want but there are also many of unique

hunting event and much more. There have

clothing items in Hypixel Skyblock, each with

also been mayors who have been elected

their own perk and look. On top of this you

who have other plans....

can use your own shaders and texture packs to make the game appear less “blocky”, more

In the year 128, Dante was elected: he

realistic and more to your liking. Most of the

was the leader of his dictatorship where

pictures shown in this piece use a shader to

he and his goons wanted to change

appeal to our personal preferences.

Hypixel Skyblock together. Instead of introducing a festival, he cancelled all the

Up to now we have only talked about what

existing festivals and added harsh taxes

Hypixel Skyblock has in common with Meta,

on all players. This eventually brought the

but Skyblock is potentially so much more

Skyblock community together to vote for a

than that. This brings us on to things that

revolution leader and declare war on Dante,

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TECHNOLOGY

who perished, along with half of the main

services that a player might not be able to

Skyblock hub, during the fight.

do themselves and selling items which you can obtain from mining, fishing, foraging,

Now think, could the Metaverse really

farming and fighting. Skyblock also has

replicate events which would bring the

slave labour in the form of minions (who

whole world together? This leads me on to

are NPCs) who work 24/7 on your island,

the shortcomings of the Metaverse and why

generating items for you; Skyblock also has

Facebook tried to bite off more than it could

its fair share of moral issues, relating it to

chew. Firstly, the idea of it being available

real life that much more.

for everyone: Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp alone have over 6 billion active users (note: not every user is 1 person, a person may have more than 1 profile across the platforms). There are more questions than answers of how this would be achieved but not only that, but there is also of the question of how it will all be run. The go-to answer would probably be more surveillance and control of the Metaverse which is not necessarily good. Before, Facebook could

The Bazaar

only monitor our activity on their apps but now, they have gone a step further and put

The Bazaar is a very complex key part of

entire online identities and activity in their

Hypixel Skyblock. The way the Bazaar

grasp. Following the many exploitations of

works is that for most items there are

data from Facebook alone, surely people

two sections: instantaneous trading and

would think twice about their privacy before

orders. The way this works is that for both

diving into the Metaverse.

sections you can buy or sell, and in essence by buying instantly, you are buying from

130

THE ECONOMY

people with selling offers. This means that if

Money, like real life, is the central point of

you are impatient and need an item straight

Skyblock. With money you can buy from,

away, you can pay a bit extra and buy from

and trade with other players, NPC sellers,

someone else who has a buy order. This

the Bazaar and the Auction House in order

works vice-versa for instantly selling: if

to progress in the game, become stronger

you are impatient and want some money

or make even more money by reselling for

instantly by selling items, you sell for a

profit. As money is such a central feature of

cheaper price to someone who has a buy

Skyblock, all players are constantly trying

order. This way patient people can flip the

to find the best money-making method.

buying and selling order margins for some

The main ways of making money are buying

money. There is also competition for orders:

for cheap to selling for more; offering

if you want your buy order to fill, you will

TECHNOLOGY

buy items for slightly more than the highest,

announced, a lot more information is yet

so others instantly sell their items to you;

to come. Skyblock is by no means perfect

and if you want your sell orders to fill, you

and probably will never be able to become

will sell items for slightly lower than the

as big as Facebook already is, but that does

highest, so people instantly buy items from

not mean it does not deserve to be. Forget

you.

the fact that it is a Minecraft game mode, and instead look at everything it is: a fully

The idea of supply and demand is extremely

functional economical society in the form

prevalent in Hypixel Skyblock, controlling

of a game. Hypixel Skyblock has potential

the economy. In Skyblock there are many

like no other game and could even develop

items, with many in high demand for their

into something even more like the promised

abilities and perks, but normally their

Metaverse, its only downfall is its lack of

supply is much smaller than the demand,

publicity and instant rejection by some

causing the price to increase, and as such,

people due to it being a game.

decrease for items that are no longer useful. The change to an item’s role, status and

Can Hypixel Skyblock ever become as

value can come in many ways, the main

popular as Facebook and eventually Meta?

ones being the content creator’s opinion

Unlikely. However, this does not change

(normally reflected by the community) and

the fact that it has key features and ideas

updates released in the game. Now if you

that are also present in the Metaverse,

imagine content creators are celebrities in

such as activities and society, while also

real life, the admins and developers are the

having a few more complex better aspects,

government and companies, and items in

such as the economy and government.

Skyblock are products in real life and the

In conclusion Hypixel Skyblock is a game

similarities become clear.

which has mechanics and features that are similar to, or even better than the Metaverse

At first this may seem pointless: it is just a

equivalents and should not be shunned so

game afterall, but there is so much more to

easily as it could easily be considered the

it. With further inspection the similarities to

start of the Metaverse because of this.

the real-life economy, even the stock market and other aspects are especially prevalent, maybe even more complex. CONCLUSION Surprisingly Hypixel Skyblock is still in development and has not been officially released yet even though it has been existing for more than 2 years now, so who knows what they have in store. Similarly, with the Metaverse recently being

131

TECHNOLOGY

Innovation In SelfDriving Cars: How Close Are We To A Driverless Future?

Artyom Boyarov | 3JER

Self-driving cars have recently become one

the General Motors-sponsored Futurama

of the most significant areas of robotics and

model proposed a vision of a world within

computing. A fast-paced and safety-critical

twenty years, featuring automated and

field binding mechanics, algorithms and

seamlessly connected motorways. In the

engineering disciplines is beginning to show

1950s development began on a connected

a glimpse of what the future may hold for us

and automated highway network, utilising

and is a symbol of modern innovation. Such

magnets to keep cars travelling straight.

cars have been developed since the late

Those visions and desires for driverless cars

20th century, but only now are beginning

have not changed significantly.

to provide a useful level of automation. Research in self-driving cars is abundant and

However, it took 50 years to materialise

growing, and so automation at a larger scale

the concepts presented in the early 20th

will be possible in the near future, possibly

century. Automating cars is an incredibly

accounting for up to 50% of all road travel

difficult task, compared to trains which

by 2045. However, for such automation to

do not steer, or planes which have a

be practical, collateral organisations such

predetermined trajectory. Cars have to

as highway agencies must agree on codes

overcome the possibility of children and pets

unifying the behaviour of cars, as well as

running into the road, as well as bicycles and

creating infrastructure capable of processing

other non-vehicle traffic. The unpredictable

the vast amounts of data coming from

weather also causes difficulties to arise for

vehicles and sharing it between them.

perception. General Motors initially planned for the driver to drive on to a motorway, sit

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The idea of a car driving itself first

back, and let the car take control – this was

manifested itself in Leonardo da Vinci’s pre-

a much simpler task to achieve in theory,

programmed self-propelling clockwork cart

but would require large investment in new

in 1478, which made clever use of cams and

infrastructure. In the 1960s as research

leaf springs to allow someone to programme

in artificial intelligence began to grow,

the cart’s direction and let the cart run.

researchers began to apply their knowledge

Even to this day, experts are puzzled over

to autonomous vehicles, and along with

the mechanics of this cart. The world’s first

the rise of the computer were able to write

autopilot appeared ten years after the first

algorithms to recognise, process and react

plane, and gyroscopes were used to keep

to the surroundings. Ernst Dickmanns, in

the German V2 rocket on course to London

1980, was able to automate a Mercedes van,

and France. Images of driverless cars began

which was able to drive many miles by itself.

to appear in science fiction in the early 20th

The turning point for modern autonomous

century. At the 1939 World Fair in New York,

vehicle technology were undoubtedly the

TECHNOLOGY

DARPA challenges. These challenges were

to the central control and an autonomous

organised by the US Defense Advanced

vehicle protection system. The world

Research Projects Agency with the hope of

quickly responded to the appearance and

providing driverless vehicles in the military

opportunities of self-driving cars: in 2011,

by 2015 and put to light what self-driving

Nevada authorised their deployment,

cars would look like in many environments.

followed by California and Florida in 2012.

In the first challenge in 2004, none of the

Audi and Toyota revealed autonomous

vehicles finished the 150-mile desert route,

vehicle research departments in 2013, and

with only two making it to 11.78 km. The

Tesla Motors released a first version of their

second grand challenge a year later had five

autopilot in 2014, which by 2015 was able

vehicles finish the same course. The third

to park a car. Tesla recently announced their

challenge introduced an urban environment

new fully camera-based driving system,

to the cars, with them completing a 60-mile

which can be purchased for £6,800 on their

course involving ‘navigation on roads with

new Model Y.

other traffic, operation at intersections with precedence rules and parking in parking

Although self-driving vehicles have

lots.’ (2). Sebastian Thrun, the team leader

progressed at a steady pace for the last

of the Stanley vehicle, which won the urban

few decades, systems are still far from

challenge, founded Google’s self-driving car

complete. In 2015 SAE introduced a set

project, which to this day has tested vehicles

of standards for autonomous driving, with

in Phoenix, Arizona and has become a leader

level 0 describing no automation, humans

in self-driving car technology. Aside from

handling exceptional tasks in level 3, and full

Google, other manufacturers began to see the

unrestricted automation in level 5. Currently,

possibilities of a driverless world and began

no vehicle is at level 3, with only Mercedes

their own research and development projects.

announcing a level 3 s-series vehicle in 2021. However, technologies used within

One of the first examples of a commercial

a self-driving car have developed well – a

autonomous vehicle deployment is Heathrow

LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) sensor,

airport’s ULTra (Urban Light Transit), known

which enables highly accurate localisation,

as Heathrow Pods, which shuttle passengers

originally cost Google $70 000 in 2010, but

between the fifth terminal and the business

a production-level sensor can now be bought

car park. These vehicles are fully automated,

for $250, and one suitable for hobby use for

with the whole system consisting of three

$100. As seen with the images on the right,

control levels: a central control system,

computer technology and miniaturisation

to manage allocating vehicles and paths;

have gone hand-in-hand to decrease the size

an autonomous vehicle control, to listen

of computers in autonomous vehicles. Tesla

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TECHNOLOGY

motors’ self-driving software can be freely

to account for rain, fog or glare from the sun.

installed on its existing on-board computer,

For vehicles on hilly terrains, sensors need

and its new camera-based software runs

to be able to view an environment through

entirely on one computer, with much smaller

a larger field of view than on a flat plane.

cameras than the ones which made an

These difficulties are usually mitigated by

appearance in the DARPA challenges.

including multiples of each sensor, which are complemented by advanced technologies

Despite technological advancements, getting

such as GPS localisation. Sense perception

self-driving cars to greater automation

through a camera as well as a distance sensor

is still a mammoth task. As said earlier,

can be used to detect grass or asphalt,

planes have a much simpler environment

improving the vehicle’s understanding of its

to travel in, whereas cars need to be able

environment. Furthermore, vehicles have

to react to situations completely out of the

maps readily available for them, requiring

drivers’ control and to be able to recognise

them to only need an internet connection to

them and take appropriate action, as well

be updated, aiding localisation. During the

as being resistant to adverse weather and

DARPA grand challenges, vehicles were given

infrastructure conditions. Google’s cars are

a ‘Road Network Definition File’ to describe

currently only deployed in Phoenix in Arizona

the road, which included GPS coordinates

because of the forgiving weather. Although

of intersections and turns. However, simply

the hardware and sensors in a robot are

adding more sensors and improving their

better than human senses (cameras can see

reliability will massively increase a car’s cost,

perfectly and can process more images per

and so the panacea would be to have fewer

second than a human), the sensing algorithms

sensors do more, which is precisely what Tesla

which are used to influence the next action

have done with their camera-only autopilot.

are incredibly hard to develop and are

134

not always perfect. In the 2011 Solutions

As in many areas of technology, dependability

in Perception Challenge, no competitor

or reliability is fundamental to the successful

achieved the 80% goal of identifying objects

deployment of self-driving cars. Vehicles

that would be found in supermarket shelves.

need to be able to recognise a failure and

Perception algorithms require a lot of

then perform a suitable action to mitigate

processing power, normally undertaken on

it. This may involve moving onto the hard

a graphics processing unit (GPU) to provide

shoulder on a motorway: in which case the

greater performance – however, a suitable

car needs to be able to drive even if its

GPU can cost over £1000. Furthermore, most

driving system fails. If the car cannot drive,

algorithms are unable to work in different

it needs to recognise this, and then send out

weather conditions, and have to be trained

a warning to other cars to avoid crashes.

