The Journal - Issue 5 - 2023 by Whitgift School

th e Journal …Stability and Obscurity

Academic Enrichment Society

volume five | 2023

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

S TA B I L I T Y

OBSCURITY

101

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

140

th e Journal

'Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?' 'That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,' said the Cat. 'I don't much care where--' said Alice. 'Then it doesn't matter which way you go,' This infamous excerpt from Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland often strikes me as joyously paradoxical. On the one hand, knowing what you want to achieve or where you want to end up provides a sense of purpose, direction, and motivation. This can be hugely empowering for students, and it is one of the many reasons Whitgift is continuing to develop our Futures programme to have our students see what might just be possible in their future. On the other hand, we must never forget the joy of walking into the unknown, taking risks in new areas, and stumbling unexpectedly onto something fascinating and unusual. This is one of the joys of being a student: discovering the previously unknown. Indeed, this sits at the very heart of Whitgift’s Academic Enrichment programme and our vision for education. In the pages that follow, you will find the writing of students who have risen to the deceptively simple challenge we offered them - find things that spark your curiosity, explore them, and then report back. Perhaps then education requires both times for direction and opportunities to roam free and curious. Why not do both simultaneously? Academic Enrichment both directs students to challenge themselves and produce academic articles whilst also letting them follow their curiosity in any direction they want. This seems to work – 140+ students attend Academic Enrichment each week, and hundreds have attended the talks by visiting speakers. What other assumptions have we made? What other concepts do we consider mutually exclusive but might actually be synergistic? We’ll give Lewis Carroll the final word here – he seemed to be aware of this problem in 1865… “Well! I’ve often seen a cat without a grin,” thought Alice; “but a grin without a cat! It’s the most curious thing I ever saw in all my life!” Mr JWD Piggott Director of Learning and Innovation Mr CJ Jackson Assistant Director of Learning and Innovation

Academic Enrichment Speakers | 2022-3 Tuesday 27 September 2022

Professor Jason Warren

Medicine and Biology

Professor of Neurology, UCL Consultant Neurologist at the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery Wednesday 12 October 2022

Professor John Cottingham

Theology and

Professor Emeritus of Philosophy,

Philosophy

University of Reading Thursday 17 November 2022

Alex Aiken

Politics and Economics

Executive Director, Government Communications Thursday 8 December 2022

Thursday 26 January 2023

Gaia Vince

Biology and

Environmental Journalist,

Environmental

Broadcaster and Non-Fiction Author

Sciences

Professor Hakim Adi

History

Professor of the History of Africa and the African Diaspora, University of Chichester Monday 6 February 2023

Dr Irving Finkel

Classics, Ancient

Assistant Keeper of Ancient

Languages

Mesopotamian script, languages and cultures in the Department of the Middle East in the British Museum Wednesday 22 February 2023

Dr Aoife Hunt

Mathematics

Associate Director, Movement Strategies Tuesday 7 March 2023

Wednesday 22 March 2023

Dr Richard Taylor

Psychology and

Forensic Psychiatrist & Author

Criminology

Alex Bellos

Mathematics

Writer, broadcaster and mathematics communicator

HUMAN EXPERIENCES

Monday 24 April 2023

Tarik O'Regan (OW)

Music

Composer Monday 15 May 2023

Tuesday 13 June 2023

Professor David Manley (OW)

Maths, Engineering,

Professor of Naval Architecture, UCL

Architecture

Professor Richard Dance

Early English, History,

Professor of Early English, University

Languages

of Cambridge Thursday 15 June 2023

Professor Josh Cohen

English Literature,

Professor of Modern Literary Theory,

Psychology

Goldsmiths Thursday 14 September 2023

Thursday 21 September 2023

Professor Richard Schilling

Medicine, Biomedical

Consultant Cardiologist

Sciences

James Suzman

Anthropology,

Anthropologist

Classical Civilisation, Classics, History

Friday 13 October 2023

The Rt Hon Stuart Lawrence

English, History,

Author and activist

Politics, Languages, Ethics

Thursday 2 November 2023

Professor William Doyle

History, Politics,

Senior Research Fellow in Historical

Languages

Studies at the University of Bristol Tuesday 7 November 2023

Dr Dean Burnett

Sciences, Psychology

Neuroscientist Monday 11 December 2023

Professor Brian Cox

Sciences, Maths

Physicist

S TA B I L I T Y

The modern history of African people in the UK and the African impact on the culture of the Americas

Nana Appiagyei | 1MRR

Carolina, and South Caro-lina), Caribbean

presence in Africa since the 17th century and

Islands like Jamaica, Barbados, St Lucia and

were part of a group of European countries

many more and the Dutch had Suriname and

that participated in the infamous Trans-

the Dutch Caribbean. We know that many

Atlantic slave trade (that occurred between

of the traits, cultures and even languages of

1500 and 1880). Somewhere between 12

the people of Ghana were passed down to

and 20 million souls were taken by European

the people of these nations. This is just one

powers from Africa to the New World. The

example and there are many more like Angola

slaves were trad-ed for firearms, cloth,

and Brazil and Nigeria, and Cuba. The bar

alcohol and spirits like liquor, brandy and

chart below makes it easier to visualize the

rum and cowry shells. This is a fascinating

number of slaves that went to each country.

bit of history that is unrepresented and

The British and the French have had a

THE GHANAIAN COMMUNITY IN THE UK

to recognizing the African impact on the

Ghanaians have lived in the UK since the

Americas.

advent of the Europeans on the Gold Coast.

often tossed away especially when it comes

From then up until the closing of the Second

THE AFRICAN DIASPORA’S IMPACT ON

World War, the Ghanaian population was

THE AMERICAS

minimal. Today over 3 million people of Ghanaian descent live in the UK (which is

Africans were taken to the Americas and

approximately 4% of the UK population).

in popu-lar culture it is often thought that

Ghanaians live across England in cities

these people were moved haphazardly from

like Milton Keynes (which is well known

random are-as of Africa to random areas in

for its Ghanaian population), Birmingham,

the new world. This perspective is incorrect

Southampton, Leeds, Birmingham but most

and encour-ages disbelief that specific

importantly, London. Ghanaians live in the

African ethnic groups could have changed the

London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark

cultures of one or more countries. Specific

(with the constituency of Peckham having the

European countries had colonies in the

largest Ghanaian and Nigerian communities

Americas and costal for-tresses and slave

in London), Croydon, Lewisham, Hackney,

markets on the coasts of West and Central

Edmonton and Tottenham. Gha-naians in

Africa. For example, the Brit-ish and Dutch

the UK are well versed in English as English

had fortresses in the Gold Coast (now known

is the official language of Ghana. However,

as Ghana). The British had control of the USA

Ghanaians prefer to speak their traditional

(with its southern states like Georgia, North

languages like Twi/Fante in settings

As I mentioned before, over 12.5 million

S TA B I L I T Y

where they interact with other Ghanaians.

Peckham is now home to the largest overseas

Ghanaians in the UK are more likely to

Nigerian community in the UK, with 7% of

have qualifications than the average for the

the population of the Peckham at the time

UK. In addition to this, second and third

of the 2001 UK Census having been born in

generation Ghanaians pursue and value these

Nigeria. Many of the local establishments are

qualifications as first-generation Ghanaians

Yoruba and Igbo owned. Nigerian churches

had similar qualifications but couldn’t

and mosques can be found in the area. As

advance as they had studied in Ghanaian

immigrants have become assimilated, English

universities and Brit-ish qualifications were

has always been the predominant language

given priority. 15% of Ghanaians in the UK

of the local Nigerian British population

earn less than £200 per week and 15% earn

as English is the main spoken language in

more than £750 pounds per week. Ghanaians

Nigeria. The Yoruba and the Igbo language

have contributed mas-sively to the culture of

are declining in use in the Peckham area

the UK in music, food and language.

despite the growing Nigerian population of Igbo and Yoruba descent in the area. Outside

NIGERIANS IN THE UK

London and South-East England, the largest

The first major wave of Nigerians began

Nigerian-born communities are found in the

arriving after independence of Nigeria

East of England and the North-West.

in 1960 (although small populations of Nigerians had lived in the United Kingdom

HOW DO THESE COMMUNITIES

since Europeans started interacting with

INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER IN

the people of the `Slave Coast` (the name

THE UNITED KINGDOM AND HOW IS

which the Europeans called the area around

THIS A RARE EXAMPLE OF CULTURAL

the Bight of Benin). Nigerians emigrated in

STABILITY?

larger numbers in the 1980s, following the

In their respective countries, Ghanaians

collapse of the petroleum boom in their

and Nigerians have drastically different

country. This wave of migra-tion has been

cultures and don’t see themselves as the

more permanent than the pre-independence

same. However, in the United Kingdom

wave of temporary migra-tion. Asylum

these two groups of people see themselves

applications from Nigerians peaked in 1995,

as similar. This is a rare example of cultural

when the repression associated with the

stability. Cultural stability is the way that a

military dictatorship of Sani Abacha was at

culture survives in an environment where

its height. The UK's largest concentra-tion of

they were not originally from and where they

Nigerians is found in the capital city, London.

are the minority. Typical examples of this

S TA B I L I T Y

are the African diasporas in the Americas

is not limited to the African diaspora. The

and the UK. In addition to adapting to the

concept of cultural stability is in place every

new environment (the UK), Gha-naians and

time one culture moves to an area which

Nigerians in the UK have formed a common

they are not accustomed to. The concept of

identity.

cultural stability has the potential to make our world a better place.

This helps as it increases the number of people who have similar cultural identities and makes it less appealing for people to adapt their culture to one that has nothing in com-mon with them and thus allows for a higher level of cultural stability. Normally, when two cultures come together, it is through family and marriage. The surprising thing is that this is not the case with Ghanaians and Nigerians. This is a list of what Ghanaians and Nigeri-ans have in common in the United Kingdom that are foundations for culture: > Live in similar areas (most prominently Greater London) > Shop at the same shops (with `African shops` springing up in several communities across the United Kingdom) > Attend same places of worship > Eat similar foods (most popular being Jollof rice) > Have similar accents > Have similar family values In conclusion, both examples have been about the concept of cultural stability among the African communities around the world. However, the concept of cultural stability

CULTURAL STABILITY IS THE WAY THAT A CULTURE SURVIVES IN AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE THEY WERE NOT ORIGINALLY FROM AND WHERE THEY ARE THE MINORITY.

S TA B I L I T Y

Why Gravity is an Illusion

Austin Young | 1KBB

In 1916, Albert Einstein published his general

environment outside of the lift, in your

theory of relativity and shocked the world

frame of reference you are just standing still.

and changed the way of how we look at the

This makes you an inertial observer.

universe. According to his theory, gravity is not a force, there are no gravitational fields,

The huge discovery is that these two

and it is just a stubborn illusion.

scenarios are the same thing. Hold that idea for a second.

Albert Einstein once said that his happiest thought in life was in this form:

It might seem mind-blowing at first: isn’t

An example worth considering, the

the man falling because of gravity? What

gravitational field has a relative existence only

about Newton’s law of universal gravitation?

in a manner like the electric field generated

Newton proposed in his book Principia

by magneto-electric induction. Because for

Mathematica that there is an imaginary force

an observer in free-fall from the roof of a

that pulls things towards each other and the

house there is during the fall – at least in his

larger the mass the higher the acceleration,

immediate vicinity – no gravitational field.

devising the equation: F=G(m1+m2)÷d 2 So,

Namely, if the observer lets go of any bodies,

why do all objects fall at the same rate?

they remain relative to him, in a of rest or

There are no clear answers, and this remains

uniform motion, independent of their special

a mystery.

chemical or physical nature. The observer, therefore, is justified in interpreting his state

According to the theory of relativity there

as being "at rest."

is no mystery. Objects are attracted to

Einstein’s unpublished review (from Wikipedia)

masses due to curved spacetime. Space time is curved near large masses, as if it were a

In other worlds, imagine a man falling off

fabric. Imagine you and a friend are standing

a roof of his house; while falling, the man

1000km apart on the equator, but due to

will not feel his own weight, and anything

the curved shape of the Earth you and your

dropped on the way down will remain

friend will meet each other at the North

stationary relative to him. He will only

Pole not because of gravity but because of

feel his weight when he hits the surface.

the curved surface. This is called Geodesics,

Another scenario is to imagine you are

a shortest path between two points on a

in deep space in a rocket with no large

curved surface.

masses near you. When you apply force to an object it will move at constant velocity, and everything will remain stationary to you. Here comes the definition of an inertial observer. An inertial observer is when someone or something is at rest with respect with an inertial frame or system. For example, you are confined in a lift, and you are accelerating downwards, but because you are in a lift, you are oblivious to the

Space time

S TA B I L I T Y

Objects in space travel in a straight line,

light is covered. It took Einstein and friends

but due to the curved spacetime around the

several years to find the right conditions and

Earth, objects bend around the Earth like

finally on May 29,1919 Arthur Eddington

an orbit. The General Theory of Relativity

took a picture of the stars. He analysed

shows that we are travelling in four

the photo taken and found that the light

dimensions, three that relate to Space and

deflected twice the amount predicted.

one that is Time. General Relativity has passed all the tests, Let us go back to the rocket scenario

but there are still more things try. Modern

and see what happens when we turn on

scientists uses clever ways to test the theory

the thruster. As the person in the rocket

using many different areas of physics, like

everything will fall to the floor, while the

the light travel time delay tests which has

floor accelerates into them. You would

already been done (where scientists use the

feel a force that’s pushing up to your feet.

fact that photons, which is a particle of light,

This is the same thing that is happening on

the predict the delay of the travel of light in

the surface of Earth. You are accelerating

space time due to the gravitational potential

upwards.

of the sun) and the future cosmological tests (which uses microscopes and lensing) to

To understand this idea, you need to

challenge the theory.

know about space–time, and that space– time contracts perpetually, because the

CONCLUSION

curvature of space–time which depends on

There are still some problems about general

the mass of the Earth always stays the same.

relativity; for example, the theory does not

It becomes apparent that from a human’s

mesh with quantum mechanics. Nonetheless,

perspective it seems like it is accelerating

the law of universal gravitation is not wrong,

upwards, but it is just space time contracting

and NASA still uses it to calculate the

towards the Earth.

planet’s angular momentum. At the end of the day, there is a hidden theory somewhere

At this point, Einstein had almost finished

that we have yet to find, but hopefully one

his theory and was ready to publish, except

day we may be able to be one step close to

for one thing: he had to prove it. He knew

reality.

that no one would believe him until he somehow finds a way to find a proof. Therefore, he came up with a clever idea: he figured out that an accelerating frame of reference will bend light, so he reasoned that light also would bend when it passes a large mass like a sun. So, the experiment would be to look at light passing just next to the sun and see if it would be deflected. During a solar eclipse we will be able to see the stars right next to it even as the sun’s

S TA B I L I T Y

Holy curiosity

Chris Henriques-Michie | 1NPP Ishaan Bhat | 1WJD

Humans are now in a period where we can

Religion. If God really were real and cared to

put faith in things other than spirituality

come down to Earth, I think that he would

and religion. We are in an age of advanced

tell us to go free. Live our lives like every

technology and know more about things

day would be the only day we had. That way

than we ever would have if we had kept our

we can maximise the amounts of wonder in

beliefs in something that might not even be

our lives.

real. This belief that we humans have held, over time, has become a questionable theory:

Some examples on religious beliefs are

the Theory of God. Therefore, we (Chris

for example Pascal’s Wager. In this Pascal

and Ishaan) have come together to author a

mentions the fact that If God exists and I

subjective paper on an alleged reality.

believe, then I may go to heaven, while if God exists and I do not believe, I may go to hell.

The first thing that must be discussed if we

What he means by this is that this is a wager

are to come up with an answer is atheist and

that you literally have nothing to lose. If you

religious beliefs. As you know, atheist people

chose to believe in God and he is real, you

do not believe in God, while religious people

will gain great good, while if you chose to

do. In the sector of atheist beliefs, we would

believe, but God does not exist, then you will

like to mention William Blake, the famous

not gain anything and will not lose anything.

poet who wrote Tyger Tyger. Blake was a

Now this brings us on to the point of human

man who, although quite spiritual himself,

hope. Naturally, a human will need hope

disagreed on the idea of God. He wondered

to motivate oneself to drive them forward

why there are so many dangers in this world

to keep trying their hardest. This hope,

and why someone as generous and loving as

this motivator, this thing that will keep you

God would create such evil. In Blake’s time,

going is God. A theory could be that humans

it was almost impossible to get people’s

produced God for this reason. Another reality

minds to turn against the thought of God.

could be that God was made to keep people

While people may see God as the father of

in order. Without God, this world would be

all, he also did create great evil. Why did he

total chaos; wars would start everywhere,

let WW1 happen, let alone WW2? Why was

and no one would have righteousness in their

there so much bloodshed in the past?

hearts. These are some reasons why people might believe in God.

We move on to the idea of stability and balance in the world. That, questionably,

To put together the pieces of this giant

might be all that God cares about. With

jigsaw puzzle, we must delve further into

great good comes great evil. One more

the thought of our human thoughts and

atheist belief is why God, not necessarily

important values and maybe why reality

Christianity, made us follow a set of rules

doesn’t really seem to follow our make-

to live our life by. In my opinion I do not

believe Human utopia world. When I say

like the fact that people must restrict

reality, I mean our alleged God. The first

themselves from the beauties of life just for

thing that people might wonder about is

S TA B I L I T Y

the concept of equality. Equality is a term

might say how do you know that the big

used to describe fairness among something,

bang is real? What proof do scientists

in our case the fairness of humanity. Some

have? But really, they’re just contradicting

examples of inequalities that have happened

themselves. They have no proof God exists,

in the past are for example racism, apartheid

yet they say that scientists are wrong. Both

and the Monarchy. The question now is why

sides of this argument are not very well

did God let this happen? Let us now take a

proven but if we are being serious, the

step back from just humanity; let us think

scientists have more proof.

about every living thing on planet Earth. Relating this to our point on equality, why

Now casting our views in a different

did the human race get extremely lucky with

direction, toward Philosophy, we come onto

evolution? Why are our brains much smarter

the idea of knowledge. The definition of

than any other animal? Why do we walk on

knowledge is facts and information acquired

two legs while other animals walk on four to

through the experience of education. The

one hundred? This to me sounds a lot like

philosopher Socrates once said that the only

inequality. After hearing this, we might think

thing that I know is that I know nothing.

that God does not really care that much

Socrates was a devoted believer in God, but

and according to the Bible this is a world he

he would have believed in the Greek Gods.

created but left halfway because of how it

Hearing this we may think, if such a wise and

turned out to be.

knowledgeable person who believes in God, why did he not get any knowledge? Why did

Looking through the eyes of a historian

God not give humans knowledge from the

we can look at maybe a certain person

beginning? Just imagine where we would be

thinking up God and religion – which might

if humanity had the power of electricity back

be a reality – but when people did start

in the Stone Age. We would have found an

believing in God with devotion they thought

end to Global Warming and climate change

true that God built Earth in seven days

all those years ago and we would be living

and on the last day (the seventh day) he

worry free right now.

rested. Scientifically, if we believed from

both perspectives, we would end up with a

Coming back to the modern day, where we

horrible time loop. This is like asking which

follow the bible or in other religions people

came first the chicken or the egg. If we also

follow other sacred religious books and

match up the Big Bang with our religious

tales, we hear a lot of stories about God

story, nothing makes sense. It would be like

whispering knowledge into people's ears,

two realities co- existed at once. What we

helping the world be a better place. Take the

find confusing is why humans still put their

example of Noah’s Ark. God came to Noah

faith in God even though they know that

and told him to build a big boat because God

God didn’t even create the world, The Big

was going to flood the world because they

Bang happened. This is how we came up

had forgotten how to be righteous and good

with the concept Holy curiosity. Believers

hearted and they had especially forgotten

S TA B I L I T Y

the act of Jesus, of how he sacrificed his life

research, we think that religion and God

for the mistakes of man. So, God flooded

affect the stability of the human race. By

the world and Noah survived with a male

saying that God is superior and is better

and female of every species on his boat. If

and more knowledgeable than anything on

you think that God was right to do this, I

the planet, this cuts of the natural flow of

am afraid I would have to disagree with you.

nature and restricts the true human being to

I think that in this circumstance God was

emerge out of oneself. The idea of stability

quite cruel and practically murdered the

with God is that when there is a change in

whole world. Why did God only give Noah

life or the world, your faith in God stays

the knowledge that he was going to drown

the same – you still go to your church still

humanity by flooding the world? Maybe, if

go by the rules of your religion. If there is a

God had told the world that he was going

massive change in your life for example you

to murder them all because they were

are homeless you would be allowed to do

being bad people, maybe humans would’ve

some rule-breaking things to keep you alive.

submitted to God and a lot of lives would

The stability of God is also about how when

have been saved. That is why knowledge

all things of man fail, you will still have the

could define and question the reality of God,

stability of life through faith.

making it a vital factor in this argument. Because this has frequently happened, People think religion is good and helps

humans as a whole have failed to cooperate

you to be good and we are not saying that

and discuss various problems of our planet.

you shouldn’t follow it but one of the main

For it is we who live on this planet is it not?

reasons for war is religion. People believing

This being said, humanity should start anew;

in different gods and different numbers

we should create a world where everyone

of gods disagree with each other causing

is considered equal! And most important of

war and deaths. And the worst thing about

all, we must now rethink about our various

it is they don’t even have proof of if what

faiths in our distinctive religions and give

they are fighting for is right or even real.

everyone a choice of being a part of a faith

By having a war, you are breaking one of

or not. In the end it is our decision as a

the first rules of religion: do not kill. In our

species if we want to be our best.

opinion, which was created by our thorough

S TA B I L I T Y

The Epic of Gilgamesh and its Presence Today

Farlane Hamilton-Brown | 1MHT

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the first

After the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh is

recorded tales known to us. It has become

lost. He departs from his city and walks

the prime example of a hero story and has

150 leagues in one day. He decides that he

been the inspiring push of many stories that

should seek immortality and sets out for the

are now (almost) trivial.

only known immortal that was once mortal. Gilgamesh comes across a giant rock tunnel

THE STORY ITSELF

with warnings of danger and death. He

The Epic begins with an account of the bad

ignores these and precedes to walk through

deeds of Gilgamesh, one of the kings of

the tunnel without light. Once he reaches

Uruk. Gilgamesh does not treat his people

the end, he beholds a beautiful flower

well; he takes things from them, refuses to

garden. He asks one of the humans there if

give back, and overall refuses to contribute

he could find the immortal. They speak of

to his city. The gods are not happy about

Utnapishtim, the man who claims to have

this – they create a wild man, Enkidu, to

survived a giant flood and was prized with

come and rival Gilgamesh. Enkidu is spotted

immortality. Gilgamesh crosses a river to

in the woods with animals, and someone is

reach the immortal and is greeted with the

sent to meet with him.

task of resisting sleep for seven days; he falls asleep immediately.

When Enkidu tries to return to the forest, he is rejected by the animals. Enkidu is

In a last-ditch attempt to help Gilgamesh,

furious and he attacks Gilgamesh – the two

Utnapishtim quests the king with retrieving

brawl in the street until Gilgamesh wins.

an “everlasting-youth” plant at the bottom

After fighting, the two men found a life-long

of the ocean. Gilgamesh immediately sails

friendship; they made amends and chose

out and ties rocks to his feet so that he

to contribute to society to win the love of

sinks. He manages to acquire the plant and

the citizens of Uruk. They decide to slay

begins traveling home. On the journey back,

Humbaba, a creature with a thousand faces

Gilgamesh stops to rest, and the plant is

that constantly patrols the forest of Cedar.

inevitably stolen by a snake. Shattered, the

As they gain the upper hand on Humbaba,

king returns empty-handed and vows to spend

the creature curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu

the rest of his short life helping his people by

and is killed by a final blow to the neck.

doing good deeds in memory of Enkidu.

After returning to his city, Gilgamesh is encountered by Ishtar, a beautiful goddess,

THE MAIN POINTS

who is unfortunately known for killing those

The overall “moral” of the story is that

who are no longer in love with her. For this

you should always try to give back to your

reason, Gilgamesh politely declines her offer

providers or something may come back to

for the two to join each other, and Ishtar is

strike you.

furious. She sends a beast that resembles

a bull to come and slay him and Enkidu.

This story also teaches about the “chase

Enkidu is killed in combat with the creature.

of vanity.” This “chase of vanity” is very

S TA B I L I T Y

prominent in today’s society, considering

FACETS SHARED WITH OTHER TALES

the number of influencers there are, and

> Utnapishtim is comparable to Noah in the

the ever-changing standard made by the people’s opinions. The point here is that people cannot be satisfied with what they have. Even in the past, examples of this

Bible > “The Deluge” tablet also parallels Noah in the Bible > The slaying of Humbaba is said to be an

can be shown: the beauty standard in the

inspiration for the Minotaur myth

Georgian age, as well as Musa of the Mali

> Many say that Gilgamesh and Enkidu

Empire and his constant demand for gold.

inspired the ancient Japanese monk ベン

This conceit shows in the Epic through

ケ (Benke) to strengthen his brotherhoods

Gilgamesh’s hunt for immortality; though, his motives are justified. However, this is

CONCLUSION

still a prime instance of how egoism has

As said before, this tale is a keystone of

always been in society, no matter the time

modern literature. Almost every hero story

period. It’s only the quantity which has

you read can be divided into parts (the

changed.

journey, the problem, the conclusion and the moral), and these stories can be traced back

A second, deeper point is the meaning of

to this early chronicle. It is also a founding

life which is also a leading facet of this tale.

father of modern society, having inspired

As well as immortality, Gilgamesh is also

the start of the world’s biggest religion. We

searching for meaning – originally, Enkidu

often take early literature’s influence for

was his “meaning,” and after the death

granted and I believe that we should all read

of Enkidu, Gilgamesh had no “meaning.”

at least one of these fascinating pieces.

This leaves him on a constant search for new “meaning,” which is exampled in how Gilgamesh blindly walked through the pitchblack tunnel with only his motive to guide him. This is linked with the philosophical search for “Eudaimonia” or “eternal recurrence.”

S TA B I L I T Y

The Ancient Greek Concept of Stability

Kai Motaung | 1JEJ

The modern world is worried about what

the number itself) are added, the sum equals

stability is, but how can we define and

the number itself. For example, 1+2+3=6.

achieve it? For the Ancient Greeks, stability

The number 3 was also considered a perfect

was an important topic. We, today, believe

number; the number of harmonies, wisdom

that balance and stability is about being in

and understanding. It was also the number of

the middle. However, in the Ancient World,

times; of past, present, future; of birth, life,

they believed that you needed to sometimes

death; of beginning, middle, and end. It was

be on one side, and sometimes on the

the number of the divine.

other; to have balance; here are some of the reasons why.

To add to that, the Greeks had 3 Fates, representing the divinity and stability of

The Ancient Greeks coined the term “Hexis”

time. They also had three main gods: Zeus,

within the philosophy world. This word may

Poseidon, and Hades. These represented

relate to any stable disposition, ranging from

the three different states of the Earth: the

one’s personality, health, or knowledge. One

sky, the oceans, and the underworld. The

philosophy author refers to “Hexis” as an

Underworld itself was in three parts: Hades,

"active condition"; to ensure that Hexis is

Tartarus, and Chaos.

not confused with passive conditions of the soul, such as feelings and impulses or mere

The Greeks’ mythology was what, in their

capacities that belong to us by nature. It is

eyes, explained the world’s creation and how

typically translated in modern texts as "state",

things worked; so, it was no surprise that, as

but more often as "disposition".

the concept of stability held such a prominent place in Greek myths, they had a goddess of

Hexis was a hot topic for Aristotle, who was

stability. Eunomia was the goddess of law,

a leading philosopher; a student of Plato

legislation, and stability, and being born of

who had studied under Socrates. Aristotle

Zeus and Themis, was a Second-Generation

revolutionised hexis, giving key examples

Horae along with her sisters, Dikē and Eirene.

in everyday life. Hexis got its name from

The Horae were goddesses of law and order

the number six which, at the time, was

who maintained the stability of society; they

considered stable and an omen of good luck.

were worshipped primarily in the cities of

Pythagoras postulated that the meaning

Athens, Argos, and Olympia. The sisters also

behind numbers was deeply significant.

represented the three seasons, as Greece did

Maths to the Ancient Greek world was

not have Winter in their seasons. Their other

considered the Science which explained and

names were “The Hour,” as their jobs included

stabilized how their everyday life worked.

making sure time was in balance and order.

The Pythagoreans (the Greek followers of

mathematician, Pythagoras) acknowledged

In Ancient Greece, "The Golden Age" named

the number 6 to be the first perfect number.

an age of peace, harmony, stability, and

In mathematics a perfect number means that

prosperity. During this time, harmony ruled,

when all the numbers divisors’ (excluding

and people did not have to work to feed

S TA B I L I T Y

themselves for the earth provided food in

However, even in the most extreme, murderous

abundance. They lived a long life with the

situations, peace and stability always seems

looks of a youth, eventually dying peacefully,

to ensue in Greek life. Instead of accepting

with their spirits living on as "guardians".

her new groom, Aphrodite went behind his back and consorted with Ares. However, when

However, is Greek Mythology a good

Hephaestus found out, he decided to sort the

example of stability in our society? Do their

injustice out himself. He physically divorced

stories reflect the balanced ethos of our

from Aphrodite, and life unexpectedly righted

modern society? Perhaps so. In the myths,

itself and continued as if undisrupted.

the immortal society seems to always come to a settled ground of balance. This shows

Yet again, life set itself a true course. The

that we should not be so scared that life may

Greeks enacted pure massacre upon Troy,

have its ups and downs; that we should be

breaking the familial civil war amongst the

resilient, because life will always restabilize

gods by taking their purpose away. As the

itself. The Japanese had a similar idea later

war ended, the Greeks went back home, back

on; they came up with the proverb “fall down

to the peace of the mainland. The gods and

seven times, get up eight.”

the goddesses also went back to their usual peaceful lifestyle; any reason for them to

The gods often embodied this idea. For

fight against one another’s wills for the good

example, Zeus and Hera’s relationship was

of an army, abandoned.

not the most stable; they argued and fell out over the ages. However, they always came

The imaginative Greeks created myths to

back, made up, and helped each other out

explain just about every element of the

after a while.

human condition. However, for some reason, these are so convincing since they are

Greek myths provide many examples of the

incredibly close to the reality. I believe that

instability of family relationships: family

we humans, in particular, have an ideal world

members killed each other, siblings hated each

of the constant state of stability; whilst we

other, and couples were unfaithful. Implicit in

only learn it when we face the fluctuations.

the family structure was a type of injustice. Women were married off randomly without

Stability holds our lives together, being the

their personal consent; this was modelled

balance between life and death, creation

perfectly when Aphrodite was married to

and destruction; the balance between two

Hephaestus upon Hera’s command.

opposites, which sit on a knife edge. So, I say that we stop worrying that we must be in

Uncontrollable emotional instability was a

the middle to have balance, because, as the

significant part of such myths; the powerful

Ancient World believed, to have stability, you

gods and goddess were often described with

had to have a bit of both sides.

their rages and angers, impulsive behaviours, and careless approaches in the Trojan War.

S TA B I L I T Y

The One Who Could Not Stability, the quality of being unchanging. So why does everything now need arranging? Such is the reality that is tearing my heart, My eyes that see everything falling apart. Once I thought that I would have no worries, But now comes the time of all the scurries: Climate change, the war and so much more. It’s like they’re knocking at my front door. Never again will I be able to trust them, Their corruption blinding like light from a lantern; I was trapped as a naïve infant. If only I would have hoped to be contingent. Suddenly I find that my world has warped, I no longer have the power to keep all absorbed, Always a thought that hunts me in night, Why can nothing ever be right? Now I guess that all hope is gone. No point in trying I will be withdrawn, Isn’t it ironic the path I have walked? Which now makes me feel so contort. Stability, the quality that was unchanging, So why did everything need arranging? Such was the reality that tore my heart, My eyes that saw everything fall apart.

Louis Boon | 3YAI

S TA B I L I T Y

Rock or Stone Cairns

Maithri Gooneratne | 1MHT

Rock or stone Cairns are human-made stacks

used to mark a burial site or as some kind

or mounds of rock. They are the ultimate

of monuments where stacked rocks were

form of stability achieved with patience.

placed over a tomb. In the Jewish faith,

Cairns can take many shapes and sizes; from

when you go to a funeral, you are supposed

a single stone placed on another, to a tall

to balance a rock on the gravestone which

stack of many big, flat rocks that can go high

shows that you have been to the funeral.

enough to have a chamber in the middle, or

Closely related to this is the use of cairns for

even be a man-made hill.

worship.

There are some rock stacks/cairns that are

The use is not always spiritual or religious,

thousands of years old. One of the oldest

however. It is common to carry a rock up a

cairns in the world is the Cairn of Barnenez.

mountain and place it on top of other rocks,

This cairn dates to the Neolithic times

thus growing the cairn. In Scandinavia, they

(4850 BCE). It is located in Brittany, France.

use these as sea markings across shorelines

Closer to home, some of the tallest and

to guide ships. Norsemen used cairns to

oldest in England are in Scotland. One of

mark the path along which they would drive

the Shetland Islands is home to a cairn that

large numbers of reindeer in order kill them

stands at an impressive 450m. Scotland has

for food.

maany pre-historic cairns. In fact, the word ‘cairns’ comes from the Gaelic work ‘carn.’

The art of balancing rocks continues today. It is common in Korea to see rocks at the

Cairns have meaning in many cultures,

top of hiking trails or at the summit of a

ancient and modern. They were often

mountain which people have climbed. The tradition is for the new hiker to place one rock on top of cairn that is already there, thus growing it in height. Balancing rocks gained new life in 2010s, with thousands of people sharing these impossible looking structures on social media. The bigger the top stone the more improbable it looks. This hobby became so popular that, in some places, they started to do competitions for prizes of 100s of dollars. Professional rock stackers, such as Michael Grab, describe how to make these gravity defying structures. The first step is to get a sturdy base because vibrations that come from the bottom of the tower only magnify as they go upwards. You would also need to get smooth rocks that have no moss or debris on them, so it is easier to balance. It

S TA B I L I T Y

takes a good amount of physical strength

a result, negative impacts on other larger

to keep the unbalanced tower upright while

river animals could also be significant. But

putting the next rock on top and ensuring

worse is the impact of specific species.

it will not fall. The most difficult part of the

For instance, the hellbender (a type of

whole build, according to Grab, is the top

salamander fish) often lives under large flat

rock. If you let go and the top rock does

rocks that cairn-building humans love to

not balance, the whole thing could come

disturb. People also make stacks in streams

falling down. At a minimum, rock cairns

– possibly because it is an additional

should be able to stand a splash of water. It

challenge to build them in a moving water

is therefore not surprising that cairn builders

body. But the smaller rocks will get carried

in modern times say it is meditative and

downstream at quick speed, hitting animals.

helps stabilise the mind from troubles and the uncertainty of life.

Building stacked rocks look perilously unstable when you look at them, yet if

Rock balancing can be dangerous. If the

you get them right, they are very stable

rocks fall on you suddenly, it can result in

and stand for a long time. Building them

a broken finger. Michael Grab said “rock

requires patience, a calm mind and steady

balancing is not for the faint hearted. You

hand. In a way, they represent stability and

have to go all in or you are going to get

patience; attributes to be much admired in

hurt.”

nature, and in humans. Yet the ironic thing is that something that symbolizes stability can

In national parks across the US, it is common

damage ecological systems, causing harm to

to see rock stacks that are meant to point

the environment, thus, having the opposite

walkers and hikers in the right direction.

effect of causing instability.

However, with tourists also building rock stacks of their own, the risks of people going off-trail has increased, thus increasing the risk of getting lost or injured. Rocks from cairns can tumble down the mountain and may hit a poor hiker, leading to injury. Removing stones from one place and using them to build cairns somewhere else can also remove nutrients out of the soil and destroy habitats for small animals. Some people take rocks from riverbeds because such rocks tend to be smooth, wide, and flat--all ideal characteristics of rocks to make a cairn. However, removing such rocks exposes micro-invertebrates and kills them. This makes the river dirtier because these creatures are essential to the recycling of nutrients and waste in the riverbed. As

S TA B I L I T Y

Stability through Chaos

Sami Carroll | L1TJD

When I first thought about stability, I thought

When talking about Chaos Theory in space,

of what is unstable in our world. It was then

we must think that there is chaos everywhere

that I heard about Chaos Theory. When

in the universe. So many small events happen

you think of chaos you think of danger and

which do not seem related but somehow

movies, so hearing that it is a mathematical

keep the universe intact. One example is

term might be confusing. I had this feeling

how Chaos Theory is demonstrated when

too but when I researched it, I realised how

thinking about solar systems as it is difficult

fascinating Chaos Theory really is and that

to predict how multiple planets will interact

you cannot have stability without chaos.

with each other over long periods of time. The planets only have a weak gravitational

Chaos Theory is a scientific and mathematical

effect on each other so eventually their

theory which is about apparently random or

movements could become unpredictable.

unpredictable behaviour. The idea of Chaos

All the way back in 1885 King Oscar II of

Theory was made by Dr Edward Lorenz in

Sweden and Norway offered a prize if anyone

1961 and the term “Chaos Theory” was first

could prove the stability of our solar system.

used in 1963. Some common examples of

Henry Poincare ended up winning by realising

Chaos Theory include the weather and pinball

that even tiny mistakes in the calculations

machines.

in the mass of planets grew over time and enlarged at staggering rates. So, he decided it

Chaos Theory plays an important part in our

was impossible to predict the future stability

lives because it can affect so many different

of the solar system with so many factors that

aspects of our environment, politics, and the

could not be measured completely accurately.

universe around us. An interesting example

A smaller example is that of the Red Spot

is the weather, which can have a huge impact

on Jupiter. Astronomers and scientists

on people’s day-to-day lives from basic

decided to use Chaos Theory to work out this

things such as what clothes to wear or what

mysterious place that has been known to us

activities to do, to the safety of people and

for 300 years. Not even the smartest people

animals with flooding, lightning storms, and

understood how it could exist without falling

droughts.

apart. Scientists have now concluded that the spot represents “stable chaos” which is when

Weather is an example because we are

something can be structural despite being in

generally able to predict how the weather

a place full of turbulence and disorder.

is going to go in the short term, but as time goes on, more factors change and make it

Cause and effect is another example of Chaos

harder to predict. This leads to the point of

Theory. This is when one small cause can lead

“The Butterfly Effect” which was thought up

to a much larger effect later. An example of

by Dr Edward Lorenz in 1972. He described

this could be an uncomfortable pillow causing

the idea that a butterfly flapping its wings

rioting in the street and threatening the

on one side of the world and making a small

stability of a civilisation. An uncomfortable

change in the air around it could result in

pillow could mean that Harry Kane sleeps

causing a tornado on the other side of the

badly the night before the World Cup final

world just a few weeks later.

against Brazil and therefore has a poor

S TA B I L I T Y

AN UNCOMFORTABLE PILLOW COULD MEAN THAT HARRY KANE SLEEPS BADLY THE NIGHT BEFORE THE WORLD CUP FINAL AGAINST BRAZIL AND THEREFORE HAS A POOR PERFORMANCE IN THE GAME. performance in the game. England then do

contradictory qualities. With Chaos Theory,

not win the World Cup causing low morale

it is a paradox because despite being chaotic,

in the country. This triggers a recession and

it also induces stability and is a stable

jobs are lost. The cost-of-living increases,

theory. We can understand more about our

the people start rioting in the streets and the

complex world and environment by further

government loses control and is overthrown.

understanding Chaos Theory. Chaos Theory

Chaos ensues!

means that everything in our universe stays how it should be.

Another example for our environment is swarm behaviour. This is similar size animals

Chaos Theory is one of the most fascinating

from the same species moving together as

subjects in the world. From weather to

one with migrating birds or bees moving hive.

politics, it is all around us supplying chaos

The behaviour of a swarm can be changed if

and stability. Not only is Chaos Theory

just one member decided to turn a different

chaotic, but it is also still extremely helpful

direction. If a school of fish were being

for us in our daily lives. It shows that no

chased by a shark and just one fish turned

matter how small or random things can

away, they will all turn potentially saving the

appear to be, they can still be predictable and

lives of the whole shoal.

have huge consequences. In the future, we may be able to prevent weather emergencies,

You may be wondering how Chaos Theory is

wars and England losing World Cup Finals by

linked to stability but quite simply it is. Chaos

using Chaos Theory.

Theory is a paradox, meaning it has seemingly

S TA B I L I T Y

Token Economics

Aksh Rawal | L1FMO

WHAT IS THE TOKEN ECONOMY?

CoinTool, TokenFactory, BakeMyToken).

As defined by the National Token

However, for commercial use, we need to

industry, Token Economics is, “a system

create a much more complex token that is

of contingency management based on

decentralised. To do this, we need a team of

the systematic reinforcement of target

token developers, hence we must follow a

behaviour. The reinforcers are symbols or

specific order of steps. First and foremost,

tokens that can be exchanged for other

we have to try to define the properties of

reinforcers. A token economy is based on

the token, including the total supply, if it can

the principles of operant conditioning and

be transacted, and the symbol name.

Behavioural Economics and can be situated within Applied Behaviour Analysis. In

After that, we have to place in a smart

applied settings, token economies are used

contract, which is essential to the process.

with children and adults; however, they have

This is the automated system that

been successfully modelled with pigeons

automatically executes a contract through

in lab settings.” In fact, this definition

the buyer and seller, telling itself that there

barely scratches the surface of what Token

has been a transaction made between the

Economics is and how it can change the

two parties. Additionally, we need to fix

world as we know it. To give an example

any minor bugs in the code written by the

of the fundamentals of Token Economics,

developers and place a smart contract to

imagine a commonly used scenario: in a

cover any issues that cannot be solved

classroom, teachers can reward students for

through other means. Last but not least,

demonstrating desired behaviour by earning

we must put our smart contract onto the

a token or a chip. The chips or tokens

blockchain. This confirms that our work

can be exchanged for a prize the student

is over and now, anybody can use your

wants. This is similar to a barter system,

currency. Although this may seem much

but applicable to blockchains, bitcoin and

more complicated than just putting it on a

cryptocurrencies.

DIY platform, the users will benefit from all of this being set up for them, attracting

HOW IS A CRYPTO TOKEN FORMED?

more attention to your token.

We first have to understand what a crypto token is. Breaking it down, the word “crypto”

WHAT IS A BLOCKCHAIN?

actually means a virtual currency. Being

A blockchain is the implementation of a

virtual entails that a crypto token has been

distributed ledger digitally over a secured

built online (digitally). More specifically, it

network.

must be built on an existing blockchain and represent an asset or specific use.

