WCAPS PAPER TRAIL:
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Author’s Biography
Sarah June Benjamin, Esq. is an international human rights attorney, peace innovator, and founder of Peace IQ Born into the Liberian Civil War as the daughter of an Indigenous West African chief and a descendant of Bahá'í martyrs from Iran, she was displaced to a refugee center in Sierra Leone before resettling in the United States, where she grew up in Virginia Beach and Washington D.C. and has spent her career advocating globally for African American, indigenous, and immigrant women and children
She holds a J.D. and M.A. in Peace and Conflict Resolution from American University Washington College of Law, where she received the Dean's Award for Professional Responsibility, and a B.A. in English and African and African American Studies from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has represented survivors of gender based violence, genocide, and forced displacement She has served as Entrepreneur-in-Residence at the Peace Innovation Institute at Stanford and The Hague, and as a Visiting Scholar at the University of Maryland Bahá'í Chair fo
Through Peace IQ, she coined the ter "peace intelligence," a framework tha integrates technology, ancestral wisd traditions, and peace data to help organizations build sustainable cultu of cooperation Her work centers wom and communities of color as the architects, not merely the subjects, o peace
Breakingthe“BroCodes”ofWar: WomenofColorAdvancingPeaceandCollectiveSecurity
The2011NobelPeacePrizewasawardedinequalpartstoLeymahGbowee,Ellen JohnsonSirleaf,andTawakkolKarman“fortheirnon-violentstruggleforthesafetyofwomenand forwomen’srightstofullparticipationinpeace-buildingwork”.Initsselection,theNobel CommitteecitedUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilResolution1325,adoptedin2000,whichstates thatwomenandchildrensuffergraveharmfromwarandpoliticalinstability,andthatwomenmust havegreaterinfluenceandalargerroleinpeacemaking.Women,understoodintheirfulldiversity andinclusiveofallthosewhoaresociallyandpoliticallygenderedaswomen,havebeenpositioned asboththeprimarycasualtiesofwarandtheexpectedrepairersofitsaftermath,mustnowbe recognizedasastrategicforceinshapingthearchitectureofitsprevention.Theawardrepresented ashiftfromthenarrativethatwomenhavelittlerelevanceinthestrategicdefenseoftheir communities,yetitstoppedshortofrecognizingthattheapproachestheyadvancedshouldreshape theglobalsecurityframeworkitself.Infact,eachrecipientwasabletoengageinpeacemakingin theirrespectivecountriesandbringthepartiestoresolutionwheremencouldnotevenbringthem tothetable.
Sincetheaward,theinternationalcommunityhasbecomemoreenthusiasticaboutthe roleofwomeninpeacekeepingactivities.However,theinternationalcommunityhasyettodeepen itsunderstandingofthecommoncriticismswomenhaveofthecurrentmodelforpeaceand security,andthatthecommunityremainsunawareofthefactthatthewomensucceedingin peacebuildingeffortsaremoreoftenwomenofcolor.Theinternationalcommunitycontinuesto overlooktheindigenousanddiasporicpeacebuildingtoolswomenuse,whilealsoelevating institutionalframeworksthathaverepeatedlyfailedtodeliversustainablepeace.Womenofcolor continuetoexpressfrustrationnavigatinganinternationalsystemofpeacemakingfromapremise ofmilitarismandnationalinterest.Yet,theinternationalcommunityhasresistedafeminineand indigenousanalysisofitssecurityframework.Instead,theachievementsof
1 "The Nobel Peace Prize 2011 " The Nobel Prize, Nobel Prize Outreach, 7 Oct 2011, www nobelprize org/prizes/peace/2011/summary/
2 Womanhood as used here is at once deeply personal and structurally imposed, a political and social location shaped by race and power, inclusive of queer women and those who hold additional gender identities.
3 Heathcote, Gina, and Diane Otto “Rethinking Peacekeeping, Gender Equality and Collective Security ” SOAS Research Online, Palgrave Macmillan, 1 Sept 2014, soas-repository worktribe com/output/392844, p 9
womenofcolorinthefieldofpeaceandconflict(ashashappenedinmanyotherfields)markthe swingfromclassifyingthemasmerevictimstocomplex“superwomen”expectedtousetheir femininepowerstostopwars,withouttheopportunitytochangethesystemsthatenablewarsin thefirstplace.Ratherthantheirachievements,itisinthestruggleofthesenoblewomentowrest adefinitionofhumansecurityfromafunctionofmasculinemilitarismthatwelearnthevalueof peaceandcollectivesecurityinswiftlyendingviolence.
Collectivesecurityistheintegrationofsharedinterestsinprotectinghumanrights,life, food,water,andotherresourcesinaglobalsecurityframeworkthatisdefendedbyall beneficiaries.Itcontraststhetraditionalsecurityinterestsofstatesthatseekdominanceorheavily armeddefenseasameanstoprotectonlytheirownconstituentsandresources.Collectivesecurity isthecurrentframeworkadoptedbytheinternationalcommunitytobreakthecyclesofviolence witnessedintheconsecutiveworldwars.Initscharter,thepurposeoftheUnitedNationsisdefined as“Tomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurity,andtothatend:totakeeffectivecollective measuresforthepreventionandremovalofthreatstothepeace,andforthesuppressionofactsof aggressionorotherbreachesofthepeace”.Thissystem,however,envisionedbyitsfounders, remainsincompleteandisdominatedbythenationalinterestsofindividualstates.Ratherthana singletreatyofuniversalpeaceandnonviolencethatallstatesabidebyandusecollectivemeasures toprotect,decisionsregardingtheuseofviolencearemadeonacase-by-casebasisbypacksof statesthathold“brocode”withoneanother.Stateswithinbrotherhoodsadvanceconflictor preventinterventionbasedonthemilitaristicinterestsoftheirstakeholders.Forexample,in2003 theUnitedStateswasabletounderminethepositionoftheUNSecurityCouncil(theUNbody taskedwiththedeterminationofthreatsandbreachesofpeace)toadvanceitsownnationalinterest byinvadingIraq.NotonlywastheCouncilunabletostoptheseaggressions,butithasnotbeen abletostopitsownmemberstatesfromusingtheirpowerstopreventswiftdecisionsonveryclear humanitariancrises.Manyhavecriticized,for
4 “United Nations Charter (Full Text).” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/sections/uncharter/un-charter-full-text/ Accessed 16 Jan 2026
5 Tyler, Patrick E “Annan Says Iraq War Was ‘Illegal’ ” The New York Times, 16 Sept 2004, www nytimes com/2004/09/16/international/annan-says-iraq-war-was-illegal html
example,Russia’sabilitytovetoeighteenoftheCouncil’sresolutionsonSyriaandextend politicalsupporttoSyria’spresidentevenamidstaccusationsofwarcrimes.