TECHNOLOGY

SOFTWARE OBSOLESCENCE WILL PROBABLY BE The driver would then have to take control – however, this raises issues regarding driver attention, such as whether or not the driver is permitted to entertain themselves or relax while the car is driving or whether they must always be alert and ready to take control. Furthermore, an issue prevails of how a car deals with software upgrades. New software needs to be backward-compatible with older sensor systems and cars, not to mention being able to be deployed on many different models of vehicle. Software obsolescence will probably be influenced by car obsolescence

INFLUENCED BY CAR OBSOLESCENCE – IF A CAR LASTS FOR TEN YEARS, THE SOFTWARE MUST SUPPORT IT FOR TEN YEARS.

– if a car lasts for ten years, the software must support it for ten years. This raises

running the same program on multiple cores

questions over how the business model

repeatedly, to see how they resist wear and

should be structured for autonomous vehicle

security liabilities.

companies – should manufacturers continue to research and develop independently, or

A large part of dependability constitutes

begin to collaborate and allow companies

reliable perception – in order to mitigate

which specialise in perception or motion to

these issues, and to relay information about

write part of their software. Another question

blockages in the event of a crash, a possible

of dependability is ensuring technology and

solution is to have cars and the environment

products have a long life cycle. In such a

‘talk’ to each other. Communication

complex system as a fully connected car, the

technologies can be constructed to take

temperature inside the computer system can

advantage of one car’s perception of the

reach up to one hundred degrees celsius.

environment, so that if that car turns off a

Microchips and materials need to be able

motorway, the car behind it can be given

to withstand conditions as harsh as these,

the data the previous car has collected.

and to run for many hours or days at a time.

This can also be used to coordinate turns at

Signals and sensors need to undoubtedly

intersections and slip roads. Communication

withstand the outdoor environment, as

systems include V2I (vehicle to infrastructure)

well as being resistant to security attacks.

and V2V (vehicle to vehicle), which can be

Network systems and communications

used to relay information from a vehicle to

need to be well secured against tampering.

its environment. Approaches such as these

Modern chips are now tested for reliability by

have received massive attention from federal

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TECHNOLOGY

organisations, such as the United States

states that ‘Volvo’s CEO has likely proposed

Department for Transportation’s Intelligent

the best solution for the short-term’, however

Transportation Systems Joint Program

this leads on to the next issue – interstate

Office, which produces research as well as

regulation and law regarding not only who is

publishes standards for automated transport

responsible, but whether a driverless car is

systems. A key aspect of the research is to

legal. New York’s legislation requires a hand

develop advanced Dedicated Short-Range

to be on the steering wheel of a car at all

Communication (DSRC) standards and

times – therefore a driverless car appears

systems, which can accommodate safety-

illegal in New York. However, multiple states

critical situations where communication

in the US have legalised self-driving cars to

needs to be instantaneous, as well as having

some degree, and in the UK driverless cars

a low error rate and being prone to attacks.

will be allowed on roads by the end of the

Aside from technological infrastructure,

year . In California, the question of privacy is

public transport organisations must improve

also addressed, with manufacturers required

road quality – in the US, only 41% of roads

to give information over data they collect

are considered good to drive on. Today’s

to the end user. If self-driving cars are to

roads suffer erosion and do not cope well

become a reality, this tempo needs to sustain

under extreme weather conditions – which

itself throughout the world, to ensure that

will arguably only worsen with the threat of

cars are safe, and to ensure that building and

climate change. Constructing and improving

extending infrastructure so that self-driving

infrastructure will definitely be required

cars have a safer environment to operate in

to see self-driving cars materialise. Such a

is carried out. Furthermore, the legal aspects

task is definitely immense and is possibly as

of driverless cars extend socially: driverless

difficult as making the cars themselves.

cars may promote laziness, and they risk exacerbating world inequality. If driverless

Another challenge with materialising self-

cars need to extend their positive impacts,

driving cars is a legal one. The main issue

only deploying them in the developed world

is over who is responsible for an accident

will worsen the global digital divide.

involving a self-driving car. An incorrect

136

decision in software or inaccurate perception

However, these technologies risk being

could lead to an accident – however, should

undermined if manufacturing is stalled. As a

the human ‘driver’ or the manufacturer be

result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the world

penalised? The CEO of Volvo has stated that

has experienced a chip shortage, which has

the company itself will take responsibility

had massive impacts on car manufacturing.

for such an accident, whereas Tesla gives the

Volkswagen has built 100,000 fewer cars

responsibility to the driver. Jessica S. Brodsky

than expected in 2021, and production

TECHNOLOGY

of many cars had been put on hold due

algorithms will have to be adjusted and

to the closure of factories. Stellantis, the

developed for more erratic and extreme

owner of Fiat, Chrysler, Peugeot, Citroen

weather conditions.

and Vauxhall, had to partially close 8 of its 44 factories, and built 190,000 fewer cars

Nevertheless, the self-driving car is becoming

than expected in the first quarter of 2021.

closer to fruition each year. Technological

Undoubtedly, self-driving cars require larger

progression and research are advancing,

on-board computers. In the DARPA grand

and more and more manufacturers are

challenges, cars had not only one computer,

announcing cars with higher levels of

but multiple, with around 30 to 40 processors

automation. A first prototype of a car with

in total. Parallelism is vital for autonomous

an unlimited operational domain is not far

vehicles – on-board control needs to

from us. However, self-driving cars will be

incorporate localisation, spatial awareness

incredibly expensive. This will be exacerbated

and mapping software simultaneously. Each

by supply chain delays, and the car will be

task incorporates large data processing, and

limited in its capabilities as it will be delayed

for autonomous vehicles to be able to figure

by new legislation over its use and release

out a trajectory quickly as well as being

to the general public. Furthermore, it seems

able to respond to sudden changes in the

unlikely that local governments will engage in

environment is key. If chip shortages mean

building infrastructure and then formulating

fewer conventional cars can be produced,

specifications for manufacturers to adhere

it undoubtedly means that production of

to, delaying the release of a truly self-driving

self-driving cars will be heavily stalled.

car further, and technologies risk being

Furthermore, tariffs imposed due to tensions

undermined by worsening weather conditions

in trade have meant that many electronic

and the changing environment. When a truly

components produced in China will be more

self-driving car comes, it will probably take

expensive to import. Another short-term

just as long to integrate it into the world as it

factor that will hinder the development of

took to develop it.

self-driving vehicles will be the worsening weather conditions around the globe. Climate

References

change will make floods and storms more

Autonomous driving in urban environments: approaches, lessons and challenges: Mark Campbell, Magnus Egerstedt, Jonathan P. How and Richard M. Murray

likely, and so key infrastructure will have to be robust and risks being ruined or broken. A self-driving car will have additional electronic components mounted on it, normally on the roof, increasing the cost of damage. Furthermore, perception and recognition

Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , 13 October 2010, Vol. 368, No. 1928, Traffic jams: dynamics and control (13 October 2010), pp. 4649-4672 Autonomous Car Regulation in the Smart Transportation Infrastructure: Doina Popescu Ljungholm Geopolitics, History, and International Relations , Vol. 11, No. 2 (2019), pp. 7-12 Autonomous Vehicle Regulation How an Uncertain Legal Landscape May Hit the Brakes On Self-Driving Cars: Jessica S. Brodsky

137

MODERN LIFE

Why are video games so addictive?

Thomas Chapman | L1FMO

Nowadays every single person is staring at that

it could be profoundly serious and lead to

blue light that comes from our ever smaller and

loneliness. A minor problem may be that you

smaller screens – phones. We can find apps

are lonely, but do not let this trick you into

for texting, calling, and gaming on them (like

thinking that playing video games will be a

the iconic Candy Crush or clicker games in the

cure for this, for it is just going to make it

millions), along with Snapchat and YouTube

worse and worse and worse until it is almost

with adverts popping up everywhere we look

impossible to stop.

on these devices. What is it about them and their colorful, happy, brightness that makes us

HOW TO STOP THE ADDICTION.

so keen to play with them and what can we do

If you already have signs of this addiction and

to stop them becoming so addicted that they

want to know how to quit, here are some tips:

take over our lives?

˃ Tip 1 – limit your time playing, for example stick to just 4 hours per day and if that

HOW ADDICTIVE GAMES STARTED

works work your way down to no time

BEING PRODUCED?

playing, and you are cured.

Crush Saga coming out on the 12 April 2012. It was the first truly addictive mobile phone

near any electronic devices, this will help you sleep, and you will not use your phone as much.

game and after that the gaming world was

˃ Tip 2 – do not sleep near your phone or

It all started with the famous game Candy

swept by a wave of games filled with in-app

˃ Tip 3 – turn off notifications. This is one of the best ways to stop using your phone so

alone, with more of the atrocities being made

much as most of your phone time is reading

every week. Soon, the world rarely put down

and clicking notifications.

purchases as well as costs for the game

those devices and it became an addiction

˃ Tip 4 - if none of these works then see a therapist, they are specially trained to help

involved if they had a phone. Since then, we

you stop this and break the habit.

on a large scale, because anyone could get have had many more games produced and

HOW TO PREVENT GETTING ADDICTED

however, there have been few ways out of

TO VIDEO GAMES.

this addiction found to work successfully.

The best way to prevent it is to start using

many more people lured into the problem,

your phone all the time as that may be a tell-

bad for you, the main reason being that it

tale of things to come.

prevent it is to make sure that you do not use

There are a few reasons the addiction is so

life you forget to do many things like family

start noticing the signs. Another way to help

WHY IS THE ADDICTION BAD FOR YOU?

means you get so distracted from everyday

138

the tips to stop addiction as soon as you

events or brushing your teeth, but eventually

MODERN LIFE

The Innovation of Sport

Matthew Reid | L1FMO Jack Reid | 1MRR

INTRODUCTION

competitions, such as the Champion’s

Over the years, sport has developed and

League, and since 1991, there has been

shaped many places, people, and things.

a World cup every four years. People and

Sport has entertained the world since its

clubs have started to invest lots of money

inception, which was first played around

in the sport, with Chelsea buying Pernille

15,000 years ago. Sport has since developed

Harder for a transfer fee in excess of

into a career, and in some cases returns

£250,000. However, money in women’s

ridiculous amounts of money. Cultures

football is still dwarfed compared to its male

are now shaped around sport. Take India

counterpart, with clubs spending around

for example, cricket is not just a sport, it

100 to 200 million pounds for big players.

is a way of living. Sport is an imperative

Men’s football is a game full of money and

part of our world and the people on it, it

has massive followings across the globe.

has had massive impacts and will continue

Furthermore, you see lots more boys in

to do so. However, sport is developing.

youth football and academies. However, is

The modernised world we now live in has

men’s football just more popular because

changed sports as we know them, and in

it has been around for longer, or is there

the future sport will continue to change

another reason?

in possibly unimaginable ways. So, the big question is, is this a good or a bad thing?

SUPER LEAGUE The Super League was a league which was

WOMEN’S SPORT

an idea that twelve clubs who were going

If you think back to only a few decades

to be in it came up with, but very soon after

ago, then the idea of professional women’s

its conception, it was disbanded. It was first

sport was largely unthought of. It was only

heard of on April 18th, 2021, but almost

until the first few years in the 19th century

immediately received backlash from fans

before women started playing sport. Despite

and the media. Although the clubs insisted

that, at the end of the 19th century women

that they would not leave their domestic

were only playing a very small number of

leagues, many fans and sections of the

sports. Although, it was not until the past

media suggested they would. Many football

half century that women’s sport has truly

fans hated the idea of the Super League

been recognised globally. It has not just

because they thought all of these clubs were

been playing sport that has been on the up

just in it for the money and did not consider

recently for women, there are more women

the fans and the people who love the game.

referees and officials than there have ever

The twelve founding clubs were: Arsenal,

been before.

Man United, Man City, Tottenham, Chelsea, Liverpool, Juventus, Inter Millan, AC Millan,

A perfect example of women’s involvement

Real Madrid, Atletico Madrid and Barcelona.

in sport is in football. The Women’s Super

The Super League lasted for only 72 hours.