Decentralisation is when any trade made via a blockchain hosting a Token Exchange

From an average person’s point of view,

is replicated in all devices using that

the simplest method of creating a token

blockchain. This replication is referred to as

would be to use a DIY platform (for example:

a “distributed ledger”. So why are these so

S TA B I L I T Y

secure? Sherman Voshmngir said in his book,

attack scenarios.

Token Economics, that the protocol is a set of rules and processes that define how all

The consensus rules are designed in a way

the (anonymous) nodes in the network can

that make the network attack resistant,

reach an agreement on the true state of the

in spite of the lack of centralised parties,

network.

to govern the truthfulness of network activities. A blockchain address, which is

The protocol defines how the participants

derived from the private key, represents a

in the network interact with each other: (i)

pseudonymous digital identity of the token

under which conditions sending tokens from

owner. Tokens are noted to belong to a

A to B is valid; (ii) the economic rewards for

certain address in the public ledger. Only the

validating transactions with a cryptographic

owner of that address can request to send

token; (iii) how to reference identities and

these tokens somewhere else. In order to

sign transactions; and (iv) who decides over

prove their ownership to other participants

network upgrades. Cryptography secures

of the network, token holders need to sign

the network and provides full transparency

transactions with their private key.

for all participants, while maintaining the privacy of each individual actor. It also

This form of identity management is purely

makes sure that past transactions are true.

based on mathematical functions, allowing other computers in the network to confirm

Game theory is applied to make sure that

the validity of a transaction without needing

future transactions will be conducted in a

to know the actual person or his secret

truthful manner by majority consensus of all

private key. Blockchain networks can also

network actors, assuming that all network

be described as distributed accounting

actors could potentially be corrupt. The

machines, or supranational governance

consensus mechanism is designed to make

machines that are public and transparent.

it difficult to manipulate the ledger. Proof-

They provide a governance layer for the

of-Work is the "consensus mechanism" used

internet.

by the Bitcoin network that steers collective

action of an unknown set of anonymous

HOW DO ID TOKENS WORK?

network actors. It builds on crypto-

An ID token dictates overall whether

economic principles. Reverse game theory

the user has been authenticated or not.

is used to reward network actors with a

Furthermore, it is encoded as a JSON Web

native network token. In the case of the

Token (JWT), a standard format that allows

Bitcoin network, this would be the Bitcoin

your application to easily inspect its content,

token. This reward mechanism is designed

and make sure it comes from the expected

to make it economically unfeasible to cheat

issuer and that no one else changed it. The

the network, due to the prohibitively large

token demonstrates that the user has been

amount of computing power that would be

authenticated by an entity you trust (the

required to do so and considering extreme

OpenID provider) and so you can trust the

S TA B I L I T Y

claims about their identity. Furthermore, you need to protect the mainframe or the user ID and personal details or there could be detrimental effects. HOW DO ACCESS TOKENS WORK? The access token allows a client application to access a specific resource to perform specific actions on behalf of the user. This can be taken into action when a company or school blocks websites. Auth0 stated how the access token should be used in order to make authorization decisions depends on many factors: the overall system architecture, the token format, etc. For example, an access token could be a key that allows the API to retrieve the needed information from a database shared with the authorization server, or it can directly contain the needed information in an encoded format. This means that understanding how to retrieve the needed

TOKENS ARE PAVING THE WAY TO ESTABLISH THE NEW MODE OF COMMERCE ACROSS THE GLOBE WITHOUT HAVING TO RELY ON PHYSICAL CURRENCIES

information to make authorization decisions is an agreement between the authorization server and the resource server, i.e. the API. In conclusion, tokens are paving the way to establish the new mode of commerce across the globe without having to rely on physical currencies. The applications of tokens are endless in commerce, in rewards behaviour, and in motivating talent. One of the crucial advantages to tokens is that they are not physical so you cannot lose £5 as you may lose a five-pound bill. This concept will make day-to-day life much easier and will revolutionise commerce on a large scale.

S TA B I L I T Y

Smartphones: Are They Actually Smart?

Albie Barker | 1RCC

One of the most important inventions in

Mobile phones are helpful in any country,

the last 30 years has been the smartphone.

but in countries that have less privilege than

Mobile Phones have transformed our way

we do they can't just go on their computer if

of living and thinking. Many people are

they don’t have one, whereas we can look at

worried about screen obsession, but mobile

our other devices.

phones can be very useful as well. This article looks at the pros and cons of one of

Mobile banking is easier for people that don’t

the world’s most beloved technologies –

have a local bank. It is smoother to transfer

the smartphone – and how it stabilizes and

money. In Kenya the number of people with

destabilizes the world.

bank accounts jumped from 21% to 63% between 2011 and 2014 because of phones.

When mobile phones were introduced in

This helps people with businesses, and makes

1992 everyone was shocked. Lots of people

it easier for them to earn money.

were scared of the change they would have to go through because it would disrupt

Mobile phones help to find out if medicine

the stability that they were used to. Some

is safe for consumers. People could combine

people still think like that but mainly the

a few chemicals together and pretend it is a

attitudes have shifted. Now people use

medicine. To check that they are real people

mobile phones in everyday life.

use phones to authenticate it. This is helpful in less wealthy countries because there aren't

People have been scared of change because

as many doctors. This helps to save many

they like how their lives are and they don’t

lives and keep the medical system stable.

want to adjust to something new. Socrates disapproved of writing; he said that it

On phones, there are many apps which you

“creates forgetfulness in the learners’ souls,

can use to study and learn. For example, I can

because they will not use their memories.”

learn Japanese on Quizlet. People who are

For decades, writing has been a skill that

less privileged may be able to read on their

most people use at work, and learn in

phones if they can’t buy books, and if they

school, and we have stopped thinking that it

can't read they can use the education apps.

is dangerous. People can learn about what is going on Without phones you could not easily

outside their everyday lives by looking at

connect with friends or family members

news apps. On a mobile phone you can

that live far away. I could not speak to my

watch the news rather than paying to get a

grandparents in Turkey on video if I didn’t

newspaper.

have the technology. Even though the lockdown was a big change, we could still

Social media is currently the number

socialize with our loved ones, which kept us

one place in the world where people get

stable despite the pandemic.

their news , such as websites like Tik Tok, Instagram and Twitter. News can also get

S TA B I L I T Y

out quicker if someone tweets it. There are

To stop people from becoming addicted to

several problems with reading news on social

their smartphones, guardians should monitor

media such as misinformation; kids can be

closely and set limits which can stop them

easily led to believe lies. Anyone can post

from constantly using phones. It is important

anything on social media so lots of things are

that they go outside and mix so that they

not true even if some of them are. You have

learn to cope without screens.

to know who to trust and analyse it carefully. Even when teens want to stop addiction it is In Iran there have been many protests because

hard without a guardian's guidance, because

a young woman was killed by the government

the teen has already started to obsess with

“morality police” because she wasn't wearing

the screen. A guardian needs to set limits.

her head scarf. Mobile phones helped spread information about the awful incident, and

When children are obsessed with screens

helped people organize protests.

they find it quite hard to do other stuff such as socialize with family and friends. They

This created instability because the

can also get less sleep possibly because

government couldn't control the people

they are thinking about screens all the

on the streets. But the phones can help

time or because they play on their phones

the government too. People who go to the

at bedtime. After looking at the blue light

protests should turn off their phones so they

on your mobile phone you will struggle

can’t be tracked by the police.

to sleep because the blue light is like caffeine. It is also harder to learn at school

Addiction is one problem of smartphones.

because you are constantly thinking about

In 2016 a survey tested how teens treated

what is happening on your phone. It might

their phones. 73% did have phones, 24%

also be hard to enjoy games that would

were almost constantly using them which is

usually be fun and sports because you can’t

a massive proportion. It is likely that during

concentrate properly.

lockdown that grew because we couldn’t go out and socialize.

After researching the many pros and cons of smartphones I have learnt the multiple

Some teens are annoyed when they are

ways that they are useful and not so useful.

forced by their guardians to come off their

I learnt that it is very easy to become

smartphones or any sort of technology like

addicted and the ways to stop that, but I

gaming, which is a sign of addiction. It may

also found out that in less wealthy countries

be hard to cope without their Smartphone

phones are amazingly helpful. I believe that

if they are used to it instead of socializing

even with the fact that you can get addicted

with friends and family. Too much phone

to phones and they can stop you having fun

usage can affect your mind and cause mental

in life that isn't on a screen, I think phones

instability.

are a massive help to the world and they are more helpful than unhelpful.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Changing Fortunes of the British Automotive Industry

Alexander Hallett | 1NPP

INTRODUCTION

reduced to 58 by 1929, largely as a result

When one thinks about British cars, some

of the Great Depression in America. By this

great classics spring to mind, Jaguar, Rolls-

time, the largest car manufacturers in Britain

Royce, Aston Martin, Bentley, Jensen,

were Morris (founded by William Morris in

Land Rover and Mini to name but a few.

1910), Austin (founded by Herbert Austin

But what has happened to these iconic

in 1905 after he left Wolseley) and Singer

quintessential British cars and the British

(a Coventry based motorcycle manufacturer

automotive industry? Some of these car

who started building cars in 1905) as

manufacturers are still in existence but their

between them they accounted for 75% of

links to the Britain motor industry are now

motor car production in the United Kingdom.

somewhat tenuous, or in name only. This article looks at the history of the motor

In 1932, Britain became the largest car

industry in Britain, and explores how foreign

producer in Europe, and remained so

competition, amalgamation, and the fragilities

until 1955. In 1937, Britain produced

of industrial relations in the 1970s coupled

over 379,000 cars compared to Germany

with government policy, all contributed to

(under 300,000), France (175,000) and Italy

the demise of British car-makers.

(50,000).

HISTORY

At the outset of the Second World War,

The first British built car appeared in the

the main car producers were Morris (27%),

late 1890s after English engineer, Frederick

Austin (24%), Ford (15%), Standard (13%),

Simms, acquired the rights to Gottlieb

Rootes (11%) and Vauxhall (10%). For the

Daimler’s recently patented design for

duration of the war, car production shifted

a petrol-based engine and subsequently

to commercial and military vehicles with

formed the Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited

many of the automotive plants converted

in 1893.

to produce aircraft. As a consequence, by 1944, BMC, Ford, Rootes, Standard-Triumph,

However, it was not until 1900 that the first

and Vauxhall were responsible for 90 per

all-British four wheeled car was designed

cent of all British car manufacturing along

and built by Herbert Austin. The following

with a few smaller producers such as Jaguar

year, Austin started Wolseley Motors

and Rover.

Limited in Birmingham which remained the United Kingdom’s largest car manufacturer

Following the War, the British car industry

until 1913 when Henry Ford opened a plant

capitalised on a sellers’ market resulting

in Manchester.

from limited productive capacity from its European competitors as a result of the

By 1922, there were 183 motor companies

damages inflicted by the War, coupled with

operating in the United Kingdom but this was

increased demand for new cars in America

250,000 workers and producing over two million cars a year. The average wage in the car industry was 24% higher when compared to the rest of British industrial workers. However, as German, American and Japanese economies recovered, Britain’s status as a world S TA B I L I T Y leader in the automotive industry started to decline. The Decline By 1956, Germany had overtaken British car production and started its long-term dominance of the European car market. The American car industry had also resumed its monopoly of the United States market. At the same time, as a result of its labour-intensive production methods, the unit cost of British produced cars was much higher than those produced in other countries that were developing more mechanised manufacturing processes. Of more significance and what many view as the first stage in the decline of the British car industry was the beginning of a series of mergers between British car manufacturers starting in 1952 with the formation of the British Motor Corporation (BMC).

and Australia. By 1950, the United Kingdom emerged as the world’s second largest car manufacturer but the world’s biggest exporter of cars, responsible for building 52% of the vehicles exported in the world. 75% of all cars built in Britain were sold overseas. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the British automotive

Austin Morris Motors British Motor Nuffield Corporation [BMC] Wolseley (1926) Organisation (1952) MG (1930) (1936) Riley (1938) Daimler (1960) Guy (1960) Jaguar Group (1966) Coventry Climax (1963) Jaguar Leyland Rover (1967) Standard Standard Triumph (1961) Triumph (1944) West Yorkshire Foundries (1945) Albion (1951) Crossley (1945) Maudsley (1945) AVC AEC (1945)

British Motor Holdings [BMH] (1966)

Leyland Motor Corporation (1967)

British Leyland (1968)

Figure 1: Principal mergers involving British motor manufacturers before 1968 showing years of acquisition and amalgamation

industry was at its pinnacle and produced

Figure 1: Principal mergers involving British motor

some of the most sought-after cars in the

manufacturers before 1968 showing years of

world such as the Jaguar E-type, Rolls-

acquisition and amalgamation

Royce Silver Shadow, Aston Martin DB5, MGB and of course, the iconic Mini. The

that were developing more mechanised

industry was employing 250,000 workers and

manufacturing processes.

producing over two million cars a year. The average wage in the car industry was 24%

Of more significance and what many view as

higher when compared to the rest of British

the first stage in the decline of the British

industrial workers.

car industry was the beginning of a series of mergers between British car manufacturers

However, as German, American and

starting in 1952 with the formation of the

Japanese economies recovered, Britain’s

British Motor Corporation (BMC).

status as a world leader in the automotive industry started to decline.

In 1968, encouraged by the Government at the time, the merger between British

THE DECLINE

Motor Holdings (BMH) with Leyland Motors

By 1956, Germany had overtaken British

formed Europe’s fourth largest car maker,

car production and started its long-term

British Leyland. With the exception of the

dominance of the European car market. The

specialist niche car manufacturers such

American car industry had also resumed its

as Rolls Royce, Aston Martin, Lotus and

monopoly of the United States market.

Morgan, this effectively comprised the

At the same time, as a result of its labour-

entire British owned motor manufacturing

intensive production methods, the unit cost

industry. The famous names of Austin,

of British produced cars was much higher

Wolseley, and Morris, the pioneers of the

than those produced in other countries

British automotive industry had disappeared.

S TA B I L I T Y

Although British Leyland sought to keep

bought Aston Martin in 1987, Jaguar in 1989

going the current trend of the British public

and Land Rover in 2000. BMW now owns

to buy British cars by the introduction of

Rolls Royce, Volkswagen owns Bentley, Tata

new vehicle designs such as the Austin

Motors owns Land Rover and Jaguar, and

Princess and the Morris Marina. However,

ownership of Aston Martin is split between

these cars were criticised as being dull

several individuals and private equity firms.

and uninspiring compared with attractive

Britain’s automotive industry no longer

European hatchbacks and the well-built,

exists, with brands such as Rover, Austin,

reliable Japanese models that were also

Singer, Sunbeam and Jensen long gone and

cheaper to buy. During the 1970s, British

the most well-known jewels in the British

Leyland’s dominance in the United Kingdom

crown sold off to foreign manufacturers.

market diminished and by 1975 imported

The Future

cars accounted for 35% of new car sales exceeding British Leyland’s share of the

The United Kingdom still has an excellent

market for the first time.

car manufacturing industry, producing 781,821 cars between October 2021 and

In the same year, after running up losses

October 2022. From a British perspective,

of £76m, British Leyland was nationalized.

the issue is that others own it.

However, despite huge investment, following crippling labour disputes and strikes during the

There are still some small British owned car-

1970s, poor productivity, increased overseas

manufacturers but these tend to specialize

competition, inadequate management, and

in sports cars, such as Mclaren, Morgan,

British Leyland’s failure to identify and

Noble, Arash, Zenos and Climax.

capitalise on market opportunities, in 1988 it was sold to British Aerospace, under its

Whilst Britain may not be the automotive

new name of the Rover Group. In 1994, the

manufacturing powerhouse it once

Rover Group was sold on to BMW which

was, it remains respected for bespoke

meant for the first time in 112 years the

craftsmanship and technical prowess as

United Kingdom did not have a British owned

evidenced by the fact seven of the leading

volume car manufacturer. In 2000, BMW

Formula 1 teams have headquarters in the

broke up the Rover Group keeping the rights to

United Kingdom.

the Mini brand but selling Land Rover to Ford and the remaining MG Rover to a private

Sources

venture group that subsequently went into

The Rise and Decline of the British Motor Industry, Roy Church

receivership five years later.

https://autowise.com/history-british-automotive-industry/

British car manufacturers continued to

http://www.autolinkspro.com/history.htm

fall under overseas ownership when Ford

https://www.smmt.co.uk/2022/11/uk-car-production-outputreturns-to-growth-in-october/

S TA B I L I T Y

Stability

Ayomide Sholebo | 1JWP

What do we mean when we use the term

before arriving in care. The importance

stability? The Oxford Dictionary defines it as:

of a stable home and school cannot be

‘The quality or state of being steady and not

emphasised enough to help these children

changing or being upset in any way; the quality

deal with their past experiences and feel

of being stable.’

safe again. This will then result in them being able to flourish in their new homes

As a result of such a vague definition, this

and schools.

word can have varied meanings in a vast number of contexts.

During my research I also found that approximately 6,000 new foster families

Normally, when the topic of stability is

are needed in England to meet the current

raised, the first thought that comes to

demand. The aim is to find carers from

one’s mind is something to do with physical

different backgrounds and that the children

stability, such as balance. I personally

are matched to the carers to get the best

believe that the perspective one has on

possible outcome. Simultaneously, it is also

stability is personal to them and is normally

important for schools to be nurturing so that

to do with the environment in which they

young people enjoy learning.

have grown up. I would like to share some interesting data I am most interested in mental stability which

about school instability:

refers to strength of mind and well-being.

>There is a link between home instability

As a result, I have chosen to explore the

and school instability. In most cases,

importance of stability in our day-to-day lives.

children that are moved between foster families are likely to have moved schools

If you think about it, as young people, we

as well. In around 400 cases, children in

spend the majority of our lives at home

care have missed an entire term of school

and school. Therefore, the stability of both

because of temporary displacement.

settings is extremely important.

>Whilst most children in care are in good schools, nearly 1 in 5 are in schools that are

It would be astonishing if one would

rated by Ofsted as ‘inadequate’.

not want to live in a secure and stable

The correlation between a stable home and

environment. It is human nature that we

mental stability:

desire the feeling of belonging, love and

>Looked-after children are more likely to

care. In my opinion, a stable home and a

have behavioural difficulties. They also have

stable school largely impacts the way in

more emotional and mental health needs.

which an adolescent succeeds in their life.

This can largely impact their adulthood, personal and social life.

There are over 70,000 children currently in

>Research shows that those who

care in England. These children experienced

experienced trauma in their early lives may

significant adversity in their home lives

have neurological disorders.

S TA B I L I T Y

>Research shows that a stable foster home

3) Stage 3 (7 to 11 years old): when children

can help young people to develop in life.

begin to think for themselves

>Also, those who return home from care are

4) Stage 4 (12 to 16 years old): problem

more likely to show disruptive behaviour

solving and decision-making skills.

patterns than those who remain in care. This is because the kids would build a positive

In conclusion, mental stability is a crucial

relationship with their foster carer.

factor in any child’s life. Unfortunately, some

>Additionally, a lack of presence of a trusted

of us aren’t as lucky to be blessed with all

adult in a child’s life is a great threat to the

the fundamentals that prove to be extremely

child’s mental stability.

helpful in improving someone’s mental and

>A lack of proper guidance and care is

cognitive development.

strongly linked to unfavourable outcomes between these less privileged children.

My aim with this presentation was to highlight

Institutional parenting is an effective way of

how lucky we are coming from secure homes,

encouraging and assisting those who don’t

attending a stable school that provides us with

have a proper family.

a vast opportunity to excel in life and achieve

>Did you know that the lack of parental

the best version of ourselves. It is important

affection in a child’s life can actually impact

that we cherish these opportunities and don’t

their brain development, making it even more

take them for granted.

difficult for adopted children to create new bonds, on top of everything else that they

For example:

have experienced. I personally think that it’s

>Homework is set for our benefit as it

crucial for us to be able to recognise that this

encourages us to revise and keep on top of

is also a prevalent issue in our society.

our studies. >Our additional co-curricular activities, that

The correlation between a stable home and

we optionally choose to do, help us expand

cognitive development:

our horizon of what we may want to do in

Cognitive development is how efficient

the future and help us to have a clearer

someone can learn and remember things

understanding of what we are good at. We

but when associated with stress, it can

may not even realise this until we attend

prevent that person from learning as well as

co-curricular.

their ability as there would be other topics

>Also, despite children’s resentment at tests,

occupying their mind. The level of a child’s

my view is that having regular exams at the

mental health can greatly impact this series

end of a unit in each subject is beneficial in

of stages of development that is key for any

the long run because we don’t have to take

person. The various stages are:

in lots of information all at once, but instead

1) Stage 1 (infant to 3 years old): eating,

can learn the subject at a steady but highly

moving and grasping.

effective pace.

2) Stage 2 (3 to 7 years old): learning to speak and then more social speech.

S TA B I L I T Y

Is the world's population increasing or decreasing?

Calum Davidson | L1EOS

INTRODUCTION

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF A SMALLER

The day I was born the World’s population

POPULATION?

had just hit seven billion and recently the

The downside of fewer people in the world

World’s population hit eight billion. In my

is that there would be less people to work

lifetime the World’s population has gone up

jobs, which would result in children working

by 14 percent, but people like Elon Musk say

from a younger age. Cities might also be

it is going to decline. Are they right?

underpopulated, and economies would shrink.

WHAT NEEDS TO HAPPEN FOR THE

The upside to a world with fewer people

POPULATION TO INCREASE?

is that the world would have less pollution

Firstly, each person would need to marry

because there would be fewer people in

another person, and have three or more

the world and there would be more space

children for the population of the world to

for parks because humans would need less

increase.

space to live in. This would make the world less polluted and slow global warming .

Is there more data? Another way that the population can go up is that people live

WHAT DO OTHER PEOPLE THINK IS

longer. This means if they are still in the

GOING TO HAPPEN?

world they count as one person as well as

Elon Musk thinks that the world’s population

more people being born. Therefore, causing

will collapse. Why?

the population to go up. Elon Musk thinks that the world’s WHY MIGHT IT BE DECLINING?

population will decrease. He says that

The Earth’s population could start declining

‘Population collapse due to low birth rates

if the global fertility rate were to start going

are a much bigger risk to civilisation than

down and fewer people have children. This

global warming.’ He believes that it will

could happen because in some societies

collapse because he claims that twenty or

the birth rates are dropping. People might

so countries populations will halve by the

also think harder about whether they have

end of the century. I do not believe this

children or not because they are more

because if you look at most statistics they

educated than 50 to 100 years ago.

do not claim the world’s population will even start decreasing until 2100. Musk

Also, if two people have zero children then

also has little to no evidence showing his

another couple would need to have four

predictions are true. Following on from this

children and the average births per woman

point demographers (experts in studying

is 2.4, having four children would be almost

the structure of the human populations) say

double the normal birth rate.

he is completely wrong and here is why: with eight billion and counting, they do

S TA B I L I T Y

IS GLOBAL DEPOPULATION A GREATER

THE UPSIDE TO A WORLD WITH FEWER PEOPLE IS THAT THE WORLD WOULD HAVE LESS POLLUTION.

HAZARD THAN CLIMATE CHANGE? Personally, I think that Climate Change is the biggest threat of all time because the effects of climate change could wipe out people a lot faster than any amount of depopulation, but does everyone one agrees with me? No, everyone does not agree with me because several celebrities think that depopulation is the greatest threat of all time because with a depopulated world nothing would work properly. This is wrong because global warming would also create an underpopulated world but birth rates going down would create and older

not see a population collapse happening in

population, whereas global warming could

the present time or for an exceedingly long

kill old and young people because of poor,

time. Some demographers predict that the

dirty and unclean air quality.

world’s population could peak at 10.9 billion in 2068 and then start declining in 2070 and

MY OPINION

go down to 8.8 billion people at 2100 but a

I think that the world’s population will

widely agreed on number that was set by the

stop increasing sooner than the data says

UN is that the world’s population will keep

because of hunger and poverty. I think this

increasing and peak at 10.4 billion at 2100.

would stop the population going up because

These estimates are far higher above than

people might not have enough money to

Elon Musk’s because he claims the world’s

buy food for their children, causing people

population will start decreasing in the next

to hold back from having as many children.

few decades. The predictions by Elon Musk

This combined with the fertility rate means

are that the world’s population will stop

it could stop the population growth decades

at least twenty years before the lowest

before its planned to. We could slow

predictions by demographers were made.

down this by making sure there are fewer

He also thinks that the world’s population

homeless and jobless people, making people

will collapse after the time most people now

more likely to get married.

have predicted that the world’s population will keep increasing. If Elon Musk is right (which most people think he is not) this could be a great danger to humanity.

S TA B I L I T Y

Hoverboards and Superconductivity

Cameron Hamilton | L1EOS

When I first thought of the topic ‘Stability’,

The hoverboard has been looked up by the

ideas rushed into my head like the waves

greatest and hasn’t been thought possible,

on the beaches of Morocco, beautiful and

but over the decades there have been some

bright, but a specific topic stood out to me.

changes. Although Hoverboards have been

Since I was little, I have dreamed of being

normalized and thought of as new they date

an engineer, an inventor, the first person

back almost a century. In 1950, the very

to create something to increase human

first hoverboard prototype was made and

knowledge. This exciting new opportunity

depicted as a platform that could hold one

stood out as it also linked to my background

person and could levitate in the air. 57 years

and one of my hobbies, skiing, and the hope

later, another model was made. In the movie

of one day learning to snowboard. Once

Back to the Future (1985), it was imagined

I thought of it, I was extremely excited

as a thin board with some sort of levitation

to learn about something that I had not

device attached to four corners of the board.

yet had the chance to research before,

At the time the producer of the film claimed

but once I looked deeper into the topic, I

it was real, but that was untrue.

realized that the concept of hoverboards, my future article, had already been created. I

Although it may not be classified as a real

metaphorically cried inside and felt lost and

hoverboard, in 1996 the first trademark

clueless for days. My dream invention had

hoverboard was made using two wheels

been taken from me.

attached to a board. This was enabled by the discovery of superconductivity by Heike

That wouldn’t stop me. I brainstormed

Kamerlingh-Onnes. In 1908, Kamerlingh-

and thought long and hard until I realized

Onnes discovered liquid helium, marking

that I can still present my dream in a

the start of research into superconductivity,

simpler format. This spark really caught

later known as the London Theory, ‘designed

because I knew that using analogies and

to describe the interaction between two

an easier formatting so someone who is

electrons and two adjacent atoms.’ The

not as experienced can learn and enjoy my

London Theory of Heike Kamerlignh-Onnes is

favourite topic, Hoverboards.

effectively the first step towards Hoverboards.

On October 6th, 2021, the YouTube

Some thought the way to go was by using

channel based on robotics and engineering,

strong magnets to force the board away

HackSmith, made a popular video about

from the ground while an equal force pushed

one of the prototypes of the modern day

the board up into a stable state by using four

hoverboard. Although this was a dream

strong fans located at the corners of the thin

to some and a goal for others, HackSmith

curved metal board. This supposedly would

made scientists look stupid and Harvard

propel the board into an equal position in

professors look like idiots by proving that

the air while the fans would constantly run.

that distant dream wasn’t as distant as they

This design would obviously not work as

thought.

there would be many flaws such as the fans

S TA B I L I T Y

IN 1950, THE VERY FIRST HOVERBOARD PROTOTYPE WAS MADE AND DEPICTED AS A PLATFORM THAT COULD HOLD ONE PERSON AND COULD LEVITATE IN THE AIR having to produce a lot of wind to push an

to the right temperature and/or is mixed

object and a human, which is not possible.

with the right elements into an alloy.

While you may think this could be easily fixed it would additionally have to include

These discoveries many years ago created

a system where it would need to keep the

a new way to think about this otherwise

board at a hovering state and that means

complex topic, which still many scientists

there would have to be an external force

and teaches use today. Imagine you had

acting on the board so it doesn’t fly away.

a bowl with water in it and stirred it with an object, it would eventually stop

The famous company Lexus has moved to

moving and return to a still state because

the front of the race to design a hoverboard

there is friction and internal resistance

by using a mechanism called flux pinning

acting on the water to cause it to slow

which is used to enable quantum locking.

down. This is a noticeably big contrast

This process involves the cooling of a

to how superconductors work because

superconductor with liquid nitrogen to

when a superconductor is cooled down

an extremely cold temperature which

and stimulated, it reacts and causes the

allows it to float upon a magnet. This

electrons in the superconductor to go

technique has been used before on smaller

haywire. This happens because the electrons

scales such as pushing the cooled super

are cooled down as it has almost no internal

conductor along a magnet track which

friction and resistance acting on it so it

allows the superconductor to float upon the

can float on a magnet. This means in the

magnetic base. Using this method objects

experiment with the water it proves that

can pass through the magnetic field and

when there is a low temperature is having

superconductor, and it won’t disturb the

less resistance and when it is at a higher

magnetic field and will stay afloat until the

temperature it has a higher resistance and

superconductor is warm enough to stop

means like the water as shown will stop

reacting. Superconductors are often made

because it is much warmer which causes

of a compound of chemical elements. Any

it to have some sort of limit. Additionally,

metal can be a superconductor once cooled

this process will continue forever because

S TA B I L I T Y

when an electron in a super conductor hits

down or react which the chemicals inside

an atom it scatters and therefore loses

of the board. It would also have included

energy in the proses so after a while of

superconductors preferably a few on each

moving it will gain enough of a temperature

side of the board to stabilize the weight

to move out of the transition temperature

and when ridden would have to have a

marin and create enough to gain internal

magnet track or sort of skate park so it

resistance and friction. Therefore, a cooled

remains a float. A sort of magnetic boot

superconductor when reacted with a magnet

would have too be worn when ridden to

produces a mirror image of each pole just

give extra stability so you don’t fall off,

like our earth.

but this magnet would have to be separate from the superconductors, so they don’t

Like most exceptional inventions there

react. Additionally, you would need to have

are many problems which come with it.

reliable access to liquid nitrogen to refuel

One of these problems is that when using

the board constantly.

superconductivity, you must cool down the superconductors to a freezing temperature,

Hendo is another amazing example of a

but the problem with this is the effect only

company striding to success in this race

lasts for 15-20 minutes and the constant

and has introduced innovative technology

refueling of the board would lead to a lot

to help us greater understand this dream.

of hassle when using it. Because of this

Hendo has used magnetic fields to power

technique it is very hard to stay on the

their hoverboards by creating magnetic

board let alone ride it. This means that the

fields to create electrical currents on the

board’s main purpose, riding, is very hard

surface and when the magnetic field and

and would take many months of practice.

electronic currents push together it allows the object to float, such as a hoverboard or

Now if you were to create your own

car. This is similar technology to how the

hoverboard using this technique the board

recent floating on water boat was made

would have to have an outer shell of a

and how many other crazy superconductor

strong metal such as titanium for you to

inventions were made. Despite this, it is only

not feel the minus 196-degree Celsius

the beginning of hoverboards.

temperature and for the metal to not break

S TA B I L I T Y

Fantastical thinking: Christians and the Bible

Charlie Kennedy | 5HML

One word to describe the Bible might be

I believe it’s important to note, first, both

"equivocal", as everyone who reads it has

my biases and the assumptions made in

to navigate a labyrinth of contradiction

the process of this essay. I do not believe

and hypocrisy. It is frequently argued

in God, and therefore also do not believe

that our evidence against the Christian

Jesus is the Messiah. The intention of this

God stems deeply from our new scientific

piece is not to take an unbiased stance,

understanding of the universe and the

because I couldn’t truthfully do so even if

biological components which make up who

I tried. However, for the sake of analysing

we are. It could therefore be forgiven (from

every kind of contradiction, including

an atheist’s perspective) because there

those that require faith to assume to be

were simply no other explanation during

sound, everything will be considered. This

more simple times, and therefore there

is because the Bible is not just negligent in

was rationality behind the belief in God.

maintaining its own coherency, but so is God

However, I would argue that that is not the

and the characteristics of God.

case; in fact no scientific evidence is needed to place Christianity under damning scrutiny,

BIBLICAL CONTRADICTIONS

and that by simply using the Bible as a

The first component of this analysis is that

sole point of interest, you can still create a

of contradictions between verses: which

strong enough case to dismiss its credibility.

are frequent. In many denominations of

Despite this, Christianity thrives. Millions

Christianity, the Bible is either the direct

of people have read each and every verse

word of God, or by writers that were

from its scriptures and have still concluded

inspired by God; therefore, finding a valid

that God is real. In fact, more often than

contradiction is a seriously pressing issue

not, these people then develop reasons as

for Christians, as it is not within God’s

to why these anomalies exist, and why the

described characteristics to make mistakes,

Bible still stands steady against every one of

after all, he is omniscient and perfect: these

these allegations.

are not characteristics of a being who makes dozens of equivocal statements.

In order to fully understand the scope of this thinking and its possible causes, I will

KILLING AND CONFLICT

first present my case on the inconsistencies

Genesis 9:6 says “Whoever sheds human

of the Bible, as well as examine the known

blood, by humans shall their blood be shed;

historical data surrounding important parts

for in the image of God has God made

of Biblical history; then I will try to apply

mankind.” In this verse, we are taught that

this to Christian theology and thinking to

as we are made in God’s image (Imago Dei),

work out why Christians can still conclude

it is an injustice to ever spill the blood of

beyond reasonable doubt that Christianity is

another man. Doing so would disgrace the

valid and they should dedicate their lives to

dignity of that person, which God gave

the faith.

him through making him in his own image. Despite this apparent moral absolutism, the

S TA B I L I T Y

Bible is filled with death and spilt blood. For

of moral absolutism, but also indicates that

was it not God’s command that in Joshua

Jesus is therefore a false prophet of God’s

6:21, the Israelites “utterly destroyed all

word, after all, Jesus says during the Sermon

that was in the city, both man and woman

on the Mount (Matthew 5:9) “Blessed are

(Canaanites), young and old, ox and sheep

the peacemakers, for they shall be called

and donkey, with the edge of the sword”. If

sons of God.” The language here displays the

God commands that no man should ever spill

inconsistencies of the Bible. Either Exodus

the blood of another, then it is perplexing

15:3 or Matthew 5:9 is wrong, as both are

that the same God would then turn and

mutually exclusive of each other. Whilst

call for the “utter” destruction of not

some may argue that being a ‘peacemaker’

just the Canaanites, but also the Hittites,

doesn’t necessarily mean being a pacifist,

Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites

it would still contradict Jesus’ New Law,

(Deuteronomy 20:17). One counter

where he remarks that war is a moral wrong

argument is that the Canaanites were far

(Matthew 26:52) “For all who take the sword

from free of sin, after all, they rejected the

will perish by the sword”. If Jesus refers to

words of God, which consequently meant

peacemakers as military peacekeepers, he

their society as a whole had acted sinfully.

cannot also be truthful in Matthew 26, as he

Though, this is just one of many counter

must either support or discourage war.

arguments to come which doesn’t solve the issue. For even if the Canaanites had

An example of how historical context

sinned against God, Genesis 9:6 teaches us

can explain the Bible’s faults can also be

that we are all made in God’s image, even

observed here. It is interesting to note that

if we don’t embrace God, so why would it

Jesus’ key disciples included Simon and

matter that the Canaanites were sinners?

Judas, both of whom were zealots. The

If God can justify slaughter because of sin,

Zealots were a 1st century Palestinian and

then why does he simultaneously preach

Judean movement of radical Jews. Their

moral absolutism, both in the Old Testament

main ideals situated around revolution

and through Jesus in the Gospels. John 8:7

through violent and forceful means. It was

states “Let he who is without sin cast the

their principal belief that the Old Testament

first stone”, and as no person is perfect, all

encouraged Jews to maintain the self-

of those Israelites had too sinned in their

determination of the holy land through

lives, when they ‘cast the first stone’ by

means of war, if necessary. It would be this

massacring every last man, woman and child

group that just thirty years after the death

who lived in Canaan.

of Jesus would spark the Jewish Revolt, which lasted until the siege of Masada

This is far from the only contradiction when

in 73 A.D. When you consider the wider

the Bible explores the issue of conflict.

context of Jesus’ apostles, Jesus seemed to

Perhaps the most blatant contradiction is

lead a small party of devoted subjects, all

in Exodus 15:3 “The LORD is a man of war:

of which were armed (carrying sicas) and

the Lord is his name”, which flies in the face

two of which were known members of the

S TA B I L I T Y

most prominently violent group in Judea at

be warmongers and promote pacifism. To

the time. Whilst not a direct contradiction,

infer the Bible’s message coherently and

because it becomes more matter of

consistently on the matter is impossible.

likelihood than paradox, the idea of a small armed and radical group preaching “all who

NARRATIVE DIFFERENCES

take the sword will perish by the sword.”

Another prominent source of contradictions

(Matthew 26:52) does not make sense. It is

in the Bible comes from the narrative

certainly peculiar to see that from historical

differences between the Bible’s authors.

context, Jesus did not lead a peaceful

There are multiple examples of books

group, and yet the Bible presents on record

within the Bible, even when addressing the

his absolute pacifism. What is especially

same issue or moment, that have different

interesting is that a ‘violent’ Jesus is at

accounts or teachings. I would use this

times depicted in the Bible. One example of

moment as a reminder that one paramount

this, which has sparked intense theological

Christian belief is that either the Biblical

debate, is John 2:15, when Jesus arrives at

writers were all inspired by God, or the

the temple of Jerusalem, to find it rampant

Bible’s contents were directly dictated

with money changers and merchants, who

by God. If this is the case, then obvious

had taken to the holy temple and desecrated

differences between writers when applied

it by using it as a venue to conduct business.

to the same overall context, will propose

An enraged Jesus “made a whip out of

a significant issue with Christianity, as

chords, and drove all from the temple courts,

it shouldn’t be possible for God to make

both sheep and cattle; he scattered the

mistakes, but we know these narratives do

coins of the money changers and overturned

not work together simultaneously, which

their tables”. Here, Jesus does not exercise

would once again poke a fault in the Bible.

his own principle of “turning one cheek”, and instead resorted to the forceful removal of

One of the more obvious examples of

all from the temple. Whilst this doesn’t align

this occurs in the recounting of Jesus’

with the pacifism Jesus is at times presented

resurrection, and who it was that first

with, it would make sense when you

spread word of the resurrection. According

consider his sympathies toward Zealotism,

to Mark 16:8, when the three women

and therefore may reflect that historically,

discovered Jesus’ ascension from the dead,

Jesus took a keen interest in forceful rather

they told nobody and kept it to themselves.

than pacifistic approaches. Although, this

On the other hand, Matthew 28:8 and Luke

comparison still shows the extent to the

24:9 imply that immediately, the women

contradictions between how Jesus’ views on

informed the disciples and then preached

conflict are presented, both biblically and

to all those who would listen. Finally, John

historically.

20:10-11 implies that once again, nobody spoke of the resurrection, and both the

If one was to abide by the Bible’s plethora

women accompanying Mary went home,

of views on conflict, they would have to

leaving her to cry at his tomb. Here we have

S TA B I L I T Y

three different narratives of an identical

of his Apostles was to “make disciples of

moment. If we are to believe the Christian

all the nations, baptising them in the name

pretence that God is perfect and cannot

of the Father and the Son and the Holy

make mistakes, then the only resolution

Spirit” (it is also interesting to note that

is that two of the writers altered their

previously Matthew had accounted Jesus

narrative, purging the truth. However, this

as having explicitly instructed “Do not go

too would contradict common Christian

among the Gentiles”, once again, insinuating

understanding, as a writer inspired by God

that Jesus contradicted himself), whilst on

or spoken to directly by God should not be

the other hand, Luke’s recount of Jesus’

capable of making that mistake. Some would

encounter with the Canaanite woman eludes

argue that when you consider the shock

to Jesus’ original purpose to help the “lost

and intensity of such a moment, it is only

lambs of Israel”. In the encounter, a woman

natural that people would make mistakes in

from Canaan pleads Jesus to heal her sick

their testimonies. One might say that it is

daughter, however Jesus, in a turn from

natural that there are slight differences as

the unconditional love he promised to all,

it’s more consistent with human memory.

rejected the woman, explaining that God

This is a sensible counterargument, but once

brought him here to save the lost people of

again, departs from the assumption that the

Israel. Unless the assumption is that Jesus

writers acted independently of God, which

had an epiphany and at some point revised

for one, goes against the understanding of

his opinion on who his restructured Judaist

major denominations of Christianity, and

law should be addressed to, then we once

two, could potentially discredit much of the

again find ourselves at a serious impasse.