Inadditiontothesefrustrationsinenforcement,thelawsusedtodeterminewhatisor isn’tawarareinterpretedbythetraditionalmale-codedruleoflaw.WhiletheGeneva Conventionshaveprovidedsomeuniformityinthedefinitionsofviolencebetweenstates,their applicabilityislargelyinterpretedbythecustomarypracticeofstates.Thesestateshavelongbeen ruledbykingsandothermale-dominatedhierarchieswhosepracticescompromisehumanitarian interestformilitaristicdominance.Theselawsandtheirmechanismscontinuetofrustratethe purposeofdevelopingaglobalsystemofsecuritythatprioritizesholisticpeace.WhiletheGeneva ConventionsestablishbaselinedefinitionsofarmedconflictthroughCommonArticles2and3, theirapplicationislargelyshapedbycustomaryinternationallaw,whichderivesauthorityfrom statepracticeandopiniojuris.Thatpracticewasformedundersystemsruledbymale-led monarchiesandmale-dominatedmilitaryhierarchies,wherethelegitimacyofpowerrestedon conquest,territorialcontrol,andthedisciplineduseofviolence.Thesefoundationscontinueto influencehowarmedconflictislegallyrecognized,privilegingstatecenteredwarfareoverthe livedrealitiesofcommunitiesandrenderingsocialdevastationlegallyperipheral.
Oncearmedconflictisrecognized,AdditionalProtocolIgovernstheuseofviolence, ratherthanquestioningwhetheritshouldbeusedatall.Coredoctrinessuchasmilitary necessity,distinction,andproportionalitypermitcivilianharmsolongasitisnotexcessivein relationtoaconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantage,ascodifiedinArticle51.Customary internationalhumanitarianlawreinforcestheseprinciplesbytreatingrepeatedstatebehavioras law,evenwhenthatbehaviorreflectsmilitarizedjudgmentratherthanhumanitarianrestraint,as reflectedintheICRCCustomaryIHLStudy.AccountabilitymechanismsundertheRome Statutefurtherentrenchthisstructurebyrequiringhighthresholdsofintentandknowledgefor warcrimesinvolvingcivilianharmunderArticle8,whilecommandresponsibilityunderArticle
6 “Russia’s 12 UN Vetoes on Syria ” RTE Ie, RTÉ, 11 Apr 2018, www rte ie/news/world/2018/0411/953637-russia-syria-un-veto/; (See UK Representative to the United Nations General Assembly, Statement at the General Assembly Debate Following Russia's Veto of a UN Security Council Resolution on Syria, July 2022, UN Meetings Coverage, GA/12436, available at https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12436.doc.htm.)
7 “Customary International Humanitarian Law ” International Committee of the Red Cross, 29 Oct 2010, www icrc org/en/document/customary-international-humanitarian-law-0
28isnarrowlyinterpreted,oftenshieldingseniorpoliticalandmilitaryleaders.Inpractice,the InternationalCriminalCourthaspursuedprosecutionsprimarilyinAfricaandselectednon Westernregions,whilecomparablescrutinyofallegedcrimesbyleadersfromEuropeandNorth Americahasremainedlargelyabsent,raisinglongstandingconcernsaboutracializedselectivity ininternationalcriminaljustice.Thispatterndoesnotsimplyreflectlegalconstraint;it reproducesaracializedandhierarchicalsystemofaccountabilitythatmirrorsolderimperial orders.Together,theselegalframeworksoperateasmodernbrocodesofwar,protectingelite authorityandfrustratingtheinternationalsystem’sstatedcommitmenttoaglobalsecurityorder groundedinholisticpeaceratherthanmanageddestruction.
Inbreakingthe“brocodes”ofwar,thecustomarynormsthatmakeuptherulesofwarwhatitis,whenitisjustified,andwhocanstopit-womeninwarhavegivenexamplesofhowa unitedagreementtodisarmandprioritizecommunitycanquicklyendviolence.Theexamplesset bythesewomendemonstratethatthecommunitycannotleaveitinthehandsofdifferentparties tohavetheirownmoralcodeduringwar.Instead,aunitedandbalancedmoralframeworkhasto beadoptedandprotectedbyall.Theirheroismhaspavedthewayfornewregimesthatrespect andvaluethelivesofwomenandcommunitymemberspost-conflict.Still,thesenewregimes remainfragileandcompromisedbecausetheyexistinmultilateralsystemsofotherstatesthat continuetoadvancemilitarismanddominance.Eventheapproachoftheinternationalsystem hasbecomemilitaristic.Withoutafirmagreementfromitsmemberstatestodisarmanddevelop holisticpeacewithoneanother,ithasresortedtoafocusonmilitaristicpeacekeepingmissions thathavenotproventobesustainable.
Collectivesecurityisnotaneworspecificallyfeministconcept,however,“thehopeis thatintroducinggenderperspectivesintopeacekeepingprovidesanicheforfeministeffortsto reshapethebroadercollectivesecurityframeworkbydisruptingmilitaristassumptionsand stereotypesofgenderthatreinforceinequalityandservetolegitimatemilitarywaysofthinking, providingacontinuingrationaleformasculinemodesofpoliticalandeconomicgovernance”.
Pullingfromcommonresponsibilitiesinthesecurityofchildren,food,spirituality,and community,thesethreeNobelwomendevelopedsecurityframeworksthatmovebeyondthe
8 Heathcote, Gina, and Diane Otto. “Rethinking Peacekeeping, Gender Equality and Collective Security.” SOAS Research Online, Palgrave Macmillan, 1 Sept 2014, soasrepository.worktribe.com/output/392844, p. 10.
premiseofnationalself-interest.Theirstruggletomaintainsustainableandholisticpeacewithin thebroaderinternationalsystemshouldinspireitsshift.
NobelrecipientLeymahGboweeledaninterfaithmovementofwomentoforceawar lordandapresidenttonegotiatepeace.TheconsecutivecivilwarsinLiberiabeganasanethnopoliticalwar,draggingdifferentpoliticalfactionsintoanintractableethnicconflictbetween indigenousLiberiansandAmerico-Liberians,descendantsoffreedAfricanAmericanswhowere chartedtoresettleinLiberia.Consideredoneofthebloodiestwarsinmodernhistory,thefighting violentlydisruptedfamilies,conscriptedchildrenintomilitaryservice,andasitsharrowing hallmarkalsomilitarizedrapeasatacticofwarfare.Itwasawarwhichembodied hypermasculinityasnationalsecurity.