League (WSL) is an important football

At the end of these 3 days of controversy

league, and in recent years, we have seen

in football, all of the Premier League teams

the first female referees to officiate across

had withdrawn and apologised to their

many leagues. There are now European

fans, and there were only 3 clubs still

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remaining. These clubs were Real Madrid,

Who is a bigger icon in sport, Tom Brady or

Barcelona and Juventus. However, they

Michael Jordan? The NFL is not the only well-

were threatened to be removed from UEFA

known sport in America, in fact, some people

competitions. The Super League was a

may argue that basketball is bigger than the

way of modernising football and moving

NFL. Basketball was first played in 1892,

away from a monopolised industry. It was

making it significantly older than American

an innovation that made football more

football. It has also produced its fair share of

interesting, the 12 clubs thought. These

international icons such as Michael Jordan,

12 clubs are constantly at the top of their

Lebron James, Kobe Bryant, Shaquille O’Neal

leagues and decided they wanted a new

and Stephen Curry. Basketball is a sport

challenge. However, this new innovation did

that has not changed much. Obviously, new

not last long, just a mere 72 hours. It made

technology is being added to the sport and it

people realise that sport is still traditional

is now played internationally, such as at the

and needs to be connected to its roots.

Olympics. However, overall, basketball has

The clubs had the opportunity to join a big

stayed the same.

money league with lots of incredible teams, but instead the fans wanted to continue

CONCLUSION

playing in their current competitions.

In conclusion, there have been so many sports that have either been created or

AMERICAN SPORT

changed over the past century. The 20th

When you think of American sport, the first

century in particular was a momentous

thing that comes to mind is usually the NFL.

century in terms of sport innovations and

The NFL stands for National Football League

changes. Sport is such an integral part of

and is one of the most celebrated sports

daily life across the world, it is inevitable

in American history. It is loved by fans all

that new innovations will come and change

over the country, each one supporting their

the way we experience them. However, are

own team. The NFL was first invented on

these innovations always forces of good?

the 17th of September 1920, in Canton, Ohio. If you do the math’s that is almost exactly a century ago which is not that long ago. In total, there are 32 teams in the league, which is huge compared to the Premier League (which has 20 teams). Every year, the biggest teams compete the win the Superbowl. Unlike European football leagues, the NFL’s league system is based on regional winners qualifying to play against each other, culminating in the Superbowl.

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MODERN LIFE

Solving Hurricane Damage Problems

Iredia Omokaro | 1KBB

INTRODUCTION

The images show that we need to act now

In this innovation project I shall be

to find a way for humans to live safely when

discussing problems with hurricanes and

in the midst of hurricanes. If not, we will

how to potentially solve their damage on

experience extreme hurricane threats for

homes based on financial input. But first

decades, especially as statistics show that

what is innovation?

as a result of climate change, hurricanes are becoming more and more frequent.

My definition of Innovation is finding solutions to problems using creativity,

HYPOTHESIS

research, and critical thinking. Innovation is

Can you imagine your house ending up like

linked to this topic as it gives suggestions as

the two previous images? Imagine all the

to how governments could spend money on

time, effort, and money it took you make

stronger houses able to resist hurricanes as

your house look how you wanted, and then

a solution to their major impact on people’s

just like that, you have to start from scratch!

lives. After Hurricane Ida hit, a whopping 95 WHAT IS A HURRICANE & WHAT

billion dollars was paid out for repairs. In

ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEM

the future, if better preparations are made

OCCURRING?

to protect communities from hurricane

A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that rapidly

damage, less emergency money will have to

rotates after a lot of heat forms to warm the

be spent, and fewer people’s lives will be

oceans. The consequences of it are heavy

negatively impacted by hurricanes.

rain, high winds and storm surges leading to mass destruction.

WAYS TO “HURRICANE-PROOF” YOUR HOUSE I have narrowed possible solutions to hurricane destruction to 3 factors: location, material science, and temporary additional living.

In both of pictures above, you can see that

Location

a hurricane has occurred. The picture on the

Within hurricane danger zones, the location

left is the world's first recorded hurricane,

of a property can pose extra problems. An

which was recorded on the 3rd of January

example of a location problem could be a

1938 after being reanalysed by weather

house on low land surrounded by lots of

systems. The picture on the right shows the

trees. In the event of a hurricane, these

most recent hurricane, Hurricane Ida, which

trees could fall on the house, destroying

hit in Port Fourchon, Louisiana on the 26th

everything within. This situation would

of August 2021 and subsided fully on the

lead to a serious loss of riches and also a

4th of September 2021.

necessity for a temporary place to live. An

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example of a positive location to combat this

Temporary additional living

situation could be living higher up on a hill.

The final factor in protecting people from

If the house's location is high up, when the

hurricane damage is temporary living spaces.

hurricane rises, the hurricane winds would

In the hypothetical scenario that someone

go downwards (as gravity pulls it down

does not want to live in a safe metal house

making it go down an easier route). In this

and prefers living in a brick house, a way

scenario, the hurricane would not affect the

they could protect themselves is by having

people in the house on the hill as much as

an underground metal living space a few

the house on low land surrounded by trees.

metres away. The positive of this is that when the news and weather channels show

Material science

hurricanes are coming their way, the people

If governments do not want their citizens’

could move into the metal living space and

houses to be destroyed by a hurricane, they

be safe whilst the hurricane shatters their

should spend money on research on how to

brick house. Another positive is that they

make houses stronger to resist the threat of

still have a place to live even if their brick

hurricanes. A possible solution could be to

house is ravaged by a hurricane.

have houses made of a metal-like material. This could be a positive solution as metal

CONCLUSION

homes are better equipped than brick

After this innovation project, I hope readers

houses to withstand hurricanes. However, a

are aware of hurricane damage and are

negative of this building material is that it is

encouraged to make prudent changes to

not aesthetically pleasing.

their living arrangements. Also, I hope they spread the word about how hurricanes

While there are not many aesthetically

affect us and hopefully governments and

pleasant metal houses in hurricane prone

world leaders can address this and take

areas due to the threat of rust, more

action by finding a more comfortable way of

research could be made into aesthetically

us living without being overly threatened by

pleasing metal building materials that can

hurricanes.

withstand hurricanes (and rust). Studies also show that metal houses are likely to be the future as they only take weeks to build, they are clean for the environment, they are durable, and stay standing after drastic weather events like hurricanes.

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Save The Seas

Isiah Adeyeye | 1WRJ

We need to save the seas, Or all the sea life will die. We need to work together like bees, That you can’t deny

Recycle, don’t put it in the bin, The oceans will suffer. It might be a sin, Saving the world will be tougher.

This climate change stuff, Cleaning one beach is helpful, But it isn’t enough. Turtles are dying. It's awful.

We need to stop ruining the planet with unrecycled plastic, And I'm not being sarcastic.

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MODERN LIFE

Climate Change: How Is This Being Stopped and How Can We Create Better Ways To Deal With It?

George Bennett | 1NPP

INTRODUCTION

lost every year: approximately the same size

While you might not think that climate

as Belgium.

change is “innovative”, how we have changed the world, and what we are doing

In order to tackle the climate change crisis,

to influence it – good or bad – is certainly

we need to start having new ideas about

creative. This piece will explore the mystery

deforestation. While we should always

of climate change and try to understand

recycle everything that is recyclable, we

how determined we need to be to tackle it

should also start finding alternatives to

properly.

paper. Furthermore, we could also put a limit on how many trees we fell per year –

DEFORESTATION

without replacing them – to a decreasingly

Deforestation is used for human purposes

low number so we can gradually stop cutting

such as obtaining land for farming, mining,

down trees once and for all.

or urban use, as well as obtaining paper from the trees’ wood, and timber for

WILDFIRES

construction. It has a devastating effect on

Similar to deforestation, wildfires have a

the loss of habitats and reduction of oxygen

devastating effect on habitats while also

levels. These impacts become even more

contributing to deforestation. Nearly 85%

notable when you consider that 80% of the

of the wildfires in the USA start due to

animal and plant population live in forests,

human action such as bonfires. However,

and when you note that deforestation

sometimes they occur naturally when the

directly impacts the survival of orangutans,

temperature is too hot and sets the dry

Sumatran tigers, and numerous species of

wood ablaze. In these cases, it can be

birds.

argued that the wildfires have been caused as a result of the increase in temperature

Around the world, 1.6 billion people rely on

due to global warming.

forests for their livelihoods. Interestingly,

144

three regions: Europe, the USA and Japan

Australia, which has been in the news a lot

use 70% of the world’s paper and half of

due to the phenomenon, has always been

its timber. In 2019, statistics demonstrated

renown for wildfires as the temperatures

that deforestation reached a point where 30

have always been excruciatingly hot.

football pitches of trees are cut down every

However, due to global warming, other

minute. This is the equivalent of an area of

countries are also experiencing wildfires

1 football pitch of trees being destroyed

with a lot more frequency. This year, Turkey

every 2 seconds. Shown on satellite data,

has had some of its worst wildfires, with

8.3 million acres of global tropical forests is

official data stating that 8 people died in

MODERN LIFE

wildfires between the 28th of July and the

melting glaciers and ice caps is causing

19th of August. However, unbelievably, the

habitats to become lost. An example of an

worst wildfire, the Miramichi Fire, happened

area greatly affected by this is the Arctic. As

in Canada 196 years ago, burning 3 million

a consequence, many of its inhabitants such

acres and killing over 160 people.

as, the arctic fox, the Narwhal, the Beluga, and the polar bear could go extinct.

Wildfires have similarities with deforestation, but they occur for different

To highlight how much of an issue this is,

reasons. Some of them cannot be helped,

if all of Greenland's ice melted, it would

but as shown by data that in the United

elevate global sea levels by a massive 20

States 85% of wildfires start because of

feet (around 4 Year 7 pupils stacked on top

humans, the phenomenon is largely our

of each other). We lose about 13% of the

fault. As such, in order to tackle wildfires,

arctic sea ice per decade and over the past

we should be more careful with controlling

30 years 95% of the Arctics thickest ice has

flames, such as bonfires.

disappeared. This shows that the problem is becoming alarmingly worse. We need to act

MELTING ICE CAPS AND GLACIERS

now and stop global warming as it is a threat

Like many environmental problems,

to human and animal survival.

this phenomenon is caused by global warming, but as you might know, scientists

INTENSIVE FARMING

reclassified its cause to climate change as

There are advantages and disadvantages

we realised it is not just caused as a result

to intensive farming, however, the

of the temperature rising, but also other

disadvantages outweigh the advantages. The

catastrophic meteorological events such as

main, and perhaps only, advantage is that

storms and hurricanes.

there is more food to eat so fewer people go hungry. However, there are numerous

The first reason we need it to stop is that

disadvantages to intensive farming. Firstly,

rising sea-levels has devastating effects

it causes negative effects on the land and

on human life. The melting of ice caps

eco-systems with deforestation as farmers

and glaciers could cause flooding in many

use the land to grow the crops. Secondly,

places, and in fact, in recent years flooding

it often uses non-natural resources such

has become worse as a result of this

as chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and

phenomenon. Melting glaciers also increases

insecticides. All of these are harmful to

coastal erosion and elevates storm surges

the soil, and do not allow the food to grow

as warm temperatures increase the chance

naturally. Thirdly, the overcrowding of

of hurricanes and typhoons. Secondly, the

livestock can lead to diseases, pollution, and

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EVIDENCE IT IS ESTIMATED THAT FARMERS WILL HAVE TO GROW 70% MORE FOOD BY 2050 TO MEET THE DEMANDS OF THE INCREASING POPULATION. infection. An example of this is the negative

intensive farming become less of an issue

impact that the methane gas that cattle emit

for the environment.

has on the environment. This is an on-going problem that will likely If we were to look the impacts of intensive

worsen if we do not act now, but there

farming further, we could argue that in

is a way to stop this. We could petition

producing all of this food, we have created

governments across the world to create

a culture of overeating. This culture has a

legislation to help meet the demands of

knock-on effect with obesity, which leads

population growth, or even stop it. We could

to other health problems that our medics

also do more at home by shopping locally

deal with. Moreover, the intensive farming

from sustainable sources or growing our

culture has led to a culture of wasting

own crops where possible.

food. If we moved away from intensive farming, our collective mindset might shift,

MINING

and we might have a better balance in our

Mining is the extraction of valuable things

food consumption so fewer animals are

out of the Earth. Some examples of what

unnecessarily slaughtered.

we mine for are, oil, coal, gold, iron ore. There are four different types of mining:

The issue of food production remains

underground, open surface (pit), placer and

prevalent due to the increasing world

in-situ mining. All these types of mining are

population. It is estimated that farmers

bad for the environment in different ways.

will have to grow 70% more food by 2050

Most of them involve heavy machinery and

to meet the demands of the increasing

sometimes the reward is digging up fossil

population. It is therefore of vital

fuels, or even the metals that make up the

importance that we have more sustainable

components of our technology.

farming practices so that the effects of

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Although we have been mining for millennia,

Non-sustainable energy is the opposite to

modern mining practices can lead to

renewable energy, it is damaging to the

deforestation (in open surface mining) and

environment as it uses, coal, oil, and fuels

the poisoning of the land and water if mining

such as diesel and petrol. All of these emit

practices are not properly regulated. While

fumes, which pollute the environment and

it is hard to argue that we are ready to fully

contribute to climate change. Notably, we

move away from fossil fuels, more needs to

also have to mine for these resources, which

be done at a government and international

leads to other environmental issues.

level to change how we mine. Furthermore, there should be more incentives for

In order to combat the impact of power

scientists to come up with solutions that

generation on climate change, we should

reduce our reliance on mining.

invest more money in renewable energy infrastructure so that it is easier to generate

POWER

renewable energy.