Bible, as there’s no longer a trust that the

Although others may be minute enough

writers are properly informed or justified in

to pass as error or choice; the influence

their writings.

of an entire religion is not an issue that should be held in light regard. For that

However, this is not a unique case by

reason, if there was ever a section which

any means. There is a large pool of small

was to be “Influenced” by God, then this

narrative modifications across the Gospels.

certainly would be it. Despite this, a clear

Though some of them could be placed on

inconsistency exists, suggesting that there

the significance of recalling a rather minute

is no such influence or dictation from God,

moment, or their purpose in attending

which leads me onto my next point.

to the Gospel’s targeted audience, there are other, more significant examples

The Gospels are fundamentally the most

which have far reaching implications. For

important biblical books for a Christian.

example, when the Christ commanded his

They recount the life and teachings of

disciples to preach the word of God, there

Jesus and have served as the basis for

are entirely different commands recorded

most Christian denomination’s structures

by the Gospels. For example, according to

for nearly two millennium. And for equally

Matthew 28:19, Jesus’ final commandment

as long, many Christians have attributed a

S TA B I L I T Y

Luke was Greek, and the purpose of his

THE GOSPELS ARE FUNDAMENTALLY THE MOST IMPORTANT BIBLICAL BOOKS FOR A CHRISTIAN

gospel was to provide a more specialised account on Jesus which would best influence a Greek and Roman audience. Essentially, his main motivation was the spread of Christianity to the European Mediterranean areas, even if it meant sacrificing the historicity of the document. This revision included conforming with Greek and Roman social conventions, language, and culture, in order to best attract people to the religion, so it could be more efficiently adopted by a wider group of people within his targeted audience. Language manipulation was an important method in modifying the Bible

‘spiritual’ link between its writing and God,

to achieve this goal; by creating a more

which is what I’ve attributed as a key reason

familiar environment, it would provide

behind the significance of contradictions in

a deeper understanding of the Bible. An

the Bible, as any contradiction is therefore

example of this can be observed during

inherently a contradiction made by God which

the Parable of the Good Samaritan, in Luke

should not be possible. However, as these still

10:35, when it says: “The next day he [the

exist, many Christians, either pressed to, or

Samaritan] took out two denarii and gave

out of their own rationalising, acknowledge

them to the innkeeper.” The inaccuracy

that the Gospels wrote independently, and

here is from the choice of currency. Luke

facilitated their writings toward their own

claims that the Samaritan was exchanging

motivations, rather than an exact depiction

in denarii, however there is very little

of the life of Jesus. This leads me onto my

evidence pointing toward the circulation

next criticism of the Bible’s use by Christians:

of denarii in Judea at the time of Jesus.

the gospels are more aligned to personal and

Dr Peter Lewis, an expert on coinage and

political preference rather than any spiritual

ancient history conducted an investigation

importance which Christian’s would value. The

into the mentions of the denarius in the

main source of evidence behind Christianity

Bible and concluded that the coins “could

is itself a front for the political manoeuvring

not have been a denarius because there

of those involved in its original conception

is no evidence that denarii circulated in

and future editions. This is the real reason

Judea at the time”. We have deduced this

such significant and noticeable narrative

from the lack of coin hoards found within

differences exist, because each one serves a

the areas spanning Judea that matched the

personal purpose over a genuine rendition of

denarii of that time-period. As Judea was a

Jesus’ actions. Using the gospel of Luke, I will

far less attractive area of the Roman Empire,

demonstrate this.

it was therefore less well maintained. It

S TA B I L I T Y

was not a Roman priority and so matters of

acknowledge that the Gospel writers had

local commerce were better fit with local

particular motives and intentions. Even in

currencies of that area, such as the Shekels,

major denominations, if the institutions

Bekahs and Talents.

behind them state their official belief is that the Gospels are the inspired words of

As we can see, Luke has taken liberty in

God, many of their followers still express

the actual historicity of his writing so that

similar scepticisms, opting to simply

the environment is more familiar to those

acknowledge there will be inconsistencies

in Greece, whom at the time were subject

but not perceiving it as evidence against the

to the use of denarii. While many may

credibility of the Bible.

challenge this as a very minor issue that doesn’t warrant any implications about the

COUNTERARGUMENTS

credibility of Christianity and the Bible, it

The second phase of my analysis will be

at a minimum displays scriptural evidence

focussed on the main line of Christian

of the writers’ own personal preferences

counterarguments against contradiction

and biases, which furthers the idea that

in the Bible. It is important to consider

the Bible is not religiously motivated but

these as the reasoning behind their

politically and out of self-interest. This

counterarguments will give better insight as

therefore can still be considered to convey

to why they continue to show such staunch

contradictions within the Bible, as the very

feats of faith.

motives of the writers’ and their adherence to the true context of the events within the

For one, a Christian might justify the variety

Bible contrast the image of Christianity they

in the Gospels’ narratives because of human

preach. How is it showing pure intentions

flaw and bias. The Gospels’ writers were,

to further your own personal cause at the

after all, still human and therefore prone to

sacrifice of the supposed most important

human error a la when we are when reciting

documentation there is, after all, according

our own accounts of an event. When people

to that very same book, “People may

recount from their memory of an event,

be pure in their own eyes, but the Lord

there will of course be slight nuances and

examines their motives.” (Proverbs 16:2).

differences, because not all people will

My demonstration through a rather obscure

remember the exact same thing. However, if

and minor example may not in itself carry

there is a general consistency between the

my argument, but when you combine it with

Gospels, then that is indicative that they are

the narrative differences provided, what

speaking truthfully, for their divergences

you find is a front for political manoeuvring

are in most cases insignificant to the greater

rather than the God-inspired words of

story or message, which is consistent

dedicated worshippers.

throughout.

Although, it is interesting to consider that

Another common counterargument is that

there are many Christians out there who

we need to account for textual damage. The

S TA B I L I T Y

earliest Gospel, Mark, was at latest written

expected for someone having to translate

in 50 C.E, which would make it nearly 2,000

text over to their native language, which

years old. In addition to this, we have none

has happened numerous times in the Bibles

of the original manuscripts of any gospels,

case, that they would experience slight

meaning we cannot confirm the accuracy

difficulties paraphrasing between languages.

of newer Biblical editions. In early states

However, whilst these counterarguments

of Biblical transcribing, it is easy to assume

are correct in providing reasons for

that textual damage would have meant small

Biblical narrative contradictions, they

sections of the Bible would not have been

pose a deeper problem within this line of

properly intelligible, and therefore could not

Christian counterarguing. If some Christians

be accurately translated. A good example

are conscious of the inaccuracies and

of this is 1 Samuel 13:1 “Saul was one year

divergences in the Gospels, then how can

old when he began to reign, and he reigned

they bring themselves to forge their lives

two years over Israel”. It is unanimously

around them. Not just is there already a

agreed among Biblical scholars that this is

lack of tangible evidence for the existence

a case of textual damage, as the scripture

of God, but there is now a great concern

covering this event leaves no doubt that

behind the integrity of the Bible, leaving

Saul is a fully grown man when he is

nothing for one’s faith to embed itself

anointed King. Furthermore, people could

on. Whilst these counterarguments prove

have made genuine mistakes or purposefully

that the original scripture may not have

manipulated the scripture to reflect their

been contaminated with the same levels

own ideals and sentiment, corrupting what

of inconsistency, we do not have access to

could have been the true words of the

those original scriptures, and yet having

Gospel writers. It is important to consider

acknowledged the levels of issues circulating

this, as the majority of these arguments

around the newer editions, whether that

have been made against the Gospel writers,

be textual error, human bias, or language,

who may not have made the contradictions

they still continue to adhere to the Bible’s

imposed on them.

words and provide blind faith to the Biblical God. To put simply, how can a Christian

Language is also a factor worth noting.

rationalise showing faith to the Bible, when

Jesus spoke Aramaic, which was the

they acknowledge, for whatever specific

prominent language among Jews in Palestine

reasons behind it, that the Bible has been

during the 1st century. Greek writers like

manipulated in different ways over the last

Luke may have improperly interpreted

two millennia, and therefore cannot be true

Aramaic wording or paraphrased it into

to God’s intent.

a comprehendible piece of literature for

Greeks. Languages do not necessarily carry

Before I explore the final issue of what

equivalent wording and phrasing to make

guides these Christians’ faith, it is important

translating one vocabulary into another a

to consider the action taken by some to

trouble-free endeavour, and so it would be

recover the most accurate form of the

S TA B I L I T Y

Bible, such as those like Karl Barth. Karl

the Bible is truthful to God’s intent for us,

Barth’s hermeneutical approach was to

how can we risk dedicating our lives to its

first build off the presupposition that God

scripture. There is no empirical data which

is transcendent, and his direct words are

affirms the existence of God: the sole source

not comprehendible, therefore only the

of input that has driven the expansion of

Gospels, which are from the perspective

early Christian communities is the Bible,

of Jesus Christ – the human incarnation of

and if we cannot even be sure of that’s

God – can be understood. With this, Karl

legitimacy, then what urge should there be

Barth set about examining the Gospels,

to sacrifice legal and material freedoms to

with the intention of finding and removing

be Christian?

all personal bias from the text. He believed that one could unlock the true nature of

Perhaps it is the credulity of man. Perhaps,

the Gospels by identifying the sections

humans are just willing to believe things that

which could most likely correspond to the

are on most accounts completely irrational

actual teachings of Jesus, and so that was

and lacking evidence. It is not unpronounced

his hermeneutical approach: dissecting

for humans to convey belief in supernatural

the Bible and removing areas of bias. The

elements, whether that be ghosts or the

problem arises that you cannot sure what

idea (complete idiocy) of zodiac signs, not

areas were added from personal preference.

because there is any intrinsic evidence that

Sometimes, Barth may have encountered

leads to them, but rather because humans

obvious cases, like Luke’s references to

do not naturally approach issues based

denarii or Matthew’s implications that Jesus

off their scientific and logical probability.

only cared for the Jews. However, how can

Gilbert Ryle’s ‘Category Error’ is probably

we be certain that other, seemingly assured

best attributed here, as he argued that

sections weren’t too manipulated in some

humans seem to ‘miscategorise’ many things,

way. Most of them likely uphold important

such as the existence of God, because it

elements of their original scripture, but that

is not our natural response to consider

is not a guarantee, so whilst in theory, Karl

the most likely option. This is why simply

Barth’s approach is the best for extracting

explaining the scientific contradictions

the true Biblical message, in practise it is not

of Zodiac signs does not convince people

possible.

to stop believing in them. Once we categorise something, we naturally attach

CHRISTIAN FAITH

ourselves to it and it is very difficult to

Finally, we arrive at the heart of this entire

change. This is applicable to Christianity

debate. If contradictions exist within the

in this sense – for example, a child raised

Bible, why do Christians continue to practise

Christian will have categorised many early

the religion. After all, they’re worshipping

lessons with God, and therefore requires

the works of people who were not God or

more than just a scientific explanation

Jesus and manipulated the Bible as a tool for

of God’s fallacy to convince them that

their own agenda. If we cannot be sure that

they’re wrong. Although one can point

S TA B I L I T Y

out the contradictions of the Bible, many

one’s faith to express absolute faith in its

Christians simply will not acknowledge it to

truth, particularly when there is so little

be genuine evidence against God, because

to justify it. But, as with everything, there

for them, God is something that they have

must be a reason someone can genuinely

categorised as an objective truth, not bound

practise blind faith, and that comes down

to negotiation. This could possibly explain

to their categorisation of God as absolute

why Christians are not more alarmed by

and principle to other things, and the

Biblical contradictions, as at one point in

justification that comes with the argument

their life (likely when they were young), they

of faith.

categorised God to be objectively true and linked many other concepts to him, which

Imagine a world where people never held

cemented his existence within their minds,

objective beliefs. The idea feels alien and

closing off the passage for rationalisation,

unnatural, because fundamentally, its

tangible evidence, and a need for evidence.

inhuman for people to be so open-minded. I

These categorisations develop an infallibility

do not believe it is possible to find a single

of God and the Bible, so that God’s

person who does not hold a belief that they

existence is as true to them as saying

deem non-negotiable, even though someone

‘humans need to breathe to survive’. To try

else out there finds themselves honestly

and present evidence against God may come

believing the complete opposite.

off as ridiculous as arguing one doesn’t need legs to run.

Strangely, it is seemingly more human to hold blind faith in a God than it is to believe

However, the primary factor is faith.

nothing is absolute.

Christian faith is incredibly powerful, as to Christians, it gives their categorisation of

References

God justification, and if they believe they’re

https://www.learnreligions.com/contradictions-in-gospelReferenaccounts-of-jesus-tomb-250141

justified, then the pursuit for a different truth evaporates. Just as one might feel justified in secular beliefs of our origins, a Christian would feel justified in their Biblical beliefs, for they observe God as absolute, and the principle of exercising faith justifies their absolute belief. Having myself tried to argue Biblical inconsistencies against my Christian parents, I found this to be true. Principally, their argument derived from one of faith, and they said that they understand that there is no tangible evidence, but they do not need it, for they choose to exercise faith in God. It is the greatest challenge of

S TA B I L I T Y

Stability

Dylan Ball | 3JPH

When the world around me changes And I don’t like what I see I revert back to my comfort Of stability. Stability is a flowing river That runs forever more Stability if the feelING you get When you open your front door. Stability is the warm sunshine It is the moon at night It’s the money in your pocket It’s the hugs that hold you tight It’s what binds us all together It makes our world go round And whenever we are scared or worried It holds you to the ground It’s the bricks that builds the buildings It’s the air that we can breathe It’s living all together In perfect harmony Stability is our alarm clock It’s THE opening of our eyes It’s the whisper of our trees It’s THE stars in the skies The world will keep on turning And people will live on It’s the bond that holds us together Stability is where we belong

S TA B I L I T Y

What Keeps a Sport’s Ownership Stable?

Dylan Williams | 2KLF

According to the Oxford dictionary, stability

Brothers and CFG against one another

is defined as: ‘the quality of being steady

and see if the fans and press are correct in

and not changing or being upset in any

saying that these ownerships are bad and

way’. This can be interpreted as someone

good; unstable and stable. The main points

or something being able to stay upright

that we will be considering throughout this

and being stable. However, it can also be

piece are money, a base for the future of the

looked at as the stability of a government,

club, and popularity.

of leadership; non-physical things can be stable. What keeps an ownership stable?

MONEY

You can own many things, but many people

When you think of an ownership being

know you can own sports clubs, so we will

stable, you think of economic stability.

be investigating these today. Many different

Having money is what you need to run and

points can contribute to stable ownership.

own a business. The more money you have,

These points can range from money; to the

the more you can put into the club, and the

customers; or to people you are trying to

better the results will be (theoretically).

reach out to. There are many examples of

Furthermore, football players’ wages have

good ownerships, but also many examples

dramatically increased in the past few years

of bad ownerships in sport. Today we will be

and decades. This means that new and

investigating if they are really that bad, or if

richer owners must be brought into the

it is just fan opinion.

club so that they can pay these wages to keep the club economically stable. Now it

OWNERSHIP

is even more crucial that owners of football

There are two football clubs that spring

clubs have even more money so they can

to mind when you think about good and

pay the wages. If you compare how much

bad ownerships: Manchester City for the

Man United’s worth is (£3.85 billion) to

good, and Manchester United for the bad.

Manchester City’s worth (£3.5 billion), it

Manchester City have very rich owners and

shows that Man United has a higher worth.

are owned by a group: the City Football

However, Manchester United made a profit

Group (CFG). Its main owner has a net

of £494.1 million last season, compared to

worth of £17.5 billion. This amount of

Manchester City’s £613 million last season.

money is considered stable. However, on

So far, Manchester United is economically

the other end of the spectrum, the owners

stable and almost equal to Manchester

of Manchester United (the Glazer Brothers)

City. As we can see, Manchester United is

are considered bad owners by the press and

economically stable, despite the bad press

fans because of their decision making. But

that they receive.

does this mean that they are not stable? POPULARITY

Many points can contribute to being a

The Glazer Brothers are one of the most

stable and good ownership. We will have 3

disliked owners in the Premier League.

main points and then compare the Glazer

Having a strong fanbase is important, as the

S TA B I L I T Y

abuse that they are getting is ruining the

can lead to a decrease in the income you

club in their actual games. Protests against

have, making you less economically stable.

the Glazers have caused some games to

The points of money and popularity overlap;

be postponed because of how bad they

more fans means more money, meaning

were. The Glazers aren’t stable with their

more stability. Manchester United received

fanbase, and this can really affect the results

£110.8 million pounds from matchday

of the club. If the owners are focusing too

revenue. This means clubs do rely on a

much on gaining the popularity of the fans,

strong and stable fanbase.

they won’t be focusing on the actual club’s games and the team. The Glazer brothers

GOAL FOR THE CLUB

were never popular from the start, with

Manchester United is one of few clubs

Manchester United fans chanting ‘Die, Die

with such a historic background; the most

Glazers’ when they first came to the club

Premier League Titles; many Champions

in 2005. It was never going to be easy for

League titles, and many, many more trophies

them. Stability relates to this, as not having

from different tournaments. The Glazers

a strong and stable fanbase can really

must keep a high standard at the club and

affect having a good ownership, as you are

make sure that these trophies are still

focusing too much on the fans, and not

flowing into the club regularly. Joel, one of

enough on the club you are owners of. For

the Glazer Brothers, had said: ‘Our view is

Manchester City, the Owners of Manchester

that this club has such a rich history and

City (as well as Manchester United’s

tradition that we’re not looking to change.’

Owners) decided to join the European

This shows that the Glazer Brothers do

Super League (a league where many top

have a set plan for their future – just to

European clubs played in one league). This

keep going how they were before. The CFG

meant that they would abandon other

are owners of many football clubs, but

leagues and competitions to play in this

Manchester City is the biggest. However,

one, just for extra money. This made them

this may mean that they aren’t focused on

very unpopular amongst the fans because

what Manchester City fully want. They may

of the history of the Premier League. This

be concentrating on another club and not

caused huge protests for both clubs when,

Manchester City. This may mean that the

finally, both owners decided to pull out of

club’s future for the owners may not be a

it. Manchester United especially are hit hard

big consideration for them and, when they

with a stable fan base; with Manchester

do get there, problems could arise. Things

City, not so much. Furthermore, fans are

may start to go wrong because they haven’t

what pay the players’ wages. The more fans

planned for what is coming for the club.

you have, the more tickets you sell; the

Stability can also be seen as staying strong

more money you have, the more you can pay

and having a good strong organization.

your players. When in the stadium, the fans

However, if the owners get too caught up

pay for food and drinks. Online, fans may

in other things, the stability in this area of

pay for merchandise. Having a weak fanbase

their club may start to decrease. The Glazer

S TA B I L I T Y

Brothers are also owners of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the NFL. However, just one club won’t make a huge difference; the CFG own multiple clubs. In all this though, the CFG is a group of people, so will be able to cover all these clubs with the number of people they have. Overall, both owners of the clubs are stable with the organization and consider the plan/future for the club very important. As I said earlier, the Glazer Brothers are owners that aren’t the most liked throughout the Premier League. However,

NOT HAVING A STRONG AND STABLE FANBASE CAN REALLY AFFECT HAVING A GOOD OWNERSHIP.

the stability of the club may say otherwise. Manchester City is one of the biggest

Brothers are a solid and stable ownership

football clubs in ability at this point in

because of the points we have covered, even

time, and the ownership may also reflect

though they may not be the most popular.

this. Regarding money, Manchester United

Manchester City also have a very strong

had a smaller profit over Manchester City,

ownership because they are economically

but Manchester United’s overall worth is

stable; have a relatively strong fanbase; and

more. For both clubs, this is a good start.

a good base to build off for the future.

For popularity, this is where they take a

slight drop. The Glazer Brothers have been

CONCLUSION

battered by press, fans and the population

In conclusion, just because a club may

in general, and having a stable fan base is

not be the most popular, it doesn’t mean

very important as a club because of the

it doesn’t have a stable ownership. We

money they bring in. Manchester United’s

have seen this with the Glazer Brothers, in

popularity has seen a slight decrease

which they aren’t the most popular but still

because of the Glazer Brothers, meaning

are economically stable, with a good base

they are less stable. However, Manchester

to build off for the future (even though

City have seen an increase because of recent

they may not have the strongest fanbase).

success in recent years. Manchester United

Manchester City are considered a strong

may make a recovery though as they have

ownership (despite the controversy over the

a strong plan for the club in the future,

owners) with a stable economy, fanbase and

leaving a strong base for the owners to run

plan for the future. Overall, just because

off. Not as much for Manchester City, but

something is unpopular or disliked, it doesn’t

still enough to work with. Overall, the Glazer

mean it isn’t strong and stable.

S TA B I L I T Y

Neutron Stars

Johan Hackman | 1MHT

Neutron stars are fascinating stars. A star

smaller you are, the faster you can spin.

between life and death. The ash left from a

For example, an ice skater is in an ice rink.

supermassive star. But how exactly do they

Firstly, the ice skater is spinning with her

work?

arms out, meaning she will spin at medium speed. When the ice skater contracts her

A supergiant star is a star approaching the

arms, she will spin faster.

end of its life. A neutron star is a collapsed supergiant star’s core and are created in a

There are about 3,200 known neutron stars

Supernova. However, they can only be made

in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds.

when the core is in between 8 to 40 solar

The Magellanic Clouds are two irregular

masses.

dwarf galaxies in the southern celestial hemisphere. An irregular dwarf galaxy is a

They are made almost entirely of neutrons. A

galaxy that contains low amounts of metal

neutron is made from protons and electrons.

and high amounts gas, like the first galaxies

When it is created, it will make a supernova

in our universe. A celestial hemisphere is a

that will outshine entire galaxies. It will

hemisphere in a position relative to Earth

normally weigh around 500,000 times that

which means it can be seen be seen from

of Earth; or about 1.4 times that of the sun.

Earth.

It would weigh even more if it were metal rich. The density of neutron stars is more

Once the neutron star is formed, they

than 100 billion times the density of the sun.

no longer make heat and cool over time.

A Neutron star is normally around 12 miles

Neutron stars have a magnetic field trillions

in diameter, which is amazing considering

of times more powerful than that of Earth.

that so much mass is compressed into such a

One teaspoon of neutron star materials

small area of space.

would weigh a billion tons! Neutron stars spit out radiation as they spin. Neutron stars

Approximately 5% of all neutron stars are

have the second strongest gravitational pull

members of a binary system. A binary solar

after black holes. If it were any denser it

system happens when two astronomical

would be a black hole. Light is bent around it

bodies orbit each other around a bigger

so you can see some of the back. Sometimes

centre of mass. An astronomical body is a

their surface will reach 599726.85 degrees

single, tightly bound entity.

Celsius.

Neutron stars are detected by the

Neutron stars have a crust like a planet,

electromagnetic radiation they output.

but they are stars. When two neutron stars

They are also found and observed through

combine, they become a black hole in an

their pulses (neutron stars found this way

explosion called a kilo nova. While they are

are called pulsars). Neutron stars rotate up

orbiting each other, waiting to combine, they

to 43,000 times per minute due to angular

send out gravitational waves which send

momentum which basically means: the

ripples through space and time. Magnetars

S TA B I L I T Y

are a type of neutron stars that produce so much energy a second that it would take the sun millions of years to produce the amount of energy they do. If a neutron star’s crust cracks, then it will emit so much radiation; the equivalent to the amount of energy our sun emits in 300,000 years. If that happens 10 light years away (94607304725808 kilometres), then the amount of force that will reach us is the same as 10 kilotons of nukes which would obliterate our magnetic field. From 10 light years away! If you were only 620 miles away from this star, your body would dissolve due to the gravitational pull as its atoms would separate. In the crust of the star there is a material called nuclear pasta made from protons and neutrons and this material could be the strongest in the universe. A kilanova could be the origin of gold, uranium, platinum, holmium, bismuth, and iridium. The closest neutron star to us is PSR J01081431 and it is 424 light years away (or 4011349720374260km away). It is in the constellation Cetus. The Milky Way has a recorded 2000-ish of neutron stars. Neutron stars can even host planets.

NEUTRON STARS HAVE A MAGNETIC FIELD TRILLIONS OF TIMES MORE POWERFUL THAN THAT OF EARTH.

S TA B I L I T Y

Aristotle

Ibrahima Swarey | 1JWP

“A philosopher is somebody who has an

requested to go to Macedonia by the king in

unquenchable thirst for knowledge” – Aristotle

order to tutor his son. This son was, at first, a regular prince, but who would become

‘Who is Aristotle?’ you may ask yourself.

unstoppable in the future.

Well, he was one of the greatest philosophers and scientists to ever live.

THE LYCEUM

He’s made important contributions to

The Lyceum was undoubtedly the best

logic, criticism, rhetoric, physics, biology,

philosophical school at the time. Amazing

psychology, mathematics, metaphysics,

historical figures such as Plato and Socrates

ethics, politics and much more. The world

taught at it. Aristotle's focus as a teacher

wouldn’t have been the same if this man did

there was cooperative research--an idea

not exist.

which he founded through his natural history work and through his systematic collection

EARLY LIFE

of philosophical works which contributed

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in

to his library. His students were assigned

northern Greece to a traditional medical

historical or scientific research projects as

family. His father Nicomachus was a

part of their studies. The aim was to develop

court physician for King Amyntus III.

a moral character in his students, who would

Unfortunately, Aristotle lost his parents at

have a greater understanding of social values.

the young age of thirteen and spent some

Aristotle did all of this in his 50s!

time at the Macedonian palace. Even though he experienced tragedy, this did not stop

EUDAIMONIA

his intellect from growing. At the age of 17,

Aristotle, along with his teacher (Plato),

he was sent to Athens to enrol with Plato,

created something called Eudaimonia. This

as a simple recognition of his intelligence.

was originally translated as happiness,

He spent 20 years as a student and teacher

but scholars said that was too absurd.

at the school, emerging with a mixture

Scholars say this is because Eudaimonia

of respect and criticism from his pupils

is a permanent feeling of inner happiness

and teachers. When Plato died in 347, his

whereas basic happiness will eventually

nephew Speusippus inherited his school.

run out. To achieve Eudaimonia, you first

After that, Aristotle left soon after, but it is

need to achieve great virtues. It is only then

still unclear as to why he did this.

that you can try to achieve Eudaimonia. For Aristotle, Eudaimonia is the highest human

MIDDLE LIFE

good; the only human good that is desirable

He spent five years on the coast of Asia

for its own sake rather than for the sake

as a guest of former students at Assos

of something else. He also says that the

and Lesbos. It was during this period that

purpose of man is to achieve Eudaimonia.

he undertook pioneering research into marine biology. It was also during this time

ARISTOTLE VS. PLATO VS. SOCRATES

where he got married to a woman called

Who is the best philosopher? This is a big

Pythias and had his only daughter (who was

debate in the philosophical world. There are

also called Pythias). In 342, Aristotle was

three main choices in this debate: Socrates,

S TA B I L I T Y

SOME PEOPLE CALL SOCRATES “THE FATHER OF PHILOSOPHY” AS HE IS CREDITED AS BEING THE FOUNDER OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Plato, and Aristotle. For some people, it is

Aristotle was Plato's best student. He

neither of them. The reason some people

went on to become a very well-paid tutor,

think this is because they’re all related in a

probably the highest paid philosopher during

way. Socrates taught Plato who then taught

the period of Alexander the Great. Aristotle

Aristotle. In a way, they all are the best

started his own philosophical school when

philosophers.

he was 50 years old. Although he lived only ten more years, he produced nearly a

Some people call Socrates “the father of

thousand books and pamphlets; only a few

philosophy” as he is credited as being the

of which have survived.

founder of Western philosophy. Socrates would make you feel as though you didn’t know anything in an argument. He was a master at this. Unfortunately, some people considered this to be “corrupting the youth”, and so his punishment was death. Plato: a philosopher who could be a king. An aristocratic man with plenty of money and a superb physique, Plato, at one time, won two prizes as a championship wrestler. Plato’s actual name was Aristocles. Plato was labelled as an enthusiastic genius by Socrates whilst getting taught.

S TA B I L I T Y

Universe Phenomenon

By Jayveer Mehan | L1TJD

BLACK HOLES

A*--four million times the mass of the

A black hole is a region of spacetime where

sun. It is roughly 26,000 lightyears away

the pull of gravity is so strong that even

from Earth and can be seen as part of the

light, the fastest thing in the universe,

Sagittarius constellation. The first black

cannot escape it. A large percentage of black

hole ever discovered was Cygnus X-1, which

holes are formed when a large star dies in a

is within the Milky Way, and can be seen

supernova explosion, and the remnants form

in the constellation of Cygnus, the Swan.

the holes.

In 2015, researchers discovered a gigantic supermassive black hole, seven billion times

Black holes have three ‘layers’: the outer

the mass of the Sun. The most distant black

and inner event horizon, and the singularity.

hole ever detected is in a galaxy about 13.1

The event horizon of a black hole is the

billion light-years from Earth.

boundary around the mouth of the black hole, past which light cannot escape. Once a particle crosses this area, it cannot escape. The singularity is at the centre of the hole where it is compressed to an infinitely tiny space. Not always as it seems Despite their massive pull of gravity, these incredible features of space do not live forever and are not invincible. Very slowly

Sagittarius A* x-ray

they fade and vanish, because the energy of black holes forms a stream of radiation and

Supermassive black holes can be billions of

particles. With all the energy that escapes,

times larger than the Sun. These giants can

the hole loses mass and therefore shrinks,

be formed when thousands of small holes

resulting in the eventual dwindling of the

merge to form one so much larger than

hole, until they pop out of existence.

individual normal black holes. Large gas clouds could also be responsible, collapsing

Sagittarius A* and other giants

together and rapidly gathering mass. Supermassive black holes could arise from

In our galaxy, The Milky Way, in the heart of it all, lies a colossal black hole, Sagittarius

Sagittarius A* Infrared view.

S TA B I L I T Y

large clusters of dark matter. Dark matter

of travel could vary from a few metres to

cannot be seen because it does not reflect

billions of light years away. Scientists do not

or give out light. We know it exists because

know if these wormholes can exist. These

of the effect it has on objects we can see.

Sci-Fi-like features are possible according to Einstein's general theory of relativity, but

“Black holes are where God divided by zero.”

nobody has ever spotted one.

Albert Einstein But how is a wormhole created? What happens if that black hole stops being active?

In Einstein's theory of general relativity,

The galaxy cluster SpARCS104922.6

making a wormhole is straightforward: you

+564032.5, located 9.9 billion light years

just build a black hole and connect it to a

away from Earth is being researched by

white hole (which is the exact opposite of a

scientists and astronomers as it is doing

black hole), and you have a tunnel through

something extremely strange. Using the

space-time.

Hubble telescope, NASA found that nine hundred masses worth of our Sun was

To create a wormhole on Earth, we would

created per year.

first need a black hole. This is problematic; creating a black hole just a centimetre

The answer may come from new Chandra

across would require crushing a mass

data revealing the behaviour of the hot gas

roughly equal to that of the Earth down to

in SpARCS1049. In most of the cluster, the

this tiny size.

temperature of the gas is about sixty-five million degrees. However, at the site of star formation, the gas is denser than average and has cooled off to a temperature of only about ten million degrees. The presence of this cooler gas suggests that other undetected gas reservoirs have cooled to even lower temperatures that enable huge numbers of stars to form. Without the black hole pushing its energy into the galaxy, the gas can cool enough so that this impressive rate of star formation can happen. Can Earth go through a wormhole?

WORMHOLES

What would happen if Earth fell into a

Wormholes are a theoretical tunnel in

wormhole? It would be destroyed almost

spacetime that link two regions together.

instantly. Firstly, this scenario is highly

They are effectively a portal or tunnel that

unlikely ever to occur, because wormholes,

can teleport something many light years

if they do exist, would be far too small to fit

away from where they started. The length

entire planets through them.

S TA B I L I T Y

WHITE HOLES

dust thrown out by the explosion of a dying

In general relativity, a white hole is a

star, such as a supernova. Other nebulae are

theoretical region of spacetime and

regions where new stars are beginning to

singularity that cannot be entered from the

form. Nebulae are made of dust and gases—

outside (although energy-matter, light and

mostly hydrogen and helium. The dust and

information can escape from it). In this sense,

gases in a nebula are very spread out, but

it is the reverse of a black hole, which can

gravity can slowly begin to pull together

be entered only from the outside (and from

clumps of dust and gas. As these clumps get

which energy-matter, light and information

bigger and bigger, their gravity gets stronger

cannot escape). White holes appear in the

and stronger.

theory of eternal black holes. A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might

CONCLUSION

be interpreted as shedding some light on

There are still many things we do not know

the nature of classical white holes. Some

about these fascinating forces of nature.

researchers have proposed that when a black

There are still many, many things we do

hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the

not know about the amazing universe. But,

core (singularity), which would create a new

with better technology and advanced minds,

universe that expands outside of the parent

every step we take is helping to unravel the

universe. What happens, though, if we fall

universe.

into a white hole? They attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually reach the white hole's event horizon (the point of no return). This is how it is possible to escape a white hole. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole. NEBULAE A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas in space. Some nebulae come from the gas and

S TA B I L I T Y

Bacteriophages

Jonas So | 1JWP

Bacteriophages (or phages for short) are

If the phage is lysogenic: firstly, it attaches

viruses, despite their name. Some think

itself to the host cell, then it infects the

they are dead; like scientists do of any virus.

host cell, without causing any damage or

It looks as if they are artificial, because of

harm to the cell. What it is instead doing is

their icosahedron (a polyhedron with 20

transferring part of its DNA to the host cell,

faces) structure that seems like their head.

meaning the phage can reproduce when the

But this structure is actually a hull that is

host cell does.

called a Protein Capsid which stores the virus’s genetic material. They are quite tough

PHAGE THERAPY (PT)

and according to The National Centre for

In Medicine, PT uses phage viruses to

Biotechnology Information, can live up to 40

kill bacteria and cure people of bacterial

years in an industrial refrigerator.

infections and diseases. One disease it has successfully cured for patients is the MRSA

THE KILLING OF BACTERIUM

bacteria also known as the Staphylococcus

The life goal of a bacteriophage is to infect

aureus. It is a Super-Bug; a microorganism

as many host cells (such as bacterium) as

more immune to antibiotics, medicine, and

they can. Just like any virus. But with the

vaccines; it is more powerful, tyrannical,

Bacteriophage viruses, some scientists think

and keener in evolving. This Super-Bug is

they are alive, meaning their process of

resistant to methicillin, a kind of antibiotic,

infection is much more complex. There are

specifically. To illustrate, a 72-year-old man

two classifications of bacteriophages. One

was severely infected by MRSA. He was

of them is lytic, and the other is lysogenic.

treated with the injection of bacteriophages and, after the third dose, the MRSA in his

How they kill and infect bacterium is very

body was eradicated. Bacteriophage therapy

intriguing.

is a faster and less risky alternative of antibiotics. It can even be less expensive

If the phage is lytic: firstly, it attaches itself

than taking antibiotics.

to the host cell (bacteria) by inserting a needle-like structure below its fibre legs.

To wrap up, the bacteriophage is fascinating

Then, it injects it genetic information into

because of its unique ways of infecting

the bacterium. The bacterium’s insides

bacterium and its medicinal uses.

then will burst into chaos, resulting in a violent fulmination. Next--this is how a phage reproduces—the phage will multiply inside the exploded cell; due to the genetic information the first phage has injected inside.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Mona Lisa and why it is so famous

Justin Kravets | L1TJD

When someone says Mona Lisa, you immediately know what they are talking about, right? In the Louvre Museum in Paris, where the painting is kept, people queue for hours just to see it. But why? There are millions of other beautiful paintings around the world; what is so special about the Mona Lisa? Art is very subjective, and everyone has their own opinions and tastes. Each painting is produced to trigger our emotions and create certain moods. It is extremely hard to name the best painting in the world; it is like judging who is the best mum! But to name the most famous painting might be a simpler task. The Mona Lisa topped search results worldwide over the past seven years on Google. Recently, it also came first in a poll for the most famous painting conducted

Some other famous paintings by Leonardo

by TimeOut magazine. So, let us look at the

da Vinci include:

man who gave us this masterpiece.

The Last Supper Lady with an Ermine

LEONARDO DA VINCI

The Baptism of Christ

Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most intriguing personalities in the history of art.

But clearly, the Mona Lisa is the most

He was trained in Florence, Italy as a painter

recognizable and controversial of his works.

and sculptor in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio. Leonardo is also celebrated

THE MONA LISA’S HISTORY

for his scientific contributions. He was

The Mona Lisa is thought to have been

constantly observing and experimenting,

painted between 1503 and 1519. For

and he used his art skills as a tool for his

centuries it was owned by the French

life. Although he did not create that many

kings and queens; that is why it now lives

paintings, he left a ginormous number of

in the Louvre. Most experts believe that it

drawings and sketches. He first lived in

is a portrait of an Italian noble lady called

Florence and Milan but spent the last years

Lisa del Giocondo, but it has never been

of his life in Rome where he died at the age

confirmed. Unlike most Italian portraits from

of 67. His genius and talents continue to

that era (which used full figure poses), the

inspire many people today.

Mona Lisa was painted in a ¾ length pose.

S TA B I L I T Y

It was relatively unknown to the general public around the world until 1911 when it was famously stolen from the Louvre. This theft catapulted this portrait to international stardom. When all the newspapers (first in France, then across the entire world) were writing about the disappearance, many people started talking about it. The police investigation lasted a whole two years, and the mystery surrounding the theft of the painting was only growing. Everyone wanted to know why it was stolen, but also who was the lady in the painting and what she was smirking at. The images of the artwork were splashed across international newspapers. In December of

“Everybody can draw, in my estimation. If you

1913, the police arrested Italian former

give a man 50 years, he’ll come up with the

Louvre worker Vincenzo Peruggia and

Mona Lisa.”

retrieved the Mona Lisa. He wanted to

Jack Kirby American comic book artist)

bring the painting back to Italy. He hid the painting first in his apartment in France and

“Da Vinci painted one Mona Lisa. Beethoven

then in Italy, where it was painted.

composed one Fifth Symphony. And God made one version of you.”

After its recovery, the painting was

Max Lucado (American author)

exhibited all over Italy with the headlines rejoicing its return. Poor Perrugia did not

Overall, what makes this painting so special

even know that when he stole the Mona

and uncharacteristic of that period is that

Lisa, its disappearance would make it the

Mona Lisa meets our eyes directly, turning

most recognizable painting in the world. The

slightly towards the viewer and smiling at

newspapers described it as the greatest art

some secret amusement. And this debate

theft of the 20th century.

about what she is smiling at has fascinated people for ages. Perhaps if the painting

This theft gave this portrait a new life. There

had not been stolen, it would not be as

were numerous books written about the

famous as it is today. As with many other

painting and its history, but also about the

masterpieces, sometimes their individual

actual theft. It has been used in films, songs,

stories make them more interesting and

videos; it is now known to everyone. The

intriguing. We might never know the truth,

Mona Lisa is referenced in many ways, and

but this secret will only make people

here are some of my favourites:

more curious.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Lymphatic System – The Empathic Response to Disease

KK Sunil | 2KLF

Our bodies are immensely complex, no

by it. The process of selecting the best cells

matter how you look at it; from the thoughts

is harsh; the cells are exposed to certain

and memories our brain can process, to the

molecules, and those unable to comprehend

process of digestion. The immune system is

what the molecules are swiftly destroyed.

no different. And just like every part of us, it has many, many distinct aspects; each of

The bone marrow is located at the heart of

which have a unique way to protect you. I

almost every bone, and is responsible for

will focus on the lymphatic system, a slightly

producing B cells.

lesser known, but still very important part of why most of us do not drop dead every

The secondary organs are the spleen, and

minute.

lymph nodes, and these organs essentially act as a development centre for the cells

The lymphatic system has multiple roles,

that are deemed capable. Here, the B and

such as maintaining control over the fluid in

T cells get their first experience of foreign

our body. I will focus on its purpose in the

bodies, called antigens.

immune system. The lymphatic system was first attempted to be explained in the early

The combat:

17th century, by Olaus Rudbeck and Thomas

Imagine you’re on your way to the Bahamas.

Bartholin.

You wake up early, get a taxi to Gatwick airport, deposit your suitcases, and are

HOW DOES THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

currently in line for security checks. The

WORK?

queue is moving quickly, and you are about to take out your laptop, remove

Cell production:

your belt, and walk through the metal

The main organs that make up the lymphatic

detector. Suddenly, an official beckons you

system are the bone marrow, the spleen,

and a few other people over for a full pat

lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels and the

down. Luckily, though, you are a sensible

thymus. The primary organs (bone marrow

person, and soon, you have collected your

and thymus) are in charge of producing B

stuff and are waiting to board the plane.

and T cells. For those who do not know what

To summarise, your lymphatic system is

these are: B cells produces antibodies, and T

the security personnel, and your lymph

cells help combat infected cells.

represents the people in line.

The thymus, located in our upper chest,

The word ‘lymph’ is derived from the Latin

is the organ that produces T cells. After

word lympha, which is defined as being

a human reaches puberty, the thymus

connected to water. Also, lympha was the

slowly starts to shrink, and this shrinkage

Latin goddess of water. Your lymph is what

contributes to less T cells being produced

flows through your lymphatic system.

S TA B I L I T Y

To start off, blood plasma starts to flow out

The lymph nodes are able to forewarn

of your capillaries (blood vessels). This is

of an infection as well, as they swell up

important to feed the blood and tissues with

when they are trying to fight off harmful

nutrients. After, the capillaries attempt to

microorganisms that stubbornly refuse to

recover the fluid, but only a small amount

perish. As the most visible nodes are under

actually gets absorbed. This fluid enters

your jaw, when you go for a check-up with

small lymphatic vessels, and thereby gets

your local GP or doctor, one of the first

known as lymph. Now, this lymph has to go

things they will do is squeeze you throat

somewhere, and starts to flow thorough the

under your jaw, to check if your nodes are

lymphatic system.

inflamed.

Lymph nodes are dotted around your

But your lymph nodes aren’t the only

lymphatic system, and service as both

checkpoints...

security guards and doctors, checking the

lymph carefully to see if anything is afoot,

MALT

and cleansing the lymph as well. They look

Enter malts (not the cereal grain). MALT

like beans. These lymph nodes also contain

stands for mucosa-associated-lymphoid

immune cells such as macrophages and

tissue. As the name suggests, they are found

lymphocytes, which are strong enough to

in mucus lined surfaces of the body. This

take down any small concerns. However, if

includes your eyes, your tonsils (the wobbly

the problem is too large or severe for them,

thing at the back of your throat), your

the entire immune system will be alerted

stomach lining, your urinary tract, and many

to take down the enemy. There are several

other places. These MALTs are essentially

thousand dotted around your body, and they

a method of double checking whether the

mostly occur in places such as the neck, the

lymph is housing any harmful antigens. What

inner groin, your knees, and your armpits.

differs these MALTs from lymph modes are

Have you ever felt weird, ovally things under

that they are not connected by lymphatic

your skin? That will be one of your lymph

vessels; they analyse the antigens directly

nodes.

on the surface they are on.

Remember those B and T lymphocyte cells

You might be wondering, this is all fine, but

I was telling you about? Well, these cells

surely, they do not cycle through forever?

are also present in your lymph nodes. The

And you would be right. Every good thing

node can be divided into two sections: an

must come to an end, and all of the small

outer and inner cortex. T cells are found in

lymphatic vessels join the large lymphatic

the inner cortex, and B cells are found in the

vessels. Eventually, they all end up in the

outer sections.

chest, specifically a large vein called vena

S TA B I L I T Y

cava, which connects to the heart. The lymph is reunited in the bloodstream, and soon, the process starts again.

THE WORD ‘LYMPH’

There are, however, multiple factors that

IS DERIVED FROM

could result in a faulty lymphatic system. One of the most common reasons for a lymphatic system not functioning properly

THE LATIN WORD

is cancer.