Afteralmostfourteenyearsofdestruction,civilianlifecontinuedtosufferfromstale peacenegotiationswithnoendinsight-but-thewomen,themotherswhosechildrenwereraped andkilled,hadenough.Gboweereachedacrossethnicandreligiousdivides,buildinganinterfaith movementofwomenfrombothChristianandMuslimcoalitions.Sheledmassproteststhat eventuallyreopenedpeacetalksbetweenwarringfactions.Dressedinwhitet-shirtstosignify peace,thewomenusedtheirlocalizedinsight,leveragedspiritualsuperstitions,andeventhreatened sex-strikesasbargainingleveragetoengagemenonbothsidestomeetthedemandsforpeace.It wasadangerousmove,thewomenfacedapresidentwhowasaformerwarlordwithanintelligence networkandmilitaryknownforrapingwomenandtorturingactivist.Theirsolepowerswerefrom theirfaith,thesharedvaluesfromtheirspiritualitythatcenteredacollectivemissiontostopthe violence.Gboweeexclaimsthatdespitetheirfear“wehaddiscoveredanewsourceofpowerand strength:eachother.”Sheonlyexpectedafewhundredwomentoshowuptoprotestbutthousands joinedherinshamingtheactionsofleaders.Together,theystoodachancetospeak;theywerethe wivesandsistersanddaughtersfromacrossenemylines,andtheycouldnotbetargetedbyone factionwithoutsoldiersriskinghurtingtheirown.Powerfully,theycalledonthehumanityofwar participantsbyfollowingthemeverywhereintheirprivateandpubliclives,sometimeschastising thembutmostofthetime
9 Gbowee, Leymah, with Carol Mithers Mighty Be Our Powers: How Sisterhood, Prayer, and Sex Changed a Nation at War Beast Books, 2011
10 Gbowee, Leymah, with Carol Mithers Mighty Be Our Powers: How Sisterhood, Prayer, and Sex Changed a Nation at War Beast Books, 2011
11Gbowee, Leymah “The President Will See You Now ” PBS: Women, War & Peace, 13Sept 2011, www pbs org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/features/the-president-will-see-you-now/
chantingprayersandunitedsloganstogether.Theirpersistencegainedinternationalattentionthat allowedrepresentativeslikeGboweetomakenonpartisandemandsforanimmediateceasefire andinternationalintervention.
Althoughwomenwereamaintargetofviolenceduringthewar,women-ledcivilsociety organizations,suchasGbowee’s,wereinstrumentalthroughoutthepeaceprocessandkeptthe concernsofcivilianlifecentraltopeacetalks.Womenservedasobserversandrepresented17%of thewitnessesatthesigningofthe2003AccraPeaceAgreement.Unfortunately,nowomen mediatorsornegotiatorswereinvolvedinformalpeacenegotiations.Whilepeaceagreementsthat involveagenderlensarenowfoundtobestatisticallymoresuccessful,lessthan10%ofpeace negotiationsactuallyinvolvetheparticipationofwomen.Thislackofinclusionatthenegotiating tableisproblematicformorethanonereason,includingthefactthatitignoreswomen's participationinviolence.Whetherwomenengageindirectfightingoroperateinsupportiveroles, theycanbejustasinstrumentalinconflictasmen.Itisimportanttohighlightthisaspectbecause merelyinvolvingwomeninpeacekeepingactivitiesisnotenoughtoendviolence.Without structuralreformofthesecurityframework,womencanevenbeusedtoperpetuateitsmilitarism. Thispatterncanalsobereinforcedbyhowtheinternationalcommunitydefinesandrewards peace.In2025,MaríaCorinaMachadowasawardedtheNobelPeacePrize,despitepublicly aligningwithinterventionistUSpolicyinVenezuela,whichresultedinahighprofilecomplaint overwhethertheawardlegitimizedcoercivegeopoliticalagendasratherthanpromoting peacebuilding.Thescopeofthesecriticismsreflectsabroadershiftinhowpeaceprizeshavebeen usedtobolsterglobalpoweralliancesinsteadofchallengingmilitarizedframeworks,absorbing womenleadersintoapeacearchitecturethatuseswomenassymbolstopeacewashviolence.
ThewomeninLiberiaweresuccessfulbecausetheycommittedtoavisionofcollective security so deep that they were willing to betray military intelligence even from within their own homes in order to prevent more violence. This move had to be done with the greatest trust that the next woman would do the same with her family, and they did so enthusiastically. For example duringthedisarmamentprocessinLiberia,Gboweepointedoutthat“itwasthemothersindifferent communitieswhocameandsaid,‘Come,gunsarehiddenthere,gunsareoverthere.. 12
.Withoutthesemotherswhoarethekeepersofthesecretsofthecommunities,wewouldnot haveknownthatmanyoftheyoungmen—whowereparadingbydayasdecentcitizens—were killersbynight.”Theircollectiveactioncalledforreformofpowerstructuresfromthe governmentdowntotheirownhomes.
Theirpactfornonviolenceextendedbeyondthewarand,infact,ledtotheelectionof jointNobellaureateEllenJohnsonSirleafasAfrica’sfirstelectedfemaleheadofstate.President Sirleafservedasanactivistthroughoutthecivilwars,facingbrutalityandevenjailtimeatthe handsofformerpresidents.AgraduateofHarvardUniversity,Sirleafhadanextensivecareer workingwithinternationalgovernanceorganizationsandcampaigningforreforminLiberia.Her electionwasverymuchatestofthecollectivewomen'sgroup.Again,womenfromthemarkets, NGO’s,andgovernmentofficialscampaignedrelentlesslyto“VoteforWoman.”Althoughsome viewedthiscampaignassexist,whatitreallymeanttocivilsocietywastheopportunityto safeguardtheirhardwonpeace.Thesentimentwasthatputtinganotherpatriarchyinpower wouldagainbringbacktheviolence.Therefore,itwasimperativetovoteforsomeonethey believedwouldcontinuetopromotetheirwork,andtobalancegenderrelationshipsaspartof governmentreform.
Theconceptofdevelopingpeacebyimprovingthelivesofwomenwasnotsexistatall, thesecurityofwomenisnowamainfocusofstudyinimprovingthesecurityofstates.Inher groundbreakingstudy,“SexandWorldPeace,”professorofpoliticalscienceValerieHudsonasks “Surelythesecurityofthestateimpactsthesecurityofwomen...Butmightthesecurityof womenimpactthesecurityofstates?”.Herresearchexplainsthatmale-bondedgroupshaveserved asanaturalresourcefordefense,physicallysendingable-bodiedmenasthefirstlineofdefense, whichwasasimpleandon-handresourceforsocietiestoprotectthemselves.Inthesesocieties,the valueofwomencentersontheirabilitytoproduceandtakecareofthislineofdefense.However, thepointofnation-buildingistotakethefunctionofviolenceawayfromtheindividualandto createpeacefulrelationshipswithinandbetweenothernationstoreducetheneedfordefense. Unfortunately,nation-buildinginmanycountrieshasnotimprovedtheefficiencyofdefense,some countrieshavecodifiedthishypermasculinemilitarismintotheir
13 Gbowee, Leymah. Quoted in “Liberian Activist Speaks About Women, Security, Peace in Rhode Island ” Connecticut Public, 11 Aug 2017, https://www ctpublic org/news/2017-08-11/liberian-activistspeaks-about-women-security-peace-in-rhode-island