There are many different types of power generation. Renewable or sustainable energy

MY SOLUTIONS TO TACKING CLIMATE

such as, wind, solar, and hydro power, are

CHANGE

largely good for the environment. These are

While there are many potential solutions

all elements that do not emit fumes and you

to tackling climate change, based on what

do not have to mine for them to generate

I have explored in this piece, I recommend

power. They are also naturally replenished

that governments around the world create

on a human timescale, so they never run out.

legislation that ensure businesses respect the environment. Moreover, while we can

According to data, solar power could

all do more through being more informed

become the world's top power source by

on good eco practices, governments around

2050. Moreover, wind energy has made so

the world should come up with ways to

much progress that 1 wind turbine could

incentivise their populations to act more

power up 1500 homes for one year. In

eco-friendly, while also investing in green

addition to being “clean” energy, renewable

infrastructure.

energy can help individuals save money as it is often cheaper than energy generated from fossil fuels.

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MODERN LIFE

Investigating the Fuel Crisis

Shiv Kansagra | 1MHT Hrishikesh Tumuluri | 1MHT

INTRODUCTION

More people queued up at petrol stations,

Have you ever wondered how life would be

resulting in petrol prices increase by almost

without fuel? What are the short- and long-

70%. Like the ‘domino effect’, the decrease

term effects? Would there be alternate ways

in supply of fuel combined with the increase

of living?

in fuel prices created a surge in the demand for other public and private transport

In September 2021, the country faced a

(buses, taxis, etc.). For example, there was

mass fuel shortage in a majority of petrol

an inflation in the use of taxis, who, by

stations. We will analyse this crisis by

increasing their fares, made a higher profit

exploring the reasons, effects, how the

during the crisis. This same idea applies to

country has responded, as well as innovative

many other consumption goods, such as

solutions that could help cope with events

grocery stores. Transporting food such as

like this in the future.

fresh produce became more expensive, and as a result the prices of the products also

WHAT WAS THE PROBLEM?

rose significantly .

In September 2021 there was a shortage of petrol, increasing at an alarming rate. This

WHAT WERE THE CAUSES?

began, initially, as a shortage in a few petrol

A key reason for the shortage was a lack of

stations but then people all over the country

over 100,000 HGV (Heavy Goods Vehicle)

started panic-buying trying to stock up on

drivers, some of whom had returned to

fuel. Thus, what started as a minor problem

Europe during COVID and others who had

due to shortage of fuel deliveries resulted

decided to retire early. Even before COVID

in many traffic jams and blockades outside

started we had a shortage of about 60,000

forecourts .

drivers! While Brexit has lost the UK many EU HGV drivers, a significant number of

WHAT DID THIS MEAN FOR THE PUBLIC

UK based HGV drivers retired to spend

AND ECONOMY?

time with family. Note that the average

The fuel shortage problem gradually started

age for this profession is 57 years of age.

to snowball. For example, people all over

COVID lockdowns worsened matters by

the nation were panic-buying and there

delaying the influx of new drivers, as well

were long queues and traffic jams on every

as a disruption in conducting the HGV

road with journeys to offices and schools

driving tests and issuance of licences to new

taking longer. The shortages also affected

drivers. In simple terms, the country needed

essential workers such as NHS staff, whose

more HGV drivers and in a very short turn-

attendance was critical in hospitals. Imagine

around time. It took over eight weeks to

the difficulty for students who take the

employ less than half of the required number

school bus, if there is no fuel to run the

of HGV drivers; if it is taking this long then

buses! There were also concerns about the

we would be dealing with this crisis for a

safety of petrol tankers, whose drivers were

long time .

unfairly abused by the public.

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HOW DID THE GOVERNMENT

SOLUTIONS

RESPOND?

We researched further looking for short-

The U.K. Government implemented drastic

term and long-term solutions to deal with

steps to ease the pressure in supply chains,

future fuel supply shortages. The short-

and to control the spikes in demand for

terms solutions to cope with crises like this

fuel. They invoked a protocol known as the

for the next one to two years, and long-term

Military Aid to the Civil Authorities (MACA),

effects to address the problem in near and

with an aim to serve the Nation during an

far future (five years later or more).

acute crisis by aiding the community using army personnel. The input of British tank

SHORT-TERM SOLUTIONS

drivers to transport the petrol across the

Demand

country helped stabilise the situation .

An important part of handling crises such as these is to control the demand for fuel.

The Business Secretary organised and

When the crisis began, the worst effect

created another protocol in the UK called

was not on the supply chains, but on the

the ‘Downstream Oil Protocol.’ This helped

demand. All across the country, people

the nation by transporting the petrol to the

were protesting. It could be described as

most important locations across the country.

a ‘run’ on the petrol stations. A way to

In addition, the Government increased

calm the demand for fuel would be to limit

the number of mass HGV driving tests

the disbursal amounts; to decrease the

and short-term EU working visas for HGV

maximum amount of petrol per car to 50%

drivers. They also started boot camps (very

less, therefore, slowing down and evening

intense training camps) to train about 3,000

the distribution of petrol. The Government

more HGV drivers.

could have also engaged in public information campaigns to stop people from

THE POSITIVE SIDE

‘panic buying’.

However, it was not all as gloomy as it sounds. People became more conscious of

People should also be encouraged to use

protecting the environment around them.

more public transport and organise car-

They invested in bikes and only walked up

pooling (multiple families sharing cars for

to the local stores for food, and as a result,

daily activities such as school drop-offs or

reduced their average carbon emissions.

commute to work).

One step closer to carbon net zero, as well as a positive contribution to the mitigation

Supply

of climate change. Suffering companies

The problem was not the supply of petrol,

(public and private) also started thinking

but the supply of drivers. Without trained

more deeply about how they could rely on

HGV drivers, the petrol could not be safely

other ways to cope, which prompts us to

and securely transported all across the

think about innovation .

country. If the Government identified the right sources for drivers, they could employ

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MODERN LIFE

many at short notice, as driver training takes

the specific transport structures, which the

only eight weeks. They could bring back

AI system would analyse, to create optimal

retired drivers or encourage people suffering

efficiency in any given situation.

from unemployment (due to COVID) to train as HGV drivers. The Government could

Another company that does this, is TuSimple,

also bring in drivers from Commonwealth

founded in San Diego, America, in 2015.

countries across the globe, as well as tempt

They are also building some of the world’s

HGV drivers to come back from the EU by

first efficient, safe, and low-cost autonomous

offering higher salaries.

freight systems, individually tailored to the needs of heavy-duty trucks. These trucks

LONG-TERM SOLUTIONS

would be secured and tested for performance

Resilience in the Supply Chain

multiple times, to minimise carbon emissions,

Building resilience in the system is a great

and in the worst case, robberies.

way to preventing future fuel shortages. For example, if a station were to store

Renewable Energies

20,000 litres of petrol, then there could be a

Investment and promotion of renewable

back-up tank storing eight to ten thousand

energy provides a long-term solution and

litres, whose sole purpose is to provide

takes us a step further in nearly solving the

extra fuel during a crisis. This is a valuable

logistics and supply chain issues. One of

investment to build up resilience to deal

the most valuable and efficient renewable

with unexpected problems.

energies is solar power. Solar plants could range from small to large grids installed in

Artificial Intelligence

sunny open spaces or even building roof

Many scientists, engineers and researchers

tops as small solar panels. The power grid

have been working hard over the past

absorbs the Sun’s heat and radiation and

decade to develop driverless vehicles. The

converts the particles into electrons which

problem of transporting petrol without

flow through the panel system in the form of

HGV drivers can be solved by programming

electricity, generating power for industries,

trucks to transport fuel (or any freight)

communities or even public spaces.

back and forth from the freight check

150

points. This solution could become an

Wind turbines, also a great replacement

established, every-day concept as early as

of fossil fuels, are giant, metal turbines as

2027. Jungheinrich, a German intralogistics

high as 328 feet. Instead of using electricity

company, is testing and developing

to create wind, like a fan, wind turbines

sophisticated Automated Guided Vehicles

use wind to create electricity. The wind

System (AGV) trucks worldwide. These

spins the turbines, which spin a rotor in the

trucks can carry up to 2.5 tons (2,500kg)

centre; either directly (if it is a direct drive

and can navigate the area with ‘millimetre

turbine) or through a shaft and several gears

precision’, due to their usage of laser

in a gearbox. This rotor connects to the

navigation. Their trucks would adhere to

generator, which in turn creates electricity.

MODERN LIFE

This electricity can be stored and applied to varied usage, including running vehicles, replacing petrol run vehicles. The use of these renewable energy sources could significantly reduce the Earth’s carbon footprint. WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR THE FUTURE? In our opinion, the petrol crisis has helped people realise how precious are our seemingly abundant resources. If a crisis like this ever happens again, it could be significantly worse, which is why it is vital

ONE OF THE MOST VALUABLE AND EFFICIENT RENEWABLE ENERGIES IS SOLAR POWER.

to be prepared, stocked, or even eliminate the source of problem, by being innovative and conscientious. The solutions we have presented here are few of many, which we think are the most beneficial and could make a long-lasting, positive impact on our planet and humanity.

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Social Media and the Effects on the Youth

Laurence Wyles | 2CKL

INTRODUCTION

to political leaders, which has led to more

Social media is gaining subscribers every

leaders using the avenue to interact with their

day, and youth are actively using one or

followers. Young people can now participate in

more social media platform. Growth in

lobbying activities, as well as influencing the

technology has sparked an exponential rate

political climate by voting in large numbers.

of using social media for communication, marketing, and other activities among youth.

Social media is a very good avenue for

While there are many positive impacts of

accessing information relating to the issues

social media on young people, there are also

facing global society. Young people have the

negative repercussions of the use of various

opportunity of finding solutions to some of

social media platforms.

the issues by focusing their education on careers that will place them in a position to

Young people can utilise social media

tackle the challenges facing the world.

to communicate their ideas and set up e-commerce marketing channels through

Moreover, younger generations are

social media platforms. However, access

becoming more tolerant of diversity,

to explicit and dangerous information

following the ability to communicate with

is a major threat associated with young

people from various parts of the world in

people using social media. Although social

various interest groups on social media. The

media is a prominent part of youth in the

enhancement of cultural awareness is a very

contemporary world, its use should be

positive effect of social media.

regulated to ensure that young people only reap the positive benefits of the technology.