LYMPHA, WHICH IS

Cancer causes uncontrollable cell and tissue

DEFINED AS BEING

growth and division. This forms a tumour, which is a large clump of tissue. Sometimes, this can happen without cancer, but if it is cancerous, there is a chance that the cells could break away from the tumour

CONNECTED TO WATER.

and infect the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. This causes swelling of the node, and if this gets too severe, could cause blood clotting, as the swollen node is squeezing the blood vessels near it. The cancer can also block lymph flowing through lymphatic vessels, which causes swelling. Lupus is a condition that causes the lymph nodes to swell almost constantly. Lupus may also cause the spleen to swell as well. Lupus also causes the lungs, liver, and kidneys to swell as well. Lupus is a disease known as an autoimmune disease, meaning that the immune system, instead of only targeting bad microorganisms, also attacks parts of the body that are perfectly fine.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Stability of Nature

Lochlann Hamilton | 3ATS

For hundreds of millions of years, plants

develop. The creatures of that time included

and creatures of some kind have existed

woolly mammoths, woolly rhinos, short-

on this planet. Whether it be scaly reptilian

faced bears, sabretooth tigers and various

giants or tiny bacteria, life in some form

other species. However, over 60 species,

existed on this planet at one given time.

mainly megafauna (animals over 100 pounds)

But how reliable is the prediction that

perished due to the conditions. The main

there will always be life on earth? And how

leading theory is that growing (intellectually

quickly could it all go wrong? Creatures

and numerically) human population thinned

have survived gigantic eruptions, ice ages

out these huge animals with tactical attacks,

and moving continents, but can they survive

and newfound weapons. This was because

us? In this article I will analyse the chance

the megafauna group are slow moving, and

nature has of surviving. Using 3 past events

for sapiens with sharp deadly spears, they

as my guides, I will attempt to answer

were an easy target. The impact on plants,

whether nature is immortal?

it seemed, was much greater, as in this time Carbon Dioxide levels fell to 50%, causing

Firstly, I want to define immortality relating

most Carbon-Dioxide-requiring plants (C3

to nature. When I say immortality, I mean

plants) to decline, and non-Carbon-Dioxide-

whether nature can survive for as long as

requiring plants (C4 plants) to thrive,

reality still exists. This means that, if nature

such as grasses. When it comes to how

is immortal, nothing can ever fully destroy

the creatures survived, it was commonly

nature; that there will always be something

found that marine species had used glacial

that can restart it. Using this definition, I will

meltwater to sustain oxygen levels when

explore how nature has survived, and then

the vegetation on land was covered and

find out if nature can ever truly die.

blocked from the air supply, and that animals such as the woolly rhinoceros used horns

The first account I will look at is the Ice Age.

to scrape the surface of the snow to reach

The peak of the Ice Age occurred around

vegetation. The main pattern between the

18,000 years ago. It refers to a group of five

survivors was adaptation, as marine animals,

glacial periods, in which the temperature fell

land animals and we homo sapiens had to

unexpectedly low. Though it is unclear what

adapt to the unusual climate. So therefore,

caused the ‘ice ages,’ it is thought that it may

nature coped through a period where the

have happened due to a meteorite collision,

temperature dropped abnormally suddenly

or the orbital position of the earth relative

and perpetuated for thousands of years; by

to the sun ending in reduced solar radiation

adapting to its environment and developing

(which kept the seasons under control),

to make the best out of its situation where

causing an overload of snow and ice. The

basic requirements were scarce.

meteorite collision itself caused a rush of

immense swelling clouds of dust, blocking

The second account we will look at is the

out the sun and reflecting solar radiation

extinction of the dinosaurs, which occurred

to a bigger extent than usual. The last ice

around 66 million years ago. There are two

age, the Pleistocene era, occurred when

main theories to explain why this happened;

humans (homo sapiens) were beginning to

one being a huge volcanic eruption and, the

S TA B I L I T Y

other, a meteorite collision. Both theories

over farming and poaching, animals remain

include one common fact; that the thing

scarce in their natural habitats. However,

which destroyed the dinosaurs altered the

animals have begun to catch up and change

earth’s atmosphere and sent debris into

with us. Animals have started to live within

the sky, blocking the sun out for years

city walls, and make themselves familiar with

at a time. This was fatal to most animals

city life, and even plants have evolved to live

and plants because dinosaurs themselves

in a CO2 rich environment. Animals such as

were cold blooded which meant they relied

foxes and peregrine falcons have adapted

upon the sun being visible to conduct heat

to city life, foraging, and feeding on city

and therefore live, which is the same for

abundance. For example, falcons originally

plants and photosynthesis. The animals that

inhabit the countryside and prey on agile

survived the extinction were warm-blooded

prey, whilst brooding in high tree nests or

small mammals, who were able to rely on

barns. However, the city has provided a

their own body for heat regulation and food

suitable replacement for the environment

sources that were frequent at the time.

they are used to. So, in the modern era,

Species that survived but were cold-blooded

animals adapt to our lifestyle, and only then,

included turtles, because the surrounding

can they flourish.

sea temperature did not massively change. Plus, their eggs were tough enough to resist

So, we have seen through hardship,

the harmful chemicals that blocked out the

that animals can adapt to a changing

sun. Plants, however limited the sun was,

environment. That they can survive and will.

flourished in this time, especially those

But for how long? And what, if anything,

flowering. Since herbivores began to decline,

could be their downfall? Well, the pattern

fruit and vegetation became more abundant

we see between all these events is that they

and mammals began to flourish too, with

do not affect every creature. On a great

this new food source. From the beginning

scale, an extinction may be huge, however,

of flowering plants, the era of the mammals

there is always slithers of species that are

began. So how did animals survive this mass

suited to a type of lifestyle not endangered

extinction? Well, again and unsurprisingly,

by a cataclysmic event. But if there was an

adaptation favoured those who were caught

event affecting every animal in a certain

in less than an ideal situation. Mammals

way, would any survive?

adapted to a diet of scraps and new-evolving food, and plants adapted to less competition

My answer is yes. Animals have changed

and more germination. So overall, animals

dramatically to suit the environment they

adapted to survive the extinction that killed

are in, or the one they are failing to live in.

the dinosaurs.

The animal with the fastest evolution rate is called the Tuatara, and it has roughly

The last account I will look at is the modern

1.56 sequence changes per million years,

era. The modern era begins as humans begin

which compared to brown bear fossils, is

to industrialise. Already, humankind has

three times as fast. This means that it is

decimated animals on a scale like global

more likely that these animals will develop

extinction. Through habitat destruction,

beneficial genes throughout millions of

S TA B I L I T Y

years, meaning they will be able to refine

References

certain features that will aid their survival.

https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/ice-age

Furthermore, this means that animals are

https://rainforests.mongabay.com/0304a.htm

capable to adapt within proximity, but short mass extinction events might be the end to nature. With no time to rebound, nature cannot fully regrow and learn from the lifestyle they now must lead. This is because animals in common all have common features which are included within the acronym ‘MRS C GREN’ which simply states that they must have the following features: Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition. So, a huge scale event could eradicate every possibility for life forms to do this, therefore eradicating everything. So, the last question to answer is, is nature immortal? Can, and if so when will, nature die? Yes, I believe that nature is immortal. From the beginning nature evolved from the smallest and most undefinable thing, and any event however powerful cannot defeat life. The very first life forms on this planet were microbes, but microbes cannot be large enough to perish, and not every aspect of their lifestyle can be eradicated. So, if nature were to die, it would die from an inexplicable and out of reality cause; that which can itself destroy life. We have also seen that animals, in cases of extreme events, are able to adapt and therefore are able to survive environments that challenge their anatomy and lifestyle. Therefore, concluding my essay, nature is immortal.

http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/exhibitions/online/ice-ages/iceage-extinction https://www.npr.org/2011/09/02/140121917/an-ice-agebeast-evolved-to-beat-the-cold https://education.seattlepi.com/long-term-effects-asteroidimpact-earth-4601.html https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2022/05/220502125356. htm#:~:text=Summary%3A,regressed%20and%20fruit%20 sizes%20increased. https://www.nature.com/articles/ news.2008.695#:~:text=They%20arrived%20at%20an%20 estimate,roughly%20one%20third%20as%20fast. http://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/ life-science/early-life-earth-animal-origins#:~:text=The%20 earliest%20life%20forms%20we,is%20produced%20by%20 living%20things. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5942850/

S TA B I L I T Y

Could Human Civilisation Survive If the Sun was to Disappear?

Monty Al-Qassab | 2AMR

Whilst considering the sustainability of life

immediately vanish then we would only

on earth, I started to think about the most

notice after 7 minutes. After 7 minutes, the

extreme, catastrophic events that could

Earth will fall into complete darkness. Even

happen. This led me to think about what we

the moon would disappear in the night sky

need to survive, and what if this was taken

as the moon only reflects the sun’s light and

away?

does not emit its own.

The sun is the star at the centre of all

The fact that there is no sunlight means that

human life. The sun, through solar energy,

plants and crops cannot use photosynthesis

allows plants to grow and thrive. It allows

to turn thermal energy into chemical

us to grow agriculturally and feed the

energy. The herbivores that inhabit the

many billions that inhabit the earth. But

planet would soon chew their way through

what would happen if the sun suddenly

the last remaining vegetation, in a pitch-

disappeared? To answer this question let us

black environment, and begin to starve.

understand more about the sun.

Humankind would soon begin to starve too.

The sun is a giant star that has a radius

Not only would there be no light, but

of 696,340 km and is 864,000 miles in

temperature levels will also decrease

diameter. It is made up of hydrogen and

rapidly as we enter an endless winter cycle

helium which burns at the incredible

of frozen oceans and stormy winds. After

temperature of approximately 6,000

a few hundred years without any sun, the

degrees Celsius. This is what causes the

temperature of the earth would reach

amazingly bright and powerful sunlight that

approximately -340 degrees Celsius, just

all living things rely on so much. The sun is

above absolute zero. The only possible way

on average 148.92 million km away from

that humans would be able to survive would

the Earth, (the distance varies as the Earth

be to live extremely close the Earth’s molten

orbits around the sun). This means that it

iron core, where residual heat remains.

takes light 7 minutes to travel from the sun to the Earth, meaning that if the sun were

With the sun gone, the Earth would also

to disappear then it would take us 7 minutes

face another problem; there would be

to notice that it was not there anymore! So,

nothing to orbit around. Therefore, the Earth

lets research and discuss whether humans

would start to drift off into space. The Earth

would be able to survive without the sun.

would begin moving away from its usual path and could collide with other gigantic

My hypothesis of what may happen is purely

bodies, leading to its destruction. Suppose

based on science fiction and there is no

we are lucky; we could end up finding a new

possible way for the sun to simply disappear

centre of gravity to orbit. Perhaps Jupiter,

immediately. However, if the sun were to

or a new giant planet found when Earth was

S TA B I L I T Y

SHELTER WOULD BE EXTREMELY IMPORTANT AS IT WOULD SHIELD THE REMAINING INHABITANTS OF EARTH FROM THE COLD AND DANGEROUS ENVIRONMENT WITHOUT THE SUN. thrown off its usual trajectory. But even

of energy; to accumulate, heat and melt

with a new gravity, the rotation of the Earth

enough frozen water required to feed even a

would be at a different speed from that

small population of humans for many years.

which we currently know. At this point, a

The only way this would be possible is with

human future without the sun would be near

a sustainable source of energy. Sustainable

apocalyptic but, I wondered, could humans

sources could come in the manner of

survive without the sun if there was warning

geothermic energy, in which thermal energy

of this going to happen? For example, if

is gathered from the earth’s core or by

humankind had fifty years notice that the

using nuclear energy. By doing this, there

sun was going to disappear, could humans

still would not be enough for the entire

survive such a catastrophe?

population but perhaps only a few thousand could have a reliable water source for many

To start off, human beings have certain

years.

basic needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of need

states that we require food, water, air, and

Food and nutrients, however, would be

shelter to survive. If any one of these basic

harder to come by. This is because plants,

needs is not met, then humans cannot

for example, require sunlight and water and

survive. The first basic need that we would

take time to grow. But not only this because

need is water. Before the sun disappears,

humans require a diverse range of food for

water could be stored for the upcoming

their health. Therefore, food would be a

apocalypse, but there would not be enough

difficult problem. However, scientists have

for a self-sustainable water system. Water

discovered a way to grow plants without

could be accumulated by melting down ice

sunlight. This is called artificial light, but this

in rivers and lakes, but this would need lots

also requires a sustainable energy source.

S TA B I L I T Y

Plants grow using photosynthesis which

environment without the sun. To keep our

provides the plant with enough energy

last remaining humans safe, we would need

to transfer carbon dioxide into chemical

to create intelligent artificial complexes,

energy (food). But recently, scientists have

preferably underground to keep in heat.

discovered that it is possible to create an

This could all be completed before the

artificial light which corresponds to sunlight

disappearance of the sun, and these

and allows plants to photosynthesise. We

complexes will need to have access to food,

could use this to grow many crops and

oxygen, and water.

plants to create a reliable food source. In conclusion, my research portrays that all Oxygen is not just needed in an apocalypse

life on earth is fragile. There is a possible,

but in ordinary human life. However, oxygen

but slim, chance of a small number of

will diminish without plant life, but the

humans surviving for several years in

atmosphere would remain intact for many

the case of an apocalypse, such as the

thousands of years.

sun disappearing. Although it is likely to be a highly challenging and unpleasant

Shelter would be extremely important as

experience. However, ultimately, all human

it would shield the remaining inhabitants

history and civilisation could be eventually

of earth from the cold and dangerous

wiped out in one single event.

S TA B I L I T Y

How does Political Stability affect economic growth?

Gowrthan Pirahalathan | 3GLD

In the UK, we are going through a huge

Crisis, or the Great Recession, happened.

cost of living crisis, with bills and products

It started with the housing market bubble,

going up - we are going through the largest

which was caused by an overwhelming

inflation since 1977. The pound sterling has

load of securities which were mortgage-

been decreasing in value rapidly since the last

backed which had high-risk loans. Reckless

40 years. But has been going down especially

lending meant that there would eventually

now, with the coming and going of Liz Truss.

be an extremely high number of loans which

I will be discussing this problem, and how

were bundled together; These losses led

Politics and its stability affected it.

many financial institutions to fail and ask for a governmental bailout. This impacted

Firstly, what is Political Stability? It is a

the housing market a lot, and the stock

wide and debatable topic, but I believe

market began to go down rapidly and major

that it is how a country is able to manage

businesses worldwide lost millions, which

its own affairs without causing any kind of

caused periods of extended unemployment

collapse whether that be in the economy or

globally. This all resulted with the

environmentally. There is a way to measure it

international trade slowing to a crawl.

– using the political stability index. The way it is measured is 2.5 = strong, and -2.5 is weak.

We can see here that without political

According to World Bank, as of 2021, the UK

stability, even globally, the economic growth

is 68th in the world, with 0.54 as its score.

would go down by a lot, due to simple and

This shows that the UK is not very strong or

careless mistakes. It was only after the US

weak, it is in the middle.

made an agreement to revive the global economy that we started to climb back up

In the first years of the 21st century, there is

again, as showed in the graph until 2010. This

a big decrease in political stability, due to the

is one crucial example of how the political

foot and mouth crisis. This was where there

stability of not just one country, but the

was a disease called the foot-and-mouth

world can affect the economic growth of the

disease which swept through the UK in 2001,

world.

causing a crisis in British agriculture and tourism. This decreased political stability, as

There are other links as well. For example,

the country was having this problem with its

there is a decrease in both political stability

livestock as well. However, it did not affect

and economic growth in 2019-2021. This

economic growth.

was caused by Brexit and COVID-19. The premiership of Theresa May in 2018 in the

However, there is one significant similarity

heat of Brexit created huge conflicts within

in both graphs. We can see that the line goes

Parliament, and this caused a decrease in

down by a large amount from 2008-2009.

political stability. When there is internal

This was the time when the Global Financial

conflict in Parliament, it is hard to make

S TA B I L I T Y

crucial decisions as there is an opponent

References

party trying to catch you out all the time.

https://www.independent.co.uk/review-of-the-year/politicscrazy-year-brexit-antisemitism-theresa-may-jeremy-corbynukip-a8693251.html 03/12/22 Joe Watts – Independent

This led to the downfall and resignation of Theresa May. COVID-19 swept through the world in the last few years, which slowed and reduced economic growth, because governments had to make constant decisions, and people could

https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/ economics/2008-2009-global-financial-crisis/ 03/12/22 CFI team https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/GBR/united-kingdom/ gdp-growth-rate 03/12/22 Data Source: World Bank https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governanceindicators 03/12/22 World Bank

not go out in the lockdown. This meant that small businesses could not cope, and the UK’s economic growth declined. However, the political stability went up during 20192020, and stayed the same throughout. This may be because Boris Johnson did quite a decent job at maintaining stability, and there was not too much internal conflict in Parliament. In conclusion, political stability has an impact on economic growth, as it is the government who controls what happens in the country. This means that they can control the economy of the country as well. However, that does not mean the political stability completely impacts economic growth, as there could be other things that impact it such as diseases such as COVID-19, which made economic growth decline but the political stability stayed pretty much the same.

S TA B I L I T Y

Ecosystems, Evolution and Genomics

Sam Moorhouse | 1MHT

Ecosystems are a complex network, or

species to an ecosystem. This last cause of a

interconnected system of interacting

disturbed ecosystem is the most interesting

organisms and their environment. Evolution

to me, as it isn’t just a natural process or a

is the process by which various kinds of living

human creation but humans adding an animal

organisms have developed from earlier forms

– which has evolved amongst other animals

during the history of the earth. Genomics

to integrate itself into a specific ecosystem

is the branch of molecular biology which

– into a completely alien ecosystem with

focuses on the structure, function, evolution,

abiotic and biotic factors it has never in its

and mapping of genes. How are the planet’s

entire evolutionary line ever come across.

ecosystems so harmonious but fragile? How

An example of this is the Africanised

have animals evolved to fit perfectly into

honeybee. Also more famously known as

their ecosystem? What are some animals

the killer bee. It was imported and bred

and their traits which hold together entire

with European honeybees to increase honey

ecosystems? What are some of the most

production. However, as the breed is more

interesting and intriguing ways animals have

aggressive than its European counterparts,

adapted and evolved? This article seeks

it has infiltrated and killed off native hives.

answers to these questions.

Africanised honeybee swarms can invade European honey hives, where they kill the

Ecological balance is described by the

queen and replace it with their own leader.

World Wildlife Fund as: "a state of dynamic

This has also impacted on honey production,

equilibrium within a community of organisms

as they are quite slow at making it. The

in which genetic, species and ecosystem

bee was made when a Brazilian beekeeper

diversity remain relatively stable, subject to

accidently released some Tanzanian queen

gradual changes through natural succession."

bees which then mated with native European

and "A stable balance in the numbers of

honeybees, creating the killer bee.

each species in an ecosystem." The Earth’s

ecosystems function with almost perfect

A keystone species is an organism that

balance and stability. Almost all of the world’s

helps define an entire ecosystem. Without

ecosystems contain incredibly vast amounts

its keystone species, the ecosystem would

of organisms which all interrelate to near

be dramatically different or cease to exist

perfection. However, there is not much

altogether. They can be animals, plants,

margin for error. Sometimes there are times

or microorganisms. Examples of keystone

when an ecosystem becomes unstable, which

species include sea otters, wolves, and

are most commonly referred to as disturbed

elephants. Without the sea otter, which

ecosystems. Disturbance can be the result of

prevents sea urchins from overbreeding, kelp

natural events, such as wind, drought, flood,

forests – which sustain a variety of other

fire, or disease. Human disturbances also

species – would be consumed at a much

include air and water pollution and climate

greater speed than they were growing, which

change impacts such as: temperature and

would then destabilise the entire ecosystem.

rainfall, as well as the introduction of invasive

The grey wolf was largely wiped out in the

S TA B I L I T Y

in an area where it is too cold for most

THE EARTH’S ECOSYSTEMS FUNCTION WITH ALMOST PERFECT BALANCE AND STABILITY.

things to even exist, the wolffish must make their own antifreeze. The same antifreeze protein can now be found increasing the freezing tolerance of crops, improving farm fish life in cold climates, lengthening the shelf life of frozen foods, and enhancing preservation of tissues for transplant in medicine. Impressively, the Atlantic Wolffish has evolved antifreeze proteins to survive on the ocean floor, which have allowed us to make great strides in medicine and ensure a consistent world food supply. The world’s ecosystems have remained in

USA in the early 1900s, resulting in a surge in

almost perfect harmony since their beginning.

the numbers of elk. In Yellowstone National

However, I have explained how fragile they

Park, elk and deer overgrazed on trees,

are throughout this article and now with the

grasses, reeds, and other plants, putting

new threat of Climate Change the world’s

intense pressure on animals dependent on

ecosystems must face one of their biggest

plant life, including fish, beavers, and birds.

challenges yet.

This led the population of beavers to fall drastically causing large flooding as there was now a lack of beaver-built dams. This nearly led to a complete destabilisation of the ecosystem in the Yellowstone National Park. Thankfully, the crisis was averted when grey wolves were reintroduced. As I have previously explained, organisms have evolved amongst other organisms to integrate themselves into a specific ecosystem. But along this evolutionary path, some organisms have developed incredibly unique, interesting, and peculiar traits. One animal’s trait which I find particularly interesting is the Atlantic Wolffish. The Atlantic Wolffish inhabit the deep sea, and like most deep-sea creatures, they have had to adapt hugely to survive. To thrive

S TA B I L I T Y

To what extent did Finland contribute to the events of World War 2?

Sebastian Pabst | 4PET

INTRODUCTION

and chiefdoms so, the three Swedish crusades

The Second World War – a global conflict

that happened throughout that period had

that lasted from 1939 to 1945 and involved

little resistance, albeit with some notable

almost every single country on the planet.

defeats at the hands of Finnish tribes. Slowly

It is estimated that 100 million military

but surely, the area known as Finland soon

personnel took part in the war from more

became an integral part of the Kingdom of

than 30 different countries. Furthermore,

Sweden and remained so until 1809, at which

World War 2 was by far the deadliest

point it was ceded to the Russian Empire

conflict ever, with an estimated 70 to 85

as a result of the Finnish War. Finland then

million casualties, unfortunately most of

became known as The Grand Duchy of Finland

whom were civilians.

and enjoyed much more independence under Russian rule. Shortly before the collapse of

But where does Finland fit into all of this?

the Russian Empire, however, Nicholas II

The Nordic (not Scandinavian) country of

attempted to “russify” Finland and eliminate

around 5.5 million inhabitants is a leader

its political autonomy, but thanks to the

in many global metrics, some of which

Russian Revolution of 1917, Finland was able

include the World Happiness Index, HDI and

to declare independence completely.

general freedom of speech and transparency between the government and the public, but

After a brutal civil war between the Soviet-

how did such a developed nation come to

backed Reds and the German-backed

be? How much of an impact did Finland have

Whites, which resulted in a Whites victory,

on the outcome of WWII? How much did it

a short-lived monarchy was established

contribute to the instability that this global

with Frederick Charles, the brother-in-law

conflict caused?

of the German Emperor Wilhelm II, elected to be King. However, following the German

This essay will be looking at and discussing

Empire’s defeat in World War 1, Charles

the three conflicts that Finland was involved

renounced the thrown and plans were then

with in World War 2, in chronological order:

made to establish Finland as a republic. It was

the Winter War, the Continuation War and

officially confirmed to be one in the Finnish

the Lapland War, with context given before

Constitution of 1919. Following Finland’s

each of the main discussions for each section.

independence, things remained relatively calm with Finland able to maintain strong relations

A SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF

with the United States and Sweden but

FINLAND UP TO 1940

tensions with the Soviet Union were ongoing.

The coastal areas of Finland were conquered

by Sweden during the Northern Crusades in

THE WINTER WAR

the 12th century. However, most of Finland

Context

at that point only consisted of small towns

The Soviet Union, aware of Germany’s

S TA B I L I T Y

growing power at the time, sought to push its

because, indirectly of course, the Soviets’

border with Finland on the Karelian Isthmus

failure to annex Finland showed Nazi

in order to help increase the security of

Germany that the Soviet Union was not really

Leningrad (present day St. Petersburg), in

that big of a threat at all. Most countries

case of a potential German attack. In addition

at the time thought that Finland would be

to wanting to change the border on the

overrun in mere days. It could then be said

Isthmus, the Soviets also demanded a naval

that because of this embarrassment, Nazi

base at the area of Hanko as well as several

Germany assumed that they would be able to

islands in the Gulf of Finland in exchange for

take the Soviet Union with relative ease.

some Soviet land further north. The 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact also solidified

Although, it must be stated that Finland’s

the Soviet Union’s interest in not only the

valiant and successful defence against the

smaller Baltic nations of Estonia, Latvia, and

Soviet Union was not the sole reason for

Lithuania, but also Finland. Unfortunately

Germany’s increased willingness to invade.

for the Baltic states, they gave in to the

Hitler was very openly anti-communist, and

Soviets’ demands and were shortly thereafter

it is believed that Hitler had always had

annexed. However, Finland continued to reject

plans to invade the Soviets at some point

their offer. Upon rejection, the Soviet Union

in order to fulfil his goal of Lebensraum

launched an invasion of Finland on November

which involved expanding eastwards from

30th, 1939, thus beginning the Winter War.

Germany to accommodate for the growing German population. This embarrassment just

Main Discussion

strengthened Hitler’s belief that communists

The first of the three wars that Finland

were inferior and so it is clear that “he [was

would fight during the course of World War

always] intended[ing] to destroy what he

2 was one that was not expected to last

saw as Stalin’s ‘Jewish Bolshevist’ regime

exceedingly long at all. Looking at infantry

and establish Nazi hegemony” (Source: iwm.

numbers alone, there were approximately 1

org.uk, link under references). Additionally,

million Soviet troops that crossed the border

the aforementioned territorial losses were

that day, with only around 346,000 Finnish

most definitely a key part of Finland’s desire

troops at their strongest point in March

to participate in Operation Barbarossa (this

1940 able to match that number. However,

will be covered in much more detail in the

despite the odds the Finns were able to

next section) which, one could argue, could

defend their sovereignty with minimal

have influenced the events of the Operation

territorial losses and negotiate for peace on

and the War as a whole.

13th March 1940. THE CONTINUATION WAR One could argue that Finland had quite a

Context

significant impact on the events of WW2

The period of time in which there were no

S TA B I L I T Y

hostilities between the Soviet Union and

the largest battle in history in the Nordic

Finland, rightly dubbed “The Interim Peace,”

region which subsequently caused upwards

was one of great political significance. This

of 27,500 total casualties for the Soviet

was firstly due to the several attempts

Union, compared to approximately 8,750

by Finland to form defensive alliances/

total casualties for Finland. Furthermore, in

general alliances with various countries.

addition to regaining all of its lost territories

Some examples include: an attempted

as a result of the Moscow Peace Treaty of

Nordic Defence Alliance (which failed due

1940, Finland, together with some smaller

to threats by the Soviet Union against

German divisions, were able to push into

the formation of such an alliance) and

Soviet land, proving further to Stalin that

strengthened relationships with the UK

Finland may have been more trouble than it

and the Nazi Germany. Whilst trying to

was worth.

strengthen their relationship with the Third Reich, unbeknownst to Finland, Adolf Hitler

However, one could counter this argument

had already begun planning out Operation

by saying that although Finland had proved

Barbarossa, something that Finland would

to initially be an annoyance for the Soviet

soon become a significant part of.

Union, it didn’t necessarily affect the outcome of the Operation as a whole as the

On 22nd June 1941, Germany commenced

Soviets would later turn the tide of the war

the start of Operation Barbarossa by

after their victory at the Battle of Stalingrad

invading the Soviet Union. Finland was then

(,disputedly the bloodiest conflict in human

able to begin its part in the operation three

history - claiming approximately 747,300

days later when the Soviet Union conducted

– 868,374 Nazi lives and 1,129,619 Soviet

an air raid on Finnish cities, which allowed

lives). Additionally, one could add that

Finland to promptly declare war, thus

although the advances that the much smaller

marking the start of the Continuation War.

Finnish forces made were impressive, Stalin wished to punish Finland for their actions,

Main Discussion

more severely than in the Moscow Peace

One could argue that this war was Finland’s

Treaty of 1940, which led to Finland losing

most significant contribution to the events

not only more than what they had lost at

of World War 2 simply because of the sheer

the conclusion of the Winter War, but also

magnitude of the operation and the amount

approximately 10% of its land mass).

of damage caused to the Soviet Union as a

result. The Soviets had a large border that

Therefore, one could argue that the

they needed to defend from the onslaught of

Continuation War did not actually end up

joint German and Finnish offensives. A very

having such a substantial impact on the

convincing example of the damage caused

events of World War 2 as a whole as despite

by the war is in the Battle of Tali-Ihantala,

the obstacles that the Finnish involvement

S TA B I L I T Y

in Operation Barbarossa caused the Soviet

However, quite clearly, it is easy to see

Union, the Russians still managed to defeat

the insignificance of this war due to the

the German forces at Stalingrad and turn the

dwindling number of casualties as well as

tide of the war.

the fact that not much fighting had actually occurred between the two sides.

THE LAPLAND WAR Context and Discussion

In the end, after 7 months, 1 week and 1

The last of Finland’s wars was quite an

day of fighting between Nazi Germany and

uneventful and short one, hence why the

Finland, the last German troops left Lapland

context and relatively brief discussion for

on the 27th of April 1945, thus ending

this war have been merged in with one

World War 2 in Finland.

another. The Moscow Armistice of 1944 had

CONCLUSION

demanded that Finnish forces expel German

In conclusion, I believe that given all the

troops that had been stationed in Finnish

conflicts that Finland was involved in over

Lapland. The terms of the Treaty included

the course of World War 2, Finland did not

the use of force to remove the Nazi forces.

contribute very much to the events of World

Both Finland and Germany knew that the

War 2. This is because although Finland did

2-week period that the Soviet Union gave

successfully humiliate the Soviet Union in

for German troops to leave without having

the Winter War, Germany was still defeated

to be removed by force was unrealistic due

at the historic Battle of Stalingrad and what

to the harsh weather conditions and sheer

should have been a clear victory for the

size of the army itself. Despite Finland’s

Nazis turned into a harsh drawn-out battle

best efforts to delay the deadline as much

that ultimately resulted in a Soviet victory.

as possible, fighting between Finnish and the fleeing German forces began on 19th

However, this is not to say that Finnish

September 1944. However, aside from a few

involvement in World War 2 was not

smaller conflicts in the 7-month period that

completely pointless if you were to look at

the war lasted, only minor casualties were

them just as a country, by themselves. For

suffered by both sides (~4,300 for Germany

instance, what may have looked like a “loss”

and ~3,940 for Finland).

for Finland in the Winter War (having to cede around 9% of its territory) is actually

Although, one could still argue that this war,

celebrated as an overwhelming victory for

although small, still had some significance,

Finns even to this day. Despite being heavily

at least politically. This is because one

outnumbered and completely and utterly

could argue that it signified a harsh truth to

in the face of adversity, the Finnish forces

Germany: that now essentially every country

were able to defend Finland’s sovereignty.

in the world was either for or against them.

Additionally, the “counter-invasion” of the

S TA B I L I T Y

Soviet Union by Finland in the Continuation

References

War also showed a profound sense of national pride in their efforts to restore their

https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/bungling-prewar-and-firstmoves-finland-1939-and-ukraine-2022-comedy-errors-stalinssoviet

original borders before they were taken by

https://www.britannica.com/event/Russo-Finnish-War

the Soviet Union. Finland had long suffered

https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/operation-barbarossa-andgermanys-failure-in-the-soviet-union#:~:text=Hitler%20had%20 always%20wanted%20to,invasion%20of%20the%20Soviet%20 Union

under, firstly, Swedish rule, and then Russian rule, in which, towards the end, the whole Finnish national identity was planned on being wiped out completely by the last Tsar. Therefore, you could argue, that this invasion by Finland was their “chance” to show the Soviet Union how strong they could really be and how, again, the Soviet interest in Finland may have been more trouble than it was worth. Overall, Finnish involvement in World War 2 was one not of conquest or greed, like many others, but one of resilience, determination, and courage. Finnish troops raise the state flag on the Three-Country-Cairn of Finland, Norway, and Sweden in April 1945 at the close of the Second World War in Finland.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2213787 https://www.military-history.org/feature/operation-barbarossamap-1941.htm http://geacron.com/home-en/ http://heninen.net/sopimus/1944_e.htm

S TA B I L I T Y

Electric: The Future of Cars

Shaurya Arora | 1WRJ

WHAT ARE ELECTRIC CARS?

power for the battery to use again.

An Electric Car is a vehicle powered only by

But, as we saw, none of these parts are under

electricity, not even one drop of petrol or

the hood, so we just have a storage area

diesel is in these cars. They are also known

under the hood.

as ‘pure’ or 100% electric cars or Electric Vehicles (EV). They do not produce any

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

tailpipe emissions, which is the emission

AN ELECTRIC CAR AND A TRADITIONAL/

that comes from exhaust. Due to not having

HYBRID CAR?

an engine like traditional fuel engine cars

One of the differences between the electric

they accelerate way faster making them feel

car and a traditional car is that an electric

lighter to drive.

car has one moving part (the motor) whereas a traditional car has hundreds (if not

IF WE DON’T HAVE THE ENGINE WHAT’S

thousands) of moving parts. A traditional car

UNDER THE HOOD?

requires more maintenance as there more

Electric cars consist of a motor, battery,

parts that have a chance of failing at different

onboard charger and an Electric Power

times. This requires multiple services unlike

Control Unit (EPCU). The motor is used to

electric cars that require less services. One

power the wheels to move the car forward

of the basic differences that we all know is

whenever the accelerator is pressed like a

that a traditional car runs on petrol and an

normal car. This is situated at the base of the

electric car runs on …. electricity! In some

car. The battery provides the energy to the

ways driving an electric car may be different

motor to propel the car forward when the

to a traditional car. A hybrid car switches

accelerator is pressed. The batteries in EV

seamlessly between the two fuels (petrol and

are generally large, most electric cars have a

electricity) while electric cars as we all know

real-world range of 100 to 300 miles. Battery

run on electricity.

is situated in the middle of the base. ARE ELECTRIC CARS SAFE TO DRIVE? The onboard charging system in an electric

It is time to answer the biggest question

car converts the AC input from the charging

of all. Most of us have at one of or another

point when charging the car into a DC input

heard that electric cars are not safe. In the

which charges the battery. The EPCU is a unit

past, electric car batteries had some issues

that is used to control the flow of electric

due to being made of Nickel-cadmium which

power through the car. This is also part of the

when recharged lets out toxic fumes. But

base of the car.

that is the past! Now electric car safety has developed drastically to an extent that they

An electric car also has a mechanism called

are safer than normal cars. If you are worried

regenerative braking. This is a system where

about the battery after you read something

when you press the brake all the kinetic

online, you are not alone because I have

energy formed by pressing the accelerator is

as well. The car batteries are now more

not lost but instead turned back into battery

enhanced and completely safe. Sometimes as

S TA B I L I T Y

the car batteries age after 10-20 years, we

CONCLUSION

can see smoke or fumes come from the car

In conclusion, if you are looking to replace

but that is only after 10-20 years of constant

your car it is best to buy an electric car.

use. That is why companies recommend that

Sales of new Petrol/Diesel cars are banned

we should change car batteries every 3-5

from 2030 in the UK. As early as next year,

years out of caution to stop leakages.

new ULEZ rules come into place for Greater London prompting around 200,000 vehicles

ELECTRIC CARS: YAY OR NAY

to be replaced with newer ones. I hope you

Electric cars do not need fossil fuel

will take on board this new knowledge and

whatsoever, making them environmentally

when looking to buy a new car you go for

friendly as they do not emit pollutants.

electric!

These cars result in people saving money on traditional fuel such as petrol or diesel. In addition, they need lower maintenance due to efficient electrical motors. However, they cannot travel as far. “Fueling” takes longer and electric cars are more expensive than traditional cars. The energy used to charge electric cars mostly comes from non-renewable energy sources so to make them totally environmentally friendly we must look for other sources like solar or wind power. Also, batteries need rare metals which when being excavated cause the release of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. When cars are being made it creates emissions which contribute to global warming and the environment but that is also true for traditional cars. Lastly, there are not enough charging points around different communities to charge all the electric cars which can lead to difficulties in the uptake of electric cars.

ELECTRIC CAR SAFETY HAS DEVELOPED DRASTICALLY TO AN EXTENT THAT THEY ARE SAFER THAN NORMAL CARS.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Story of Zhao Ziyang; a Brief Democracy in China

Siru Huang | 5NLA

To a Chinese person in their late 30s, Zhao

Zhao Ziyang and Hu Yaobang emerged as

Ziyang would certainly be a well-known name

determined reformers and soon won the

of utmost fame and prestige. Zhao was the

confidence of Deng. Throughout the 1980s,

de-facto founder of China’s economic reform

with Hu Yaobang as general secretary – in

in the late 1970s and a most dedicated

charge of the party’s political affairs – Deng

advocate for political reform and democracy

Xiaoping as chairman of the central military

in China. He was the founder of over 40

commission – deterring anti-reformist

years of stability in China. This article will

forces – and Zhao Ziyang as the premier

attempt to unravel the obscure, yet complex

– conducting economic reform – China

political turmoil revolving around Zhao

entered a period of incredibly rapid economic

Ziyang, and reveal some of Zhao’s pioneering

growth. However, despite both promoting

philosophies and vision in China’s journey of

economic reform, Hu Yaobang and Zhao

development.

Ziyang, especially Zhao, put the interest of the people before the interest of the party,

Zhao Ziyang was the premier of China from

while Deng’s aim for economic reform had

September 1980 to November 1987, having

been so that the party could consolidate

formerly served as the provincial party

their leadership position. Furthermore, along

secretary in the Sichuan province and Inner

with economic reform, Zhao also called for

Mongolia antonymous region, and was the

political reform, which was perceived by the

general secretary from January 1987 to June

“elders” of the communist party, headed by

1989. However, during the Tiananmen Square

Deng Xiaoping, as extremely threatening to

protests in 1989, Zhao refused to suppress

their position and control. Therefore, under

the protestors by force, which consequently

the backdrop of the Tiananmen Incident on

led to his forced resignation. His last 16 years

the 4th of June 1989, Zhao was removed

of life, tragically, until his death in 2005, were

from office.

spent under house arrest in Beijing. Today, Zhao’s name is seldom mentioned in Chinese

Every decision made by Zhao Ziyang has

society – simply addressed by the authority

been for the China people and the future

as having committed a “severe political

of China, disregarding his personal or the

mistake”.

party’s gain or loss – such determination was unprecedented in the party; he perceived

In his own words, Zhao Ziyang condensed

Deng as a “half-hearted reformer”. Zhao

China’s journey in reformation as the

Ziyang was a dedicated advocate for the

“delegation of power”, the “easing of

introduction of democracy in China: he

restriction” (literally “untying the people”),

claimed that the CCP (Chinese Communist

the “concession of wealth”, and “making

Party) needed an opposition party so that

things happen”. After Mao’s death in 1976,

China would not collapse into chaos if the

ending the catastrophic decade of the

CCP lost the hearts and minds of the people.

Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping realised

Furthermore, Zhao posed that a modern

the desperate need for China to reform.

nation not only needs to adopt a market

S TA B I L I T Y

economy, but parliamentary democracy is

In the position of the Premier of China, the

also vital. Zhao advocated for the separation

primary aim of Zhao Ziyang’s economic

of the party from the state, and between

reform was to increase the productivity

the government and enterprise, as well as

of labour through incentives as well as

the withdrawal of the party’ influence from

structural reformations. In 1978, he adopted

literature and art, and the judiciary. The

the Household Responsibility System in the

decentralisation or delegation of power was

Sichuan province – having reallocated land

crucial to Zhao Ziyang’s vision of a successful

among farmers, those who met the quotas

reform in China – even if the CCP remains

set by the government were granted a certain

in the ruling position, their approach must

level of autonomy to trade their surplus for

change.

profit, therefore more were incentivised to increase productivity. Furthermore, Zhao

Zhao Ziyang was a humanitarian. Upon

promoted the decision-making power of

reflection on the Cultural Revolution, Zhao

enterprises, allowing them to make their

concluded that the reason the rebels were

own decisions and allocate resources, thus

fighting them so hard, was on account of

increasing productivity. On a grander scale,

what the party has done to them in the

in 1980, Zhao Ziyang introduced the Fiscal

past. He believed that the party owes the

Responsibility System in China, adjusting

people, therefore he is repaying the party’s

the relationship between the central and

debt to the people via his economic and

regional fiscal allocations, and granting the

political reform. Without democracy, the

local governments the freedom to conduct

problems of corruption, bureaucracy, and

their own investments. Tax levels were

social inequality will never be resolved.

lowered to increase the productivity of

Furthermore, liberalisation is another central

firms. Additionally, throughout the 1980s,

element of Zhao’s reform. He saw that a

Zhao tried to introduce a hybrid of market

successful implementation of democracy

economy and planned economy in China,

and liberalisation of the people must initiate

such as the separation of the ownership and

from the senior party officials – from top to

management of enterprises. As a result, since

bottom. Additionally, Zhao advocated against

1982, China entered a stage of trade surplus,

the members of the party surpassing their

while the industrial output in 1986 doubled

counterparts of the state, such as that the

that in 1981. Therefore, the decentralisation

provincial party secretary is superior to the

of wealth into the people played a crucial role

provincial governor, despite theoretically

in Zhao Ziyang’s economic reform.

being of equal ranking. Zhao Ziyang

promoted the setting up of organisations

Aligning China’s economy with that of the

such as trade unions for the people to govern

world built a firm foundation for enjoying

themselves. Thus, Zhao Ziyang’s policies of

the benefits of globalisation, such as the

easing restrictions on the people to promote

international market as well as foreign

more free dialogue between the people and

investments. In order to connect China to

the party were central to his reform.

the world, Zhao Ziyang initiated the setting

S TA B I L I T Y

up of the stock and futures market, the

ultimate conclusion of Zhao, after thorough,

special economic zones, as well as joining

profound reflections, is that everybody is

the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs

a victim under the philosophy of the CCP.

and Trade). Zhao was a man of international

Therefore, Zhao Ziyang aspired to the vitality

vision and valued the globalisation of not

of parliamentary democracy. Despite the

only politics and economy, but also ideology

messages of his reflections being simple, it is

and culture; he promoted the concept of

the virtue of self-denial that is of exceptional

“Western Learning as Substance, Chinese

value.