14 Hudson, Valerie M., et al. Sex and World Peace. Columbia University Press, 2012.
approachtosecurityandendupengaginginmorebrutalwars.Statistically,nationswithseverely imbalancedgenderrelationships(suchasahighpercentageofdomesticviolence,thelackof educationandhealthcareforgirls,andthecommonpracticeofforcedmarriage)aremorelikelyto engageinviolencewithothercountriesandtobeoutofcompliancewithinternationalnorms. ProfessorHudsonprofoundlyarticulatesthisrelationshipbetweenculturalandstateviolence.She explainsthatthefirst“other”wemeetinlifeislikelyawoman,andhowwewitnesshertreatment willinformthewayinwhichwepatternourbehaviortowardsevery“other”wemeet;wecan thereforeexpectthatanationwhereitiscommonpracticetomistreatwomenisalsolikelytomake poordecisionsinthewayitregardsthepriorityofhumanlifeinitsstructure.Astoundingly, Hudson’sresearchfindsthatthetreatmentofwomeninanygivenstateisthestrongestindicatorof whetherastatewillbehavepeacefullyintheinternationalsystem,beeconomicallysecure,andbe abletoprovideforthewelfareofitsconstituents.Ratherthanfocusingondemocraticnotionsof statebuilding,sheadvocatesforthemitigationofmale-dominatedhierarchiesasthemosteffective pathwaytopeacefulnations.
WhilethewomeninLiberiadidnothavethesestatistics,theydidnotneedthemto understand what was at stake. They lived it, they knew what their life had been under a hierarchy of male dominance and through the mass militarization of rape, experienced the direct relationship between violence against women and other groups. Their use of collective action to elect President Sirleaf was not without its criticisms. Organizers such as the minister for gender, Vabah Gayflor, had an ethical responsibility to remain neutral, yet found tactical ways to support the election of Sirleaf by focusing on calling women to action. When she realized that women were not participating in voting, she made it her mission to get every woman to the polls. The campaign organizers had one solid campaign of solidarity to “Vote for Woman”. Women from the market showed up to vote with babies tied around their waist and even borrowed children around in the line so they could be moved to the front. Women again used every tactic in their power to work as acollectiveincludinggettingmentosellthemtheirvotingcardsforbeerand
15 Hudson, Valerie M., Bonnie BallifSpanvill, Mary Caprioli, and Chad F. Emmett. “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States ” Sex and World Peace, Columbia University Press, 2012, pp.95–145.
16 Hudson, ValerieM. “The First Political Order: Sex, Governance, and National Security.” Annual Lecture, Bahá’í Chair for World Peace, University of Maryland, College Park, 21Sept 2017
17 Cooper, Helene Madame President: The Extraordinary Journey of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf Simon & Schuster, 2017, pp 145–188
cuttinguptheirhusbands’andsons’voterregistrationcards.Theywerenotapologetic,onemother exclaimed“Yeah,Itookit.Andsowhat?Thatfoolishboy,whatheknew?Icarriedhimfornine months.Itookcareofhim.Ifedhimwhenhewashungry.Thenhewilltakepeoplecountryand giveitaway?”Forher,hardwonpeacewasnotupforpoliticaldebateandshewouldnotsuffer anothertenyearsofwar.Forthesewomen,theircollectiveactionwasnotaboutanelection;itwas acontinuationoftheirpacttoswiftlyendthreatstopeace.Theysawawoman,whoalso campaignedforpeace,asanopportunitytomakepeacesustainablethroughstructuralreform developedfromagenderedlens.Thecriticismthewomenfacedwasexpected.Theirworkcut acrossredtape,andtheirtacticswereforceful.Althoughitisatoolforpeace,collectivesecurityis notapracticeofpacifism;itrequirestheuseofforce(notnecessarilyviolence)toswiftlyensure thatgreaterharmisnotbroughtuponthecommunity.Despitethebacklashofcriticismoftheir measures,Ms.Gaylorclosedthedoorsofthegenderministrywithafinalresponsetoreporters “Letmegiveyouagoodbyestatement.Mrs.Sirleafwillbethenextpresidentofthiscountry.”
EllenJohnsonSirleafservedtwoelectedtermsfrom2006to2018,asAfrica’sfirst elected female head of state. During this time, Liberia did not engage in war, the country was awarded massive debt relief, and repositioned itself for compliance within the international system. When asked what her greatest achievement was, Sirleaf responded "that I had 12 consecutive years of peace after decades of conflict and did it in an environment of despair". Her efforts to reconstruct the country and improve gender relations has had a mixed review. Although she worked to reform constitutional provisions and ushered in a wave of female representatives in government, many constituents felt their lives as women in Liberia did not improve as expected in the Vote for Women dream . She herself has criticized her inability to materialize that dream. These drawbacks, however, are not entirely unexpected and should be measuredwithinacomparativetrajectoryofwomen'srightsinpost-conflictcountries.
18 Cooper, Helene Schuster, 2017, pp 145–188
19 Cooper, Helene Schuster, 2017, pp 145–188
20 “ 2018, https://www wunc org/2018 03 18/an african lly leaving power
& . Simon & ” , 18 Mar
ScholarssuchasAiliMariTripphaveworkedtostudytrendsofshiftinggenderregimes duringandafterconflict.Inhertext,WomenandPowerinPost-ConflictAfrica,shedescribes genderregimesas“genderbasedsystemsofhierarchyandpowerwithinsocialsystemsor institutions.”ShearguesthatinAfrica,countriesthathaveexperiencedconflicthaveshownan exponentialshiftfrommale-dominatedhierarchies.Duringconflict,traditionalgendernormsare disruptedbytheabsenceofmenwholeavetofightfromtraditionaldecisionmakingrolessuchas husband,chiefs,localgovernment,andbusinessowners.Additionally,asthemenareofffighting weseetheemergenceofempoweredrolesforwomensuchasspeakersandorganizersinwomen ledmovementsliketheonesheldinLiberiawheretheeverydaymarketwomenbecomemajor policyshiftersandadvocates.Trippresearchestheeffectofthesedisruptionsonregimespost conflictin15countriesacrossAfrica.Shefindsacorrelationbetweenthenewroleswomen experiencedduringconflictandanincreaseinthecandidacyforfemaleleadersingovernment, overallpoliticalrepresentationforwomen,andmoreexamplesofautonomybywomenintheir everydaylives.Shealsofindsthatpostconflictcountrieshaveadditionalconsiderationsforthe protectionofwomenandfamilylifeintheirnewconstitutions.Forexample,86%ofpostconflict countrieshavedomesticviolencelegislationasopposedtoonly40%ofcountrieswithoutmajor conflict.Importantly,herresearchfindsthatthesetypesofimprovementsarethecausalmechanism preventingadditionalconflictfromemerging.