As well as those points, networks developed through interaction processes on social

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA

media also enhance access to business

ON YOUNG PEOPLE

opportunities for the youth. Young people

Social media has facilitated a medium to

are developing small businesses and selling

develop discussion groups covering the

goods and services through social media.

subject matter in class; hence, it is a good platform for enhancing the performance of

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA

students in school. The discussion groups

ON YOUNG PEOPLE

facilitate consultation when students are

Social media has promoted the development

handling their assignments. Some of the

of sedentary lifestyles among young people.

discussion groups include tutors who can

Many spend most of their free time chatting

help students to grasp the subject matter

with their friends on social media through

delivered in class.

smartphones and computers, which has led to a high preference for staying indoors.

Additionally, social media has also led to more

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young people taking an active role in politics.

Although I previously mentioned that social

Social media platforms facilitate direct access

media can help students with discussion

MODERN LIFE

YOUNGER GENERATIONS ARE BECOMING MORE TOLERANT OF DIVERSITY, FOLLOWING THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE WITH PEOPLE FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD. groups, studies show that it can also be detrimental to grades in school. Statistics show that as the hours spent on social media increase, grades deteriorate for the students. Social media has also facilitated a platform where young people can be easily victimised by individuals with malicious intentions. For instance, sex predators, identity thieves, and conmen have been targeting profiles belonging to young people because they are vulnerable. This has resulted in parents using monitoring software to protect their children. However, as many young people use mobile devices to access their social media accounts, they are still at risk from the negative impacts of social media. CONCLUSION Social media has provided young people with a communication avenue that is tied to various benefits. This includes the development of a wide social network that enhances opportunities and cultural competence. However, it is imperative for young people to use various platforms carefully to avoid being victimised by cybercriminals and bullies.

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MODERN LIFE

Procrastination

Quentin Sauve | 4JMY

Procrastination: a concept which I myself

Perfectionism is probably the biggest cause

– and many others – are very familiar with.

of procrastination. First of all, it gives a

Around 20% of the population consider

fear of failure. People might delay starting

themselves "procrastinators" - in other

a task since they cannot think of a perfect

words, people who keep delaying tasks that

way to start or carry on something (such as

should be completed. Although this may not

choosing an essay topic, why I found quite

seem like a major issue, it can have some

difficult myself) or they might be unsure

rather damaging consequences. Lately,

whether or not they are able to complete

not only has it caused the quality of my

a task (like running a marathon). Hence,

work to decrease as I have spent less time

they either delay a task or never complete

on it; it has also had a detrimental effect

it. Secondly, people may spend so long on

on my health: staying up late to complete

something that they do not focus on other

unfinished tasks leads to a lack of sleep

tasks at hand. Take artwork as an example:

which then lowers my concentration at

people spend too much time perfecting their

school. In order to solve this, I asked myself

already complete drawing and so leave other

the question: what fuels procrastination

things for later, even though what they are

and how can we bring an end to it? Through

doing is of smaller importance.

research, reasoning and a great deal of procrastinating, I was able to figure this out.

Another big cause of procrastination is a lack of passion. You may initially feel

Something that I often confused

inspired and willing to put in hard work

procrastination with prior to my research was

to reach a goal. However, if this passion

laziness. They are in reality rather different.

wears away over time, you will suddenly not

Laziness is a general attitude towards life;

see the use in doing it anymore. A lack of

you are simply not willing to do things and

passion can also cause you to procrastinate

do not care about the quality of your work.

if, for example, you have some homework

Procrastination, however, is an active choice

from a subject which you do not enjoy. You

people make to do a task that requires less

are far more likely to do something else that

mental energy. An example used by Justin

you prefer doing, such as playing a video

Gasparovich, the author of an article I was

game or reading. This leads on well to the

reading, helped me to comprehend the

next point...

difference: "A lazy person skips the gym

154

as they do not care about their physical

This one is more common amongst children:

condition. A procrastinator skips the gym

they have a distracting environment. This

as they do not want to have to face the

could mean that they see something which is

discomfort that comes with getting into

more appealing to them and so do it instead

shape". Although a procrastinator will have

of what they are currently working on.

good ideas in mind, they will often not

Procrastinators are tempted to take the easy

push themselves to the best of their ability.

way out of challenging tasks, even though

However, the reasons people do this may not

they are conscious that it is not the correct

be the ones that you originally considered.

decision to make and regret it later on.

MODERN LIFE

Thinking too big is a significant cause,

Although these can all be very helpful

although it is only a problem on tasks with

in overcoming procrastination, they can

no deadlines. Procrastinators imagine things

sometimes be tiring and go against what you

which they cannot possibly end up creating.

want to do. So let us consider some more

It may take too much time or require

innovative solutions. One strategy is to

equipment which is not available. This means

almost force yourself into starting the task.

that, even though they could have made a

Building up stress of what might happen if

smaller but more sensibly sized project, they

the task is not completed compels you to get

end up not doing anything at all.

on with it due to fear of having to face the consequences. Spending time on a schedule

Overall, we procrastinate due to our

can also be important. It helps you to know

motivation. This can be difficult to

when to start working, rather than having an

overcome, so here are the solutions I found

“I’ll do it later” attitude. Rather than making

were most useful...

a colourless, boring schedule, try to make it more appealing. Spending time on it and

Many of the sources I used for my research

being proud of what you created will urge

stated that the first step was that you had to

you to actually follow it, so you feel like it

realise that you were procrastinating in the

the time spent was worthwhile.

first place. However, part of procrastination is making an active choice and so people

Even though I knew barely anything about

who do it are aware of the negative effects

procrastination at all, this project has

that these particular choices will have on

helped me to find out more about it so I

them. Therefore, solving procrastination is

can stop myself from doing it in the future.

more of a mental challenge.

Procrastination is something which affects many people, so I hope this may help others

Firstly, starting the task is extremely

in the same way in which it helped me.

important. Even when I was very unsure about

Understanding it better may bring all of us

what I wanted to do for my project, I started

a little closer to bringing it to an end for

it off and it ended up being just fine. If you

everyone's greater good.

do not get on with it, you might forget about it altogether. Secondly, always start with

References

less pleasant tasks. This is good for multiple

https://inspirationalife.com/is-procrastination-just-laziness/

reasons; not only do you have more energy

https://theenemyofaverage.com/how-to-avoidprocrastintation-and-laziness/

when you start your day than when you finish

https://solvingprocrastination.com/why-people-procrastinate/

it, but it gives you a reward early on. Once you have completed these unpleasant chores,

https://iulianionescu.com/blog/why-we-procrastinate/ https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_96.htm https://ellenfaye.com/blog/innovative-strategies-to-ovecomeprocrastination/

there is time for you to do the things that you enjoy more. This motivates people to keep going. Thirdly, find people to help you. If there is no one to tell you to do it, then you will get distracted very easily.

155

THE FUTURE

Dyson Spheres

Monty Al-Qassab | 1MRR

UNLIMITED ENERGY!!

There are different

Throughout recent history the global

types of powerful

currency has been energy. Energy can come

megastructures

in many different forms; chemical energy

that can control the

through food, thermal energy through friction

energy load of the

and even nuclear energy when we learned to

Sun. The first one

split an atom. But is there ever going to be a

that I would like to

way to obtain an infinite amount of energy?

introduce is the Dyson sphere (above).

Well luckily there is! WHAT IS A DYSON SWARM? THE ENERGY OF THE SUN

A Dyson swarm is a megastructure much like

The sun is the most brilliant source of energy

a Dyson sphere but instead of encompassing

in our solar system and the solar energy

the Sun in a shell it is a swarm of solar

produced is 100 quintillion times more

panelled satellites that each direct the energy

powerful than the world’s strongest nuclear

of the sun to a destination. This is a visual of

furnace. To put this into perspective the

a Dyson swarm:

largest atom bomb that has ever exploded shined with 33.8 Yottawatts. Which is less than 1 percent of the luminosity of the Sun. That is mind-blowingly hot and extremely

energy rich. But the problem still stands, how could we absorb so that we can transfer not

only a fraction of the energy but all of it. This

is where the philosophy of a Dyson sphere or

a Dyson swarm comes in.

WHAT IS A DYSON SPHERE AND HOW

WOULD IT APPEAR?

A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure

that completely encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output. A visual of what this megastructure

could theoretically look like for reference:

WHICH OF THESE MEGA STRUCTURE IS BETTER?

In my opinion the Dyson swarm is better for

156

humanity for two reasons. The first reason is that a Dyson sphere would cover the sun blocking out all the necessary light of the sun that humans use to grow crops and would return the Earth to an ice-age. Another reason a Dyson swarm is preferred is because when

Outer shell surrounding star inside

building a Dyson swarm, it can be modular

THE FUTURE

and engineered in sections over time. This

surface gravity. NASA have already managed

gradual process means that each solar satellite

to send three missions to Mercury since 2015

which makes up a Dyson swarm can be sent

and the knowledge established could be

up to surround the sun, capturing energy

vital for the construction required. A second

which we can harness over time. This enables

reason Mercury is the primary option is

the transferal of solar energy across the Solar

because Mercury is closer to the Sun and is

System to Earth or another destination.

only 67 million kilometres from the Sun when

For us to turn the theory into reality and

the earth is 147 million kilometres away!

complete this interstellar megastructure, we need to understand how we could acquire

With still such huge distances to travel

the huge quantity of materials and how to

towards the Sun any satellite that will

transport these towards the Sun.

make up the Dyson swarm will have to be aerodynamic. One theory is to send such

WHAT DO WE NEED TO BUILD A

satellites in a huge rail gun contraption which

DYSON SWARM?

would fold out mid-flight like a piece of solar-

First, we need a location where we can mine,

panelled origami to become caught within the

refine and collect many of the specialist

Sun’s orbit and direct the solar energy back

materials. These will need to be light and

through its solar panels to Mercury. Such

strong with the capability to withstand high

energy would be captured and enable future

temperatures. Then these materials will be

satellites to be deployed. This process would

used to create the satellites that collectively

be repeated until a large enough proportion

surround the sun and form the Dyson swarm.

of the Sun has satellites surrounding it to

To encompass the total surrounding area of

create a Dyson swarm. At such a stage the

the Sun we will need 30 quadrillion satellites

energy could then become high enough

that are each a square kilometre, but unlike a

to transfer onward from Mercury to the

Dyson sphere we do not need to encapsulate

Earth to benefit humanity without negative

the entire area of the Sun.

environmental impacts.

WHAT LOCATION WOULD BE BEST TO

WHEN COULD A DYSON SWARM

EXCAVATE THE MATERIALS NEEDED?

BECOME A REALITY?