Learning for Application” and advocated for modernisation. He claimed it just happens to

References

be that the West is more modern than the

http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/hi/newsid_4170000/ newsid_4177500/4177517.stm

East – in terms of human rights, democracy, and freedom – therefore modernisation

http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/hi/newsid_4180000/ newsid_4187200/4187253.stm

overlaps with westernisation. Zhao believed

https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20191016/zhao-ziyangconversation-chronicler/

that only freedom would allow China to find

https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/chinese-news-46977041

the best approaches for itself to develop,

https://www.dw.com/en/zhao-ziyang-the-forgotten-architectof-chinas-economic-reforms/a-18189721

perceiving the development process from beyond ideological disputes.

https://www.hrichina.org/chs/zhong-guo-ren-quan-shuangzhou-kan/zhao-jia-xiong-mei-ji-xian-fu-zhao-zi-yang-bai-suiming-shou-wen

Zhao Ziyang was often drawn parallel to

https://www.voachinese.com/a/ccp-steps-up-ban-on-memorialof-zhao-ziyang-while-keeping-jiang-qing-s-tomb-open-prior-tomajor-anniversaries-20210410/5848195.html

Chen Duxiu, the co-founder of the CCP, who was expelled from the party due to his Trotskyist criticisms of the party. Both were forced to step down from the leadership position of the party, yet neither “acknowledged their mistakes”. Zhao proposed that the absence of political reform accompanying the economic reform could only be temporary, as all the achievements of the economic reform could be removed easily; the greater the vested interest groups, the more resistant the party is to reform. During his later days under house arrest in No.6 Fuqiang Hutong in Beijing, Zhao Ziyang concluded that in the era of increasing openness, the insistence on autocracy in China will only lead to increasing social conflicts, eventually collapsing under contingencies – missing another opportunity to connect with the world. The

S TA B I L I T Y

Why are octopodes and squid most likely to take over the world after we destroy it

Thomas Chapman | 1JWP

You may find this surprising, due to their

adaptation of the proteins might have saved

lack of importance in modern life; however,

the shoal of squid or the consortium of

this is far more possible than it seems, due

octopodes when they otherwise would have

to one simple fact – how they can change

likely died out due to some icy waters.

their RNA. Now you might be thinking – what does RNA is created when cells convert DNA.

this have to do with them taking over the

The RNA made then creates proteins which

world? The fact that they can change their

in turn hold the sequences of DNA. Your

RNA means that over time a shoal of squid

DNA is a bit like a huge library of cookbooks

or consortium of octopodes could change

that you can’t take out, but you can copy;

much, much faster than other animals. This

the only problem is that they need to be

faster evolution enables them to get to

copied word for word. RNA is the scribe who

some evolutionary opportunities faster. In

does that copying, and the proteins are the

the hypothetical scenario that humans go

copied recipes. Most animals try to get rid

extinct, then that leaves a spot open for

of any RNA they have that is not working

other animals to evolve and take up our

perfectly; they send it into the ultimate

mantle in being so able to adapt, change and

deletion bin of your body and, therefore,

develop to utilize the world around us. Due

cannot get it back if they need to adapt.

to this faster evolution, they might be able

The unique thing about what squids and

to then find a way to possibly evolve lungs

octopodes do with their RNA is that instead

and then more ways to survive on the land,

of deleting it, they put it in a storage bin of

which in turn with their large brains would

sorts, so they do not use it normally but it

mean that they only need to survive on the

is there if needed in emergency situations.

land to thrive on the land; as they already

During one of these emergency situations,

use tools, can fit through small spaces,

they are able to retrieve the RNA and swap

and may still have gills depending on what

it with an alternative bit of RNA. Using that

Mother Nature decides to do.

cookbook example from earlier, then the

chef who sent the scribe there has replaced

All of this is complete speculation of course.

that scribe for a different one to suit his

However, one thing that I find remarkably

purpose, maybe he wants a sweeter recipe,

interesting is that there is a series of

so he changes the scribe to one that puts

computer games about a post-apocalyptic

down a 10% increase of the sugar in the

world 12,000 years after the decline of

recipe, on the recreation of the paper. Going

humanity that shows what could happen if

back to the octopodes and squid, this means

this was to become true, called Splatoon.

that over a couple of generations, this new

As the website digitaltrends.com puts it

S TA B I L I T Y

“The Splatoon series takes place in the distant future of our own world, but as you probably noticed, there’s no sign of humans anywhere. 12,000 years before the Mullusk era (which is when the games take place), humanity was facing extinction from rising

YOUR DNA IS A BIT LIKE A HUGE

sea levels due to climate change.

LIBRARY OF

After 10,000 years (still 2,000 years before

COOKBOOKS THAT

the games), the flooding began to recede. This forced sea creatures that were living in the waters previously above dry land to evolve and become more intelligent. This lead to the evolution of both the first Inklings, Octarians, and Octolings. They slowly adapted to life on dry land, gaining

YOU CAN’T TAKE OUT, BUT YOU CAN COPY.

the humanoid form we know them to have, as well as form societies.” I think that this is very cool as it puts something so theoretical and scientific into the setting of a turf war game for kids.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Instability of Opinion

Vatsa Dubey | 5NLA

Instability in politics is not an uncommon

METHODOLOGY

sight. In 2022, we had three different

In order to research the reality of the

Prime Ministers, engulfed by controversy,

situation regarding youth political literacy,

unpreparedness, and chaos. With all these

I conducted a survey of 15–16-year-olds.

events in the heart of government, how often

While the results from this survey do

do we consider the impact on the people

support many of the points in the essay,

these politicians represent? The distant

it must be noted that it is not accurately

nature of Westminster from our daily lives

representative, as the respondents’ gender,

perhaps represents instability, due to an

ethnicity and socioeconomic background

assumed lack of action, or perhaps stability,

is disproportionate compared to the UK

as our lives remain ultimately unchanged.

population. 95% respondents answered

This essay will focus on youth politics, and

as male, while over 85% of respondents

how young people contribute, or do not

said they were ‘Asian or British Asian’ or

contribute, to the turbulent world of politics.

‘White’. Despite best efforts to eradicate the possibility of selection bias, this may still play

Many factors determine people’s voting

a part in influencing the results. All statistics

intentions, including social class, the media,

used in this essay that relate to this research

geography, age, gender, and the media.

are conducted in the same survey.

Alongside these, there are short-term issues such as the image of the party, single issue

AN OVERVIEW

voting and tactical voting. Single issue

Political understanding in youth is perplexing.

voting is the tactic the SNP plan to adopt in

On one hand, we are witnessing a rise in the

the next General Election to force Scottish

youth voice, particularly on climate change

independence. When someone votes, they

and issues regarding social injustice. On

think about which party will best represent

the other hand, voter turnout in younger

their needs and give them the most benefit.

age groups is much lower (around 50% of

However, in order to do this, they must have

18–24-year-olds voted in the 2019 General

a comprehensive understanding of what each

Election, compared to around 80% 75+

candidate stands for, and what they will do

voters). This suggests young adults are, on

once elected. Without this knowledge, one’s

the whole, not as aware of or interested in

vote can only be based on the influence of

politics. However, there is even a disparity

other people and the media, which allows

between those young people who do vote,

for the possibility of a vote that does not

compared to those older than them. In the

represent the true views of the person.

2019 General Election, age continued to

Democracy is about giving a voice to the will

be a dividing line, with Labour achieving a

of the people, which is fundamentally untrue

43-point lead among voters aged 18-24,

when a ‘politically illiterate’ person votes.

compared to the Conservative’s 47-point lead

This essay will delve into four hypotheses

among those aged 65+. The reason behind

about why young people feel detached, and

the left’s greater appeal to younger voters

attached to politics, supported by data from a

is most likely related to class and wealth. As

survey (more details in methodology).

younger people are more likely to be less well-off, they will want a more generous,

S TA B I L I T Y

redistributive state, where the rich are more

is now assumed to have gotten it due to

heavily taxed, and more funding is given to

other factors. Similarly, Oxbridge’s recent

public services. However, older people would

push to increase socioeconomic diversity will

be more likely to want a smaller tax burden,

have truly damaging impacts on such great

as they attempt to maximise their wealth.

institutions. For the first time ever, state

These ideological differences between

school students are more likely to get into

the two sides of the economic spectrum

Cambridge University than their independent

of course remain, but in an increasingly

school counterparts (19.9% acceptance rate

polarised political landscape, emotions are

compared to 18.8%). There has been a steady

the real election winner. In the survey, on

decline in private school students taking

a scale of 1-5, the average score for the

these Oxbridge places since the universities

question “how informed do you feel regarding

gave in to social pressure. This shows that

politics” was 2.81, suggesting a relatively

the admissions process is heavily influenced

comprehensive understanding of politics.

by students’ backgrounds, rather than being solely on merit. This, although being hailed

HYPOTHESIS 1: CULTURAL INSTABILITY

by the media, will lead to these world-leading

By cultural instability, I mean changing

institutions becoming less successful, as

identities, the emergence of new beliefs and

their take-in will be of a less robust and

the expectation of being politically correct.

academically competent level. All this effort

In the past decade, we have witnessed a

does is to undermine the efforts of state

rise in ‘cultural sensitivity,’ where people

school students, while denying fair access

are more tolerant of those with different

to their private school counterparts. It is a

cultural identities, alongside the creation

‘lose-lose’ situation and is an example of the

of the widespread acknowledgment that

counter-productive nature of this fight for

any form of prejudice against minorities is

equality.

unacceptable. In principle, this represents significant progression in the fight for

However, due to having to be ‘politically

equality. However, I fear that this may

correct’, people are less likely to voice these

be leading to a reverse effect, where the

sorts of opinions, as they believe if they go

efforts of minorities are undermined, and

against these schemes for equality, they will

those previously advantaged become

be labelled ‘racist’ or ‘elitist’. Unfortunately,

disadvantaged, not equal. For example, if a

this has created a hostile environment

company is hiring, and they prefer to hire a

for political discussion, and as the author

Black woman to fill their diversity quotas,

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has said, we

white men no longer have equal opportunity

are suffering from “self-censorship”. This

– and in fact the disadvantage is reversed.

is because people are unwilling to ask

This is also negative for the Black woman,

difficult questions surrounding these societal

as if she is hired, she will be aware that it

questions. This lack of free discussion leads

may only be to fill a quota, and that her hard

to a situation where one must follow the

work may be undermined by her race and

majority or be ‘cancelled’. Therefore, young

gender. This also creates the opposite effect,

people are unlikely to engage in politics,

as despite working hard to get that job, she

particularly on these societal issues, because

S TA B I L I T Y

they feel that there is no way they can refute

culture’, citing that it eradicates free speech

these beliefs. Simply following the herd is

and erodes our freedoms. Perhaps, this lack

useless, and when one’s true beliefs cannot

of logical, pragmatic discussion, and the

be expressed, the fundamental purpose of

presence of fierce emotion mean that many

democracy is shattered.

young people feel unengaged with politics. Emotions are also arguably controlled by the

This cultural instability of new beliefs

media, as no news agency can be perfectly

that cannot be opposed creates a toxic

unbiased. The language used, if not neutral or

environment which is in most cases

balanced, will impact the readers’ impressions

inoperable. It has led, and will continue

of a politician or party – and impact their

to lead to, the death of the exploration of

political beliefs. A recent example is Labour’s

beliefs. This hinders our progression as we

commitment to scrap the charitable status

no longer listen to each other and improve

of independent schools. Right-leaning news

our ideas collectively. We are becoming

agencies have robustly discredited this

more radical, and less pragmatic – only

policy. The Times’ article on the issue is

harming us. Although cultural instability has

titled “Poor pupils will pay price of Labour’s

many devastating impacts, the one focused

private school plan”, while the Daily Mail’s

on in this essay is the impact on youth

title states “Private schools add £16.5bn to

disengagement from politics. Of course, no

the economy”. Although it may be justified

young person would want to contribute to a

to criticise Labour’s approach to educational

system where their opinion cannot even be

inequality, the fueling of emotion and further

voiced without the threat of social isolation.

polarised discussion only worsens the

They have a choice: either they grow up in

situation for reaching a pragmatic solution to

a world following the herd or speak out and

this inequality, and further divides those who

become secluded. This trajectory of societal

do not have a strong opinion on the matter.

‘progress’ is deeply concerning and having a

In the survey, 62% of respondents answered

detrimental impact on youth politics.

said the differences in educational standards are morally justifiable – suggesting a majority

HYPOTHESIS 2: EMOTIONS

of respondents would oppose this Labour

Young people may feel detached from the

policy. Ultimately, young people may not be

world of politics, due to heightened emotions

interested in this emotive rhetoric, they may

and lack of action. Emotion dictates voting,

only care about the solutions and actions that

as some may feel angry by one party or

will impact their lives.

inspired by another. Due to increased

polarisation globally, politicians are often

On the other hand, emotion also creates

more sentimental in their campaigning, using

strong attachment to politics for many

stronger language to influence as many

young people. By persistent anger towards

people as possible. For example, while ‘woke

a particular party, one may become very

culture’ is not particularly important in policy

involved in political discussion. Equally,

decisions, politicians make it out to be one

one may be motivated and encouraged by

of the greatest issues we face. The right has

pledges of other parties and support them.

ramped up a vehement attack on this ‘woke

For example, climate change establishes

S TA B I L I T Y

much anger within youth groups, as many of

news, it is also with politically motivated

the issues surrounding climate change will

news. On social media, it is difficult to tell

only impact the youth but were caused by

someone’s political beliefs, and prior bias

previous generations. Alongside this, many

does not need to be displayed. This can lead

children will feel strongly about growing up

to a dangerous situation where opinion is

in a world with social issues, such as unequal

portrayed as fact, and in some cases this can

access to opportunity, or a lack of rights for

be incredibly strong. This particularly impacts

certain minority groups. These social issues

the youth as they are less experienced

often fall into the realm of emotive discourse,

with the world of politics and may be more

as they cannot be backed up by statistics,

susceptible to this manipulation. This causes

but are solely based on ideological opinion,

many to form an unfounded political view,

and individual experiences. Therefore, the

and they may be very passionate about

youth may feel strongly attached to such

it. Unfortunately, this leads to political

movements. This is backed up by 52%

engagement in a worrying way, where there

answering they have founded political views

is little fact to back up arguments, but

on “some issues”, while 29% have founded

more toxic arguments. Social media does

political views. This shows that most people

threaten our democracy, as the will of the

surveyed are politically motivated, further

people is not being voiced when their will is

highlighting the role of attachment to

controlled by TikTok creators. This may lead

movements through emotion.

to a situation of some young people having radical beliefs, while some simply remain

HYPOTHESIS 3: SOCIAL MEDIA

uninterested in politics altogether.

Political disengagement may also be due to the rise of social media, and the negative,

This being said, many young people are

and occasionally false, political information.

cautious about what they view on social

On the relatively unregulated, decentralised

media, with the survey showing only 29%

system of social media, it is difficult to

believe the news they see on social media

control misinformation from spreading – and

“very often”, with no respondents saying they

thus young people can often be pulled into

“always” believe it. This makes them less

an algorithm of fake news and toxic culture

susceptible to this manipulation. Also, the

surrounding politicians, leading to a lack of

difficulty of controlling political rhetoric on

trust in politicians and the establishment as a

social media must be acknowledged, as any

whole. This curates a dangerous and extreme

attempt to moderate solely opinion-based

viewpoint, when the person may be unaware

videos may be deemed as an infringement of

of how politics works and the truth about

freedom of speech.

what is being done. In the survey, TikTok was the third most common (from a list of

HYPOTHESIS 4: OTHER INFLUENCES

eight), despite it being ranked as the least

Other influences are also key to young

accurate source of news by all respondents.

people’s political beliefs, particularly parental

This highlights a concerning disparity, where

influence. In the survey, 24% said they

people actively seek inaccurate news. This,

instinctively follow their parent’s political

however, is not just limited to inaccurate

beliefs, and 48% said they sometimes do.

S TA B I L I T Y

This represents nearly three-quarters of

References

respondents who follow their parents’ views

Young, F. (2022). “Poor pupils will pay price of Labour’s private school plan”. [Online]. Available at: https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ article/poor-pupils-will-pay-price-of-labours-private-schoolplan-wr9g9ptxs (Accessed: 10 November 2022)

to some extent, which represents a lack of true understanding. If young people just absorb a view, without going through the process of understanding and then believing in it, they are just as politically unaware as they were to begin with. However, this is bound to occur due to our nature of following our parents. These sorts of influences lead to a position of political disengagement, as people do not think or even know about their supposed political beliefs. Additionally, if someone’s parents have left-leaning or rightleaning views, when they discuss politics with their children, information may become biased and distorted. This fact is exacerbated when considering ‘talking to family’ was the most common way amongst the respondents in the survey for accessing the news. A similar effect is witnessed when talking to friends about politics, which was the 4th most common way of accessing the news. CONCLUSION Cultural instability is by far the most significant factor for youth political disengagement. This culture of following the herd will only continue to be the death of curiosity and exploration of different beliefs. It will continue to swap the sides of prejudice – despite fighting for ‘equality’. It will continue to undermine the efforts of those minorities who work hard and are being given the advantage due to factors other than their effort. Most importantly, it will represent a lack of engagement in politics by young people, the people who will grow up to lead our democracy. Without opposition to the herd, we may as well not have a democracy at all.

BBC (2022). “Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: Author warns about ‘epidemic of self-censorship’” [Online]. Available at: https:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-63797087 Harding, E. and Stringer C. (2022). “Private schools add £16.5bn to the economy and £5.1 billion in tax contributions, analysis shows.” [Online]. Available at: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ news/article-11482995/Private-schools-add-16-5bn-economy5-1billion-tax-contributions-analysis-shows.html (Accessed: 12 November 2022) Blake E (2022). “State school pupils are more likely to get into Cambridge University than their private school rivals for first time ever as admissions bosses are accused of social engineering” [Online]. Available at: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ news/article-11364463/State-school-pupils-likely-CambridgeUniversity-private-school-rivals.html (Accessed: 01/12/2022)

S TA B I L I T Y

The Curse of Natural Resources?

Oliver Jones-Whitaker | 3ADS

For centuries, natural resources have been

The Americans backed UNITA, providing

vital in sustaining the human race for myriad

them with weaponry and training while the

reasons. Without natural resources, we

Russians supplied similar support to the

wouldn’t have anywhere near as much food

MPLA. In 2002, the war finished with the

or water; the means to provide shelter and

MPLA victorious, yet the civil war certainly

infrastructure, or any means of transport. In

contributed to Angola’s inability to fully

a developed and stable country such as our

exploit their natural resources.

own, we take natural resources for granted: we have the infrastructure and leadership

Nowadays, Angola’s economy is rapidly

to be able to take advantage of them. Yet

expanding. While this may seem like it is

I am fascinated by why some countries

due to success in use of natural resources,

supposedly blessed with natural resources

economic growth is extremely uneven:

are some of the most poverty-stricken,

there are great extremes in the wealth

corrupt places in the world. In this essay, I

of the richest compared to most citizens.

will be studying one of these countries in

Furthermore, Angola has one of the lowest

much closer detail: Angola.

life expectancy rates in the world and the quality of living is terrible for many. The

The Republic of Angola is located on the

former president Jose Eduardo Dos Santos

western coast of Southern Africa. It is hugely

was seen to be extremely corrupt, leveraging

rich in natural resources with vast petroleum

the country’s oil wealth to gain a huge

and mineral reserves. For centuries, it was

fortune for him and his family. Notably, his

under the control of Portugal as a colony but

daughter Isabel Dos Santos was the richest

gained its independence after 14 years of

person in Africa in 2013 with a net worth

conflict against their colonisers. However,

exceeding two billion dollars yet has since

the country was stuck in civil war from the

been banned from entering the US and has

beginning of their independence in 1975

an international warrant for arrest due to

on and off until 2002. The war took place

corruption charges. These charges originate

between the ruling MPLA and the FNLA

from when she was head of the state-

and its offshoot – UNITA. The conflict

owned Angolan oil company Sonangol while

caused the deaths of 500,000 to 800,000

her father was still ruling. She has been

people and displaced millions. While this

accused of siphoning million of pounds into

may seem like an internal struggle in Angola

offshore bank accounts among many other

itself, many have described the civil war

embezzlement charges. While this is one of

as a proxy war fought out between the

the most notable and ongoing issues, it is

Americans and South Africans against the

one small example of the scale of corruption

Russians and Cubans. This was effectively

Angola faces.

conflict between two sides of the Cold War which was at its height around the late 70s

While much of Angola’s corruption and

and early 80s: the period after Angolan

inability to create a stable economy is the

Independence and the beginning of its war.

former government’s own doing, it wouldn’t

S TA B I L I T Y

be fair to point the blame towards their

economy has seen continuous growth and

leadership entirely. We must remember the

was not hit so hard by the pandemic due

fact that Angola was only liberated in 1975

to the ability to fall back onto this fund.

and had been forbidden from forming any

Norway’s success certainly indicates an

political groups. A lack of experience and

importance in long-term planning and

knowledge on the best way to reap the

investment in a wide range of markets.

rewards of their natural resources certainly

While Norway is a very different example to

set them behind from a very early stage.

Angola for reasons I have previously stated,

Furthermore, the fact that Angola was

their long-term approach is something for

immediately engulfed in a brutal civil war

Angola to consider and build on.

the year they gained independence further ruined any chances of a peaceful beginning.

While Angola has much work to do and

The party was more focused at that time on

perhaps the scars of their previous struggles

staying in power and committing resources

will never fully heal, their new government

towards fighting rather than growing a

has clamped down on corruption and seems

stable economy. Finally, Angola gained their

to want to create a more balanced economy

independence at one of the worst possible

where less are so poverty-stricken. Their

times. Their beginning turned them into a

natural resources perhaps made them a

proxy fought out over by far-away foreign

target for other countries during colonial

countries who used their internal struggles

times and it was not helped by having a

to create two extremely divided sides.

corrupt government. Yet we have seen many

Foreign countries’ actions increased the

examples that prove that Angola still has

severity of the civil war whether that be due

some ability to use their natural resources

to Angolans gaining weapons that caused

towards the success of their nation and that

destruction to their own economy and

in our modern world, natural resources are

infrastructure or influxes of troops from far

not a curse for them.

away escalating matters. We can compare the struggles to Angola to a very different example: Norway. This Scandinavian country is deemed to be the gold standard of successful use of natural resources. Norway has the largest sovereign wealth fund in the world (1.19 trillion dollars in assets: enough to be worth 250,000 dollars for each Norwegian citizen). This has been achieved by investing the surpluses of the Norwegian petroleum sector. This will include oil taken from the North Sea for instance. As a result of this, Norway’s

met, the opposite particles should have destroyed each other, leaving a blank a universe with no matter at all. S TA B I L I T Y

However, by some miracle, the particles didn’t end up demolishing each other. amongst testing the predictions of different theories of particle physics, is one o focuses of the LHC and other accelerators around the world. They also create su Ewels | 1MHT amounts of energy; each Giga-electron voltWilliam (GeV) being 1,000,000,000 volts. I h the table below to show the amount of energy emitted by each collision.

Particle accelerators

Energy Per Collision

In this article, I will inform you about particle accelerators and what they do.

120000

Particle accelerators were invented in the

100000

scientists investigating the structure of the atomic nucleus. Did you know that old television sets had particle accelerators in them?! They were used by directing electrons onto a florescent screen to create

Energy (GeV)

1930s to supply energetic particles for

80000 60000 40000 20000 0

light. For the next century, they have been used for a range of various aspects

SPS

Tevatron

LHC

FCC

Accelerator

of particle physics. This links to stability because they are being used by scientists

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

to cause controlled instability within atoms and subatomic particles to create a similar

1,000,000,000 volts. I have created the

After 10 years of development, with a circumference of 26.6 kilometres a table (above) to show the amount of energy meters underground, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the largest accelerator was formed. I chose this as I find this a emitted by each collision. It was first started up on 10 September 2008 and is still the latest addition to CE remarkably interesting area of science in state to that in which the early universe

which you are creating extremely unstable

THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER (LHC)

matter to find the origin of the universe.

After 10 years of development, with a circumference of 26.6 kilometres and 50-

According to the laws of physics, nothing

175 meters underground, the Large Hadron

should exist in the universe. After the

Collider (LHC) is the largest accelerator

‘Big Bang’, there was a huge expansion

in the world. It was first started up on

of matter, and matter and their anti-

10 September 2008 and is still the latest

matter counterparts were created in huge

addition to CERN (European Organization

quantities. As the universe expanded,

for Nuclear Research)’s accelerator complex.

more and more matter and anti-matter

It has 2500 workers there with 15,000

was created, causing the early universe to

joining them from around the world. It is

expand at a remarkable rate. When they

on the border with France and Switzerland.

met, the opposite particles should have

LHC stands for:

destroyed each other, leaving a blank and

> Large: it is the largest in the world

empty universe with no matter at all.

> Hadron: it crashes both protons and ions together which are both in the hadron

However, by some miracle, the particles didn’t end up demolishing each other. This, amongst testing the predictions of

group > Collider: it collides two beams of particles together

different theories of particle physics, is one of the main focuses of the LHC and

Pre-Accelerators

other accelerators around the world.

Feeding into the LHC; there are a few

They also create substantial amounts of

smaller colliders. The first of these is the

energy; each Giga-electron volt (GeV) being

p-Pb pre-accelerator which collides protons

S TA B I L I T Y

and lead in its Pb-208 isotope which has

quark", or "b quark". The bottom quark or

126 neutrons in its nucleus. Leading out

b quark, also known as the beauty quark,

of this is the PS which stands for Proton

is a third-generation heavy quark with a

Synchrotron. Normally, synchrotrons

charge of −1/3 e. This leads to discoveries

accelerate electrons. However, the proton

like when scientists discovered a new way

synchrotron accelerates protons to a high

in which matter and antimatter behave

speed before feeding them out to the

differently.

SPS, the Super Proton Synchrotron. The Super Proton Synchrotron is the second-

ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) is

largest machine in CERN's accelerator

a detector dedicated to heavy-ion physics

complex. Measuring nearly 7 kilometres

at the Large Hadron Collider. It is designed

in circumference, it takes particles from

to study the physics of strongly interacting

the Proton Synchrotron and accelerates

matter at extreme energy densities, where a

them further to provide beams for the

phase of matter called quark-gluon plasma

Large Hadron Collider; the NA61/SHINE

forms which is a fifth state of matter

and NA62 experiments; and the COMPASS

wherein quarks and gluons are freed. Similar

experiment.

conditions are believed to have existed a fraction of the second after the Big Bang

Experiments

before quarks and gluons bound together

Around the LHC there are four main

to form hadrons and heavier particles. The

experiments and detectors that record

diagram below (from CERN) shows the size

the data from collisions. Starting with

and position of CERN’s colliders, compared

the largest, ATLAS is one of two general-

to each other.

purpose detectors at the Large Hadron Collider. It investigates a wide range of physics, from the search for the Higgs boson to extra dimensions and particles that could make up dark matter. The second of the experiments, the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) is a general-purpose detector at the Large Hadron Collider. It has a broad physics programme ranging from studying the Standard Model (including the Higgs boson) to searching for extra dimensions and particles that could lead to the discovery of dark energy.

Future Circular Collider FUTURE CIRCULAR COLLIDER

The Large Hadron Collider beauty/

The Future Circular Collider (FCC) is a

The Future specializes Circular Collider (FCC) is aparticle proposed particle with an bottom (LHCb) experiment in proposed accelerator with accelerator an

above that of previous circular colliders, as the Super Pro investigating significantly the slight differences between energy significantly above that such of previous

matter and antimatter by studying circular colliders, suchThe as the Super Protonis considering the Tevatron, anda type the of Large Hadron Collider. FCC project particle called the "beauty quark", "bottom

the Tevatron, and the Large for collision types: FCC-hh, forSynchrotron, hadron-hadron collisions, including proton-p ion collisions, FCC-ee, for electron-positron collisions, and FCC-eh, for elect collisions. In FCC-hh, each beam would have a total energy of 560 MJ. With mass collision energy of 100 TeV (vs 14 TeV at LHC) the total energy value i

S TA B I L I T Y

Hadron Collider. The FCC project is

PARTICLE ACCELERATORS PLAY A KEY ROLE IN UNLOCKING THE PAST AND FUTURE OF THE UNIVERSE AND COULD POSSIBLY LEAD TO THE CREATION OR DISCOVERY OF THE MULTI-VERSE.

considering three scenarios for collision types: FCC-hh, for hadron-hadron collisions, including proton-proton and heavy ion collisions, FCC-ee, for electron-positron collisions, and FCC-eh, for electron-hadron collisions. In FCC-hh, each beam would have a total energy of 560 MJ. With a centre-ofmass collision energy of 100 TeV (vs 14 TeV at LHC) the total energy value increases to 16.7 GJ. These total energy values exceed the present LHC by nearly a factor of 30. CONCLUSION In conclusion, particle accelerators play a key role in unlocking the past and future of the universe and could possibly lead to the creation or discovery of the multiverse. Particle accelerators are connected to stability by the fact that they are used to create highly unstable and energised states in which it is possible to create new(undiscovered) particles that could only be created in environments like those created in the initial stages of the big bang. However, even though these are fantastic and amazing technological advancements, there are a few downsides. Firstly, they take up large amount of space and fuel, such as electricity and gas. Secondly, they use lots of materials; both added together mean that they are a large cause for climate change. On the other hand, Particle accelerators play a vital role in the fight against climate change as they help strengthen modern technologies such as lithium-ion storage capabilities and solar panels. However, the amount of energy required to operate some of these large machines is enormous, not only adding to the carbon footprint some seek to reduce but limiting their accessibility.

S TA B I L I T Y

The Fermi Paradox

William Webster | 2KLF

ARE WE THE ONLY LIVING THINGS IN

in the Milky Way, and estimates suggest

THE UNIVERSE?

that about ⅕ have an earth like planet in

The observable Universe is about 90

its goldilocks zone - if only 0.1% of those

billion light-years across, that’s at least

planets harvested life, then there would

100,000,000,000 galaxies, containing

be 1,000,000 planets with life in just our

100,000,000,000 – 1,000,000,000,000

Milky Way. But there’s more. The Milky

stars. Recently, we’ve learnt that planets

Way is about 13 billion years old, and in the

are very common, and there are probably

beginning, it wouldn’t have been a very good

trillions and trillions of them in the

place for life because things exploded a lot.

observable universe - which means that

But after one or two billion years, the Milky

there should be life out there somewhere,

Way had calmed down enough to harvest

right? But where is it? Surely the universe

life. Earth is only 4 billion years old, so there

should be teeming with spaceships and

have probably been many habitable planets

aliens. Let's take a step back.

that have been around for way longer than earth. If only one civilization had developed

WHAT HAPPENED TO ALL OF

into a space-travelling super civilization, we

THE ALIENS?

would have noticed by now. But what would

If there are other civilizations in other

a super civilization look like? There are three

galaxies, there’s no way we’ll ever know

categories they are likely to fit into, Type

about them. The only civilizations that

1, Type 2, and Type 3. A Type 1 civilization

are detectable to us would have to be in

is able to have full control over its planet’s

the local group. The local group is a small

resources. A Type 2 civilization has full

area in the immense universe that is near

control over its solar system, and a Type 3

enough to - with more powerful future

civilization would have full control over its

technology - travel to potentially. It usually

entire galaxy. Humanity today is currently

includes the Milky Way, and sometimes our

about Type 0.81. One day, humanity might

nearest galaxy, Andromeda, which, in billions

become a galactic overlord of the Milky

upon billions of years, will collide with the

Way, and if there are thousands, millions,

Milky Way to form the inventively named

billions maybe, of planets with a good

‘Milkdromeda Galaxy’. This is because, as the

chance for life, then where are all the aliens?

universe expands, galaxies get further and

further apart from each other, until they’re

THE FERMI PARADOX

completely out of reach. Even if we had

This is the Fermi Paradox, and nobody really

really fast spaceships, it would take billions

has a definitive answer to it, but we do have

of years to reach these places, travelling

some ideas. Let’s talk about filters. A filter

through the emptiest areas of the universe.

in this context represents a barrier that is

Let’s focus on the Milky Way. The Milky

really hard for life to overcome. They come

Way is our home galaxy and contains up

in various degrees of scary: number one,

to 400,000,000,000 billion stars. That’s a

there are great filters behind us. This is not

lot! Roughly ten thousand stars for every

very scary. This means we could be one of,

single grain of sand on the Earth. There

if not the only, ones to pass these filters.

are about 20,000,000,000 sun-like stars

However, this could mean that complex life

S TA B I L I T Y

is a lot rarer than we thought. Number two,

that humans wipe out about twelve a day,

the filter is ahead of us. This one would be

as a side-effect of our survival, and how we

really bad. Maybe life on our level exists all

like to make things work. But unfortunately,

over the place in our universe, but they get

humans are more than just individuals. From

destroyed when it reaches a certain point

us emerge cultures, religions, and beliefs

that lies ahead of us. For example, awesome

that lead to competition between species.

future technology exists, but when activated,

Competitive and expansionary cultures

it destroys the planet. The last words of Every

spread faster and further and merge with,

civilization could be “What could go wrong!” If

subdue, or destroy others. If we look at

this is true, then we are closer to our end than

our history, the message is clear. We are

beginning. Or maybe there is an ancient Type

dangerous, and to ourselves as well as

3 civilization that snuffs out everyone else

others. Our ‘human nature’ has driven us to

before they get powerful enough to challenge

try and take over every corner of the world,

them, or an experiment that accidentally

and soon we will be expanding outwards,

lights the whole atmosphere on fire.

beyond our planet, spreading our influence across our solar system, and slowly across

THE SOLUTIONS

the galaxy. If we find other species, taking

There are many solutions to the Fermi

control of their planet - greedy, expansionist

Paradox. While we have already discussed

and inventive creatures - then they may be

the filter solutions in the previous

dangerous as well. As we search the universe

paragraph, there are several others that

we know there may be others like us, we

present themselves as possibilities when

can’t know their intentions, or whether they

this theory comes up. Some of the more

are aggressive or not. We have killed for

commended ones include the theory that

our survival, so we have to be prepared for

an intelligent species inhabited earth before

others to do so too. If we discover others, it

homo sapiens came to be. However, no

may be down to who shoots first.

ancient artefacts have been discovered to hint towards or confirm this theory. Another

So far though, our advances have seemed

famous one – which scientists haven’t found

to make us more peaceful, and maybe this

much to disprove – is the dark forest theory.

is the same for other, alien species. Maybe

This theory outlines the possibility that if

eventually, progress means less conflict,

all living things need to seek out things to

not more. But civilizations could vary. They

survive, secure resources and multiply, then

could be nice and peaceful or malevolent

the greatest obstacle is others trying to

and militaristic. The problem is, when we

achieve the same objective. Evolution and

meet others between the stars, we have

competition of species favours those with

no way of telling if they will be peaceful

more advantageous traits. Our ancestors

or aggressive. We would have no idea of

were competitive, expansionist, inventive

their true intentions. Similarly, they might

and greedy for resources, which led to

misunderstand our definition of peace.

them claiming victory over other species for their claim to our planet. Right now, so

Furthermore, if we discovered an alien

many animals are so utterly at our mercy

civilization lightyears away, that would mean

S TA B I L I T Y

years of communication delay. We might

they favour a first strike, since they are so

be talking to a dead species. Because we

fast that it might be impossible to protect

have no idea of the limits of technology,

yourself against once they’re launched. This

a few hundred or thousand years could

makes every civilization a huge threat to any

turn a conflict with uncertain results into a

other. Because of this, there may be only

one-sided massacre. For example, Caesar's

two types of civilizations out there: quiet

legions wouldn’t have a chance against

ones, and dead ones. So what should we do?

Napoleon's army, but in turn, they would

Should we worry? The answer is no. Or at

be completely eradicated by World War 1

least probably not. It is highly unlikely that

artillery. Again, these would be destroyed by

anyone or anything has noticed humanity.

modern warfare drones and guided missiles.

Yet. The radio signals we’ve transmitted

This shows how energy level and usage

have travelled a relatively tiny distance and

between civilizations could vary immensely,

decayed long ago into unintelligible and

and even if they don’t, by the time they’ve

random noises. At our technological stage,

detected each other and said ‘hi’ one might

if we don’t actively seek out attention in

be hopelessly far behind the other. This is

our galaxy, and if nobody specifically looks

already very bad, but the way interstellar

for us, then we will remain hidden. But one

conflict works makes it quite a lot worse.

day, we will venture out into deep space

If your opponent is very far away, their

and we will need to consider these kinds of

technology may have improved exponentially

possibilities and questions. We don’t know

by the time the fleet reaches them. So war

if there are others in the forest, or if we

between civilizations might just be about

are adventuring alone, but we don’t know

eliminating another, to remove an existential

anything for sure. For the time being, all

threat to yourself: someone else who might

we can do is listen carefully. Even if we do

be so scared of you that they attack first.

see others step into a clearing and make

In these conditions, the only way to win is

themselves known, we should not reply right

to attack with such power and speed that

away, and watch from the undergrowth.

you eliminate the opponent on the first

Perhaps we are of primitive intelligence,

strike. Of course, if most civilizations live on

and may be thinking about this all wrong.

planets, that makes it easier. With a planet,

Maybe the fact that we are looking out into

you can just throw something big at it and

the universe like this is a sign that we are

make it uninhabitable for millenia. You could

not grown up enough as a species. There

make a missile about the size of a person,

could be a friendly community of alien

travelling at 95% of the speed of light, and it

civilizations, waiting for us to get the right

would be equivalent to all nuclear weapons

technology to communicate with them. For

on Earth. Throw a half-dozen of these at

now, the best thing to do is wait and stay

a planet and even one could destroy its

where we are. There is little we need to

atmosphere for a very long time. A planet

do. We just need to be thoughtful about

just a bit more advances=d than us would

what we fire up into the heavens, we need

likely have the energy to destroy any planet

to watch, and look up at our universe. The

it holds suspect of attack. What makes

forest. Because whatever the nature of the

these weapons so terrifying is how much

forest, may it be full of friends or foes, or

S TA B I L I T Y

AT OUR TECHNOLOGICAL STAGE, IF WE DON’T ACTIVELY SEEK OUT ATTENTION IN OUR GALAXY, AND IF NOBODY SPECIFICALLY LOOKS FOR US, THEN WE WILL REMAIN HIDDEN. even nobody at all, only time and careful

may repeat millions of times, undetectable

observation can tell, so that is what we

to anyone else. Maybe there is other life

should do.

out there, and it is a unifying experience for all life to look up at the stars and wonder,

Maybe the only way out is to step into the

“Where is everyone?” But there is no reason

clearing together.

to assume that aliens are anything like us. They might have different logic, that would

But right now, we are alone. No one

be confusing to us. Maybe our means of

answering our messages, or returning our

communication are primitive, like sitting

calls. We could be the only life in the entire

in a house with a morse code translator,

universe, and if this is the case, we must

you’d keep sending messages, but no one

strive to become the first Type 3 civilization

would answer, and you would be pretty

and we must fill the universe with life,

lonely. Maybe we’re still undetectable to

before all life dies out. The Universe is too

intelligent species, and we’ll remain so until

beautiful not to be experienced by someone.

we learn to communicate properly. And even if we meet aliens, we will unlikely be able

THE GLORIOUS FUTURE

to communicate with them in a meaningful

Will we be destroyed or does a future of

way. Imagine the smartest squirrel you can,

a galactic civilization await us? There may

and no matter how hard you try, you won’t

have been grand alien empires stretching

be able to explain our society to it. After all

all across the universe that died out before

- from the squirrel’s perspective - a tree is

intelligent humans became aware of life

all that a sophisticated intelligence like itself

beyond the stars. There may be ruins of

needs to survive. So humans cutting down

ancient cities, rotting away on foreign

whole forests is just madness, but we don’t

planets. 99% of all species that have ever

cut down trees because we hate squirrels.

existed on earth are extinct, so it’s easy to

We just want the resources. The squirrel’s

argue that this will be our fate sooner or

wishes and worries are of no concern to us.

later. Intelligent life may exist, spread across

A Type 3 civilization in need of resources

a few systems, and then die out. This pattern

might treat us the same way. They might

S TA B I L I T Y

just evaporate our oceans or take apart

trillion years (that’s 10,000,000,000,000

our mountains because they ‘just need the

years!) Who would want to conquer the

resources’. One of the aliens might think

galaxy or destroy other civilizations if this

for a second, “Oh, tiny little apes, they built

were an option? All these solutions to the

little concrete structures, how cute. Oh well,

Fermi Paradox have one problem. We don’t

now they’re dead,” before activating warp

know where the borders of technology are.

speed. But if there is a civilization out there

We could be close to the limit or nowhere

that wants to destroy other species, it is far

near it, and super technology awaits us.

more likely that they will be motivated by

Granting us immortality, transporting us

culture rather than economics. And anyway,

to other galaxies, elevating us to the level

it would be easy to automate the process by

of gods. One thing that we do have to

constructing the perfect weapon: a self-

acknowledge is that we don’t really know

replicating space probe made from nano-

anything. Humans have spent 90% of their

machines. They operate on a molecular level:

existence as hunter-gatherers, and up to 500

incredibly fast and deadly, with the power

years ago, we thought we were in the centre

to attack and dismantle everything in sight

of the universe, and up until 200 years ago,

in an instant. They would only need four

we didn’t use much more than human labour

instructions. Number one, find a planet with

as a source of energy. 30 years ago we had

life. Number two, disassemble everything

world-destroying weapons aimed at each

on this planet into their component parts.

other because of political disagreements. In

Number, three, use these resources to build

the galactic scale, we are embryos, incapable

new space probes. Number four, repeat. A

of making any significant impact on the

doomsday device like this could render a

galaxy. We’ve come far, but we still have a

galaxy sterile in a few million years. But why

long way to go. The mindset that we are still

would you fly lightyears to gather resources

in the centre of the universe is still strong in

or commit genocide? The speed of light is

most humans, so it’s easy to make arrogant

actually ... not very fast. If you could travel

assumptions about ourselves and other life

at the speed of light, it would take you

in the universe, but in the end, there’s only

100,000 years to cross the Milky Way once.

one way to find out right?

And anyway, you’ll probably travel much slower. There might be way more enjoyable

References

things than destroying civilizations and

Credit to the Youtube channel Kurzgesagt for providing information and inspiring this article.

building empires. An interesting concept is the Matrioshka Brain, a mega structure surrounding a star, a computer of such power that an entire species could upload their consciousness and live in a simulated universe. Potentially, one could experience an eternity of pure ecstasy without ever being sad or annoyed: the perfect life. If built around a red dwarf, this computer could last for and be powered for up to ten

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Obscure Scientific Discoveries: Invisibility and Colour-changes META MATERIALS For many years invisibility has been a figment of our imaginations; something that could only happen in science fiction novels or Harry Potter. However, in October 2006, a team of British and American scientists made a gigantic breakthrough, showing the first case of meta materials cloaking a

THE TEAM, LED BY SIR JOHN PENDRY, MANAGED TO

device.

CLOAK A DEVICE

The team, led by Sir John Pendry, managed

FROM MICROWAVE

to cloak a device from microwave detection, rendering it almost completely invisible. The invisibility was not derived from the chemical compounds of the device but from the structure of the constituent (meaning the combination of) materials. This created a meta material; a material with properties

that do not occur naturally. They are

generally composed of layers of elements that are composite materials themselves.

The geometric shape of how all the elements

DETECTION, RENDERING IT ALMOST COMPLETELY INVISIBLE.

is arranged changes how the meta material

influences electromagnetic radiation.

genomic sequencing could save millions of lives and help scientists understand more

also bend light around them, making the

about how cancer cells form and spread.

However, these incredible materials can

Firstly, you need to understand that there

amazing and destructive potential that meta

is a difference between genomes and DNA.

materials have. Used in the right way, these

Genomes are the organism’s/cell’s entire set

“invisibility cloaks” could become a weapon

of DNA, and one DNA strand is a carrier of

of terrifying power.

genetic information. To comprehend this in a

any human’s eyesight. This emphasises the

wearer imperceptible to video cameras and

Jayveer Mehan | L1TJD

visual way, if we imagined an IKEA furniture

GENOMIC SEQUENCING

construction guide, the instructions in a

Every year, at least ten million people die

paragraph on one page would be a DNA

from various forms of cancer. However, in

strand, whilst the entire manual cover to

the last decades, the new discoveries of

cover would be the genomes.