AftertheceasefiresinLiberia,Johnson’sriseduringthewarrevealedafundamentaltruth about how power works when violence ends. Women organized, built networks, and forced political actors to negotiate because states and traditional institutions could not protect civilians. They created peace from the ground up, using strategies born from survival, community accountability, and collective resistance But when formal conflict ended, the very system that had allowed them to influence outcomes did not shift to support their authority or sustain their gains. Power slid back into entrenched hierarchies that had fueled violence in the first place. As Tripp observes, once the immediate crisis passes, systems snap back, and the people who disrupted the old order are pushed aside again. The peace sector can spotlight women’s achievements all it wants, but unless the structures that produce power change, the same patterns of exclusion and violencepersist.
21 22 Tripp, Aili Mari Women and Power in Postconflict Africa Cambridge University Press, 2015 Tripp, Aili Mari “Legislating GenderBased Violence in PostConflict Africa ” , vol 5, no 3, 2010, pp 7–20 & Development JournalofPeacebuilding
Tobesure,thedynamicsbetweengenderandconflictarecomplex.Asanexample, womeninAmericafoundmanyopportunitiesforemploymentwhilemenwereawayduringthe worldwarsandstudieshaveshownacorrelationbetweenthesenewfoundrolesandwomen's suffrage.Butincontrast,Americahasyettoelectafemaleheadofstate.Tothispoint,some scholarsalsoobserveapostconflictbacklashtowomen'srights.Forexample,althoughwomenin MozambiqueandAlgeriafoughtalongsidemenintheirrespectivewarsforindependence,they werecastoutofpubliclifesoonaftertheformationofanewgovernment.DonnaPankhurstpoints out“Ratherthanreceivingsupportattheendofwars,womenusuallysufferabacklashagainstany newfoundfreedoms,andtheyareforced‘back’intokitchensandfields.Wheregovernments and/orwarringpartiesestablishnewconstitutionsorpeaceprocesses,theyoftenneglecttheneeds ofwomenoroutwardlylimitorrestricttherightsofwomen”.Ifwomenledmovementsdoleadto shiftsingenderregimes,andtheseregimeshiftshavebeenthemostresourcefulmechanismin creatingsustainablepeace,shouldn'ttheirfragilitybeunanimouslyprotectedbyallstatesinan internationalsystemofsecurity?
EvenaswomenlikeJohnsonrisetopositionsofinfluenceduringandimmediatelyafter conflict,thesystemsaroundthemaredesignedtopullpowerbackdown,reproducingthesame cyclesofexclusionandfailure.Thispatternisnotlimitedtonationalleadership.Itextends throughoutthepeacesector,whereorganizationsateverylevelclaimneutralitywhileupholding entrenchedhierarchies.Feminine,Indigenous,Black,andBrownpracticesofsurvival,conflict transformation,andpeacebuildingareroutinelyignored.Womenofcolorareconsistently blockedfromleadershiproles,andpeaceinstitutionsoftenlackthereal-worldconflict experienceneededtounderstandthecommunitiestheyserve.Theseorganizationsdemandthat othersapplyrigorousethicalstandardsandconflictresolutionskills,buttheyrarelyapplythe samepracticestothemselves,perpetuatingharmanderasingthestrategiesthatactuallyendwars andstabilizesocieties.
BonnieJenkins,theU.S.UnderSecretaryofStateforArmsControlandInternational SecuritySecurityundertheBidenadministrationandfounderofWomenofColorAdvancing
23 Tripp, Aili Mari. & Development, vol 5, no 3, 2010, pp 7–20 Quoting Donna Pankhurst (2003) on postwar backlash against women’s freedoms.
“LegislatingGenderBasedViolenceinPostConflictAfrica.”JournalofPeacebuilding
24 Tripp, Aili Mari. & Development, vol 5, no 3, 2010, pp 7–20 Quoting Donna Pankhurst (2003) on postwar backlash against women’s freedoms. “LegislatingGenderBasedViolenceinPostConflictAfrica.”JournalofPeacebuilding
Peace, Security, and Conflict Transformation (WCAPS), recognized this systemic exclusion. She understood that without intentional workforce transformation, the peace sector would continue to reproduce cycles of failure and marginalize the very voices whose strategies have historically resolved conflicts. WCAPS works to create pipelines that place women of color into meaningful peacebuilding roles, demonstrating that real change requires building opportunities for those who havebeensystematicallyexcluded.
Diversity,equity,andinclusion(DEI)effortsasitsownfieldemergedasaformof peacebuilding,respondingtoaneruptionofmassprotestsandcallstodivestfrominstitutions andbusinessesthatdonothingtoprotectoradvancethecommunitiestheyaresituatedin.Brands werecanceledovernightfortheirlackofracialandculturalawareness.Yetmanypeace institutionsresistapplyingDEIinternally.Theytreat'peace'asbrandingthatgrantsmoral authoritywhileexemptingthemfromthetransformativeinternalworkandgenuineinclusionof conflict-experiencedcommunitiestheyclaimtoserve.
Diversity,equity,andinclusionwereneverjustorganizationalbuzzwords,theyemerged aspeacebuildingtoolsledbyBlack,Brown,andIndigenouswomenwithlivedexperiencewith violencetorepairstructuralviolence,addresshistoricinequities,andtransformconflictbetween companiesandthecommunitiestheyaresituatedinbeforeitescalated.Yetmanypeace organizationsrefusetoapplythesestrategiesinternally,holdingontoentrenchedhierarchiesof white-ledstructuralviolencewhiledemandingethicalconflictresolutionfromthemostlyblack andbrowncommunitiestheyaresupposedtoserve.
WCAPSmembersTinaAjuonuma,ChinonyeEgbulem,andSequoiaAyalaarguethat womenofcolorareoftenexcludedfromleadershipinpeaceanddevelopmentinstitutions,then laterhiredasconsultantstofixthesystemicharmthoseinstitutionscreate.Eventhen,they encounterwhattheynameasviolenceinmoresubtleforms.Egbulem,aNigerianAmericangender specialistandareturnedPeaceCorpsvolunteer,explainsthatbeingtoldthaturgent recommendationstostopharmwillbe“parked,”excessivelyscrutinized,orendlesslydeferred communicatesthatexpertiseisnottrustedandlegitimacyisalwaysprovisional.Shedescribesthis dynamicasviolentbecauseitquestionsprofessionalism,underminesauthority,andsignals“how dareyouchallengehowpoweroperatesinthisorganization.”Theyconnectthesepatterns
25 “Mission and Vision.” https://www wcaps org/mission Womenof Color Advancing Peace, Security, and Conflict Transformation,
26 “Peace, Equity & Inclusion ” YouTube, uploaded by Peace and Security Channel, 15 Aug 2024, www youtube com/watch?v=4ckkwjEURdM Accessed 10 Jan 2026
tothephysicalandemotionaltollexperiencedbywomenofcolorpeacebuilders.Ajuonuma,UKbasedfounderofTheBetterOrg,notesthatmanyenterthisworkbecausetheyarealready respondingtorepeatedcyclesofviolencetheyhavelivedorwitnessed,yettheconstantresistance, dismissal,andpolicingoftheirrecommendationsproducesdeepfatigueandstress.Inherarticle Caring for the Movement: Black Feminist Care Logistics forMovetoEndViolence,Ayala,an attorneyfocusedondecolonizingpeaceeducationandreproductiverightsforBlackandLatina women,emphasizesthatself-careisnotseparatefrompeacebuildingbutessentialtoit.Forwomen operatinginsideviolentsystems,caringfortheirbodies,minds,safety,andwellbeingishow movementsendureandhowmeaningfulchangeremainspossible.