We have already established that we would

The answer to this question might not be

need to excavate billions

what you would expect, it is not just science

of tonnes of materials for

fiction since scientists believe that with huge

which a human, but more

investment and effort this could take place

likely robot workforce would

within the next century. If humanity managed

manufacture and then blast

to create a Dyson swarm we could end global

further into space. The prime location in my

warming, safeguard humanity, and become an

opinion which is the best for this type of

intergalactic species.

mission is Mercury. References

The reason Mercury is the best option is because of its metal wealth and has a low

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP44EPBMb8A https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24933190-800-dysonspheres-how-to-spot-an-alien-megastructure/

157

THE FUTURE

The Future of Retail

Kian Mahmood | 1MRR

The retail industry is an important part of

have some possible ideas to incorporate

the UK’s economy, comprising almost 5.1%

technology into real stores.

of all UK GDP. The COVID-19 pandemic, to say the least, has profoundly impacted

One innovation could be a touchscreen that

this sector. During the many months of

displays all the items. Instead of physically

lockdown, there was no physical store that

looking for the item the customer wants in

was not affected, whether it was non-

the shop, they search it up on the device

essential retail which was shut down for the

then they tap on the thing they want to see.

majority of last year, or retail like groceries

Then, a staff member, near the touchscreen,

and pharmacies which rose in demand

comes to them and escorts them to the item

during the pandemic. In this essay I will

they want to look at or buy. This could be

be discussing how COVID-19 has affected

very useful in a large store where you have

retail, but also how the rise of technology,

to do a lot of searching to find your wanted

more online demand and customer needs

product. It would also make the experience

has shaped a rapidly changing retail

safer, because looking around and searching

landscape. This topic links to ‘innovation’

up and down the aisles involves having to go

because store owners are constantly trying

past other people. A direct route to the item

to innovate new ways to adapt to customer

minimises contact with other customers.

needs and new ways to make the shopping experience seamless and hassle-free using

Another possible innovation, much more

technology.

complex than the last one, is designing a room with VR. The customer sees a blank

TECHNOLOGY IN RETAIL

room in their VR headset, and they can

Because the shift to online shopping has

select shop items to put into the room

taken place, real stores have had to make

in different places – for example, if you

their stores more technology centric. A

want your room painted brown, you can

recent example of this in the UK is when

select a bucket of Dulux brown paint and

Tesco opened a checkout-free store in

the room will show up brown. It will show

Central London, rivalling similar technology

the combined total of all the products put

by Amazon in the US and UK. A combination

into the room in a corner, and, at the end,

of cameras and weight sensors would

artificial intelligence will determine whether

establish what customers had picked up and

the room looks good, and it will alert you

charge them for products directly through

of any items that look out of place. This

the Tesco app when they left the shop.

could be useful if someone has just built a

Another example is when M&S became

house extension and they are unsure what

the first retailer to allow customers with a

furniture to put in it. The innovation could

small number of items to check out with a

be a long shot, given that there are so many

M&S staff member while they are queuing,

items of furniture, and you need to make

rather than having to wait for a self-service

them look accurate in the VR realm, but

or till to become available. It was a simple

anything is possible in the world we are

solution, with a handheld contactless

moving towards now.

payment device the only thing needed. I

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THE FUTURE

Overall, with social media and technology

might not rise much; people might return

readily available, stores need to integrate

to stores not so much for browsing, but for

technology into their stores. It does not only

social interaction after a drought of it during

make for a more immersive and personalised

the lockdowns.

experience. It also makes the shopping experience quicker and easier for the

For the remaining physical stores, customer

customer. Because people nowadays work

safety and keeping to guidelines is essential.

for long amounts of time and they prefer

An example of a safe and smart innovation

convenience, this is vital.

is the traffic light system, which made its way to my local Tesco and Aldi. There is

HOW COVID-19 AFFECTED RETAIL

a traffic light system displayed outside

The shift to online shopping had already

the shop door: green means go in; red

begun long before the COVID-19 pandemic,

means do not go in yet (because there are

as people opted for convenience and

too many customers in the shop). This is

comfort instead of taking their precious

a smart idea because it does not require

time to browse in physical stores. Then, the

a member of staff having to go and tell

shift was considerably influenced by the

you not to go in. Also, most people know

lockdowns, as non-essential retail had all

the basics of a traffic light system. It is an

but come to a standstill. As the vast majority

easy-to-understand system that is, in my

of stores had closed down, online shopping

opinion, a sharp idea. Another example of

was still easily accessible, and as a result,

a safety innovation is unmanned stores.

online sales rose from 19.4% of all retail

An unmanned store is a store with no staff

sales in the UK in 2019 to a record 33.9%

or cashiers working in it. Amazon Fresh,

in 2020 – an increase of 14.5%. Also, there

the checkout-free grocery store previously

were 60% more online sales in May, during

mentioned, is an example of an unmanned

the first lockdown, than February, which

store. There are more and more popping

was a month before the virus rampaged

up around the world; Chinese company

through the UK. Everyone who had to

BingoBox has over 200 in China. Although

make the change from physical shopping

these types of stores were invented a long

to online shopping would have enjoyed the

time before the pandemic, they are safe

convenience of delivery, variety of products

because it reduces face to face contact with

and better prices. There are benefits for

others and risk of transmission. Slightly

the seller too; no rent to be paid, your store

veering away from the topic of COVID,

reaches all four corners of the world, and

more and more people are attached to

your business is open 24/7. Many large

technology and, as a result, they are worse

businesses have adopted online stores for

at making conversation and meeting new

these reasons, such as supermarket chains

people. This is a welcome invention for

and clothes shops. It is a ‘win-win’ situation

those type of people.

and I believe online sales will continue to rise, as people have larger workloads and

As with technology, I will suggest some

opt for speed and convenience nowadays,

innovations that could help the battle

instead of having to go out. Online sales

against COVID-19. One possible innovation

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THE FUTURE

WITH SOCIAL MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY READILY AVAILABLE, STORES NEED TO INTEGRATE TECHNOLOGY INTO THEIR STORES. could be to package some products in a case

CONCLUSION

with a thermal sensor on it. The sensor will

In the society we live in nowadays,

show fingerprints on it, so you can detect

technology is at the centre of most people’s

what products have been touched a lot,

lives. Businesses will need to integrate

and which products have not. Staff could

technology into their stores to have a

possibly, if they notice a lot of fingerprints

chance of adapting to customer needs

on the product, replace it with a newer, less

and keep up with the changing landscape.

touched one. This is a good idea, because

People have less time nowadays, as

it can be risky to touch things that lots of

mentioned before, so technology can make

other people have touched, because if more

the shopping experience quicker and easier.

people have touched the product, there is

Do you notice how every COVID innovation

an increased risk that someone who touched

I mentioned was related to technology? That

it has COVID.

shows that COVID is just a part (albeit a large part) of the shift to technology-based

Another possible innovation is to control

stores. Overall, I believe technology will

your shop with robots. Ideally large robots,

soon become the centre of every physical

that can clean the floor, stock items on

store in the UK, and online sales will

the shelves and possibly check your items

continue to boom.

out. This does seem a long distance away, and unemployment rates could soar if

What will this mean for society, though?

real people were replaced with robots,

Will unemployment rates go up because

but people will still be cautious about

robots are being employed instead? Will

safety, and robots will pose no risk of virus

future generations have non-existent social

transmission to anyone. The unmanned

skills because nothing they meet in a shop

stores would still have real people in them

is human? There is a dark side to the future,

but stores with robots would probably have

and it is something we need to be aware of.

none to very little staff.

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THE FUTURE

The Kardashev Scale

William Webster | 1PWH

WHERE ARE ALL THE ALIENS?

should be able to use all the energy

For a long time, humanity has wondered

available on its home planet, e.g. coal,

if there are others out there. So far, we

wood, stone, and electricity - even gravity

have found none. And the only example of civilization that we have is ourselves.

and tides! ˃ Type 2 civilization: A type 2 civilization is

However, we know that humans started out

able to use every ounce of energy that is

with nothing but minds and hands to build

available in their solar system – including

tools. We know that humans are curious,

their star/sun. This could mean using

competitive, greedy for resources and

complex structures such as a Dyson sphere

expansionist. The more of these qualities our

(an array of mirror satellites around the

ancestors had, the better they were in the

sun, used to concentrate light to a point,

civilization building game. So it is reasonable

producing an almost infinite amount of

to believe that aliens had similar traits. And

energy - see Monty Al-Qassab's article in

since they follow the same laws of physics, there is a way to measure how advanced a civilization is: Energy use.

this volume). ˃ Type 3 civilization: A type 3 civilization would be able to take control of their entire galaxy’s resources, using methods

Progress can be measured exactly by looking at how energy was extracted from the environment, and how it is used. We started

that us humans would not even be able to comprehend! ˃ Type 4 civilization: A type 4 civilization

with only muscles as energy sources, then we

would be incomprehensible. They can

learnt to control fire, then wind and water.

control many galaxies. That is an insanely

As our machines got better, we improved

large amount of energy.

our knowledge and became able to build bigger, better, and more efficient machines,

Today, humanity ranks at about 0.75.

by improving on our old ones. Between 1800

We have changed our planet, built large

and 2015, the world population increased

structures, and mined and stripped the

sevenfold and humanity was using twenty-

earth’s natural resources – but not all of

five times more energy. It is likely that this

them. This means that we could achieve Type

process will continue long into the future.

1 civilization in a couple of hundred years, as long as we do not kill our home planet in

Based on these facts, scientist Nikolai

doing so. Any civilization that becomes Type

Kardashev created a method of categorizing

1 is bound to look outside, up at the stars,

civilizations based on energy usage – from

and wonder if there is anyone else out there.

cave dwellers to gods ruling over galaxies:

The next reasonable step towards Type 2 is

The Kardashev Scale.

to start stripping and mining other planets and bodies in the solar system. This might

THE KARDASHEV SCALE: EXPLAINED

start with outposts in space, transition to

The scale has been refined and improved over

infrastructure and industries from the home

the decades. But how does it work? It puts

planet and eventually lead to colonies and

civilizations into four different categories:

terraforming. As a civilization expands, so

˃ Type 1 civilization: A type 1 civilization

does its energy usage, and it moves up the

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THE FUTURE

scale. And then they can make the most

talk to. A Type 3 civilization would treat us

adventurous piece of infrastructure a Type

like we would treat bacteria on an anthill.

2 can take on: a Dyson Sphere. Once this

Maybe they would not consider us conscious,

megastructure is finished, energy will become

or our survival relevant. We could only pray

practically unlimited for moulding the home

that they are nice gods.

system however they see fit. However, the scale does not necessarily If they are still curious, greedy and

end there. Some scientists suggest Type 4

expansionist, and now have complete control

and 5 civilizations. Capable of controlling

over their home system, stellar infrastructure

an incomprehensible amount of galaxies.

in place and the energy output of a star, the

Ultimately, there could even be a ‘Type

next frontier moves to other star systems,

Omega’ civilization, which would be so

lightyears away. For a Type 2 civilization,

ultimately powerful that they can control

the distance to other stars may feel like

universes! Type Omega civilizations may

the distance between Earth and Pluto for

be the actual creators of our Universe, for

us today: technically within reach, but only

reasons beyond our comprehension. Maybe

with immense investments in terms of time,

they were just bored.

ingenuity, and resources. Thus begins their transition to Type 3. This step is so far

As flawed as this classification may be, this

beyond us that it becomes hard to imagine

thought experiment is already telling us

what exactly these challenges will look like,

some interesting things. Our ideas about

and how they will be solved. Will they be

the nature of species that form interstellar

able to find a solution to travel these vast

civilizations are sort of correct, then we

distances and travel times of hundreds of

can be pretty sure that there are no Type

thousands of years? Will they be able to

3 or above civilizations in our Milky Way.

communicate and keep a shared culture and

Their influence would be in all likelihood

biology between colonies lightyears apart?

so all-encompassing, and their technology

Will they inevitably split into separate Type

would be so far above our own that it would

2 civilizations or even different species? Are

be hard to miss. The galaxy would flash

there deadly challenges between the stars?

with their activity all the time, in all sorts of star systems. We should be able to see

The closer a species gets to Type 3, the

their artefacts or movements between the

harder it becomes to fathom what they

different parts of their empire. Even if a

might actually look like. They might discover

Type 3 civilization had existed in our galaxy,

new physics, understand dark matter and

and died a mysterious death, their remnants

dark energy, or be able to travel faster than

would still be floating around our galaxy.

light. We might be unable to grasp their

But when scientists looked, they did not find

technology, actions, and motives. Humans

the remains of harvested stars, decaying

are the ants, trying to understand the galactic

megastructures and scars of interstellar wars.

metropolitan area. A high Type 2 civilization

So they are very likely not out there and

might not even consider humans worth

never existed… not yet.

communicating with, too primitive to even

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THE FUTURE

A TYPE 3 CIVILIZATION WOULD BE ABLE TO TAKE CONTROL OF THEIR ENTIRE GALAXY’S RESOURCES, USING METHODS THAT US HUMANS WOULD NOT EVEN BE ABLE TO COMPREHEND! In a sense, this is very sad, but also very reassuring. It leaves the galaxy to us and to others that may be similar to us. So the most exciting civilizations to look for would be Type 1.5 to Type 2.5. They would not be too advanced to understand them and their motives. They may have finished their first megastructures, and they might be starting to move their staff between the stars, transmitting enormous amounts of information into space. They too would probably look out to the stars and wonder if there are others out there. Then again, maybe we have it all wrong. Maybe we are a lone example of life in this universe. And maybe progress to Type 2 does not mean expanding outwards, and humanity is still too immature to figure it out yet. For now, all we know is that we have not found anyone else out there yet. But we have only just started looking…

163

THE FUTURE

Clean Water for All!