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Genomic sequencing is a laboratory method

However, this is not the only way to

that is used to determine the entire genetic

change the colour on a car. Although less

makeup of a specific organism or cell type.

exciting, it is definitely as effective. The

There is a machine they use to create the

other way is to use a special paint called

DNA sequences. The data comes out of the

Thermochromic paint. The way this works

machine as short pieces of DNA sequence

is the paint changes colour according to

called “reads”. A computer takes these

the temperature, but you can get paint that

reads and maps them, creating a picture of

changes under Ph and UV light. This special

the individual's genome. Once the genome

paint is made up of pigments known as leuco

picture is assembled, another programme

dyes. Leuco dyes reversibly switch under

looks for differences in the DNA, or variants,

varying factors such as heat and Ph.

that may be causing the medical condition. Perhaps the most intriguing of the ways to Using this information, scientists can work

light up cars is the LumiLor method. LumiLor

out how the cancer cell forms, spreads and

is a patented technology that emits colour

how to stop it before it can manifest into a

when under electric power. LumiColor (a

serious problem.

layer of LumiLor paint) is different from glow-in-the-dark paint, as it does not need

COLOUR CHANGING CARS

UV or external light sources to light up.

There are two ways that a car can change

LumiLor works with multiple layers. These

colours. The first way is a technique

layers include the backplane, the LumiColor,

called E-ink which was created by MIT

the conductive top coat, and the clear

undergraduates in 1997. E-ink display

topcoat.

contains millions of microcapsules that accommodate coloured particles carrying

The backplane and the conductive top coat

electrical charges. Afterwards, these

are the two layers that carry electricity.

microcapsules are placed into a liquid matrix

The electricity makes the LumiColor layer

that allow them to move freely. The colour

light up, and finally, the clear coat protects

is determined by the charge that is released.

the LumiColor system from harm while also

For example if it is a negative charge and the

encapsulating the system's electricity.

colour on a negative is black, it would turn black in that area. This was demonstrated later by the BMW iX Flow, which could change pattern and colour due to its extremely complex arrangement of E-ink microparticles.

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Daniel Schnaydman | L6SBB Commentary on At the limits of astrophysics by Katy Clough From a young age, we are taught that gravity

This can be

is a force. Acceleration due to the force of

compared to the

gravity is approximated at 9.81m/s, and

curvature of the

this value dominates GCSE and sixth-form

earth.

physics. However, as is the case with most things taught at schools, this is a gross

Without the

oversimplification based on historic works

knowledge that

from the legendary Isaac Newton.

the Earth is curved, we can

Albert Einstein’s renowned 1915 Theory of

set up an experiment to establish this. For

General Relativity gives the modern view

example, if we have two people at a fixed

on gravity, whereby gravity is no longer a

distance apart (such as 10 kilometres away)

force and instead is the experience of being

on the same latitudinal line (such as the

under a geometric curve in the space-time continuum (a mathematical model that combines the three dimensions of space with time to create a single four-dimensional manifold).

equator), and with the aid of a compass have them both walk perfectly northward. If the plane of the Earth was flat we would expect that the two people walk parallel to one another and remain a constant distance of 10 kilometres away from one another. However, the real observation is that as the two people walk northward, they eventually meet at the North Pole. This can lead to two The model above attempts to explain this

conclusions: either there is a mythical force

concept, however on a two-dimensional

pushing the two people together, or the

plane (since drawing the true four-

Earth is curved and is a sphere!

dimensional plane would be impossible!). Here it is clear that gravity is the illusion

Therefore, gravity was observed as a

of a force caused by the curvature in the

force by Isaac Newton as he took the first

space-time continuum due to the interaction

conclusion to viewing this weird attraction

of objects of mass with the manifold.

that keeps our feet planted on Earth.

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However, applying the knowledge of Albert

by mass, just the direction, the sign, is

Einstein and his works on General Relativity

different: it repels instead of attracting. But

have led to the scientific consensus that the

in this form of the equation, it's not present

illusion of a force of gravity is created by

in T, the tensor that describes matter, it has

anything with energy (which is equivalent

a term of its own.

to mass due to E=mc ) curves space-time 2

around it, and this is explained by Einstein’s

Humorously, Einstein himself initially

field equation:

subtracted this cosmological constant (denoted by Λ), to the equation, which he included in order to make the Universe “static”. After Hubble’s discovery of the expansion of the Universe, Einstein blamed himself for the introduction of such a term, since it avoided predicting the expanding

The first term is the Ricci curvature tensor,

Universe. However, in 1998 Saul Perlmutter,

and the second includes the Ricci scalar

Adam Riess, and Brian Schmidt discovered

and metric tensors – these terms describe

that the Universe was accelerating (instead of

the curvature of spacetime. The third term

decelerating due to gravity), and the simplest

here is the cosmological constant lambda,

way to understand that phenomenon is with

together with the metric tensor and (on

a positive cosmological constant.

the other side of the equation) the energymomentum tensor (with some conversion

This logic can be applied to the expansion of

coefficients) describe the distribution and

the universe which we have preserved due to

flow of mass/energy and momentum. The

the Doppler effect, highlighting the redshift of

lambda in the third term is responsible for

distant galaxies. If the universe is expanding,

space expansion, it can be viewed as the

then time is curved in the time direction,

energy of empty space (dark energy).

but instead of a positive curvature there is a negative curvature which pushes things apart

So this equation roughly reads "curvature of spacetime + dark energy = matter". Where there is no matter this vacuum energy creates some curvature making the space expand. Where there is some actual mass and energy their effect is usually stronger and makes space bend inwards, creating the attractive "forces" we call gravity. The expansion of space by dark energy has the same nature as the bending the spacetime

104

(this is due to the hypothesised dark energy):

OBSCURITY

the surrounding space- black holes are (Here the 70km refers to the distance of

defined by the event horizon that surrounds

empty space expansion after a change in

them, and so the best definition of what a

time of one second)

black hole is does not explain black holes at all, but describes them as something

Using this model we can model the complete

along the lines of ‘areas of spacetime with

expansion of the universe as a negative

gravitational pressures so great that not

curvature from a single point as such:

even radiation can escape’.

So going back to the Earth analogy, asking the infamous question “What came before the Big Bang”, would be asking about what is past the single point, just like asking what is further north than the single point

Fitting this idea into our spacetime model

of the North Pole that our two researchers

we see that the immense gravitational

approached. The question “what is further

strength leads to a singularity as an

north than the North Pole” makes no sense

infinitesimally small volume with an

since the North Pole defines where north

infinite density must be the root of this

is, just like how the big bang defines the

gravitational pull. (Note: singularities do not

beginning of time and so it is impossible to

actually exist, and recognising them is also

have something “before” the big bang.

recognising our limited knowledge of what

Black holes push our theory of relativity

black holes actually are, since singularities

to the extreme. First of all, what is a black

are really just a non-physical mathematical

hole? The truth is, black holes are very

result of a flawed physical theory).

difficult to define. In fact, they are the only

Between 1931-1935, Chandrasekhar wrote

body in all of cosmology not described by

a revolutionary set of papers on degenerate

their chemical/physical makeup. Instead,

Fermi gases, from which a Chandrasekhar

they are defined by how they interact with

limit was found as the maximum mass of a

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stable white dwarf star, being 1.4 Solar mass (2.765×10 30 kg). Any white dwarf beyond this mass would see its electrons travelling at a speed faster than the speed of light to keep the white dwarf stable.

MUST ALWAYS

This was a revolutionary and controversial

STRIVE TO FURTHER

proposition, as outlined at the time by the renowned scientist Arthur Eddison who is quoted saying he thinks “There should be a law of nature to stop a star from behaving in this absurd way!”. Many physicists adopted the Eddison way of thinking and the revolutionary work achieved by Chandrasekhar went unnoticed and almost forgotten, until the first positive identification of a black hole occurred in 1972. When Katy Clough first came into the lecture hall on Thursday the 23rd March 2023, she posed the question: What is the difference between a crazy and a brilliant idea? And the truth is, the history of science, such as that with the story of the black hole, highlights how bad scientists are at telling the two apart. As a society, we must always strive to further our scientific knowledge and understanding, and push the meaning of what reality is, but the question really is if all knowledge is valuable, or if we should ignore meaningless science. I suggest we do not have Arthur Eddison defining what ‘meaningless science’ is.

106

AS A SOCIETY, WE

OUR SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING.

OBSCURITY

The obscure history of pre-modern world trade system

Nana Appiagyei | 1MRR

WHAT WAS THE PRE-MODERN SYSTEM?

the Indian subcontinent, to the various

The pre-modern trade system was a

caliphates of the Middle East, and joining

worldwide system of trade, encompassing

other trade routes that connected to the

smaller trades. Examples of the trades that

deciduous and rainforest areas of West and

made up the world trade system include, but

Central Africa and to the lands of Western

are not limited to, the Indian Ocean trade,

Europe. Contrary to popular belief, it was

Trans-Saharan trade, The Silk Road trade,

not just one road/route, but several. The

The trans-Atlantic trade, and the Colombian

countries and nations that the Silk Road

exchange. It is important to note that not all

traversed did not have jurisdiction or

these trades co-existed.

dominion over the trade routes, and thus traders often had to form camel caravans.

HOW DID THE PRE-MODERN TRADE

According to the American Museum of

SYSTEM WORK?

Natural History, camels, "adapted to the

My theory about the pre-modern world

harsh desert conditions of Central Asia and

trade is that it centered around specific

the Middle East, made ideal pack animals

geographical regions and was a collection

for travel along the Silk Road. These hardy

of individual yet closely linked trade routes

creatures thrived on tough desert plants.

that connected these regions economically,

They could carry more weight than horses

militarily, culturally, and religiously. These

or donkeys--as much as 300 pounds (136

geographical regions were the Middle East

kilograms) --and needed less water. A loaded

and North Africa, West Africa, East Africa,

camel could sometimes go for 15 days

the Indian subcontinent, China, and later

without a drink of water." China exported

Europe and the Americas. It was not only

silk cloth and intricate porcelain work. It also

the exchange of goods but is also accredited

exported jade and other precious stones and

to many other things, such as the Islamic

exported many inventions and innovations.

and Christian proselytisation of Western Africa and the intellectual property that was

REGION 2: THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

traded between the dynasties of China, the

The Indian subcontinent was one of the

Arabic-speaking world, and the West. This

major players in the pre-modern trade

essay is going to explain the culture of these

system yet is often underrepresented in

geographical regions and how that affected

popular culture. The main powers that

other regions.

existed in India at the time of the premodern world trade were the Delhi Sultanate, the

REGION 1: CHINA AND THE

Mughal Empire, and arguably the East India

SILK ROAD TRADE

Company and British Raj. India was a large

The Silk Road trade was a group of trade

producer of cheaply manufactured cotton

routes stretching from eastern Han-Chinese

cloth before British colonialism. Sadly, this

dominated lands down to the lands of

industry was decimated by the colonisation

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process, and during the East India and

places as distant as Ghana and Russia.

British Raj periods, India's main export was

The Arab Peninsula is also credited for the

raw, unprocessed cotton. The demise of the

use of the camel, the Arabic Script and

cloth manufacturing industry led to millions

its many variations, and was one of the

of deaths and many more people going into

most developed places during this era.

poverty. Many scholars accredit India's

The Arabian Peninsula was also home to

prominence in the Silk Road and Indian

Mecca, where millions of people would visit

Ocean trade to the Islamic proselytisation

every year as part of the Islamic Hajj. In

of the subcontinent and thus maintaining

the 13th century, the emperor of the Mali

important trade routes to the Arab areas,

empire brought so much wealth with him

Southeast Asia, the Malacca Strait, and

on the Hajj that he caused rapid inflation all

North and West Africa. You can see this

around the world. Additionally, the Arabian

through the Urdu language of India and

Peninsula and the neighbouring areas were

Pakistan. It has many influences from Arabic

the home of scholars, widespread literacy,

and Persian and was the language of the

centres of learning, and writings that fuelled

aristocracy in the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal

the prominence of trade. This section is

Empire, East India Company, and the British

not only about the Arabian Peninsula but

Raj. According to the UNESCO website,

also the areas it had dominance over (from

India imported large amounts of "food

the libraries of Baghdad to the Central

grains, cotton, dyeing materials, utensils, dry

Asian plateau to the modern nation of

fruits, silk, saffron, shawls and works of arts

Pakistan to the papyrus fields of Egypt to

from the Western Himalayas and precious

the ports of North Africa and just touching

and semi-precious stones, herbs, gold dust,

France). It is worth noting in this part

musk, salt, borax and pack animals from Tibet”.

that the various Islamic caliphates were extremely cosmopolitan and were in no way

REGION 3: THE ARABIAN PENINSULA

homogenous.

The Arabian Peninsula was the centre

108

of the pre-modern world trade system,

REGION 4: WEST AFRICA

contributing massively to the pre-modern

In pre-modern times, Western Africa played

world trade system in ways that cannot be

a significant role in the world trade system

fathomed. Every trade except for the trans-

as the largest bullion producer. The region

Atlantic and Colombian exchange crossed

sourced much of its gold from Southern

the Arabian Peninsula. The pre-modern

Mali and Central Ghana, which were under

world trade experienced its highest point

the control of the Mali Empire, and later the

under the Islamic Golden age. To highlight

Ashanti Empire. These empires experienced

the extent to which the trade routes

long periods of economic and educational

reached, the mithqal, an Arab measurement

advancement. For instance, a Dutch envoy in

used for gold measurements was found in

the Ashanti capital reported how the library

OBSCURITY

CONTRARY TO POPULAR BELIEF, THE SLAVE TRADE WAS NOT ONLY BETWEEN WEST AFRICA AND THE NEW WORLD, BUT ALSO BETWEEN WEST AFRICA AND THE ARAB WORLD. was ‘longer and in no way inferior to Harlem

In the 19th century, the nomadic Fulani

street, containing books in all tongues

people, who were devout Sharia-following

known to man. Additionally, he reported

Sunni Muslims, organised a series of jihads

how the farms were as fine as a country

that culminated in parts of Northern

garden in Europe`, and how the roads were

Nigeria and Southern Guinea forming

wide and straight, maintained in the face of

caliphates. From the Atlantic seaboard, guns,

rainforest humidity.

ammunition, processed cloth, and liquor were imported. The trade on the Atlantic

Interestingly, the cowrie shell was used as

coast was controlled by the Ashanti Empire,

a standard currency in this region, at one

the Dahomey Kingdom, and the Oyo Empire.

point having an official exchange rate with

Despite these empires having direct trade

the Franc and the Pound Sterling. Despite

routes with the Arab world and having large

this monetary genius, the area was also

populations of Muslims, many of these

tormented by slave trading. Contrary to

empires had much more of a connection

popular belief, the slave trade was not only

with Europe. West Africa mainly exported

between West Africa and the New World,

gold, salt, ivory, slaves, timber, and the Kola

but also between West Africa and the Arab

and Shea nuts. It imported cloth, cowrie

world. The same trade routes that were

shells, guns, manilla, and slaves (originally

used to carry slaves from West Africa to the

slaves were imported into the Gold Coast

Arab world were also used to carry bullion,

region before the trade roles reversed).

ivory, and timber. It was not a one-way trade either, as horses, camels, writing, and Islam

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

were introduced to West Africa from the

It's fascinating to think about when the

Arab world.

pre-modern world trade system came

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to a complete end. I think it is worth

West Africa remained the last stronghold of

acknowledging that despite the advent of

the pre-modern world trade. Although most

globalisation, it ended in different parts

of West Africa was colonised between 1850

of the world and different times. In China,

and 1910, medical advancements had not

this system was nearly decimated during

sufficiently curbed the region's reputation as

the expansion of the Qing Dynasty. The

the "White man’s grave." The few colonisers

Qing emperor once informed the British

who ventured into West Africa settled in

ambassador that their empire lacked no

temperate coastal cities such as Cape Coat

resources, implying their almost imperialistic

and Accra in Ghana, and Lagos and Calabar

growth. It is interesting to note that while

in Nigeria. Moreover, European powers

the Han Dynasty had a greater involvement

granted more authority to existing local

in the Silk Road, it pales in comparison to

leaders and laws in these colonies compared

the Qing Dynasty's scale.

to others. Despite the shift in focus from local trade to European trade, the pre-

In India, the decline of the pre-modern world trade system coincided with the British raj era. After 1857, Indian states no longer had the same level of authority over their territories. The focus of trade shifted from exporting manufactured goods to Southeast Asia and the Middle East to exclusively shipping raw materials to Britain and its colonies. This transition occurred alongside the British rule. The pre-modern world trade system suffered a blow following the Mongol sacking of Baghdad, which was then the largest trading hub. The Mamluk sultanate in modernday Egypt partially replaced Baghdad in this regard. The Mamluk sultan was even considered one of the prominent "sultans of the world" by West African empires. Furthermore, the Oman Empire not only dominated trade in the southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula but also colonized the Eastern coast of Africa, greatly influencing Swahili language and culture.

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modern trade continued to thrive.

OBSCURITY

The lesson of fate: An Obscure Poem

Lochlann Hamilton | 3ATS

Behind the light, a shroud of darkness follows, Behind the shine, the shadows fall, Behind the rich, the poor prevail, Behind the sun, gloomy clouds await, Behind the masterpiece, lies the troubled genius. In front of the hunter, lies fear, In front of the firemen, the fire rages on, In front of the oblivious, fate awaits, In front of salvation, lies sacrifice, In front of the shield, thrusts the sword. With thunder comes the lightning, With free will comes crime, With love comes pain, With knowledge comes knowing, With life comes troubles. However, happiness brings joy, Behind the sun, clouds drift away from sight, In front of the firemen, the fire is extinguished, With thunder, comes blue beauty, Hope lingers near to fear.

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Orange (the colour)

Alex Hallett | 1NPP

Although the colour orange is synonymous

word nāranga migrated into the Persian word

with the fruit which shares its name and hue,

nārang and the Arabic word nāranj. It was

there is a lot more to the colour than most

eventually adopted into European languages,

people realise. This article examines the

as with naranja in Spanish, or the Italian

word, orange, in terms of its meanings and

narancia (later arancia).

origins, but also explores its more interesting, as well as more obscure or controversial

As the word evolved it eventually became to

associations and uses.

mean the fruit rather than just the orange tree. Old French adapted the Arabic word

DEFINITION

nāranj as pomme d’orenge “the fruit from the

The second edition of the Oxford English

orange tree” or just orenge which in turn was

Dictionary provides the following definitions

adopted into English to become “orange”

for the word orange. The noun is defined as,

during the thirteenth century.

“The fruit of a tree, a large globose many-celled berry (hesperidium) with sub-acid juicy pulp,

It is thought that the use of orange to

enclosed in a tough rind externally of a bright

describe a colour did not come about until

reddish yellow (= orange) colour.” The adjective

200 years later when the fruit began to

is defined as, “of the colour of an orange”.

appear regularly on English market stalls. The first recorded use of the word was in 1512

The Oxford English Dictionary schools

when it appeared in a will.

edition gives more straightforward meanings, wherein the noun has two definitions, “A

ASSOCIATIONS AND USES

round, juicy citrus fruit with reddish-yellow

People associate the colour orange with

peel” and “A reddish-yellow colour”. The

many different meanings and these can be

adjective is simply defined as “Reddish-yellow

psychological, symbolic or cultural. Orange

in colour, like an orange”.

can have positive or negative associations. To some, orange is perceived to be the colour

ORIGIN

of enthusiasm, adventure and creativity.

What came first, orange the colour or orange

To others, orange is associated with heat

the fruit?

and energy since it represents the colour of fire and the sun. However, it is important

The definitions alone would suggest that the

to remember that the symbolisms and

noun (the fruit), preceded the adjective (the

associations of the colour orange are not

colour).

universal. In many Middle Eastern countries, oranges are associated with mourning and

Prior to the fifteenth century, the colour

loss.

orange was simply described as yellow-red. Cultural differences play a role in how people

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The origin of the word orange can be traced

relate to colour. In the United States, orange

back to the classical South Asian language of

is associated with the colour of Halloween

Sanskrit, and the word nāranga which meant

(pumpkins) but also it is the colour of prison

“orange tree”. Along with the oranges, the

uniforms. In Ukraine, the colour orange

OBSCURITY

means strength and bravery. Whilst in China

The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco is

and Japan, orange symbolises happiness,

painted international orange to make it more

love, good health and courage.

visible in fog.

For many Eastern cultures, orange is linked

One particularly obscure association of

to spirituality and perceived as a sacred hue,

orange is that no common English word fully

most notably, in Hinduism where orange

rhymes with it. Moreover, orange has one of

represents fire and purity. Buddhist monks

the strongest measured physical effects of

wear orange robes that symbolise simplicity

any colour. It is said to stimulate the appetite,

and letting go of materialism. Krishna is often

increase energy levels and even stimulate the

seen dressed in yellow-orange.

thyroid to boost metabolism.

In the West, orange is thought of as a

Orange is a multifaceted colour with different

polarising colour – you either love it or hate

meanings to different people of different

it. Like red, orange is bold and striking. For

cultures. It is controversial and perceived

some, it makes a ‘statement’, for others, it is

by people in many ways. To me, orange is

considered garish.

vibrant, powerful, positive, warm and a colour embodied in nature. I associate the colour

In the Netherlands, orange is the national

orange with beautiful autumnal days spent

colour and is symbolic in much of the

walking with family beneath the canopies of

country’s culture. It represents the Dutch

trees with their brilliant foliage of bold reds,

Royal Family which bears the name: House

oranges, yellows and browns. Or October

of Oranje, hence the national colour orange.

evenings carving ghoulish faces to freshly

On King’s Day, in celebration of the king’s

harvested pumpkins ready to be displayed for

birthday, the country effectively turn orange,

Halloween. Both positive associations for me

people wear orange clothing and toast to the

with the colour orange.

king with a bright orange liqueur. Studies have identified orange as an exciting colour that could elicit feelings of enthusiasm and increase energy levels. As a result, this may be why some sports teams use orange as the colour of their sports kit, mascot and branding. Orange is also considered to be a highly stimulating but a friendly colour. It is attention grabbing that tends to stand out visually which is why it is often used for branding and advertising. For the same reason, orange is associated with danger and is used for safety jackets, life rafts and traffic cones etc., because of its high visibility.

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OBSCURITY

Are Electric Cars the Future?

Calum Davidson | L1EOS

Electric cars have already existed and

environmentally friendly way, more of our

have already been obscure, and I think,

energy would need to be generated from

in their current form, they will fade into

renewable sources. Furthermore, it is worth

obscurity again.

noting that currently, in order to make the batteries for these electric cars, we have

INTRODUCTION

to mine resources, which is not the most

Most people think, and are told, that electric

environmentally friendly practice.

cars are the future because of their lower emissions comparative to traditional petrol-

MATERIALS

fuelled cars. They think that they will help

500,000 pounds (225,000 kg) of raw material

reduce global warming and improve the

is needed to be mined to get enough raw

environment. But electric cars are not new.

materials to make only one Tesla battery.

Curiously, there is a little-known fact that

Whereas engines for traditional cars only

the first electric car came out only 3 years

need steel which is much easier to mine. It is

after the first petrol car was manufactured.

also better for the environment than having

It was made by an English inventor called

to mine for nickel, lithium, cobalt, copper and

Thomas Parker in 1884.

graphite (the raw materials needed to make an electric vehicle battery). Additionally,

WHAT OTHER PEOPLE THINK

these materials are becoming increasingly

Most people think electric cars are better

difficult to source. Overall, although the

for the environment than petrol cars. One

carbon emissions emitted directly by each

of these people is Elon Musk, the CEO of

electric vehicle be lower than the petrol cars,

Tesla. Musk thinks that because electric cars

the pollution problem would just move to

have lower primary emissions than petrol

a different part of the world. It is therefore

cars, they are good for the environment.

currently a very inefficient use of energy and

However, while I acknowledge that

destructive to have even one battery made.

electric cars are better for their immediate environment, in their production they

EFFICIENCY

require an immense amount of materials to

Although a petrol engine and an electric

be mined compared to petrol cars. This just

vehicle battery have somewhat similar

moves the problem elsewhere in the world.

lifespans (a petrol engine lasts 200,000 to 300,000 miles, and an electric vehicle battery

WHAT I THINK

lasts 100,000 to 200,000 miles), petrol

I believe that electric cars are no better

engines do not degrade in efficiency over

for the environment than petrol cars

time but electric vehicle batteries become

because even though petrol cars use crude

less and less efficient the more you use it.

oil directly, the electricity made to power

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electric cars is often made from coal or

COST

other non-renewable sources. This means

Strangely, as electric cars are becoming

that in order to power electric cars in an

more popular, they are becoming more

OBSCURITY

expensive than petrol cars. Around 16% of

like petrol stations. Moreover, they would

the UK population has an electric vehicle,

also have to account for enough space

and with electricity prices at a recent high

for all the cars that take 30 mins to refuel

due to the current political climate, running

rather than the average 2 minutes needed

an electric vehicle could be on a trend to

for petrol vehicles. Also, as you need to

become more expensive than first thought.

construct all of the electric car chargers,

Moreover, electric vehicle batteries can take

you will need to mine enough materials to

up to 30 minutes to charge, compared to 2

be able to make the chargers! On top of

minutes to fill up your car with petrol. While

that, they will need to engineer the wires

electric vehicle batteries are less expensive

underground to support the amount of

per mile (currently 6p for an EV, compared

electricity needed to fuel those electric

to 12p for an average petrol car), electric

chargers.

cars are quite a lot more expensive to buy compared to petrol cars. For comparison,

MY CONCLUSION

the cheapest family electric car costs around

I do not think that electric vehicle cars are

£40,000 compared to the cheapest family

going to take over in their current form in

petrol car which costs around £11,000 (both

the future and I think we should keep using

prices are for new cars). Therefore, in order

petrol cars until we find another type of

to make a comparative break even, electric

car. For example, water-powered cars or

car owners would need to travel a lot

hydrogen-powered cars. An efficient water-

further than petrol car owners. But then you

powered car would be ground-breaking

would probably run into the aforementioned

because you would not need to make too

battery degradation problem.

many changes to infrastructure and mining. After all, the world has enough water that

AVAILABILITY

we could use forever. A lot like diesel cars,

Petrol stations are around almost

we thought that they would be the future,

everywhere you look, so if the world went

but they were not. I think that electric cars

fully electric local governments would need

will eventually fade into obscurity like diesel

to spend a lot of money so that electric

cars because of environmental impact, cost,

vehicle chargers were more readily available,

accessibility and convenience.

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OBSCURITY

The Complement System

Hrishi Tumuluri | 2SCR Priyian Ganeshalingam | 2JMN

The immune system is one of the most

others, until all the matches are burning.

complicated, fascinating, and mysterious

Mechanisms like this take place rapidly to

aspects in the world. Evolving for hundreds

minimise the damage inflicted by pathogens.

of millions of years, there are still many aspects of it we have not discovered yet.

HOW DOES IT ALL WORK?

While many look up and marvel at the

But what ignites the first match? What is

universe around us, it is equally as wondrous

needed to activate the first protein? The

to look down explore the micro-universe

first protein to react to a foreign invader is

hidden right beneath our noses. The immune

the C3 protein (or complement component

system has many different facets which are

3). Pathogens trigger the C3 to split into

each vital for a species’ survival, such as

two smaller pieces. This ‘split’ is known

physical barriers, defence cells, and weapons

as cleavage. The chemical process of this

factories. But one of the most important yet

trigger is highly complicated, involving other

mostly unheralded aspects of this incredible

complement proteins binding to enemies, or

'organisation' is the Complement System- a

through antibodies. C3 splits into C3a and

series of around thirty different proteins

C3b, which are now activated.

which work together to perform various tasks, a from alerting passive immune cells

C3a is the equivalent of a modern-day

during an infection, to ripping gaping holes

distress signal. Using bodily fluids, it will

in the invading pathogens themselves! The

travel to the sight of infection (usually the

entire stability of our biological wellbeing

area where the bacteria enter the body).

rides on the complement system.

This concentration of fluids is experienced by us as swelling, or inflammation. During

PROTEINS AND THE COMPLEMENT

its journey to this area, C3a will alert any

SYSTEM

immune cells that an uninvited organism

Before we move further, we must touch

has breached the body. C3a is solely

on an especially important principle when

responsible for activating the entirety of the

contemplating the world of proteins. About

immune system and its ‘soldier’ cells- the

15 quintillion proteins arbitrarily drift

macrophages, dendritic cells, phagocytes, T

around in your fluids. The shape of a protein

cells, B cells, and neutrophils just to name

determines its purpose. This means that,

a few. The more of these C3a proteins

when two or more proteins collide, they

they find, the more aggressive they will

break each other apart, changing their shape

become. They will follow the C3a tracks to

and underlying function. A previously passive

the areas they are needed the most and will

protein may be altered to become a protein

play a large role in killing off the unwanted

which is extremely useful for breaking apart

pathogens (most commonly target viruses,

other proteins, creating something of a

bacteria, protists, or fungi).

domino effect. Think of these proteins as

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millions of unlit matches, each a millimetre

C3b proteins have a fraction of a second

apart. When one is ignited, it sets fire to the

to find a target, otherwise they will be

OBSCURITY

neutralised by water molecules. When,

land mines. They produce long, spear-like

or if, they find a, the proteins will anchor

proteins which impale the cell membrane,

themselves to the pathogen and try not to

ripping open a hole and allowing the insides

let go. During this time, C3b will change

of their target to gush out. They “bleed” to

shape, meaning it is now able to bind to

death.

various proteins and receptors to alter its function. This process must be done very

IF THIS SYSTEM IS SO EFFECTIVE, WHY

carefully, otherwise the complement system

DO WE BECOME ILL?

could target the body’s healthy cells as well

There are two main reasons why we,

as the unwanted pathogens. C3b will also

although protected by such a powerful tool,

label cells for phagocytosis, by binding to

still frequently become ill. In a war, both

specific proteins to create a structure known

sides can adapt. This is the first reason.

as the C5 convertase, which will sit on the

The pathogens may find ways around the

membrane of the pathogen. Phagocytosis is

complement system, usually with clever,

the process by which a phagocyte cell uses

cunning methods rather than the use of

its plasma membrane to engulf an unwanted

brute force. For example, the vaccinia

organism (in this case a harmful pathogen).

virus will force the cell it has infected to

The C5 convertase makes its target more

produce a protein known as the VCP protein

susceptible to ingestion. Phagocytes must

(vaccinia virus complement control protein).

catch the target, but that is quite difficult

This protein will shut down any further

if the target is slippery and prefers not to

complement protein production within a

be grabbed. Instead, it will latch on to the

certain area around the cell it has infected.

convertase, which is already connected to

This way, the virus will create a “safe zone”

the pathogen.

around itself. Some bacteria, as another example, will use their pili to grab and

BUT THERE IS MORE…

cover themselves with certain molecules

So far, the proteins have helped other

in the blood which keep the complement

cells kill off the pathogens, but it can also

system calm, and will suddenly become

do this itself. C5 convertases once again

undetectable in the eyes of the complement

change their structure to a C3b recruitment

proteins.

platform. This is used to cause another domino effect, by recruiting proteins such

The second (and more common) reason may

as the C6, C7, C8 and C5b proteins to

be surprising. Have you ever wondered why

create an all-important membrane attack

COVID-19 was so dangerous to so many

complex. Thousands of these structures are

people? When the virus started infecting

created all over the pathogen’s membrane.

the cells of a person’s body, the complement

Membrane attack complexes are effectively

system, scared of this new, undiscovered

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OBSCURITY

virus, decided to release an unnecessary

not activate if there is a deficiency. Diseases

number of C3a proteins. The complement

may become much more dangerous due to

system overreacted. As we have stated

this. It could result in a person experiencing

earlier, the more proteins the immune

intense swelling in the intestine and under

defence cells find, the more aggressive they

the skin (known as angioedema), or the

will become. These cells were suddenly

development of recurring viral and bacterial

overcome with an unexplained ferocity

infections, such as typhoid fever. Infants

and effectively went on a “rampage”, killing

are more likely to be affected, though there

not just viruses but all passive cells and

are cases of adults also developing these

organisms they came across. Those who

recurring infections.

had a weaker body couldn’t handle this, and their organs started to fail. Those with

CONCLUSION

an exceptionally weaker body eventually

To summarise, the complement system is the

died. In a nutshell, many diseases are not as

basis of many biological processes within the

dangerous as they are portrayed to be. They

immune system. Proteins, after all, are the

are only half the story. The complement

most basic structure an organism requires

system still lacks the stability it should have

to complete almost any action. Its influence

during an attack.

is becoming increasingly appreciated as we discover more about it, though much of

WHAT IF THE SYSTEM BECOMES

the complement system is still unknown.

DEFICIENT?

Although there may be deficiencies, this

The activation of the complement system

small group of proteins is and always will

can harm an organism as well as benefitting

be responsible for maintaining the stability

them, especially if there are deficiencies in

of our body. They are our body’s warriors,

the system. Most cases of deficiency are

our first line of defence against deadly

caused by genetics (passed down by your

pathogens and are always at war.

parents), though it can also be acquired because of an infection. The most prevalent form of deficiency is the mannan-binding lectin (MBL) of the lectin-based pathway. The lectin-based pathway is one of three pathways that the complement system can be activated, the three ways being: the lectin-based pathway, the classical pathway, and the alternative pathway. The mannanbinding lectin is key to activating the lectinbased pathway, therefore the pathway will

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References https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ NBK27100/#:~:text=Here%20they%20cleave%20C3%20 to,equipped%20with%20receptors%20for%20C3b. Youtube Video made by Kurzegesagt https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-andmicrobiology/classical-complement-pathway https://www.roswellpark.org/cancertalk/201809/if-yourimmune-system-protects-you-why-do-you-still-get-sick

OBSCURITY

How do magic tricks affect your brain?

Hrishi Tumuluri | 2SCR

Have you ever seen a magician perform a

magicians perform much more glamourous

magic trick? Have you gasped, gawked, been

variations, with stage effects and smoke

baffled by how incredulous the trick is? You

cannons et cetera.

wonder, how do they do it? What techniques and strategies do they use to fool an

NEURAL ADAPTATION

intelligent person such as you? The following

The spotlight is on the magician’s assistant.

analysis highlights the fundamental ways in

The magician announces they will change

which magicians manipulate a person, and

the assistant’s dress from white to red.

how this explains the psychology of the

They snap his fingers, and the spotlight

human mind. Very few psychologists have

turns red. The audience, amused by this

considered how studying magic can help us

“joke,” chuckle. The magician then snaps

with science (two seemingly opposite terms),

their fingers again and the red lights dim.

so the select few that have done so which

However, suddenly a white flash of light

has allowed me to produce this analysis

appears on the stage behind the assistant,

should be acknowledged.

and the assistant’s dress truly becomes red. However, the assistant’s figure and

COVERT MISDIRECTION

their dress were visible the entire time. The

Covert misdirection is the primary strategy

explanation of this trick has helped many

which many magicians use for their tricks.

neuroscientists understand the intuitive and

They create instances, or stimuli for the

scientific workings of the spectator’s brain.

audience to look at, taking their attention away from where the actual trick is later

When the mind is presented with a

revealed. This misdirection allows the

constant stimulus (i.e. an unchanging

magician to, for example, move an object

image which they are focussed on), the

from one end of the stage to the other. For

brain’s responsiveness to that image

example, a magician places a coin in their

gradually decreases. It realises that the

hand and allows the audience to observe

image is unchanging, and starts to ignore

and feel it as proof of its existence. They

it, saving energy for when it must signal

take the coin from their palm with their

that the image has changed. This decrease

other hand and will close their fist around it.

in responsiveness can be measured by the

Muttering a few ‘magic words’ and shaking

decreasing rate at which the brain fires

their hand a little, they open their hand to

relevant neurons to process and receive the

reveal that the coin had vanished. This is a

image. However, once the image is changed,

classic demonstration of covert misdirection.

the brain will send a rebound response

In reality, the coin was never in his other

known as ‘after-discharge’. It will realise that

hand. Rather, he pretended to pick up the

the image has changed, and it has forgotten

coin, and directed the audience’s attention

to receive the signal that the previous

to his empty hand whilst quickly slipping

image was there. Therefore, it will suddenly

the coin into his pocket with his other hand.

remember to receive that signal and display

This is the simplest form of this trick- other

the previous image to the mind a split

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OBSCURITY

second longer than the length of time in

prove very useful. Creating an illusion of

which the previous image was truly there. In

free will in the audience’s mind although

this case, the assistant’s white dress stays in

there is a predetermined solution, allows the

the audience’s minds a split second longer,

outcome to be more effective. They become

enough time to cast a flash of light to mask

baffled by the fact that even though they

the trapdoor which opens underneath the

have chosen a card of their own decision,

assistant to reveal a harness, which rapidly

the magician has still managed to find it.

pulls off the red dress to uncover a white

Letting the audience control the deck (or any

dress underneath. A split second later, the

other magic trick) creates a ‘tunnel vision’ in

assistant’s dress has magically changed

their mind, as they inertly believe they have

from white to red.

control and begin to forget predetermination is a possibility. They marvel and wonder far

FREE WILL & PREDETERMINATION

more at the magician than if they had less

Free will and predetermination may seem

control over the trick and more likely to

polar opposites, but during a magic trick

realise it is predetermined.

they go ‘hand-in-hand’. Predetermination is the most common aspect which a magician

REDUCING SCRUTINY

uses in their tricks. It is the idea of forcing

Reducing the scepticism in the audience’s

a predetermined outcome of the trick no

mind is key to perform a convincing trick.

matter what the audience choose to do.

In the example for neural adaptation (of the

This can be through sleight of hand or

assistant’s dress turning white to red), the

misdirection, but the result of the magic

first part of the trick involving the change of

trick is always the same.

the colour of the spotlight may seem trivial, but this causes the audience to assume that

For example, in a classic magic trick

the trick is over, and they reduce their level

involving a simple deck of cards, the

of scrutiny towards the magician and stage.

magician asks the audience to choose a

Suddenly, the real trick is performed, and

card- any card- in the deck. The magician

the audience is caught off guard, the entire

could even hand the audience the deck to

trick happens in a split second. In the card

prove there is nothing odd or suspicious

trick which illustrates predetermination, the

about it. They shuffle the deck, making

‘tunnel vision’ also provides a way for the

sure it is completely mixed, but somehow,

audience to reduce their scrutiny on the

the magician still produces the same card

magician, as they assume they are in control

that the audience chose. The magician may

and do not need to focus on the magician.

have shuffled the deck in a certain way or

During a trick, a magician could give a

showed the audience the cards in a certain

backstory about the trick, or simply talk to

way to perform this trick, but what is more

the audience after every gesture they make.

interesting is how this explains how humans

This causes the audience to listen to these

think. People are known to enjoy being in

words rather than analyse the gestures.

control of their own decisions, and this can

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ETHICS & POWER

OBSCURITY

HYPNOSIS

to dance, keel over, slap themself or any

Hypnosis is defined in the dictionary as ‘a

other comic act. However, hypnosis will

state of consciousness in which a person

not work if the participant is not willing to

apparently loses the power of voluntary

be hypnotised, as human will power and

action and is highly responsive to suggestion

their resistance to influence is very strong.

or direction.’ During our normal waking

Hypnosis was also practised thousands

state, different areas of our brain collaborate

of years before the science behind it was

and send each other signals and snippets of

discovered, used in therapy and healing, as

information. This allows our brain to create

hypnosis can achieve a feeling of tranquillity.

logical thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Four thousand years ago in ancient Egypt,

However, during the state of hypnosis, the

the priest called Imhotep used this method

various parts of the brain operate more

in his temple - known as a dream temple.

independently - not validating information by comparing it with other lobes and areas.

CONCLUSION

This can cause hallucinations and random,

We have learnt about how magicians

uncorrelated thoughts.

manipulate the audience’s mind in many different ways. Although they may not be

However, magicians use hypnosis as a form

familiar with the cognitive science of the

of ‘mind control’. As stated earlier, under

brain, they still can understand behavioural

hypnosis, a person is more responsive

patterns within a person and use it to craft

to suggestion or direction. Due to their

tricks and illusions.

brain not functioning as normal, they are less likely to think about their actions

References

or even think rationally. For example, a

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/magic-and-thebrain/

magician beckons their assistant on to the stage. The magician then induces a state of concentration on the assistant, using an object (such as a pendulum, marble etc) or by creating a mental image in the participant’s mind. This leads the assistant into a trance, a ‘sleep-like’ state where they

https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/mar/30/ mind-games-what-magic-reveals-about-how-our-brains-work https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hypnosis/about/ pac-20394405 https://theconversation.com/tricking-the-brain-how-magicworks-56451 https://www.thetravelinghypnotist.com/ blog/2020%2F4%2F5%2Fancient-egypt-hypnosis-history

are fully aware of what is going on but will have no mental control over themselves. Using this knowledge, the magician may amuse the audience by asking the assistant

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In and Out of Obscurity: The Emergence and Disappearance of the Cryptoqueen

Oliver Whitaker-Jones | 3ADS

The case of Dr Ruja Ignatova is perhaps

currency in 2014, the Cryptoqueen was happy

the most shocking disappearance of any

to be in the spotlight, regularly travelling for

high-profile person in decades: with her

talks and events where she would appear

cryptocurrency Onecoin being tipped to be

in the flesh promoting her company and

the “new bitcoin” at one point in 2015 – she

answering questions as well as appearing for

was set for fame. Her company was well

regular seminars online which would be put

regarded across the world, and she had even

up live for the world to see. Perhaps the fact

spoken at Wembley Arena promoting her

that she had graduated from Oxford, had a

cryptocurrency. By 2017, the cryptocurrency

PhD and working experience at McKinsey

had roped in 4 billion pounds with 100

– one of the most prestigious consultancy

million coming from British investors. What

agencies in the world – were attractive assets

happened next would shock the world and

to her credibility. Furthermore, her beautiful

many would lose vast amounts of money:

looks; lavish clothing choices and impressive

“Onecoin” was revealed to be a complete

eloquence were all other factors that lured

scam. Yet perhaps even more mysterious

huge amounts of money and people into the

was Dr Ruja’s subsequent disappearance

scam that was “Onecoin”. The portrayal of

and the fact that despite being one of

the group as a “family”– a phrase continually

the most wanted people on the planet for

emphasised in all seminars and events.

countries like the U.S, investigators have

Her words were so captivating that many

simply been unable to find her. In this essay,

victims of the scam invested right away,

I will explore how the Cryptoqueen was able

unquestioning. I believe that the other key

to become such a phenomenon and why,

point is the nature of cryptocurrency and

despite being an extremely public figure,

how its obscurity makes fraud much more

no one has ever been able to find her. I

possible. Onecoin was a “Ponzi scheme” – a

will be dissecting this essay into three key

method of fraud in which early investors

points – how the Cryptoqueen appeared

in the cryptocurrency are not paid by the

in the limelight, her fall from grace and her

growth of the company itself (a Ponzi

disappearance and the efforts to find her.

scheme can apply to any company, not just cryptocurrency) but by the money more

122

Many would believe that Dr. Ruja would have

recent investors put in. Cryptocurrency

had to be hidden from the public eye to be

transactions can be made from anywhere

able to disappear so effectively. However, this

and they are recorded in a massive data

is quite the opposite of the truth. I believe

record called a blockchain. Since no one has

that it is imperative to understanding how so

complete control of the data and specifics

many were lured into this scam by looking at

are not always recorded, the early days of

the Dr. Ruja’s background. Since founding the

cryptocurrency was paradise for fraudsters.