Decolonizingpeacestudiesresearchhighlightsthatresistancetotransformthe peacebuildingsectoragaindismissestheverytoolsthatwomen,Indigenous,Black,andBrown communitieshavecreatedtokeepeachothersafeandbuildsustainablestructuralpeace. Furthermore,itrevealsafundamentalcontradictioninpeacebuildingsystemsthatapproach diversityasachallenge,evenasdiversityconstitutestheverybasisofthecoexistencetheyclaim toadvance.Embeddinginclusionateverylevelofthepeacesectorisessential.Itisthefirst buildingblockofgenuinepeace,necessarytodisruptcyclesofexclusionandensurethat institutionsreflectthestrategiesandknowledgeofthecommunitiestheyaimtosupport.
WhatJenkins’sinterventionultimatelyexposesisastructuralfailurewithinthepeaceand securitysector.Thefieldremainsorganizedaroundinheritedsystemsofauthority,credentialing, andlegitimacythatprivileged,militarized,state-centeredexpertisewhilesideliningcommunitygroundedandlivedapproachestopeace.Thesestructuresdeterminewhoisrecognizedasa peacebuilder,whoseknowledgeisconsideredrigorous,andwhichstrategiesareresourcedor scaled.Asaresult,evenwhenpeaceinstitutionsclaimcommitmenttoinclusionorhuman security,theirinternalarchitecturescontinuetoreproduceexclusionandnarrowthescopeof whatpeacebuildingisallowedtobe.Compoundingthisstructuralproblemisadeeperdeficiency inlanguageandframeworks.Manypeaceinstitutionslacktheconceptualtoolstoarticulate
27 James-Portis, Latishia, Sequoia Ayala, and Ramelcy Uribe Care Logistics Move to End Violence, 30 Nov 2022
28 Te Maihāroa, Kelli, Michael Ligaliga, and Heather Devere, editors Studies through Indigenous Research Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, 2022 DOI: 10.1007/978 981 16 6779 4.https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-16-6779-4
peaceasaninternalpractice,somethingembeddedinworkforcedesign,leadershipnorms, decision-makingprocesses,andorganizationalincentives.Withoutsharedlanguageforinternal peacealignment,institutionsdefaulttoexternalizedmodelsofinterventionandenforcement, treatingpeaceassomethingdeliveredoutwardratherthanpracticedinward.Thisdisconnect limitstheirabilitytorecognize,evaluate,orintegrateapproachesthatdonotconformto traditionalsecurityparadigms,evenwhenthoseapproacheshavedemonstrablyreducedharm andstabilizedcommunities.
Addressingthisgaprequiresmorethancritique.Itrequiresdisciplinesthatgive institutionsthelanguage,tools,andinternalalignmentframeworksneededtopracticepeacerather thanmerelyinvokeit.Peacetechnologyandpeaceengineeringrespondbytreatingpeaceas somethingthatcanbedesigned,taught,trained,andevaluatedwithinrealsystems.Byembedding peaceintoorganizationaldesign,workforcedevelopment,andinnovationinfrastructure,these approachesmovepeacefromaspirationtopracticeandaligninternalbehaviorwithexternal commitments.Asapioneerinpeacetechnologyandpeaceengineering,MargaritaQuihuis’swork hasbeenfoundationalinbuildingthecapacitytotreatpeaceassomethingthatcanbemeasured, taught,andresponsiblyinvestedinratherthanleftasanabstractmoralaspiration.Drawingon livedexperienceshapedbyYaquiheritageandMexicanAmericanworking-classroots,she focusedhercareeronbehavioralscienceinnovation,technologyincubation,andaccesstocapital astoolsforstructuralchange.Priortoherconcentrationinpeacework,sheledatechnology incubatorforwomenwhoseportfoliocompaniesraisedmorethan$67millioninventurefunding, expandingaccesstocapitalforwomenofcolorfoundershistoricallyexcludedfromfinancial networks.Sheextendedthatsamefinanciallogicintothepeacesector,arguingthatpeacemustbe legibletoinvestorsinordertoscalewhileremainingaccountabletoethicsandlivedexperience. AsdirectoroftheStanfordPeaceInnovationLabandthePeaceInnovationInstitute,working alongsideMarkNelson,shehelpedpioneerpeacetechnologyandpeaceengineeringasapplied academicandprofessionalfields.Centraltothisworkistheinsistencethatpeaceisproduced througheverydaysystems,behaviors,anddecisionsandthereforemustbemeasurableifitistobe resourcedatscale.
30
29 Guadagno, Rosanna E , Mark Nelson, and Lee Lee “Peace Data Standard a Practical and Theoretical Framework for Using Technology to Examine Intergroup Interactions ” Frontiers in Psychology, vol 9, 2018, p 734
30 “Team ” Peace Innovation Lab Stanford, Stanford University, https://www peaceinnovation stanford edu/about-team
Whatmadethisworkthreateningwasnotitsmeasurability,butwhoitchallenged.A womanwithdeepexperienceinfinancedemonstratedthatpeacecouldbefundedwithoutrelying onmilitarizedorsecurity-drivenframeworks.Thatdirectlyunsettledinvestorswhosepowerand profitdependontheirinvestmentsinweaponadvancementandconflictengineering.Ratherthan investinginhermodelonitsownterms,militaryinvestmentactorsextractedthelanguageand toolsofpeacetechnologyandappliedthemtoexistingdefenseandsecuritysystems,rebranding thosesystemsaspeacetechnologies.Thisishowco-optationoperatesinpractice.Evenwhen womenexplicitlyrejectparticipationinsecurityframeworks,theirlaborisrepurposedtomake thoseframeworksappearhumane.