Hrithik Gowreeshan | 2BDG

It’s the year 2021, Humans have been

metals or chemicals, which entirely

around for 300,000 years, and yet, 1 in 4

contradicts what we think it does.

people do not have access to clean water. So, I set of on a mission, I set off on my

3. It only works with water that is in a

journey to make the cheapest possible

container or source.

source of clean water to the population. I conducted research, over a course of

My aim is to eradicate all the flaws and

6-Weeks, and I have come up with a

create a product that is cheaper than 4 large

Ground-Breaking Product. Spending hours,

meals at McDonalds.

trying to find the most creative name, I present to you…

Let us start off with point 1, which also covers Point 3. We need to be able to create

C WATER

a component that can filter a higher volume

Ok! Ok! Don’t worry, I am only joking, I, with

of water rather than just drinking straight

honour, present to you…

from the straw and so I introduce to you…

FISHTANK

THE BOTTOM COMPONENT

And this time, I am NOT joking. Seriously, I

Basically, I did not have to come up with

did think about it, and I did not look around

page long formulae to figure this out.

my room in case you were wondering. Trust

Essentially, I created a cup to put at the

me!

bottom and…here comes our first subject of the project, Physics. But not extreme

Ok, anyways, let me talk further about

formulae, just gravity. Let us put this into

FishTank. Firstly, I would like to state

some context:

that I was heavily inspired by LifeStraw, a company that you may say I am COPYING

Everything that goes up, must come down again.

(dun dun dun…), but no, my mission is to make a cheaper version of this (I am telling

So, when we flip the bottle upside down to

you in advance that it costs about £25 just

drink it the ‘Cup’ will flip the water and the

for one, which is about 4 large meals at

water will fall towards the mouthpiece.

McDonalds), and it is a much safer version, so, to begin with, let us start of by listing the unsuccessful parts of my arch nemesis, LifeStraw (do not worry I AM joking, seriously, you can never trust anyone with taking a joke these days). You can see that I have not drawn out the 1. LifeStraw is not something you can drink

entire bottle as I want to work it through

with when you are in a rush, it takes time for

and creating a final product

it to filter the water entirely. Now we can move onto our 2nd point, 2. LifeStraw cannot filter viruses, heavy

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Firstly, let us witness what LifeStraw uses

THE FUTURE

to filter out water. They use a 0.2 MM Hard

Let’s start off with the outer layer.

Membrane Filter. This is why some bacteria can get through, but oh, prepare for this, we are aiming for MAXIMUM safety! So, I went ahead and placed another compartment inside our bottle with a 0.1MM Hard Membrane Filter (HFM) and on top of that I put in a KDF-55 granulated cartridge (I know, it sounds like a brand-new state of the art Robot, but it is not), in there. This results in reducing more bacteria with a smaller

As you can see, I have used Polycarbonate,

filtration space, we then eradicated the

which is said to be 200x stronger than glass,

thought of any heavy metals getting through

and costs only £11 for a sheet, I am also

there with the KDF-55. Let us draw it out

going to add some rubber on there as a grip,

with our first compartment.

which costs 99p on EBAY

I call this the…

And we will be funded by the school for paints so we can say that the outer layer of

MIDDLE LAYER

the bottle will cost a grand total of: £11.99

Once again, I am joking, I came up with a good name. I Introduce…

NOT £12! It’s a penny less, and like Tesco says, every little helps.

THE ERADICATION ZONE Now going inside, the only things we buy is the KDF-55 and the HFM The HFM costs a whopping £8! With the KDF-55 Cartridge costing About £7 so in total the grand value of our water bottle is £26. Mission Accomplished a cheaper and safer water filtration bottle, take that LifeStraw! And thank YOU, for following me on this journey. So, we have accomplished out plans, now, time to put it all together.

References https://travelwellmagazine.com/2016/01/product-reviewlifestraw-eartheasy-water-filtering-straw/-29/11/21 https://www.rotary-ribi.org/districts/page. php?PgID=70439&DistrictNo=1240#:~:text=LifeStraw%20 filters%20bacteria%20such%20as,coli. -Accessed on 29/11/21 https://www.waterfiltershop.co.uk/blog/best-filters-heavymetal-removal/ -accessed on 29/11/21 https://www.osmiowater.co.uk/replacement-water-filtercartridges-membranes/water-treatment-resin-media/kdf-55. htmlhttps://www.tuflite.com/blog/strongest-plastic-sheetAccesed on 29/11/21

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THE FUTURE

How we can save the planet?

Dylan Ball | 2CKL

DANGER FOR OUR PLANET

with no food which led them to search

For many years now people have been

elsewhere. The bats flew to the trees in the

causing climate change by our actions. One of

Malaysian orchards, taking their diseases

those actions is deforestation. Deforestation

with them. Shortly after they arrived, the pigs

is the loss of our trees whether it be by

around them started getting sick after eating

man or nature. The loss of these trees and

fruit that bats had nibbled on then dropped.

other vegetation can cause climate change,

The pigs, as a source of food was then eaten

desertification, soil erosion, fewer crops,

by humans and by 1999, 265 people had

flooding, and increase of greenhouse gases

developed a brain inflammation and 105

in the atmosphere and a host of problems for

people had died. It was the first known Nipah

indigenous people. Deforestation can also

virus in people.

lead to losing our wildlife’s habitat. Removing trees and vegetation removes their shelter

GREENHOUSE GASES

and food and without trees our wildlife may

Greenhouse gases is a major threat to our

not survive.

planet. Through deforestation greenhouse gases are rapidly increasing at a very alarming rate. Trees capture greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, preventing them accumulating in the atmosphere and warming our planet. We are also creating emissions by cutting down trees: when trees are felled, they release all the carbon they have been storing. Not only that but the machines used to cut down trees also give off pollution. Extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the greenhouse effect. More

DISEASE

thermal energy is trapped by the atmosphere

Over the past five years a number of

causing the planet to become warmer than

scientists have evidence that deforestation

it would be naturally. The increase in the

has caused great conditions for a number of

earth’s temperature is called Global Warming.

deadly pathogens such as Nipah and Lassa viruses and the parasites that cause malaria

GLOBAL WARMING

and Lyme disease to spread to people.

Over time, warmer temperatures are changing our weather patterns and disrupting

So how is deforestation related to disease?

the usual balance of nature. This causes risks

In 1997, a rainforest in Indonesia the size

to humans and animals on earth.

of Pennsylvania was burned down to make

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space for agriculture. Smothered in a haze

In 2020, nearly all countries saw hotter

of soot and ash, the trees could no longer

days and experienced heat waves and was

produce fruit leaving the resident fruit bats

one of the hottest years on record. High

THE FUTURE

temperature can cause more heat-related

tractors to plough our fields will cause less

illnesses and makes it hard to work. The

pollution by using electricity that is from

hotter the temperature, the greater the risk

natural sources. Using electric tractors means

of wild fires. Changes in temperature cause

there is no operating emissions and noise

changes in rainfall, which results in more

levels are low.

severe storms resulting in more flooding and landslides, destroying homes and taking

MY IDEA!

lives. However, other parts of the world will

Solectrac is an electric tractor developer

experience drought as water is scarcer ending

founded in Northern California and

up with dust and sand storms. Deserts are

combining this with an electric mechanical

expanding causing less good land for crop

seed drill will help the environment not only

growing.

from using electric for no emissions it will be able to replenish our world with trees and

Our oceans soak up most of the heat through

vegetation. The need for trees is more crucial

global warming. This melts the icebergs,

now than ever and although there has been

causing the sea levels to rise, threatening

COP26 talks with the leaders of the world

communities from floods. The ocean also

to end deforestation by 2030, more should

absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

be done and sooner. This will be a challenge

making the seas more acidic which is putting

as our ever-increasing population means

our marine life in danger and our source of

that more homes are needed, more farming

food at risk.

ground for crops is required and the wood material is still in great need.

SO WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP SAVE OUR PLANET?

However, ensuring that every country has

There are approximately 3.04 trillion trees in

electronic tractors and seed drills and every

the world which is about 50% decrease from

leader agrees to plant lots of trees and

when the first man walked the earth. 50% of

start now by

these trees are in the five biggest countries,

cutting back on

while two-thirds of all trees are in just 10

deforestation,

countries which just leaves 1,990 billion

we may be

trees for the rest of the world. It sounds like

able to help

a lot but without rate of deforestation we

our planet by

are destroying 10 billion trees year on year

slowing the

and at this rate we can expect for Earth to be

progress of

completely treeless by 2319.

global warming before our actions cause irreversible consequences.

So what can we do? My thought is we could plant some trees and start replenishing our

If every single person on the planet planted a

world with trees and vegetation. But planting

tree to help towards this, there would be 7.9

one tree won’t be enough. By using electronic

billion new trees as a starting point!

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THE FUTURE

The Problems of the World

Gowrthan Pirahalathan | 2GLD Dhruv Joshi | 2ERW

In this essay, we will be talking about the

year, billions of pounds of plastics end up in

problems of the world. We will be dividing

our oceans. Studies estimate that there are

these problems into sections and talk about

now roughly 15-21 trillion pieces of plastics

what they are and how we can solve them.

in the oceans, which is shocking. Some of these plastics in the ocean end up in the

The first problem is probably one of the most

Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which is a gyre

important, and that is climate change. We

of plastic debris in the north-central Pacific

can already observe that climate change has

Ocean. It is known as the largest gathering

had a large impact on the world, good and

of plastics in the world. It is estimated 1.6

bad. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and

million sq km, which is roughly three times

lakes are melting earlier, and plant and animal

the size of France. This is unacceptable, and

ranges have shifted, and trees are flowering

we must stop this. There are somethings that

sooner. These are signs that climate change

are happening. There is something called

is happening right now, and we need to

Team Seas, founded by Mr Beast and Mark

act fast. The Intergovernmental Panel on

Rober, who are both youtubers. They aim to

climate change which includes more than

remove 30 million pounds of plastic by the

1,300 scientists from the world, forecasts

end of 2021. This may sound massive, but

a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees

it is in fact nothing compared to how much

Fahrenheit over the next century. Recently,

is in the ocean. If there is something that

there had been a COP26 in Glasgow, and the

you could do, it is to stop using disposable

countries have agreed on “keep 1.5C alive”.

products such as cups, straws, and bags, and

There had been mentions of phasing out coal

instead use reusable ones.

and fossil fuel cuts, but they changed it from “phasing out coal” to “phasing down coal”

Trading is also another big problem. This does

which caused conflicts. What we can do to

not really affect us, but it affects farmers.

help is try to not use cars too often when

Farmers work day and night just to produce

you can walk or cycle, or even use public

enough food for a family, and companies take

transport or get an electric car. We should

advantage of them and do not pay adequate

also be wary of using gas and electricity, and

amount of money to them. These are called

not waste too much of it.

unfair trading practices. These practices are imposed by a stronger party on a weaker one.

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The next problem is plastic pollution.

These unfair trading practices can threaten

Plastics have a lethal and direct effect on

the survival of smaller food producers,

wildlife. Thousands of marine animals are

stopping smaller businesses from acquiring

killed because of thinking that plastics are

new markets or investing in new products

food or getting entangled in it. Many marine

and technologies, make unexpected costs or

animals are getting endangered because of

lower than expected income for the weaker

this. In the first decade of the 21st century,

trading partners, and lead to overproduction

we have produced more plastic than all the

and it can cause food waste. However, there

plastic in history up to the year 2000. Every

is a movement called Fairtrade, which is

THE FUTURE

PLASTICS HAVE A LETHAL AND DIRECT EFFECT ON WILDLIFE. THOUSANDS OF MARINE ANIMALS ARE KILLED BECAUSE OF THINKING THAT PLASTICS ARE FOOD OR GETTING ENTANGLED IN IT. a system of certification that aims to set

References

standards that should be met in production

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/ society/20190307STO30717/protecting-farmers-and-smallfirms-from-unfair-trading-practices

and supply of an ingredient. For farmers and workers, Fairtrade means fairer pay, workers’ rights, and safer working conditions. And for us, as shoppers, it means high quality, ethically produced products. What we could do is try to buy products which have the Fairtrade logo, which looks like a person waving and a blue and green background,

https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what-is-fairtrade/ https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-38221721 https://climate.nasa.gov/effects/ https://www.theguardian.com/environment/nginteractive/2021/nov/10/cop26-draft-text-annotated-what-itsays-and-what-it-means https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/ocean_plastics/ https://teamseas.org/ https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-newinstallation-just-pulled-20000-pounds-of-plastic-from-thegreat-pacific-garbage-patch-180978895/

because those products, like I said before, have been produced ethically and high quality. Hopefully, this gives you a glimpse of the problems of the world, and how we can solve them. If we try to do these small little things, such as getting reusable products and looking for the Fairtrade logo, we might just be able to solve these global problems.