OBSCURITY

One of the key questions many ask about

However, after taking a flight to Athens

the scheme is when it started to become

for work on the 25th October 2017, she

suspicious and whether more should have

completely vanished and has not been seen

been done to stop the scam. The main

since. To conclude for this question, the fact

answer to this was in late 2016 to 17 when

that authorities had not experienced such a

the hype and excitement of Onecoin had

developed cryptocurrency scam before and

begun to wear off and many recent investors

the cunningness of the people behind the

were still waiting on money in exchange for

scam meant that authorities struggled to

investing in the company: there are only so

stop the cryptocurrency until too late. Yet

many times someone even as persuasive as

this does not divert some of the deserved

Dr. Ruja could tell that their money would

blame from those supposed to stop these

be multiplied somewhere in the future.

scams. Cryptocurrency enthusiasts warned

People began to become impatient, and

of danger in the credibility of Onecoin long

questions started to be raised. It did not

before 2016 and the City of London Police

help that Onecoin was extremely secretive

allowed a vast amount of stolen cash from

when it came to their technology. The City

Onecoin out of the country when they could

of London Police launched an investigation

have prevented it.

into Dr. Ruja and Onecoin in late 2016 yet dropped the case in 2019. Much criticism

Vast efforts have been made to find her

was heaped on to the police as victims

– due to the scale of the scam (thousands

of the cryptocurrency and crime lawyers

of pounds from every habitable continent

accused them of “failing to investigate

were lost in the scam) countries from

adequately or at all. Victims also attacked

Germany to the U.S have arrest warrants

the FCA (Financial Conduct Authority – an

for Dr. Ruja. Her disappearance has become

independent regulation body in the U.K.).

extremely well known due to the BBC

This was since, although they had published

podcast The Missing Cryptoqueen, (it has

a warning about Onecoin on their website

also helped me with my research). Huge

at the end of 2016, they took it down in

amounts of speculation lie around where

August 2017, despite the scam still being in

the cryptoqueen is now. Could she have had

full operation. This was since cryptocurrency

plastic surgery to become unrecognisable?

was not technically in their regulation zone

Could friends be hiding her? Is she hidden

and having been challenged by a lawyer for

in plain sight? The Missing Cryptoqueen

Dr. Ruja about this, they begrudgingly took

podcast investigates all of these theories,

it down. While the early days of the City of

and I would really recommend it to anyone

London police investigation were happening

interested. However, what we do know

and the warning about Onecoin still up on

is that she still has billions from the scam

the FCA, Dr. Ruja herself was still travelling

and mysterious friends seem to have been

across the world to promote her company,

key in her success in slipping back into

unfazed by any allegations put her way.

obscurity. Her wits were vital in emerging

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CRYPTOCURRENCY ENTHUSIASTS WARNED OF DANGER IN THE CREDIBILITY OF ONECOIN LONG BEFORE 2016. out of obscurity and they have been in disappearing back in. My final point is something I believe deeply: as fascinating as Dr. Ruja’s disappearance and scam is, it is important not to admire to too great a stage. She journeyed across the world lying to audiences everywhere with no remorse for the repercussions of those losing great amounts of money. Horrible stories emerge of victims from extremely poor places such as rural Africa selling livestock and family possessions just to be able to buy Onecoin. While her grandeur and cleverness is unique, the cryptoqueen at heart isn’t so different from a typical scammer.

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Can humans survive on any other planet?

Justin Kravets | L1TJD

Humans have spent billions on space

WHAT DOES EARTH PROVIDE TO

travel, but is it worth it? So far, the only

LET US LIVE?

life we know of is on Earth. The essential

All the elements we need to live are

elements we need to survive are lacking on

provided for us here on Earth; our planet

other planets. However, scientists are still

thrives among the rest. We have food, water,

looking for evidence of possible life on other

medicine, materials for shelter, and even

planets. For now, though, the only place we

natural cycles such as climate and nutrients.

know of where humans can live is Earth.

Earth's natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants, and animals.

MARS

Although Earth is considered a giving planet,

In addition to Earth, there is one main

we do not give to it in return. There are

planet where scientists speculate that life

currently 8 billion humans on Earth, and

could possibly exist: Mars. A satellite called

in 40 to 60 years there will be 10 billion.

MARSIS has been launched into space with

For many scientists, based on our current

the goal of determining whether there is life

infrastructure, this is too many, given the

there. It has an ice-penetrating radar which

climate crisis and consumption of resources.

can see through Mars’s Southern ice cap.

The question of human overpopulation has

On its mission, it revealed a base of ice that

been raised since the 19th century. Climate

strongly reflected the radar signal. Many

change is having a big effect on our planet,

scientists have interpreted this as an area of

which is probably why there is such a strong

liquid below the ice cap, where there could

idea of trying to find a new planet to inhabit.

quite possibly be life. OTHER PLANETS IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM That said, carbon dioxide makes up 96% of

Mercury's environment is not conducive to

the air on Mars, meaning that the Red Planet

life as we know it. The temperatures and

has almost no oxygen. If we tried to breathe

solar radiation that characterise this planet

on Mars without a space suit supplying

are most likely too extreme for organisms to

oxygen, we would die straight away.

adapt to. The atmosphere of Venus is very

Therefore, without terraforming the planet,

hot and thick. You would not survive a visit

or installing oxygenated living centres,

to the surface of the planet on many counts:

humans would not be able to survive there.

you would not be able to breathe the air;

Moreover, if we did try and construct

you would be crushed by the enormous

homes there, they would need to withstand

weight of the atmosphere; and you would

radiation levels, temperature fluctuations,

burn up in surface temperatures high

lack of oxygen, and other conditions

enough to melt lead.

that are…alien to us. Essentially, new environments need alternative structures.

In our solar system, planets further away

Scientists have also hypothesised that in

from the Sun than Mars are gas giants. It

order for humans to live on Mars, we might

is far too cold to live on these planets (and

need to live below the surface.

how would we construct buildings on gas?).

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Saturn is made up mainly of hydrogen and

two potentially habitable worlds orbiting

helium, in both gas and liquid forms. Also,

a red dwarf star in our cosmic backyard.

there would be no outer crust to break your

The extra-solar planets or "exoplanets"

fall, just an endless stretch of atmosphere,

are located just 16 light-years away and

as is the same for Jupiter. The pressures

have masses similar to that of our planet.

inside Uranus and Neptune are immense

But it is unlikely that we will be able to

and would crush life immediately. And then

travel there as it would take centuries to

there is the question of an extreme lack of

get there. And because of the human life

air. Curiously though, some of these planets

span, only robots and spaceships would be

have moons where scientists hypothesise

able to get there. On 25th December 2021,

life could exist, but for our purposes, they

a space telescope called the James Webb

are too far away from the Goldilocks Zone

was launched. Using infrared light, Webb

(the habitable area for planets to be in

detected individual stars within the galaxy's

relation to their star).

star-forming regions, and more young star clusters surrounding the galaxy's central

COULD WE SURVIVE ON THE MOON?

supermassive black hole. These zones are

The Moon has almost no atmosphere, so

full of dust and are most visible in infrared

there is no air for us to breathe. There is

light, which can peer through it. But again,

also, importantly, no water on the Moon

with our current technology capabilities, this

either. Furthermore, terrifyingly, days and

would take too much time and money.

nights on the Moon last over two weeks long! This means the surface reaches very

CONCLUSION

hot and cold temperatures: as high as 123°C

To conclude, any new human colonisation on

or as low as −173°C (these temperatures

another planet would be very difficult. The

almost make any climate change on Earth

extreme weather conditions, the chemistry

seem minor). In order to live on the Moon,

of the atmosphere and the vast amounts of

we would also need a reliable and renewable

resources needed to support human life all

energy supply. Although NASA is developing

play into this. We must wait for the future to

power generation systems that could

see what it will bring…

support longer stays on the lunar surface, additional energy infrastructure will be needed to make human settlement on the Moon a reality. CAN WE LIVE ON PLANETS OUTSIDE OUR SOLAR SYSTEM? In recent years, scientists have discovered a large number of exoplanets, but almost none of them could actually support human life. Astronomers have discovered

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Ninja: An Obscure Job

Kai Motaung | 1JEJ

BACKGROUND

The ninja had a series of remarkable and

The ninja: deadly, silent, and secretive. They

obscure weapons and traps to help them

stalk their victims in the shadows, their

with their endeavours. Among them are,

presence felt but not seen. With crippling

the makibishi (metal spike traps), which

hand-to-hand skills, and just as dangerous

were used to spear through the enemies'

with a weapon, these assassins strike where

shoes and into their feet, laming them.

it hurts, when you least expect. This is ideal

Additionally, another famous trap is the

as the danger is greatly decreased if you

tripwire. This is a thin cord that can trip or

attack from the shadows as a shinobi (ninja).

ensnare the opponent, as well as trigger other traps.

A ninja (忍者 in Japanese) or shinobi (

忍び) was a covert agent, mercenary or

In my neighbour’s kitchen, however, an

guerrilla warfare expert in feudal Japan. The

enormous branded “Ninja” of a fancy air

functions of a ninja included reconnaissance,

fryer stands proudly on the kitchen counter.

espionage, infiltration, deception, and

I know that he is famous and many also

ambush. Their fighting skills in martial

recognise his cousin, the shiny “Ninja” food

arts including ninjutsu, a collection of

processor.

fundamental survival techniques developed in the warring state of feudal Japan.

NINJAS IN THE MODERN DAY: Just from a quick search on the Internet for

The ninja lived a simple and independent

“ninja”, it is clear that recently it has become

lifestyle, meaning that they usually produced

a buzzword that has been overused by

their food inside their village or clan. As well

recruiters, from “code Ninjas” (subspecies:

as being shinobi (which means ‘those who

“JavaScript Ninjas”) to “Sales Ninjas”,

act in stealth’), the ninja were farmers and

referred as people who are amazingly

merchants; family and friend; trainer and

skilled but perhaps deadly belligerent.

trainee. This enabled them to have a very

This phenomenon of recruiters seeking

social life, which is quite distant from our

out workers with this word, according to

stereotypical image of cold-hearted lone

journalist, Annalee Newitz, many people refer

killers.

to themselves online with the word. There are almost 22,000 people on Twitter who call

The ninja had a variety of way of keeping

themselves “social media ninjas”, and more

themselves, others and their things

still, American YouTube/gamer celebrity,

hidden. They used trapdoors, loose panels,

Richard Tyler Blevins, is known as “Ninja”.

secret corridors, secret corridors in secret corridors, and more. This ensured that they

In modern popular culture, ninjas, in the

always had a way of staying out of the

traditional sense, seem to be extremely

limelight. In my opinion, this is remarkably

visible. But how have we arrived at a point

effective because if a raid went badly, they

where the most concealed “spy” in Japan

had a means of vanishing. Likewise, they had

has travelled round the world and become a

traps to catch their enemies unaware.

prominent figure of the mainstream culture?

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OBSCURITY

The first appearance of “ninja” in popular

arcade game company, Kasco, released a

culturewas in the Edo Period (1600-1868).

light gun shooter electro-mechanical game

In modern Japan, the ninja are national

called Ninja Gun, followed by “Teenage

myths that grow from folktales and continue

Mutant Ninja Turtles” who gained the

through modern day into popular culture.

interests of countless children in the West in

Although many Japanese warriors performed

1984 and sales hit the roof. More recently,

amazing feats, there is no evidence that

“Lego Ninjago” came out in 2011, and the

any of them were supernatural. Some of

ninja were the new Western Bruce Lee. I

the folktales are based on historical figures,

loved it, which was to my Japanese mother’s

such as a daimyō (lord) challenging a ninja

wholehearted disapproval.

to prove his worth by stealing his pillow or weapon while he slept; these stories persist

In conclusion, the ninja went from shadows

and are developed in modern day popular

to stardom. This “obscure” job took a

culture.

twist in history and became a well-known description of skill and ability. They even

In modern popular culture, there were three

had their turn on the red carpet. This was

major "ninja booms" in the 20th century.

a job of secrecy and deadly espionage

The first two were largely limited to Japan

and rose to be a highly sought-for title.

where a series of children’s novels “Sarutobi

From Ancient Japan to modern media,

Sasuke” became popular in the early

stereotypes go from authentic to an extreme

twentieth century. These novels were soon

exaggeration, both fundamentally and

followed by the second wave with Ninja

aesthetically. So, were the ninja as hidden

films, Mangas and television shows before

as history writes them up to be - or are they

becoming a global phenomenon with the

something bigger?

same media in the third boom. References

By the mid-1960s, ninja-themed media leaked out into the world, catching Australian and Italian eyes in a first instance. Later, Hollywood created their version of ninja, with the infamous 007 James Bond movie, “You Only Live Twice” (1967), a perfect example of their mainstream image

Bradford C., The Ring of Fire, Young Samurai 6, Puffin; UK ed edition ( 4 Aug. 2011) Bradford C., First Mission, Ninja 1, Barrington Stoke Ltd (1 Sept. 2020) Turner P S., Samurai Rising: The Epic Life of Minamoto Yoshitsune, Samurai Rising, Charlesbridge (2 Feb. 2016) https://samuraiswords.store/makibishi/

breaking out from the midst of kung fu

https://gizmodo.com/why-americans-became-obsessed-withninjas-5982187

movies.

https://doyouknowjapan.com/ninja/

Through 1970s to 80s, the breakthrough of kung fu movies such as Bruce Lee's “Enter the Dragon” (1973) led to large interest in martial arts films from Asia. The Japanese

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Bradford C., The Ring of Earth, Young Samurai 4, Puffin; UK ed edition (5 Aug. 2010)

https://www.businessinsider.com/rebranded-job-titlesmillennials-ninja-rock-star-evangelist-2018-11?r=US&IR=T https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture The Ninja: Sarutobi Sasuke (Japanese TV Series 1986-1987)

OBSCURITY

Mathematics’ famous numbers

KK Sunil | 2KLF

In the history of mathematics, there are very

2000BCE. Their method was to inscribe a

few irrational numbers that have a specific

regular hexagon within a circle. They used an

symbol assigned to them. For those who are

assumption that the ratio of the perimeter

unaware, a rational number is one that be

of the hexagon to the circumference of the

written as a fraction a/b, where a and b are

circle was 24:25. Assume we take the radius

both non-zero integers. For example, 5 is

of the circle to be r, then the perimeter of

rational as it can be written as 10/2, and 3.5

the hexagon would be 6r (we can divide the

is rational, as it can be written as 7/2. Even

hexagon into 6 equilateral triangles, to show

0.3̇ recurring is rational, as it can be written

that each side is just the radius of the circle),

as 1/3. An irrational number is one that

and we know that the circumference of the

cannot be written of this form, for example

circle is 2 πr. This would mean that that

√2 is irrational. An irrational number is

6r/2πr would be equal to 24:25, which would

non-terminating, but it is also non-recurring,

give us a value of 3.125 for π, which wasn’t

which can be difficult to understand when

far off, but there was room for improvement.

you first come across them. The Egyptians were even closer, with a value Even more unique are irrational numbers

for being 3.160. They assumed that the

that are so important to the world of

area of a square with the lengths of it each

mathematics that they have been given their

being 8/9 of the diameter of a circle would

own special number or symbol. A few of the

be equal to that circle’s diameter. Suppose

most well-known ones are : π,ε and, φ

the diameter is 2r, r is the radius, 8/9 of 2r would be 16r/9. Now, squaring this would

THE ORIGINS OF Π

give us 256r^2/81. Comparing this to the

Pi. Denoted by the 16th letter of the Greek

area of a circle, they worked out that pi

alphabet, it is a staple of circle geometry,

would be 3.16.

and perhaps the most well-known irrational number. Fundamentally, the number, which

The true value of pi was first calculated

begins 3.14159...., is the ratio of a circle’s

by Archimedes of Syracuse in 250BC.

circumference (its perimeter), to its diameter

Archimeded realised that the circumference

(the longest line that can be drawn inside a

of the circle lay between the perimeter of a

circle, passing through its centre, with both

polygon within the circle, and a polygon in

of its points lying on the circumference. This

which the circle is inscribed within. He first

ratio was only given its symbol in the early

calculated pi to be between 3 and 3.46, and

1700s, by William Jones, a renowned British

after using polygons with many, many more

mathematician, and it was only due to

sides, narrowed it down to pi being between

Switzerland’s Leonhard Euler that it became

3.1408 and 3.1429.

popular. THE ORIGINS OF Ε The first known attempt to calculate the

Ε is known as Euler’s number, named after

value of pi came from the Babylonians, in

Leonard Euler, and has an approximate value

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OBSCURITY

of 2.7128. It is commonly used in things

as the size of the numbers increases. For

such as determining population growth, and

example, 21 and 34 are consecutive terms,

exploring the rate of decay of radioactive

and 34:21 = 1.619407… . If we choose

elements, amongst others. E is also the base

two larger terms, such as 233 and 377,

of logarithms (a logarithm is the reverse of

377:273 = 1.6180257… , which is closer to

an exponent (something like 3^3)

the golden ratio than before.

Curiously, although it is associated with

Examples of the Fibonacci Sequence

Leonard Euler, the first discovery of it came

and golden ratio can be found in many

in 1683, via Jacob Bernoulli. The reason for

places, such as the arrangement of flower,

this discovery was that Bernoulli was trying

hurricanes, and leaves. It is primarily used in

to calculate how much money would be

fields such as trading and finance.

earned if interest was compounded more frequently than just annually. However,

According to historical evidence, the first

Euler was the one who made the most

known mentioning of the golden ratio came

important work. He, while not only proving

in 300BCE, by Greek mathematician Euclid.

that e was irrational, managed to show that

Euclid, alongside other mathematicians back

e is the sum of infinite inverse factorials.

then, knew of this proportion, but it had not

The factorial for a number, for example n, is

been called the golden ratio yet. Luca Pacioli

simply n*n-1*n-2.... until the number to be

had also used in geometry problems, but it

multiplied becomes 1, and it’s represented

was only until he published his book Divina

by an exclamation mark after the number(n!).

Proportione that Leonardo Da Vinci, the

3! would be 3*2*1 = 6. So, the inverse

book’s illustrator, called the ratio ‘the golden

factorial of 3 would be1/3!= 1/6 . Euler

section’.

proved that 1/(1! )+1/2!+1/3!… would be equal to e.

References https://www.britannica.com/science/golden-ratio

THE ORIGIN OF THE GOLDEN RATIO The golden ratio, also known as φ, is often mentioned alongside the Fibonacci Sequence. The Fibonacci Sequence is a sequence of numbers, which, after the first two, are found by adding the previous two terms together. The most common is the one that begins with 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34... and so on. What makes the Fibonacci unique is that the ratio of two consecutive terms in it (larger : smaller) gradually gets closer and closer to the golden ratio ((1√5)/2, or approximately 1.60834....)

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https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/fibonaccisequence.html#:~:text=Here%20is%20a%20longer%20 list,317811%2C%20514229%2C%20 https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/math/ a43341607/what-is-eulers-number/ https://byjus.com/maths/value-of-pi/#:~:text=The%20 pi%20is%20a%20ratio,as%20%CF%80%20%3D%20 Circumference%2F%20Diameter. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/physics/approximatingpi.html#:~:text=Around%20250%20B.C.%2C%20the%20 Greek,circle's%20circumference%20to%20its%20diameter. https://thevarsity.ca/2022/03/13/pi-day2022/#:~:text=The%20concept%20of%20pi%20is,value%20 for%20pi%20of%203.125.

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Things about the human body you might not know

Monty Moffitt | 1JWP

Obscurity – the state of being unknown,

pull foods apart; and premolars and molars,

inconspicuous, or unimportant.

which are used to crush food.

In this essay, I will explain how the human

Your tongue is a muscle that sits in between

body works and I shall move down the

the 2 jaws, covered in thousands of

body, explaining how different organs and

microscopic tastebuds that send signals to

components work in three sections: head,

your brain. These signals tell the brain tell

chest, and lower abdomen. In addition

the brain what the tongue is tasting. From

to exploring our organs’ functionality,

the teeth backwards, the roof of the mouth

throughout, I will also list some of the

is a hard palate half the way, and the other

more obscure facts we might not know.

half is a soft palate. The roof ends at the

Furthermore, the final section will be

uvula – the dangling bulb above your tonsils.

dedicated to what I consider are the most

The tonsils stop germs entering the mouth

obscure facts about the human body.

or nose. Below the tongue is the floor of your mouth.

THE HEAD The body is a fascinating thing. The brain,

Your eardrums receive vibrations and send

weighing around 3 pounds, controls

them through the hammer, anvil, and stirrup

everything going on in your body at once.

(the smallest bones in the body – located

It has 4 lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal,

inside the middle ear) to the cochlea. The

and occipital. The frontal lobe controls

cochlea transforms the vibrations into

problem solving, judgement, and motor

electrical impulses that it sends to the

function, while the parietal lobe manages

brain. The brain can read these impulses as

sensation, handwriting, and body position.

frequencies, which is what we interpret as

The temporal lobe takes care of hearing

sound.

and memory, and finally the occipital lobe contains the brain’s processing system.

THE CHEST In the upper torso, the ribcage is like a

Your mouth produces 500 bathtubs-worth

safe holding the valuable heart inside.

of saliva each year. It is a chamber made

Sandwiched between two lungs, the heart

by your jaws, which are a set of two bones

is one of the most valuable organs in your

connected by a hinge, which allows your

body. It pumps 1.5 gallons of blood every

bottom jaw to move up and down. But your

minute, which totals 2000 gallons a day.

upper jaw is unable to move. It simply holds

The red blood cells carry oxygen throughout

you bottom jaw in place, allowing it to move

the body to nerve endings, vital organs, etc.

up and down to crush, cut and pull apart

A red blood cell has a biconcave structure,

food. Your jaws are lined with rows of bones

meaning it has a divot on either side.

called teeth, of which there are 4 different

Your heart is divided into 4 chambers – 2

types: incisors, used to cut into foods;

on top (the atria) and two on the bottom

canines, next to the incisors that are used to

(the ventricles). The right atrium receives

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OBSCURITY

low-oxygen blood and sends it to the right

down food, while the large intestine absorbs

ventricle, which sends it to the lungs. The

water. Some people suffer from a condition

left ventricle receives high-oxygen blood

called “Dysbiosis”, where the stomach is

and sends it to the left ventricle, which

lopsided, causing gastric juices to enter

pumps that blood throughout the body.

the oesophagus and cause heartburn when sleeping or laying on your side.

Contrary to popular belief, the heart does not create blood. It simply cycles blood

To feed the body, different nutrients are

around the body, receiving the same blood

required such as water, carbohydrates,

cells after every individual round, after

proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

the cell has delivered the oxygen to their

Water is crucial to replenish the body as

designated organ. All this happens in a lump

it is constantly lost through breathing

of flesh the size of a fist. This lump of flesh

and sweating. Carbohydrates are broken

is in every single animal on the planet. The

down by gastric juices to release glucose,

heart never has a reason to keep beating, so

which is necessary for the respiration

this raises the question: why does it do it?

system. Proteins are the major structural

On the Earth alone, there are 20 quintillion

components of cells and are found in beans,

hearts beating without an obvious reason.

meat, dairy, eggs, etc. Fats are a high source of energy and help with the absorption of

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The lungs are two cone-shaped organs that

select vitamins. Vitamins are vital for making

sit either side of the heart. They contain

things in the body, for example, Vitamin

branches called bronchi that come into

D is used to help absorb phosphorus and

the lungs via the wind canal. They conduct

calcium. Minerals are used to build physical

inhaled air through the wind canal into

things in the body such as bones, hair,

the lungs and conduct carbon dioxide left

and skin. Fats, vitamins, and minerals can

over from the blood that has just recently

be absorbed directly into the lining of the

taken oxygen to the heart. The upper torso

gut, but water, carbs, and proteins need to

has fewer organs than the lower abdomen,

be broken down into smaller parts by the

which makes it less complicated.

gastric acid in the stomach for absorption.

THE LOWER ABDOMEN

The liver is a vital organ that performs many

At the lower abdomen, the layout of the

functions. It stores up to two years’ worth

digestive system becomes more complex.

of vitamin A, and stores iron and copper,

The stomach is positioned at the top,

which are essential for the immune system’s

behind the liver, and digests food that has

health. The liver also detoxifies the blood

been sent from the oesophagus. It breaks

by turning pollutants, defensive chemicals,

down the food to release glucose, which

bacterial toxins, and more into less

is necessary for the process of respiration.

dangerous compounds, which are then sent

The small intestine, which is 20 feet long,

to the kidneys to be flushed out. The liver

absorbs the nutrients from the broken-

makes bile, essential for breaking down fats

OBSCURITY

> A brain freeze’s scientific term is

IN THE UPPER TORSO, THE RIBCAGE IS LIKE A SAFE HOLDING THE VALUABLE HEART INSIDE. and stores it in the gallbladder. It performs 500 chemical functions at once.

sphenopalatine ganglioneuralgia. This is when cold hits your receptors on the outside of your brain and causes the dilation and contraction of nerve endings causing a rapid on-set headache. > Earwax is a type of sweat. > The average nose produces about a cup of nasal mucus a day. > You are 1cm taller in the morning than when you go to bed because the cartilage gets compressed by your bones during the day. > The only muscle that can never be pulled and never gets tired is the heart. > Your entire skin is replaced every month, which means you have 1000 different

The kidneys clean the blood, ridding it of

skins in your life. Every minute you shed

waste and excess nutrients. They send this

30000 skin cells, and the body has 2.5

excess waste and nutrients, which have been turned into urine, to the bladder. This cleaning process takes 5 minutes in total, for

million skin pores. > We urinate enough urine to fill a bath every month.

blood to complete it. THE MOST OBSCURE > Information travels from the nerves to the brain at 263 mph, which is faster than the 9ff GT9-R, the 4th fastest car in the world. > A piece of brain tissue, the size of a grain of sand, contains 100,000 neurons and over a billion synapses. > Synapses are the connections between neurons, and there are a billion connections and paths you can take to think. This means that there are more possible thoughts you can think than atoms in the universe.

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OBSCURITY

What is the Best Way to Measure the Success of an Empire?

Sam Moorhouse | 1MHT

Officially, there are no empires in the

to be taken over by the empire; or able

modern day – the United Nations recognises

to discover and take control of previously

195 nations and states – yet the ghosts of

uninhabited or unruled areas. Therefore,

empires continue to influence the Earth.

the area of an empire’s domain is a good

These groups of nations ruled over by a

indicator of their success, but it also has its

single monarch, oligarchy or sovereign

downsides, the size of empires fluctuates

state were tremendous powers, and played

wildly over time. Size may play a role in my

immense roles in our global history and

method, but it certainly cannot stand alone,

culture. Because that is what they were:

it must be tempered and improved by other

worldwide.

considerations.

In this essay, I will explore the best way

TIME

to determine the success of an empire,

I’ve already mentioned that empires do not

from population, to size, and even to their

remain the same size for long. It can be

longevity. What was the most successful

tempting to just average out the empire’s

empire? Was it the British Empire, the

size, but then where does that start? The

largest empire in history, covering 35.5

first expansion from city to neighbouring

million square kilometres (nearly a quarter

city, or once it reaches some specific area?

of the world) at its peak in 1922. Or perhaps

And similarly, where does it end, at the

the longest reigning empire, the Roman

very end of the state’s existence, or at the

Empire, which can be separated into three

point when decline becomes permanent

sections: The Period of Kings, Republican

and unreversed? Some empires expand and

Rome and Imperial Rome in total lasting

shrink quickly and abruptly, whereas others

over 1000 years. There is no correct answer,

retract methodically and maintain their new

but in this essay, I will attempt to work

size for even longer. With so many ways to

out the best method, or factor, to measure

average an empire’s size, each one would

the success of an empire and then use this

have a different winner, resulting in this

knowledge to help me answer this question.

method’s ability to be manipulated to put any empire you want at the top.

AREA

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Let us start with possibly the most

STABILITY

obvious: area. The number of square

Another alternative for modifying the use

miles or kilometres an empire ruled over.

of size in the method is stability. Stability is

This method makes sense, as in order for

a vague term, it could simply be a measure

an empire to gain land it must either be

of how slowly an empire lost its territory,

militarily superior to the previous owners of

or even how peaceful or unchallenged their

the land; culturally or economically superior

rule was. The most basic problem with this

enough that the previous inhabitants choose

factor is the lack of sources we have on this

OBSCURITY

with size, however it also could be more

THE GREATER THE POWER OF THE EMPIRE THE MORE INFLUENCE THEY WOULD HAVE AND CONSEQUENTLY THE GREATER LEGACY THEY WOULD LEAVE.

effective, since it is much easier to conquer uninhabited land than actual people. Therefore, it is more effective at showing how powerful the empire is than whether they originated in a more remote area. On the other hand, population also has another issue which size does not have: later empires have a large advantage over older empires due to global population growth, a factor which has little to do with the empire’s success, thus being an unfair advantage. The range of ways to measure the success of empires are evidently unfruitful. So, what if instead of measuring how much land or how many people they conquered, instead we take a step back and look at the empires’ legacies: the extent to which an empire has cast its influence down through history. These legacies are shadows of real power,

topic for most empires, leading to it being

so therefore the greater the power of the

impossible to reliably measure. Furthermore,

empire the more influence they would have

empires are naturally unstable due to their

and consequently the greater legacy they

accompanying hierarchies of power, meaning

would leave. Unfortunately, as with all of the

this would be more a measure of ‘least

other factors in this essay, it is not without

bad’ than ‘most good’. Therefore, this could

fault. It does not deliver a clear winner.

even neutralise size, as the larger an empire

However, it is the most fruitful if we are

becomes the more unstable it can (and is

concerned with history’s relevance to the

most likely to) be.

present, which is ultimately, why I wrote this essay.

POPULATION Size and all of its variants have been a frustrating tangle so far, so what about some alternatives to the area governed by an empire. For example: population, the amount of people ruled over by an empire. This does retain most of the problems encountered

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OBSCURITY

Obscurity of the Deep

Sami Carroll | L1TJD

The deep sea is one of the places on Earth

Another well-known deep-sea creature is

that we know the least about. In fact, it is

the Dumbo Octopus (Grimpoteuthis) which

estimated that 91% of sea creatures have

lives in the Midnight Zone (up to 4km under

not been classified yet by humans. This just

the surface). It is called a Dumbo Octopus

shows how little about this obscure place.

due to its resemblance to the famous Disney

Despite it being on our planet, as far as our

character. It is the deepest known octopus

knowledge is concerned, it seems like this

on Earth. They usually feed on bivalves

is a place is out of our universe. We are

including oysters, clams and mussels during

learning more and more about this strange

the day, and at night, float to the surface to

ecosystem, but it is still obscure with

eat copepods.

humans only reaching the really going to the bot-tom in 2019.

All the way down in the Hadal Zone (the deepest part of the deep ocean, in ocean

LIFE IN THE DEEP

trench-es), there are creatures like cusk-

The creatures in the deep survive by needing

eels which are close relatives to tuna and

little amounts of oxygen, no sunlight and

seahorses. They are some of the biggest

hav-ing an ability to survive in a very cold

deep-sea creatures, with some species

environment.

growing up to 2 metres! They feed on crabs and molluscs and are eaten by thorny

One of the most well-known deep-sea

skates and windowpane flounders. Another

creatures is the anglerfish. They are

intriguing species that lives in the Hadal

known because of their eerie look and

Zone are decapods. These are crustaceans

the bright light attached their head which

that live 7,700 metres under the surface and

draws its prey towards it, straight to its

have ten legs!

mouth. Curiously, these are not the only luminescent fish, others include: the viperfish; the gulper eel; and the pinecone fish. This shows that although it might be hard for us to imagine, luminescence is an intriguing evolutionary quirk that many species have in the deep ocean.

Diagram showing the different zones of the deep ocean

FOOD CHAIN In the Midnight Zone (up to 4km under the surface), there are no herbivores. This is because plants can only grow with sunlight which cannot reach them if they are 3000 metres under the surface. Species in this are Anglerfish

136

among the very small list of food chains that

OBSCURITY

do not rely on the Sun. They rely on normally lethal substances like liquid carbon dioxide and sulphur to use as an energy source instead of the Sun. Some animals only survive by eating the Earth and the bacteria containing methane and sulphides that seep through it. This bizarre fact illustrates just shows how much creatures have adapted

> The deepest point is Challenger Deep at almost 1C1,000 metres; > In the Hadal zone, temperatures average between 1oC and 4oC; > Mount Everest would fit in the Mariana Trench, and with a mile to spare; > The cephalopod vampire squids can turn their bodies inside out when under attack;

and evolved to live in this obscure place.

> More than 80% of the ocean remains

Anglerfish are near the top of the food

> There are more viruses in the ocean than

chain as they catch a lot of creatures that

there are stars in the Milky Way with

approach their mysterious light. Other

1ml of water containing up to 10 million

predators in the Midnight Zone include the

viruses.

unexplored;

dragonfish which feast on plankton and other small invertebrates. Believe it or not,

WHY IS IT OBSCURE?

some sharks live in the Midnight Zone, such

The deep is one of the least known about

as the cookiecutter shark. It is called this

places on the whole planet. Not only do we

due to its circle shaped mouth full of razor-

not know about the way of life, we also do

sharp teeth. They normally eat squid but can

not know how some of these creatures can

sometimes use their blade-like teeth to take

survive in these treacherous conditions.

round bites out of bigger creatures like tuna,

For example, if a human left their transport,

seals and even whales!

they would be instantly crushed by the sheer pressure of over 3000 metres of water

UNIQUENESS

whereas these are everyday conditions for

Some things that happen this far underneath

all of these animals. Moreover, the further

the surface would never be able to happen

down we go, the less we know about the

on the land. Even the food web is unique. As

organisms living in the “zone”. We know so

mentioned earlier, it is one of a select few

little about the deep that we have better

that does not involve the sun.

maps of the surface Mars than the depths of

Moreover, the creatures also have unique

our oceans on our own planet.

attributes, such as creating light and having a transparent body to make themselves

So, in conclusion, the deep is one of the

invisible from predators. These aspects

most fascinating places on our planet. From

are only pos-sible because of their hostile

glow-ing animals to having no plants at all,

environment, and are also a result of it.

this place is truly obscure.

FUN FACTS > Anything under 200 metres is considered deep; > The average depth of the sea is 3.5km;

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OBSCURITY

Optical illusions revealed

Shaurya Arora | 1WRJ

WHAT IS AN OPTICAL ILLUSION

appear as two

An optical illusion is a phenomenon that

people sitting

deceives our vision, causing errors in

by a yellow

perception. They occur when our eyes send

table, one with

information to our brains that tricks us into

their hands up, and the other

perceiving something that does not match reality. A prime example of an optical illusion

holding a guitar, with a person peeking from

is a mirage, where we see water in the

a door on the right-hand side.

desert that does not actually exist. Physiological illusions happen when our HOW DO OPTICAL ILLUSIONS WORK?

eyes and brain are tricked by the way light

Optical illusions happen when our brains

enters and interacts with our visual system.

try to process the information gathered by

A common example

our eyes, and the interpretation becomes

is the "afterimage"

mixed-up. For instance, a mirage occurs

illusion, which

when light passes through two layers of air

occurs when we

with different temperatures and produces

stare at a bright

a reflection

image or colour

of a distant

and then look at a neutral surface.

object or the sky on the

Our brain perceives an afterimage of the

sand. Another

opposite colour, appearing to float in front

example is an

of the neutral surface.

illusion where we see a disc

Cognitive illusions are a result of our

rotating in

conceptions and assumptions about the

the direction

world, which we impose upon visual stimuli.

of the lighter shades. However, we can

A visual stimulus is a thing or event that

reset the motion by blinking, shifting our

evokes a specific functional reaction in an

eyes, and looking away and back, each time

organ or tissue normally in the form of a

refuelling the motion.

picture or colours shown on screens. This can lead to four types of cognitive illusions:

WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF

ambiguous illusions, distorting/geometrical-

ILLUSIONS?

optical illusions, paradox illusions, or fiction

There are three main types of optical

illusions.

illusions: Literal, Physiological, and Cognitive illusions.

Below is a type of cognitive illusion calling a paradox illusion. A paradox illusion is

Literal illusions occur when the image we

an illusion that makes people perceive

see is different from the images that make

impossible objects as in the photo below.

it up. For example, an illustration created with several strategically placed images can

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If we start at the top of any mini staircase

OBSCURITY

and go round,

it so that all the lines connect to make an L

we will see

shape using a ruler

that it leads to another set

5. Now colour in alternating L shape areas

of stairs that

with the black marker

lead further down till we

6. On the side with lines coming down from

come around to the starting point. That is

the diagonal line when oriented like above

not possible though. This is because the mini

start shading starting from the white area

staircase that leads down onto the staircase,

closest from the left corner and get lighter

we started with should be lower and not

as you go up.

higher than our starting point as all the stairs go down. This means this shape is just

7. Do the same on the other side of the

physically impossible to replicate.

diagonal line but start lighter.

CAN WE MAKE AN OPTICAL ILLUSION?

Now you should have an optical illusion

Yes, we can, all we need is a:

that looks like a hole in the paper when it is

> HB pencil but any would do

placed down like this.

> A ruler > A black marker e.g., Sharpe etc. > And finally, you will need a piece of blank paper. Method 1. Using the ruler draw a square preferably make an optical illusion? an 8cm-by-8cm square on Can the we paper. CONCLUSION Yes, we can, all we need is a:

In conclusion, optical illusions are a

• •

HB pencil but any would do A ruler

•

And finally, you will need a piece of blank paper.

A blackbottom marker e.g., Sharpe etc. 2. Draw a diagonal line from• the

fascinating world of science and art

left corner to the top right corner using the

that we can explore more deeply. They

ruler.

provide insight into the nature of human

Method

1. Using the ruler draw a square preferably an 8cm-by-8cm square on the paper. 2. Draw a diagonal line from the bottom left corner to the top right corner using the ruler. 3. Now on the right side of the diagonal line draw 3 straight lines towards the diagonal line making 4 evenly shaped sections using the ruler like this:

perception and offer an immersive world

3. Now on the right side of the diagonal

of brain trickers to explore. Anyone who

line draw 3 straight lines

enjoys science and art can have a great

towards the diagonal line

time learning about optical illusions.

making 4 evenly shaped

Understanding optical illusions can provide

sections using the ruler

insight into the nature of human perception

like this: 4. After you completed

and personal biases. 4. After you completed step 3 do the same as thing on the other side of the diagonal but make it so that all the lines connect to make an L shape using a ruler

step 3 do the same as thing on the other side of the diagonal but make 5. Now colour in alternating L shape areas with the black marker 6. On the side with lines coming down from the diagonal line when oriented like above start shading starting from the white area closest from the left corner and get lighter as you go up. 7. Do the same on the other side of the diagonal line but start lighter. Now you should have an optical illusion that looks like a hole in the paper when it is placed down like this.

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

Daniel Lees | L6REB

Submission for the John Locke Institute Essay Competition (History)

How much richer or poorer are the British today than they would have been without the effects of British colonialism?

within society,” such as higher poverty rate

conference, where British dominions

for the black people, for instance, or access

discussed the rights to conduct their own

to health care. (Lander, no date). Whilst this

foreign policy without interference from the

might dispute the claim above and cast into

British government. One hundred years on,

question the extent of cultural poorness that

and firmly conducting no other foreign policy

the British feel today, it is difficult to say that

than their own, Britain lives in the shadow of

colonisation has actively prevented racism in

its own colonial history. This essay seeks to

a way that has made us culturally richer.

However, it could be considered highly likely

ascertaining the richness or poorness of the

discuss some of these aspects of history in

2023 marks 100 years since the Imperial

British today.

that colonialism contributed towards positive

notions of equality today: It could be seen that the British empire was a catalyst for

presence of racism in British society today

the emancipation of slavery in the name in

through the attitudes of percieved superiority

accordance with promoting Christian values

the British had when colonizing other

of equality, such as in India, for example.

countries, known as ‘chauvinistic nationalism’.

One effect certainly was that because

One effect of British colonialism might be the

colonialism appeared to be a liberation for

oppressed minority groups through inherent

most slaves, it fostered an attitude of “a

racism, which means that black people are

perfect absence” of racial hatred, as uttered

less likely to have access to adequate health

by the abolitionist Douglass when he visited

and other facilities (Kohli, 2022). However,

Britain in the 1840s, (Biggar, 2023). It could

Biggar (2023) states that racist harassment

be argued that this set a cultural precedent

received by those of African descent in

that continues today. On the other hand,

the UK was the second lowest in the EU,

the earlier actions of the British colonialists

according to a 2018 report by the EU agency

abroad and the effects it had on the people

for fundamental human rights. Similarly,

ought to be questioned. Between 1670 and

A 2021 report of the UK government’s

1807, despite slave carrying being outlawed

commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities

by the British parliament, Britain shipped

found that Britain is not structurally racist.