ItiswithinthislandscapethatPeaceBaseemergedasawomen-led,tool-basedworking groupresistingthecaptureofpeacebyinstitutions,governments,andmarketsthatabstractitfrom dailylife.PeaceBasetreatspeaceasapracticeembeddedinordinaryworkecosystems,especially wherepowerisexercised,andharmisnormalized.Bybringingtechnologists,lawyers,engineers, policyprofessionals,andcommunitypractitionersintosharedspace,itdevelopslanguage,tools, andstandardsthatmakepeacevisibleineverydaydecision-making.Thislogicmirrorsreal-world movementssuchastheWomen,Life,FreedommovementinIran,where,aftermassprotests subsided,manywomenquietlyandindependentlybeganchoosingnottowearthecompulsory hijabindailylife.Theseuncoordinatedmicroactsreshapedsocialnormsovertime,sustaining resistanceevenwithoutcentralizedleadership.
Thisfocusonmicrodecisionsthataddsuptomeasurablepeacecarriesdirectlyintothe workofSarahJuneBenjaminandBrittanyS.Haleasco-foundersofPeaceIQandarchitectsof PeaceBase.Beginningfromthepremisethatpeacefailswhenitistreatedasexceptional,they centerworkplacesandorganizationalsystemsasprimarysitesofpeacebuilding.PeaceIQ translatespeacefromanabstractvalueintoactionableandmeasurablepracticesembeddedinhow peoplework,decide,andleadbeforeharmescalates.Workecosystemsarewherepoweris exerciseddailyandwherenormsaboutaccountabilityandconflictarereinforcedatscale.Ifpeace isnotpracticedthere,itcannotbesustainedelsewhere.Theirworkalignswiththescholarshipof HodaMahmoudiattheBahá'íChairforWorldPeaceattheUniversityofMaryland,whodefines peaceasanactivesocialprocessthatmustbeconsciouslycultivated
ratherthanassumedasaninstitutionaloutcome.PeaceIQoperationalizesthisinsight,designing toolsthatmakepeacemeasurable,teachable,andembeddedineverydayorganizationallife.Like thedifferencebetweenhealthandwellness,peaceisnotastaticconditionbutanactivepractice. Justaswellnessmeasurementsupportstransformationbytrackinghabits,behaviors,andconditions overtimeratherthanasinglehealthsnapshot,PeaceIQmeasurementhelpscultivateandsustain peacebymakingvisible,inrealtime,thepracticesthatstrengthenorweakenasocialsystem.
BothfoundersareattorneysinaprofessionwhereBlackwomencompriseroughlytwo percentofpracticinglawyers,andholddegreesandadvancedtraininginpeaceandconflict resolutionbringingtogetherlegalaccountability,peaceanalysis,andaclearunderstandingof howorganizationaldecisionsproduceharmorprotectioninrealtime.Theiraimistotransform howallworksectorsunderstandandmanageconflict,power,andresponsibility.Benjamin,a formerrefugeefromLiberia,humanrightsattorney,peacetechnologist,bringsalensshapedby Bahá’íprinciplesandIndigenousAfricanandPersiantraditionsofpeacebuilding.Herfocusison embeddingpeaceeducationintoworkforcetrainingandtechnologysystemssoleadershave practicalinsightintoconflictpatternsanddecisionconsequencesastheyoccur.Hale,an undefeatedtrialattorneyandorganizationalculturearchitect,bringsacomplementaryfocuson structure,accountability,andexecution.Shehasledacceleratorsforwomenofcolorand executivedevelopmentinitiatives,translatingpeaceprinciplesintoorganizationaldesign, governancepractices,andmeasurableoutcomes.Thisinterventionisparticularlyurgentgiven thatBlackwomenfoundersreceivelessthanonepercentofventureandphilanthropicfunding, eveninfieldsexplicitlyconcernedwithequityandpeace.PeaceIQmeasurespositivesocial behaviorinworkecosystemsbypayingattentiontowhatpeopleactuallydotogethereveryday, cooperation,care,accountability,andhowdecisionsaremadeunderpower.
EcologicalactivistVandanaShivadescribeswhypositivepeaceindicatorsaretheright thingstomeasurethroughherscientificclimatework,statingthat“violenceisnotahuman indicator,”that“greedandaccumulationisnotameasureofourhumanity,”andthat“sharing andcaringis,”andsheisexplicitthattheseare“thevalueswomenarebringing”toshapea worlddifferentfromonedrivenbycompetitionandextraction.Shenameswomen’sknowledge asecological,holistic,andrelational,andarguesthatthesewaysofknowingarenowbeing
validatedbysciencebecausesystemscannotsurvivewithoutthem.Peace-basedsystemsrequire measuringwhethersharingandcaringarepresentineverydayworkbehavior,ratherthantreating peaceasanabstractvalueorwaitingforabreakdowntooccur.EbonyTwilleyMartin,executive directorofGreenpeaceUSA,demonstrateshowthiswomen-ledlogictransformsclimatepractice throughworkforcedevelopment.Comingfromhumanresources,sheunderstoodthatclimate missionsfailwheninternalsystemscontradictthem,andshetreatedhiring,leadership,andculture asplaceswheresmalldecisionsaccumulateintorealchange.Asamotherwhosechildwasdirectly impactedbyclimatepollutionshapedbyracialandgeographicboundaries,shehasconsistently rootedclimateleadershipinthelivedrealitiesofIndigenous,Black,anddiasporiccommunities, centeringfrontlinepeaceprotectorsandon-the-groundenvironmentaldefendersratherthanabstract policyalone.HertrajectoryfromHRleadershiptobecomingthefirstBlackwomanexecutive directorofGreenpeaceUSAmakesvisibletheimpactoftransformingworkfromtheinsideout.