169

THE FUTURE

Climate Change

Lucas Luckin | 3JGB

Climate change has been an issue for

act as a salvation. A Toronto based business

decades now but in recent years the problem

called Flash Forest have stated that they

has accelerated into a crisis. The world

have designed a series of drones that have

is warming. We are all aware of this. The

the potential to plant 1 billion trees in 8

abundance of greenhouse gases we produce,

years. This was an idea thought as impossible

and extreme rate of deforestation has led

for many years and, if performed in bulk

to carbon dioxide, methane, and water

by communities and society, will make an

vapour impacting our environment like never

outstanding difference.

before. 100 years ago, the temperature on Earth was 13.6 degrees Celsius (average),

HOW WOULD THIS TECHNOLOGY

now it has rocketed to nearly 14.5 degrees.

WORK THOUGH?

By 2100, scientists have predicted that the

The heavy lift drones are equipped with a

temperature will rise 3.5-8 more degrees if

pneumatic fire system, allowing them to

we persist with the current deforestation

plant pods at an optimum depth. Each pod is

and combustion of fossil fuels. This would be detrimental to our world; animals would fail to adapt, resulting in widespread extinction. Natural disasters would be raging and capricious. Polar caps would melt, flooding most of our world. We must act now. Some have already started, collecting rubbish and waste from beaches, recycling, and upcycling. Wind farms and solar panels have been used to provide power, a costly yet effective way to reduce greenhouse gases. These are little things, which if every community did would

handcrafted by the team, containing at least

make a big impact. We need something

three pre-germinate seeds, mycorrhizae (a

influential though, not a time machine to

fungus acting as a catalyst to the growth),

revert to before the crisis, but an invention or

fertilizers and other ingredients. Each drone

apparatus than can stop or at least stall the

works ten-times the speed of any human

current situation.

planter. The drones are coded with specific software, allowing the drones to alter

170

I would like to explain and discuss the

the rate of fire. In areas such as forests,

concept of a tree-planting drone. Scientists

numerous drones will spray the landscape

believe that a trillion trees could “sequester

with pods at a rate of 1 a second, allowing

some 200 gigatons of carbon over their

the woodland to thrive. Each drone can

lifetimes”, which would more than certainly

comfortably plant 10-20,000 pods a day with

hamper the climate change charge! There

the potential to increase up to 100,000 pods

is no doubt that technology is the biggest

a day with further refinement to the system.

contributor to climate change, but it can also

Over the first year of the pod’s growth,

THE FUTURE

additional drones will nurture each pod, providing additional nutrients and minerals while gliding above.

A TORONTO BASED

WHAT WOULD THE COST BE?

BUSINESS CALLED

As hard as it is to believe, this program would cost 4 times less than any human planter. Although there is a significant initial expenditure for the drones and software (expected to be in the thousands), Flash Forest are expecting the pods and sustenance of each pod to cost around one Canadian Dollar (fifty cents for the pod and fifty cents for the chemicals and minerals). The project, due to the scale and environmental impact, means that funding and donations may be

FLASH FOREST HAVE STATED THAT THEY HAVE DESIGNED A SERIES OF DRONES THAT HAVE THE

easily attracted.

POTENTIAL TO

In my opinion, I absolutely adore the concept

PLANT 1 BILLION

and plan for the project. I believe that innovative ideas such as this are a great way to conquer climate change. It should get

TREES IN 8 YEARS.

enthusiastic backing from the public because everyone wants to tackle the worldwide headache of climate change, and this is certainly an exciting solution. If I were part of the Flash Forest team, I would invest a gargantuan amount in marketing. Their initial idea and execution are commendable, but they need to push so everyone in the world knows about their concept. It is not enough to solely have regional exposure. Global exposure will boost donations and investments, escalating and imposing a universal effect. Their concept is a way of reenforcing and purifying the global movement of combatting climate change. References https://interestingengineering.com/these-drones-will-plant-1billion-trees-in-just-8-years http://www.arpas.uk/tree-planting-drone-can-plant-10000trees-in-one-day/

171

THE FUTURE

Less is More: The 4-Day Work Week

Arhaan Haridas | L6NJC

INTRODUCTION

ADVANTAGES OF THE 4-DAY

Since the early 20th century, working 8

WORKWEEK

hours a day for 5 days a week has been

One of the most clear advantages about

the societal norm, with the most common

the 4-day workweek is the extra day of

working hours being from 9am to 5pm. This

weekend in place of your fifth day of work.

allegedly maximises the productivity of the

Telling someone that they will get roughly

average worker, as more hours worked clearly

52 extra days off a year seems to be an

is equal to more work done, right? What if

instant slam dunk “yes!”, however that’s not

I told you that not only was the traditional

all there is to it. I’ll mainly be talking about

5-day working week not only outdated, but

the broader benefits and disadvantages to it,

unfit for our digital era? Problems with the

as the more specific ones are subjective to

conventional workweek have emerged more

each person’s lives.

now than ever with the unexpected rise of the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in the

As I said earlier, a 4x10 week can result in

twilight period of 2019 and continues on to

less stress for a worker, allowing one to be

the present time of writing this, November

more productive at work on the weekdays.

2021. Over the last few years, a common

Studies have already shown that overworked

buzz around the workplace has been about

employees are less productive than

introducing a new system. One that still

employees working a regular 5x8 week, but a

maintains high productivity but also allows

study conducted in New Zealand shows that

employees a better work-life balance while

this effect works even when kicked up a few

still maintaining optimal productivity. This is

notches, indicating that a 4 day week led to

the 4x10 system, or as it is also known, the

even more productivity for a business. This, of

4-day workweek.

course, leads into my next point of a worklife balance, which has been tremendously

WHAT IS THE 4-DAY WORKWEEK?

enhanced due to more productive and

At the most basic level, it’s a workweek just

shorter work weeks leading to a longer and

like any other, but instead of working 5 days

more restful weekend, where employees

of 8 hours, one would work for 4 days of 10

have more opportunity to spend time on

hours each, leaving a 3 day weekend. This

themselves and their loved ones.

keeps the same amount of working hours but

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gives extra time on the weekend. Most of

On the business side of things, a company’s

the questions that stem around this topic are

employees working for only 4 days has

how exactly this would be introduced. Some

shown to result in increased engagement

people may think that there’s absolutely no

by workers, as they end up feeling more

chance that business owners would allow this

valued by the business. This has the effect of

system. After all, wouldn’t the business want

increasing employee loyalty to a business and

to prevent anything that might cause their

improving employee retention, causing less

operations to suffer.

costs for recruitment in the long term.

THE FUTURE

DISADVANTAGES OF THE 4 DAY

possible, are circumstantial to different

WORKWEEK

workers/work environments. Before I trod

Nothing comes without its drawbacks, and as

on the whole idea, let’s move on to the new

my mum likes to say: “There’s no such thing

weekend and, keeping in trend with the topic,

as a free lunch”.

why it is better than the old one.

First of all, and definitely the most obvious:

THE 3 DAY WEEKEND

You end up spending two extra hours per

Before we start comparing between the two

day at work. Upon making the transition

weekends, let’s first dissect the new 3 day

from 8 hour days to 10 hour days, it may feel

weekend, shall we?

brutally long. It’s almost as if the work day will never end, or you won’t have enough

Day 1 – Recuperation

time to relax a bit when you get back home.

The first day of the 4x10 weekend allows

However, this is a short term limitation. As

you to recover what sanity you lost from the

you get more and more used to the system,

4 days previous, and lets you embrace your

you realise that it isn’t so bad, and the

lethargy without any commitments, safe from

extra two hours a day is more than worth

the fear of ‘wasting’ the weekend without

the extra day of recuperation. Then, there’s

doing anything deemed worthwhile. This is

the predictable but small caveat that this

the day you can repay your sleep debt and

4x10 week cannot be applicable to every

spend the day lounging and treating yourself.

industry out there. Some, like paramedics, require you to be on call 24/7, or factory

Day 2 – Relaxation

workers where the production line must be

This is the main addition to the weekend that

supervised closely.

comes with the new 4x10 system. A full day where you are given the entire day to make

There are some more obscure drawbacks

plans, be social or do something productive

such as not maximising capacity utilisation

that you enjoy, without the stress of the first

of labour. Some workers may want to work

day of the week looming over you. This is

more, as they value the feeling of fulfillment

not to say that you absolutely have to stick

they get from it, or just simply want to be

to this schedule. The beauty in this is that so

away from home for longer. The risk factor

much time allows you to be flexible, rather

is also there, stemming from the idea that

than compartmentalizing your weekend and

there will be some exceptions where a 4 day

taking all the fun out of it.

week may be less beneficial to exceptional businesses than a traditional 5 day one,

Day 3 – Preparation (or Relaxation if you feel

therefore the switch would be redundant and

like it!)

cause some quotas to be unfulfilled.

Probably the most flexible day of the weekend, the third day is a day that you can

This doesn’t deflate this whole proposition

spend to prepare for the week ahead of you.

however, as a lot of these, while very

Whether it be finishing any outstanding work,

173

THE FUTURE

some review or taking care of some errands

of course, to lay the groundwork and begin

you need to do. I mentioned it was flexible,

the transition, but the benefits that can be

so if you feel you want to relax a little more,

reaped from this system both productivity and

you are free to devote a portion of that day

wellbeing-wise is something that is hard to

to relaxing.

pass up. The 4x10 revolution is an opportunity that the respective leaders of society should

On an ordinary 5x8 system, you’d be

seize at the first possible chance, and

exhausted from the workweek that just

something I can wholeheartedly support.

ended, and if you’re anything like me, you definitely want to kick back and relax.

References:

However, since Saturday is the only day of

1. Andrew Barnes – The 4 Day Week (Book)

the week where you are not limited by both work hours and not having the obligation to sleep on time as you don’t have work the next morning, you feel compelled to spend

3.https://www.changerecruitmentgroup.com/knowledge-centre/ the-pros-and-cons-of-a-4-day-working-week 4. https://hbr.org/2021/09/a-guide-to-implementing-the-4-dayworkweek

that day doing something of value. Like I said

5. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/22/these-companies-havea-4-day-workweek-heres-what-theyve-learned.html

earlier, the last thing you want to do is be

6. https://www.fastcompany.com/90263366/4-day-work-weekadvantages-and-disadvantages

sitting at work on a Monday morning and silently mourning the fact that you ended up wasting your weekend. Moreover, Sunday is tainted by having to sleep on time and the thought of a full new 5-day week hanging over you, as well as any assignments or work you need to finish before the next morning. CONCLUSION Unfortunately I cannot get into how to implement it into society at this time, as that would require a completely different essay to get into all the specifics and different factors that would come into play here. However, I can speak from experience here as I have actually had the chance to work on this system during my brief month-long internship at a hospital in Hong Kong. The 4-day workweek, while it has it’s few drawbacks, is a wonderful system that supersedes the outdated 5 day system in almost every way. It will require some time,

174

2.https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/ zf22kmn#:~:text=The%20USA%20officially%20adopted%20 the,hour%20week%20for%20his%20workers

OTHER BUSINESS

175

Whitgift School Haling Park South Croydon London CR2 6YT United Kingdom www.whitgift.co.uk

176

Cover artwork by Tom Peterson (5SHB) and Jay Raymond (5LMN) – titled “Innovation”

The Journal - Volume Three 2022

Articles inside

TECHNOLOGY

HISTORY, POLITICS AND ECONOMICS

THE FUTURE

MODERN LIFE

RELIGION, ETHICS AND LITERATURE