3 million Africans who were enslaved to

The word ‘structurally’ ought to be taken in

America (Sanghera, 2021). Sharif (1987)

its rightful context – that is, it refers to the

states that it was legal up until the 1960s

“wider political and social disadvantages

to pay black people less than white people

It is thought that colonialism’s effects have

140

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

for doing the same work – clearly, she is

such as Edward Colston, for instance, whose

arguing that historic government attitude,

statue was toppled in Bristol following

shaped by Britain’s imperial past and its

accusations that he financially benefited from

colonialist mindset, was one content to let

slave trading.

these racist attitudes continue. This article was written during the late 1980s, whereby

We could therefore conclude that as far

the author lays down her criteria to ensure

as “today” is concerned the British have

the dismantlement of racism spurred on

a far greater and less one-sided grasp of

by colonialist attitudes: “every procedure

the effects of colonialism our society but

which forms the basis of a society has to be

is ultimately difficult to blanketly say that

examined for its racist effects”. However,

colonialism enriched the British today.

whilst this article has little relevance to

Certainly, societal prejudices and actions

today, I include it because it in understanding

carried out in the name of colonialism did

whether we have been made culturally richer

make the British culturally poorer during

or poorer, it is important to understand how

the immediate post empire time period, but

effects then have (or have not) manifested

we have broadly moved onto embrace a

it into those same effects now. One effect

multiculturalism present within Britain today.

might be the romantic, idolised reminisces

Finally, if one observes the big picture, there

of colonialism. In regard to the effects of

have been many immigrants from colonies of

British colonialism today, such an effect, as

the empire who transcended racist attitudes

evidenced by the reports mentioned above

and settled in Britain, using colonialism to do

have appeared to ‘rubbed off’ on both the

so – the ‘Windrush generation’ who settled

government and the public, whilst fulfilling

in the UK from former colonies from 1948 to

criteria mentioned by Sharif (1987). Indeed,

1971 are a prime example. The children and

UK current governments are more explicit

grandchildren of some of those people have

about both the good and crucially, the bad

risen to do one of the most important jobs in

experiences of racism that occurred during

the country- one can look no further than the

colonization. This reassessment of colonial

British cabinet which comprises of the first

legacy has coincided with a strong public

Anglo Asian Prime Minister, as well as many

feeling on both sides of the debate relating to

other ethnically diverse members – perhaps

the legacy of colonialism and its effects: one

therefore, the effects of British colonialism

only needs to look at the recent toppling of

have not made us entirely poorer.

statues from prominent figures of colonialism

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

A tenet of colonialism’s legacy is the

fifty-four countries in the commonwealth,

commonwealth, formed in 1949. The

the country could become a trading giant

lessening of colonial rule during the 20th

(Contributor and Contributor, 2022), and

century was affirmed in the 1926 Imperial

consequently, make the British today

conference, where states such as Australia

increasingly “richer”.

and Canada were present. The British agreed

142

that whilst they were members of empire,

It could be argued that colonialism

the UK did not rule over them. This set

strengthened civil society, whilst re-

in motion the idea that is espoused by it

evaluating the relationship between

today – ie, it allows countries to interact

state and its subjects (Bernhard, Reenock

on an equal footing, instead of one country

and Nordstrom, 2004). Whilst this re-

being dominant and the other subservient

evaluation mentioned in this article relates

as in times of colonialism, contributing

to former British colonies, I believe it is

towards a healthy relationship between

British colonial rule ending during the mid

former colonised states and Britain. All states

to late 20th century that has made this

share common values implemented when

re-evaluation just as present in Britain by

colonialism took place, including the rule of

enabling concepts such as social mobility,

law and democracy, (Commonwealth Charter,

in which civil society could be considered

no date), whilst also aiming to boost trade

to have been strengthened. Bernhard,

and economy. It could be argued that the

Reenock and Nordstrom (2004) state that,

legacy of British colonialism has had, through

in former British colonies such as Botswana

the commonwealth, a positive effect on the

and Gambia, democracy immediately post-

people by making the British literally richer:

independence flourished, democracy being

indeed, according to (The Institute of Export

a product of British colonialism. During the

& International Trade, no date) British exports

second half of the 20th century, Britain

to the Commonwealth have reached a 15

prepared their colonies for democracy. This

year high – £31.6 billion – which enables

was achieved by the holding of elections

both the British economy to grow, whilst

for political bodies, and parliaments –

having the capacity to lead to an increase in

parliaments which were given significant

opportunities for jobs and higher wages, thus

power to run their own countries just before

enabling citizens to become richer due to the

independence. This shows the British actively

effect of the legacy of colonialism. Indeed,

encouraging democracy within their soon

if the UK went further and worked with all

to be independent colonies, attempting to

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY, BRITAIN PREPARED THEIR COLONIES FOR DEMOCRACY. best prepare them for independence by

services (for instance transport provided by

instilling their values such as democracy

the railway network), which were directed

to these colonies. Whilst this might be

straight to Britain, whilst benefitting British

viewed as a forced imposition of values,

business – this shows clear economic benefit

particularly in the sense that the British

being awarded to only a specific group of

did not just let her former colonies go, so

Britons, however. The skilled workers from

to speak, the promotion of democracy has

the north failed to benefit. This example is

arguably enriched many. This encouraging

just a small part in taking colonialism in the

of democracy emphasises that anyone, from

bigger picture and how it, in Britain at least,

whatever social background or class could

appeared to benefit a privileged few, which

run for elected office, a tradition which

widened regional inequality. Such inequality

remains inherent in British society today.

perhaps aided by colonialism still exists today: as of 2019/20, the Northeast has

The apparent ‘drain of wealth’ vis a vis India

the lowest median income at £480, whilst

is a notable economic effect of colonialism.

London has the highest median income in

This outlines the prominent control of the

the country (£615), per week. Clearly, such

Indian economy exercised by the British

trends aided by colonialism have certainly,

during colonial rule. The British spearheaded

not changed – making some British richer;

an outflow of finances, from India to Britain,

some poorer.

which, during the 1930s was at £40 to £50 million pounds per year (University of Zurich,

A reassessment of factors above might

no date). During the 1900s, the Indian born

reveal different interpretations regarding

British MP Dadabhai Naorji writing in his

colonialism’s effects. Firstly, if we take

work ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule’ where

my initial point of Britain being culturally

he outlined his “drain theory”: the idea that

richer or poorer, I.e., looking at colonialism’s

Britain deprived the Indian people of wealth

contribution to racism, there is double

and work whilst making only a certain group

standards in the colonialism’s idea of

of privileged southerners in Britain wealthier.

spreading equality around the countries

This extraction of wealth was not only due

the empire colonizes, however, persistently

to the high level of taxation imposed on

racist attitudes were allowed to triumph

Indian subjects, despite the country having

within the British government – for instance,

a relatively low income per capita, it was

Churchill was reported to have blamed the

also due to the money being made from

1943 Bengal famine on the Indian people

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

“breeding like rabbits” (Safi, 2019). Whilst we

making some British richer and some British

might acknowledge this to be in the context

poorer, in the material sense. Racism surely

of its time; it is also likely that colonialism

cannot have been helped by colonialism, but

has contributed towards the distinctly

there is something to be said for the fact

multi-cultural and broadly anti racist society

that it enabled many people from all parts

that makes us British. The commonwealth

of empire to settle in this country and help

as an organisation sprang up as a reaction

contribute to a multi-cultural community

to decolonization, meaning that it being

today, making the British richer culturally.

attributed as a political effect of colonization is wrong. The idea of social mobility being

References

generated through democracy is a credible

Biggar, N. (2023) Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning. HarperCollins UK.

one, however, it is applying these effects of colonialism overseas to Britain today that is somewhat challenging: democratic institutions in this country have also been shaped by public support, popular protest, and prominent thinkers. In addition, the divisive debate this has set up today poses some threat to societal cohesion that we would not have had without colonialism’s effects. On balance, there can be no blanket statement to be said in conclusion to the question. Examination of factors show it is affecting the British in different ways: Economically, colonial rule enabled the British to rely on this to make us wealthy – this led to complacency, which can be said to have underdeveloped the UK economy post colonization– in the sense that only the upper classes benefited, contributing towards equality that still exists today, therefore

144

Sanghera, S. (2021) Empireland: How Imperialism Has Shaped Modern Britain. Penguin UK. Khilnani, S. (2022) The British Empire Was Much Worse Than You Realize. Available at: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/04/04/the-british-empire-was-much-worse-thanyou-realize-caroline-elkinss-legacy-of-violence. Lander, V. (no date) Structural racism: what it is and how it works. Available at: https://theconversation.com/structural-racism-what-it-is-and-how-it-works-158822. Sharif, R. (1987) “Racism in Britain Today,” European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe, 21(1), pp. 40–43. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41442939?searchText=british+colonialism+effects+on+britain+today&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbritish%2Bcolonialism%2Beffects%2Bon%2Bbritain%2Btoday&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_ search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3Af2f9051f8baa86dfdc23fd60863cffa1&seq=2. Kohli, A. (2022) Queen Elizabeth II’s Death Is a Chance to Examine the Present-Day Effects of Britain’s Colonial Past. Available at: https://time.com/6212772/queen-elizabeth-iicolonialism-legacy/. Commonwealth Charter (no date). Available at: https:// thecommonwealth.org/charter. Contributor, C. and Contributor, C. (2022) To replace a US trade deal, Britain should form an economic union with the Commonwealth. Available at: https://capx.co/to-replace-a-ustrade-deal-britain-should-form-an-economic-union-with-thecommonwealth/. The Institute of Export & International Trade (no date). Available at: https://www.export.org.uk/news/609940/British-exports-toCommonwealth-reach-15-year-high-new-report-finds.htm.

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

Daniel Lees | L6REB Are you the same person as when you were born? When you were 5? When you were 10? Submission for the Minds Underground Essay Competition Essay Competition The Roman Philosopher Boethius defined

by the above thought experiment, people

a person as an ‘individual substance of a

are in themselves entirely multifaceted

rational nature’. In this essay I will examine

beings, with no one definite attribute that

what makes us an ‘individual substance’,

can qualify themselves as merely being

as well as explore what rationality

‘individual substances’. This is because

encompasses and how it changes as we

people who attempt the experiment are

grow. I will argue that we are inherently

likely to disagree with what best makes up

dissimilar from the person that which

a person: the physical body or psychological

we were born as through exploring the

characteristics, like conscience. Perhaps the

non-tangible facets which make up us,

best way therefore, is to compromise. We

from consciousness to memories that

can understand people as a combination

are, I believe, prone to change. This

between the material and the immaterial;

change fundamentally redefines us, our

the physical and the psychological products

personalities, and who we are.

of ourselves. It is with this understanding that we can begin to answer whether we

In order to most effectively consider

are the same person not just when we were

whether we are the same person as when we

born, but at different ages too.

were born, it needs to be established what the idea of a person is. Bernard Williams

A key argument for the idea that one is

posited the following thought experiment:

the same person throughout one’s life can

your psychological characteristics are

be seen in memories. John Locke argued

transferred to a body of a close friend.

that our remembered memories from age

Their psychological characteristics are

five or ten, for instance, provides the

also transferred into your own body. If

evidence that we were the same person

you were to choose one person to receive

then because we fundamentally remember

torture and the other to receive the sum

being that person. These memories make

of one million pounds, which would be the

up consciousness. Nimbalkar (2011)

person you choose? This classic question

describes that whether being the same

is designed to primarily test one’s moral

person as when you were younger purely

judgement, whilst presenting a dilemma to

is “a matter of psychological continuity”.

the person involved – that is, whether the

However, Joseph Butler believed that Locke

physical body or immaterial psychological

makes a “wonderful mistake” – ultimately,

characteristics is the most important

the fact that you can remember your own

aspect that makes up a person; clearly

experiences does not automatically mean

suggesting questions around the idea of

you are the same person from that memory,

what constitutes, or indeed, makes up a

rather it is remembered only because

person in the first place. As demonstrated

you are the same person. Butler argues

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

A KEY ARGUMENT FOR THE IDEA THAT ONE IS THE SAME PERSON THROUGHOUT ONE’S LIFE CAN BE SEEN IN MEMORIES.

146

that whilst memory could indeed reveal

Chains of memories are ultimately the only

identity with a past experience, it does not

way of affirming one’s sameness over time.

make that experiencer me. One is merely

Copenhaver (2006), suggests that Reid

remembering experiences of a substance,

believes that in remembering an event, we

the same substance that constitutes as

not only believe that that event occurred

me in my present form, (Nimbalkar, 2011).

but also, because of remembrance it must

The common thought experiment of a

have happened. In a practical sense, this

young boy who grows into an officer who

raises observations applied to the modern

then at an old age, becomes a General.

world: those with brain diseases under the

The General, as a result of his age cannot

umbrella term of dementia who will not be

remember being the young boy. Therefore,

able to remember themselves as young in

he cannot surely be the same person if he

the past, nor events from their past, never

cannot recall earlier memories and events

mind at age five or ten. Therefore, if Reid is

that occurred in his past? The philosopher

taken at face value, those with dementia are

Thomas Reid argues that so long as the old

not the same people than they were at age

general could remember being the officer

5, or 10 for instance, compared to their non-

and the officer remembered being a boy

dementia counterparts. Ultimately, all these

there was ultimately a chain of memories.

arguments rest on the assumption, to some

Therefore, this chain united them all within

degree that the remembering of events

the same person. For Reid, the idea of

in your past means that you could still

memories themselves are not in itself to

technically be considered the same person

evidence us being the same person over

now as when you were five, or ten. However,

time, rather memories should be viewed

perhaps because it is accepted that you

solely as an instrument to know one’s own

cannot remember anything at birth, these

past (Reid on Memory and Personal Identity

arguments do not deal with whether we

(Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy), 2018).

were the same person at birth. Therefore, it

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

could be something physical that we share in

(society), we cannot be said to be simply the

likeness to ourselves at birth.

same person then we were at birth, at age five or ten, because moral decision making is

A look into the idea of conscience provides

constantly evolving.

an interesting outlook to which we could argue the extent of change from birth or not,

Similarly, the concept of a soul also has

if we consider conscience to be physical.

something to contribute to this debate if

Some scholars, such as Augustine believe

we accept its existence. One can argue that

that consciousness is unchanging and a

that it in itself is inherently unchanging and

constant presence within us, guiding our

remains the same throughout life. Socrates

decisions. He argued that the conscience is

argued that our soul was immortal, not

simply the voice of God whispering to us.

physical, and crucially unchanging, whilst

The fact that God’s voice is ‘whispering’

the physical body undergoes changes.

allows God to be seen as merely just a

Broadie (2001) suggests that Descartes

guide in moral decision making, rather

concluded that the mind and body are

than shouting or ordering us. Therefore,

ultimately, separable from one another, this

theoretically speaking, if they were to

also means that the physical body changes

listen to their God given consciences,

and the soul is immutable. However, Plato

a five-year-old would choose to make

believed that the soul was temporarily

the same decisions as the ten-year-old.

united with the body – perhaps, as a result

Conscience, therefore, is simply guided by

of this, we have innate knowledge which

God’s wisdom – this means it has no reason

is inherent in each and every one of us,

in itself to change from birth. However,

present since birth. The soul is needed and

scholars such as Kohlberg questioned why

required to explain this innate knowledge.

consciousness should form such a rigid part

Once this innate knowledge is unlocked,

of our personality and be unchanging. He

however, through repeated questioning, the

believed that consciousness went through

purpose of the soul is complete. Depending

an evolution of different stages of moral

on what age it happens, It can be argued

development, including pre-conventional

therefore that the soul perhaps changes as

and conventional. At the pre conventional

a result of this acquisition of knowledge,

stage, (typically pertaining to children), they

leading us to question the extent of the

judge what is right or wrong in terms of

soul’s immutability, and what was a key

assessing the direct consequences. At the

unchanging aspect of ourselves present

conventional level, decisions are taken on

since birth. However, this idea that the

what society regards as right. Therefore,

soul as changing is unconvincing because it

if our decision-making changes, based on

rests in Plato’s understandings of the forms

the factor that most strongly influences it

including the Form of the Good, which

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

can be considered to be somewhat of a

References

stretch, since the Form of the Good is out of

Reid on Memory and Personal Identity (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy) (2018). Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/ entries/reid-memory-identity/.

this world and it is unlikely that this selfknowledge could be discovered. Therefore, it seems that the most likely argument is that the soul as part of the nonphysical aspect of people is an entity that appears to remain

Copenhaver, R. (2006) “Thomas Reid’s Theory of Memory,” History of Philosophy Quarterly, 23(2). Available at: https:// philpapers.org/rec/COPTRT-4.

the same, as argued by Descartes.

Nimbalkar, N. (2011) “John Locke on personal identity” Mens Sana Monographs, 9(1), p. 268. Available at: https://doi. org/10.4103/0973-1229.77443.

In conclusion I would argue that we for

Oxplore | Do we stay the | same from birth? (no date). Available at: https://oxplore.org/question-detail/do_we_stay_the_same_ from_birth.

the most part, are inherently dissimilar from when we were born. Exploring key aspects of what makes a person, such as consciousness, personality, memories (and the recollection of them) shows that ultimately, these facets of beings do change over time, and fundamentally shapes who we are as a person. Whilst these changing aspects are surrounded by one constant – the soul - it in itself is not enough to say that we are the same person, owing to other changes in us. Therefore, I am not the same person as when I was born, or at age five or ten.

148

Helm, P.A. (1979) “Locke’s Theory of Personal Identity,” Philosophy, 54(208), pp. 173–185. Available at: https://doi. org/10.1017/s0031819100048427.

Broadie, S. (2001) “Soul and Body in Plato and Descartes,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society for the Systematic Study of Philosophy, 101(1), pp. 295–308. Available at: https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.0066-7372.2003.00032.x.

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

I don’t know how far away Daniel Shnaydman | L6SBB the moon lies, but here is how I proved the Doppler Effect! Winner of the Peterhouse Kelvin Science Essay Competition (University of Cambridge) Task: Take a physical constant of nature, or an

a crucial instrument in many of modern

established law of physics, something that is

astronomy’s discoveries and its significance

nowadays such an established "fact" that we

drew me towards it.

forget how tricky it may have been to measure or discover in the first place, and then see

RESEARCH QUESTION AND METHOD

if you yourself can actually independently

I am looking to find a relationship between

re-measure or re-discover it using a method

speed and change in observed frequency.

that bears some resemblance to the original

I will achieve this by moving the RC car

method.

(attached is a speaker playing a known frequency) at various speeds past a

INTRODUCTION

microphone. Therefore, the equipment I

Christian Doppler, born in 1803, was an

need is as follows:

Austrian mathematician and physicist,

> Tape measure

famously celebrated for being the first

> Stopwatch

to propose the principle - now called the

> RC Car

doppler effect - which he described as

> Speaker

the apparent change in the frequency or

> Microphone connected to an audio

wavelength of a wave when there is relative motion between the source of the wave and

spectrometer > Camera on a tripod

the observer. John Scott Russell, a Scottish engineer, was the first to experimentally

The method is as follows:

prove the Doppler effect in 1948: he found

> Let the car accelerate to varying speeds

that the sound of the whistle of an engine

before it crosses the tape measure

stationary on the trainline was heard by a

> Record the time at which the RC car

passenger to sound a different note in a

crosses the tape measure and leaves

moving train - in a different key from that in

the tape measure, ensuring acceleration

which it was heard by the person standing

is zero throughout this period (by not

beside it. Since then, this phenomenon has

pressing any harder on the accelerator)

become a crucial part of life, allowing us

> Have the microphone held along the tape

to calculate the expansion the universe, calculate the rotational speeds of stars and galaxies, detect the speed of vehicles with radar, and many more. The Doppler effect

measure portion of the runway > Calculate the speed as the time taken to cross the tape measure length > Compare the observed frequency (which

can help us calculate anything emitting

should be measured before the car passes

waves with a velocity, and to me this

the mic) with the known frequency and

attracted me to the idea of trying to prove

relate the difference to the speed of

its fundamental existence. It has become

travel.

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

• •

Calculate the speed as the time taken to cross the tape measure length; Compare the observed frequency (which should be measured before the car passes the mic) with the known frequency and relate the difference to the speed of travel.

Therefore, the independent variable in this experiment is the RC car’s speed, while the dependent variable is the observed frequency, and the control variable is the frequency output by the source- which I will keep at 10,000Hz. Setup Therefore, the independent variable in this experiment is the RC car’s speed, while the dependant variable is the observed

Therefore, I was able to calculate the speed of the RC car by dividing three (meters) by the time taken for each run. I was able to calculate all frequency differences by simply Therefore, able to calculate the(that speed of thetoRC by dividing (meters) by the subtractingI was the emitted frequency I knew becar 10,000 Hz duethree the result when it was time taken as forshown each run. I was able to calculate all frequency differences by simply stationary below) subtracting the emitted frequency (that I knew to be 10,000 Hz due the result when it was stationary as shown below)

3-meter tape knew to be 10,000 Hz due themeasure result when it was stationary as shown below)

frequency, and the control variable is the frequency output by the source – which I will keep at 10,000Hz. • •

RC Car with speaker (blurry black box on its boot)

SETUP

Example Set-up

Setup

3-meter tape measure

As such, using the power of mental arithmetic,

Stationary Peak Frequency result Stationary Peak Frequency result

As such, using the power of mental arithmetic, I was able to achieve these final results: I was able to achieve these results: As such, using the power of mental arithmetic, I wasfinal able to achieve these final results:

Digital stopwatch

RC Car with speaker (blurry black box on its boot)

Digital stopwatch

Example Set-up Example Set-up

Results Results

Graph of relationship Audio Spectrum Analyser Software Graph of relationship GRAPH OF RELATIONSHIP Results Using this data (as well as the data of a ‘control’ run where the RC car is not moving, so frequency Using this data (as well asthe thepeak datafrequency of a ‘control’ run where thepictured RC car isabove) not moving, frequency difference is 0 because is 10,000 Hz, as I was so able to plot a Using such a setup, I was able to achieve these results: RESULTS Using this (as well asdifference: data difference is 0between becausedata thespeed peak frequency is 10,000 Hz,the as pictured above)of I wasaable to plot a relationship the and the frequency Results relationship between the speed and the frequency difference: Using such a setup, I was able to achieve ‘control’ run where the RC car is not moving, Using a setup, I was able to achieve these results: these such results: so frequency difference is 0 because the peak frequency is 10,000 Hz, I was able to plot a relationship between the speed and the frequency difference. Here it is evident that the difference in frequency is proportional to the speed of the source, and as the source’s speed increased, the observed frequency would too. Error bars indicate an error of 0.1 in the x-direction due to human (my) reaction speed, however errors in the observed frequency are Therefore, I was able to calculate the speed insignificant, since the inaccuracy of the of the RC car by dividing three (meters) by microphone-Spectrometer combination was the time taken for each run. I was able to 50*1/17 Hz (which is just under 3Hz). This calculate all frequency differences by simply is also why the Spectrometer UI as pictured subtracting the emitted frequency (that I above contains 17 bars per 50 Hz! Audio Spectrum Analyser Software

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

IMPROVEMENTS THAT I WOULD MAKE > I was interested in trying to re-do this

narrow window in which I could measure the observed frequency.

experiment, but swapping the observer

> However, things I expected to be issues

and the source, such that the speaker was

(such as maintaining a constant speed

a fixed point and instead the microphone

once I had accelerated to the desired

travelled on the RC car, but having

speed) were none-issues. The accelerator

attempted this for a while I did not get a

trigger was stiff and more than happy to

single reliable data point! The RC car was

stay stuck in one spot.

far too noisy and drowned out any other noise for the microphone to pick up.

CONCLUSION

> In general, the RC car was very difficult

Despite the challenges, I was effectively

to manage, and despite me not touching

able to prove a relationship between the

the steerer would refuse to travel in

speed and change in frequency of a source,

a straight line. This was an infuriating

thereby proving the Doppler effect. The

problem that cost hours of researching to

gradient I achieved for the relationship

find no correct fix! It appeared that the RC

was approximately 11.1. However, using

car was faulty out of the factory and had

the Doppler equation for a moving source ,

misaligned wheels- after each run, I had

with the points (0,0) and (5,153.37)- where

to bend their orientation into a vaguely

f is 10,000Hz, v is the speed of sound in

straight fashion. The sloped road which

air (331ms-1) and us is the speed of the

was of poor quality certainly didn’t help

car in ms-1, I achieve a gradient of about

me here, but it was all that I could find

30.5 (with the equation y = 10000 * [331/

tucked away from traffic.

(331+x)] – 10000 , with values of us

> Doing this outdoors was incredibly

between 0 and 5. The difference may have

difficult! I attempted this practical

come from a different value for the speed

outside, right next to a train track, which

of sound through the air, since the weather

meant that many runs were invalidated by

conditions and harsh wind may have altered

the noisy trains, but also rain and wind led

the flow and speed of sound through the air

to desperate measures when I had to tape

between the speaker and the microphone. If

down the tape measure!

I had the opportunity to try this experiment

> Finally, it was important to ensure that

again, I would replace the vehicle from an

the source was moving towards the

RC car to something much quieter, easier

microphone, and not away when I took

to control, and indoor-friendly: possibly an

the reading - since then the doppler effect

electric train set? Regardless, I had great fun

would work in the opposite direction to

doing this experiment, was really happy to

decrease the frequency of the observed

get a clean linear relationship, and thank you

wave. This proved tasking because of the

for this wonderful opportunity.

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

What can historians learn from the study of past empires and imperialism?

Freddie Fulham | L6DAB

Highly Commend (Top 5%) in the NUL Essay Competition (History) “The best predictor of future behaviour is

With recent current events, Russia is a

past behaviour” is a saying that has been

perfect example to demonstrate this idea.

attributed to many people and is apt for

Much of what was part of the Russian

describing the human condition and how

Empire, the Soviet Union and even Russia

we, as a species, operate. Over the course

today was conquered from the 1700s to the

of history humans went from being hunter-

early 1900s. The Russian Empire spanned

gatherers, to living in farms and small

from Warsaw to Juneau and, as is the case

villages, eventually reaching to what we

with most empires, contained countless

know as nation states today. This evolution

citizens who were not of Russian decent

in how humans run society is deeply

and who were unhappy being governed by

connected to how humans operate and so

a country which was not representative of

it should be no surprise that, like humans,

their people. The Russian Empire chugged

the best predicator for the behaviour of

along as the rest of Europe industrialised,

nations states is said states’ behaviour in

and this saw Russia implode into chaos and

the past. The main lesson that historians can

civil war after its capitulation to Germany

learn from the study of past empires and

in the First World War. During this chaos,

imperialism is that the legacy and actions of

many of the states once governed by

past empires remain to this day and effect

Russia broke free. Poland, Lithuania, Latvia,

the foreign and domestic policy of the

Estonia, and Finland all enjoyed newly

countries that used to dominate the world.

independence whilst Russia burnt. In this chaos, Ukraine temporarily split too with

History does not repeat itself, but events

the help of German and Austro-Hungarian

often echo down; an example being WW2,

troops, but this was short lived as the

just decades after The Great War had

country was retaken by the Soviets in the

started. This is the case with imperialism.

Ukrainian-Soviet War. Some time passed and

There have been numerous empires in

with the reintegration of the Caucus States,

the past, from the Spanish Empire to the

the Soviet Union under the leadership of

British, the French to the Russian and the

Joseph Stalin saw it poised on the brink of

Portuguese to the Dutch. Whilst much of

war with Germany. The Soviet Union was

the physical territory of these past empires

meant to be a place of equality and was

have been lost to various independence

meant to represent the opinions of the

movements, the echoes of imperialism still

people, it was meant to be a Bolshevik state

rattle through the world and to prove this

(an oxymoron, I know) that opposed western

it is best to look at the actions of these

imperialism, but this did not stop them

states today and their relationship to the

annexing the Baltic states, invading Finland,

imperialism of yesterday.

and securing half of Poland in a deal with the Germans. The question is why would

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

they do this? The answer to that question is

how they have acted in the past, another

that the imperialistic mindset and legacy of

lesson which historians can learn from the

the Russian Empire remained. Like people,

study of past empires and imperialism is that

countries often look to the past and want

it will eventually all come crashing down. It

to return to a period where they were at

has been said before that the average age

the peak of their power and at their most

of an empire is a mere 250 years. This has

well-off. Despite the Soviet Union meaning

been demonstrated time and time again

to stand against imperialism, they instead

with the collapse of the Spanish Empire

partook in it. After the collapse of the

in the Americas from their wars with the

Soviet Union, this has been demonstrated

Libertadores (the liberators of Spanish and

again with Russia supporting various

Portuguese territories in the Americas), the

insurrections in their former territories such

collapse of the British Empire in the 1950s

as in Georgia and in Ukraine. Like the Soviet

and similarly the French Empire at the same

Union, modern Russia can just not let go

time. The very idea of an empire is built on

of their past which has led to the current

one group having control over many others.

war in Ukraine, with Russia attempting to

Whilst this can bring great fortune in the

regain control and influence over not just

short term, in the long term this is highly

Ukraine. This is a perfect example of how

unsustainable because, at some point, at

historians should learn that the legacy of

least one of the many oppressed ‘lesser’

past empires and imperialism lives on due

groups of the empires will get tired of being

to its nature of uplifting the ones driving

the ‘lesser’ group and will rise up. Often at

it. More examples of this are the French

the beginning of an empire’s rule these can

neo-colonial stranglehold of Africa with

be put down as they are generally smaller

their economic control over their former

and less coordinated such as the various

territories (Françafrique) solidifying this

revolts put down by the British in India but

or the intervention by France, the UK and

as seen by the 1950s, at some point there

the USA into the affairs of various Middle

is a simultaneous effort to remove the

Eastern and North African countries to

oppressive class. This is best summed up by

enhance their control and influence in those

Stephen Vizinczey; “All a great power has to

areas and to benefit from the masses of

do to destroy itself is persist in trying to do

natural resources and oil in the areas, with

the impossible.”

the NATO intervention in Libya being a prime illustration of this.

Empires do not always have to be one nation controlling the physical territory of another,

Now that it has been established that the

however. It can be argued that the USA is

best predicator for what nations who had

itself an empire, with its economic control

empires act on the international stage is

over the global economy and its massive

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

military and influence which it exerts on

Spanish identity and, in a way, his own

smaller nations. But, with the recent rise of

domestic empire. Today we are seeing the

China, this has been greatly challenged and

result of this, with Catalonia repeatedly

the power of the US machine has somewhat

vying for independence, with the only

taken a backseat with China picking up

logical conclusion that this comes to is that

the pieces left by them. Perhaps not so

Catalonia will gain independence, whether it

coincidentally, this year will mark 247 years

be in 10 years or 100 years, and this can be

since the founding of the United States of

assumed by what happened with Ireland and

America; a nation built on the genocide and

their treatment by the UK, which eventually

oppression of native Americans (continuing

led to their own independence. The breakup

to this day) , slavery, the invasion of Mexico

of imperialist states is inevitable and will

(1846-1848) and their economic might

happen sooner or later, only depending on

which pushed them to being the global

how determined they are to keep hold of

superpower (or global empire) which it is

their power.

today. I would also argue that this is what we are seeing in Spain now. Before the

Maybe it isn’t just death and taxes that are

unification of Castille and Aragon, there was

guaranteed in life, but also the repetition of

no such thing as a single Spanish state. But

past imperialism and the actions of modern

since then, with the power based in Madrid,

empires through the use of neo-colonialism

the Castilian dominated government has

and the eventual collapse of those empires.

systematically attempted the homogenise

All throughout history and still to this day,

the country as the leaders of France had

numerous examples of these two lessons

done by almost wiping out all the regional

have occurred and have been repeated, so

dialects in their state. In recent history,

there is no reason for historians to suspect

this is best seen with the fascist dictator,

they won’t repeat again in 5, 10, 100 or

Francisco Franco banning regional languages

1000 years; that is if we don’t destroy

such as Basque and Catalan being spoken

ourselves with nuclear weapons by then.

as it threatened his vision of a united

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E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

The “New and Old” of 1869, Grant and History itself

Go Kitajima | L6SBB

Submission for the Fitzwilliam College History Essay Competition (University of Cambridge) 1869 was an instrumental year in the US,

proclamation that all men were created

including the creation of the National

equal, Johnson had failed to secure civil

Women’s Suffragette Association. The

rights for African Americans. Black Suffrage

inauguration of President Ulysses S Grant

was not achieved and being a Southern

marked a new era for the United States. With

Democrat himself, amnesty was offered

the end of the Civil War, America was in an

to former confederates. Perhaps most

era of Reconstruction and reconciliation.

shameful, however, was the fact that the

Grant inherited a Presidency weakened by

failure to secure civil rights for African

Andrew Johnson, and his Presidency has

Americans under Johnson was due to his

often been criticised for its corruption.

racist views. Johnson constantly undermined

However, the “New and Old” is not just

the Freedmen’s Bureau and Vetoed the Civil

seen in the events that occurred during his

Rights Bill. Somewhat ironically, it was only

Presidency; we are currently witnessing a

due to Congress overriding his veto and

change. Historians have changed the way in

Johnson weakening the Presidency that the

which we regard his Presidency, as the Lost

Civil Rights Act of 1866 was passed.

Cause Myth started to become dismissed as pseudo-history. Once regarded as one of the

This was what Grant had inherited: a battle

worst Presidents of all time, the way in which

between Congress and the Presidency

we view Grant’s time in office is a testament

over civil rights, a weakened Executive,

to a greater point on how we view history

and political instability. In contrast to

as a whole. In the essay, not only will I look

Johnson’s Reconstruction efforts, Grant’s

to explore the changes that happened under

can be largely defined by a commitment to

Grant, but also the value of a more critical,

Civil Rights and a stronger stance against

post-modernist, post-structuralist method

racist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. The

of observing and interpreting history in the

passage of the Fifteenth amendment and

pursuit of truth.

the Naturalisation Act of 1870 are legacies of Grant which one can point to in regards

Reconstruction was perhaps the most

to his Civil Rights effort. Despite all of

salient issue Grant had faced. After the

this, until recently, the orthodox view of

tragedy that was the Civil War, the job was

Reconstruction under Grant was a critical

first tasked to Andrew Jonson, the former

one. The Lost Cause myth perpetuated by

Vice President to Abraham Lincoln and a

Southern romanticism and the so called

Democrat. Although having taken a hard-

“Southern Pride” has shaped the way in

line stance against the former confederates

which historians saw Reconstruction. As

during his Vice-Presidency, Reconstruction

Mick LaSalle wrote in the San Francisco

under Johnson can be largely defined as

Chronicle, “they say that history is written

mild and lenient. Despite Lincoln’s famous

by the victors, but the Civil War has been

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the rare exception. […] for most of the

corruption. Scandals such as the Black

past 150 years, the South's version of the

Friday Gold Panic and the Salary Grab

war and Reconstruction has held sway in

are just few of the major scandals which

our schools, our literature and, since the

happened under his administration.

dawn of feature films, our movies.” The Lost

According to multiple biographies, Grant

Cause Myth, a myth present to this day,

was extremely loyal to his friends to the

holds that the cause of the civil war was not

point of being gullible. Despite this, Grant

of slavery, but states’ rights. To that, one

also made some significant administrative

cannot help but wonder, the states’ right to

reforms, such as the creation of the Civil

what? Many argue that the war was one of

Service Commission. These administrative

Northern Aggression, yet the incident at

reforms were what allowed Grant to

Fort Sumter which provoked the war was

prosecute the Ku Klux Klan so effectively,

started by the Confederates. The study of

and the importance of these reforms cannot

the Civil War and Reconstruction has been

be understated. However, these reforms

dominated, in some parts, by the Southern

have been far overshadowed by the alleged

Lost Cause Myth and the romanticisation

nepotism and investigations of cabinet,

of southern rebellion and secession. Until

which for so long had been regarded by

W. E. B. Dubois published his book Black

historians as the defining aspects of Grant’s

Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880, even

time in the White House.

scholars such as Beardians and the Dunning

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School downplayed the role of slavery.

In this sense, Grant embodies both the

Because of this, until very recently, views

“New” and “Old” of politics. Having

that Grant’s Reconstruction took away rights

pushed critical Civil Rights legislation and

from Whites and was a tyranny over the

prosecuted groups such as the Ku Klux

South were not uncommon. The Lost Cause

Klan, it can be said that he was a pioneer

Myth has propagated the romanticisation

for African American civil rights. It was

of Confederate figures such as Robert E.

because of him that the KKK became

Lee and the portrayal of the South as a

virtually non- existent until the mid-1910s

rebellion against a tyrannical Union. The

under Woodrow Wilson. Thus, it can be said

Lost Cause Myth is a great remnant of “Old”

that 1869 saw the “New” politics of human

history. The intentional, and unintentional,

rights, identity and civil rights emerge in the

misinterpretation and subversion of

White House. However, it can be said that

historical truth has turned opinion into

the “Old” politics of cronyism and corruption

evidence, mythology into fact.

was also prevalent in Grant’s administration.

Grant’s administration has been seen

Cabinet appointments were accused of

very critically by some due to its rampant

nepotism, with forty family members being

E S S AY C O M P E T I T I O N S

DESPITE BEING THE LOSERS OF THE WAR, THE SOUTH HAS SHAPED AND CONTROLLED HOW THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION IS SEEN. appointed for federal jobs. 1869 was a year

The Birth of a Nation. He further argues

of progress on multiple social fronts, and

that the film is the biggest influence on

Grant embodies this, while also representing

how we view Reconstruction today. Despite

the “Old” aspect of politics which society to

being the losers of the war, the South has

this day does not seem to have been able to

shaped and controlled how the Civil War

completely shed.

and Reconstruction is seen. Perhaps this was because Reconstruction was not tough

However, the “New and Old” is not only

enough on confederates. Perhaps Grant

about his Presidency, as discussed, but

and Johnson did not do enough to combat

also how Grant and Reconstruction has

the racism and anti-union sentiments. Or,

been viewed. The distortion of history by

perhaps, we have fundamentally gotten

Southern Mythology and pride has had

the way in which we view and tell history

grave consequences for American politics.

wrong. This is, in my opinion, the greatest

The re-emergence of the Ku Klux Klan and

“New and Old” that can be seen when

the creation of Jim Crow laws, for example,

observing Grant and Reconstruction. In

is arguably due to the romanticisation of

recent years, as the way we view this period

the South. The First Klan, crushed by Grant,

has changed, our fundamental perception of

became mythologised, most infamously by

it has also changed. The “Old” way of history

the film The Birth of a Nation which was

took the Lost Cause Myth as a truth, and

infamously played in the White House by

for so long has defined the way in which

Woodrow Wilson. It was these cultural

Reconstruction was understood. The “New”

remnants of the South which ultimately led

history has completely altered this. The

to the indefensible racial laws in the early

recent rise of identity politics has with it

20th century. In fact, historian John Hope

seen a re-emergence in Critical Theory and

Franklin argues that the Ku Klux Klan may

Post-Modernism, and I believe this to be

not have re-emerged had it not been for

the reason for the emergence of this “New”

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history. The Lost Cause was a fact until it was

Some may criticise this approach to history

scrutinised and questioned. This, in my view,

and argue that questioning every aspect of

must become the new way of history. No fact

established facts will obscure truth. I argue

can be taken for granted; the “New” history is

it will have the opposite effect. This post-

Post-Structuralist and Post-Modernist.

structuralist way will narrow the definition of fact, and thus brings us closer to the

The Birth of a Nation can be considered

“real” truth. The Lost Cause Myth has shown

the ultimate amalgamation of the negative

us that anything can be presented as fact.

effects “Old” history has had on society. The

That is precisely the failings of “Old” history.

romanticisation of the first Ku Klux Klan and

There is not enough scrutiny; its base relies

the confederacy in the film is almost entirely

on commonly accepted truths, and yet

fiction; yet it has been widely used in white

those truths have not been questioned.

supremacist circles as propaganda and the

By scrutinising them, we are able to refine

“true” story of the Civil War. Infamously,

history and refine truth, to create a stronger

David Duke recruited Klansmen using the

history.

film during the 1970s. In my view, the reason why the Lost Cause Myth and The

One of the most salient questions amongst

Birth of a Nation became so influential is

historians is that of “Why do we observe

due to the way history was conducted. The

History?” and Grant and the Lost Cause

thesis was presented, and the evidence was

Myth provides a great example of why.

provided afterwards. The Lost Cause Myth

When a myth goes unchallenged, it becomes

was “evidence” created to justify the “thesis”

a fact. The Birth of a Nation was not just

that the South was the victim the war. This

propaganda; it was history. The way in

is exactly what “Old” history is. History to

which we view and tell history can change

prove a point, not proving a point through

the course of mankind. In order to prevent

history. This is precisely why “New” history

the propagandisation of history, every

must first scrutinise the source; question the

aspect of history must first be destroyed,

documentation of events. Did it happen in

deconstructed and scrutinised. Only if it

the way it had been portrayed? Did it even

can be rebuilt, is history a fact. The study of

happen? Only if it can be destroyed then

Reconstruction reflects the conflict of the

reconstructed, can something be true. Thus,

“New” and “Old” forces of historiography.

we must tear apart known events in history;

Southern pride is still very prevalent in

scrutinise them. If it is true, then it will be

the south, as can be seen by the ongoing

rebuilt. If it cannot be reconstructed, then

disputes over Confederate statues and the

fundamentally, the source was either not

legendary status that General Robert E.

true or built upon false assumptions.

Lee has gained. The “Old” history of the Civil War has been used countless times to

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justify bigotry or succession. It has allowed

without history, there is no truth, without

the myths to exist and has tricked people

“New” history, there is no “real” truth, and

into believing that the Civil War was not

without “real” truth, society will never

about slavery or that Slavery was somehow

understand itself to pursue a better future

moral. In recent years, society has seen a

for humanity.

rise in identity politics and racial tension. This makes it more important that historians

References

view history critically. To adopt the “New”

Foster, Gaines (1988). Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913

history, questioning, deconstructing, scrutinising facts and structures of history which have for millennia been taken for granted. History is the pursuit of truth, and truth is complex. As Nietzsche put it, Truth is a woman: it is something that must be

Franklin, John Hope (1979). The Birth of a Nation: Propaganda as History Smith, Jean Edward (2001). Grant Hunt, Linda Lawrence (2017). "'American Ulysses' writer Ronald C. White explains why Grant is so often misunderstood" https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/chapter-andverse/2017/0727/American- Ulysses-writer-Ronald-C.-Whiteexplains-why-Grant-is-so-often-misunderstood

seduced. As he claims, if philosophers have

LaSalle, Mick (2015). Romanticizing Confederate cause has no place onscreen https://www.sfchronicle.com/movies/article/ Romanticizing-Confederate-cause-has-no-place- 6403446.php

fundamentally misunderstood truth as a man

Miller Center, Andrew Johnson: Domestic Affairs

misunderstands a woman, it is more than

https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/domestic-affairs

possible that the dogmatic “Old” historian has fundamentally misunderstood history.

Duggan, Paul (2018). Sins of the Fathers, https://www. washingtonpost.com/news/magazine/wp/2018/11/28/ feature/the-confederacy-was- built-on-slavery-how-can-somany-southern-whites-still-believe-otherwise/ Trefousse, Hans L. (1989). Andrew Johnson: A Biography

As explored, 1869 was a year when “New” and “Old” collided. With inauguration of

Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886). Beyond Good and Evil Stokes, Melvyn (2007). D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation: A History of "The Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time"

a President committed to Civil Rights, it was truly the dawn of a new politics emphasising liberty and equality. It also sheds a light on the “New and Old” of history itself. The misrepresentation of Grant and Reconstruction is a testament to the necessity of a “New”, post-structuralist history, which fundamentally challenges all aspects of history. Only once it has been challenged, can we present history as a fact rather than merely an interpretation or have it branded propaganda. 1869 and its effects provide us an answer to the everlasting question of “Why history?”. Fundamentally, history is the pursuit of truth. Conversely,

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Whitgift School Haling Park South Croydon London CR2 6YT United Kingdom www.whitgift.co.uk

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