ItisnotsimplythattheworkofIndigenousanddiasporicapproachestopeaceare marginalized.Theyaremarginalizedbecausetheywork.Theyworkbecausetheyinterveneinthe progenerativecoreofthebrotherhoodsystem,thepartofglobalpowerthatreproduceslegitimacy, protection,andcontinuityamongthosewhobenefitfromwar.Theseapproachesdonotjustask howtomanageconflictmorehumanely.Theyaskhowconflictisauthorizedinthefirstplace.This patternisnotnew.IndigenousnationsinventeddemocraticgovernanceundertheGreatLawof Peace.TheHaudenosauneeConfederacydevelopedasystemrootedinconsensus,accountability, conflictresolution,andcollectiveresponsibilitythatgovernedmultiplenationssustainablyfor generations.Politicalauthorityregardingwarandpeacewasvestedinwomen,particularlyclan mothers,whoselectedleaders,removedthemwhentheyfailedtheirresponsibilities,andguided decisionsaboutdiplomacyandsocialwelfare.Governancewasaccountabletolife,land,andfuture generationspreciselybecausewomenheldthepowertoenforcethoseobligations.American democracydidnotemergeinisolationfromthisknowledge.Itabsorbeditsstructurewhile rejectingitsobligations.Indigenouspeopleswere
34 Meet Ebony Twilley Martin, Greenpeace’s New Executive Director (2023, April 3) Greenpeace USA Retrieved from https://www greenpeace org/usa/meet-ebony-twilley-martin-greenpeaces-new-executivedirector/
35 Schenandoah, Michelle “Indigenous Women’s Influence on Modern Democracy and Women’s Suffrage ” PBS Native America, 25 Sept 2023, https://www pbs org/native-america/blog/indigenouswomens-influence-on-modern-democracy-and-womens-suffrage
36 Bower, Bruce. “Indigenous Americans Ruled Democratically Long Before the U.S. Did.” Science News, 6 Sept 2022, https://www sciencenews org/article/democracy-indigenous-americans-people-rulemuscogee
excludedfromthedemocraticprocesspreciselybecausefullparticipationwouldhaverequired dismantlingwhitesupremacy,landtheft,racialandgenderhierarchy.Democracywaspreserved onlyinaformcompatiblewithdomination.Thatsamecontradictionsitsatthecenterofglobal peacebuildinginhowdemocracyisused.Democracyisencouraged,praised,andadvancedasa solutiontoconflict,yetthesystemthatpromotesitrefusestoreviseitselftosustainit.InYemen, awomanofcolorledasustained,nonviolentstrugglethatsucceededinpushingdemocracyinto formalpoliticalprocess.Thatsuccesswasreal.Whatfollowedwasnotfailurefrombelow,but resistancefromabove.Whendemocraticparticipationbegantointerferewithothergeopolitical andsecurityinterests,theinternationalsystemdidnotadapttoprotectit.Instead,itallowed democraticgainstobeunderminedratherthanrestructuringalliances,incentives,orpower arrangementstodefendthem.Yemenshowshowdemocraticpeaceissupportedonlysolongas itdoesnotdemandsystemicchange,andhowpeacebuildingcollapseswhenthesystemvalues stabilityofpoweroverthesurvivalofdemocratictransformation.
NobelrecipientTawakkolKarmanhasseenthedevastationthathard-wonyetfragile peacefaceswhenitmeetsaninternationalsystemthatiscompromisedbytheindependent interestsofitsbrotherstates.KarmanisrecognizedforhernonviolentactivisminYemenforthe freedomofspeech,safetyofwomen,andtherightofwomentoparticipateinpeace-buildingwork. In2005,shefoundedtheorganization“WomenJournalistsWithoutChains”(WJWC),which advocatedfortheremovalofrestrictionsplacedbytheYemeniregimeonfreespeech.Bythe2011 YemeniUprising,Karmanwasalreadyleadingweeklyprotestsfortheparticipationofwomenin thedemocraticprocess.
37 38
Followingthe2012democraticelection,womenrepresented30%oftheNational DialogueConferenceonconstitutionalreform.Collectively,theydraftedmeasuresforthe recognitionofwomenasequalandindependentpersonsandstaunchlysafeguardedtheserights byrequiringa30percentquotaofdecisionmakingpolitics.Karmanhasechoedthatthe constitutionalreformprocessrepresentedthecontributionofwomentoestablishingdemocracy
37 Karman, Tawakkol Profile NobelPrize org, Nobel Media AB 2025, www nobelprize org/prizes/peace/2011/karman/facts/
38 Global Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) United Nations, Oct 2015, www.un.org/peacebuilding/sites/www.un.org.peacebuilding/files/documents/globalstudywps en web.pdf
aspowerfulparticipantsofthepeaceprocess.Withpridesheremembers“wewerelike30percent inthewritingthedraftofconstitution...wemakethefuture.Wemakethedecisionaswomen.So wedidn’taskmen,youknow,theotherparties,withoutwomenrepresentedintheirbody...togive thesolutionforwomen….”.TheformerMinisterofInformationforYemenandeditor-in-chiefof theYemenTimes,NadiaAl-Sakkaf,servedasoneofthefourwomenparticipatinginaseventeenmembercommitteeresponsibleforthenewconstitutionarticulatedthatitwasimportanttocapture thestrengthofthewomenledmovementandthattherepresentativesinsistedthatthemeasuresbe included.Thesewomenwereabletoactuallyencodeasecurityframeworkthatprotectedtheir livesandvoicewithinthenewconstitution.Theircollectiveandnon-compromisingmeasuresto protectthisshiftfromastrictheteropatriarchynormagainshowedthatwomenunderstoodthe fragilityofthispeaceandsawdutyinprotectingitfromitsinfancytoitsmaturation.
KaramanisdecoratedasthefirstArabwomanandsecondMuslimwomantobeawarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Beautifully, however, she has chosen an interfaith approach to her work. In addition to calling for the participation of women in government, she has also faced backlash for calling for the representation of minority religions in parliament. Karaman consistently highlightsIslamasareligionofpeaceandequality.
Despitethepolarizationofpoliticalpartiesintheregion,Karmanhaskepthumanrights centraltoheradvocacyandhasmanagedtonavigatecriticismofherinvolvementwith internationalorganizations.Humanizinghermission,sherespondedtohercriticsbycutting acrossmasculinenotionsofnationalidentitystating,“Iamacitizenoftheworld.TheEarthismy country,andhumanityismynation”.Truetoherword,Karamanhasnotheldbackoncriticisms ofherwesterncounterpartseither.DuringaCouncilofForeignAffairsmeeting,Karaman criticizedattendeesfortheirinsufficientresponsetotheupheavalofYemen’sdemocratically electedgovernment,whichisnowoneofthegreatesthumanitariancrises.Whenaskedwhatthe solutionistothelossofthe“greatYemendream”,sheresponded: Andbeforetalkingaboutthesolution,Iwanttotellyouthattheinternationalcommunity alsoparticipateinthisdeterioration,inallArabregion,inallArabSpringcountries,
39 Karman, Tawakkol Relations, www cfr org/event/yemen-crisis-conversation-tawakkol-karman
“Yemen in Crisis: A Conversation with Tawakkol Karman ”
Council on Foreign
40 Karman, Tawakkol Relations, www cfr org/event/yemen-crisis-conversation-tawakkol-karman
“Yemen in Crisis: A Conversation with Tawakkol Karman ”
Council on Foreign
41
eitherwiththeirsilenceorwiththeircomplicity.TheyallowIranandIraqandIranand SaudiandEmiratestodestroythewillofpeople,todestroythedreamofpeople,todestroy theirpeacefulstruggle,tocreateanotherterroristgroups.Sotheyallowedthem.Sowe chargetheinternationalcommunitybigpartoftheresponsibility.Soalltheoutcomesthat wedidthroughthepeacefulrevolutionandthroughthetransitionalperiod,nowit’sbeen collapsedbythecounterrevolution,bytheinterferingofSaudiandEmiratesandIran,by militiaofal-Houthi,andoustedPresidentAliSaleh,andbyyoursilence.Youdidn’tdo enoughforhelpingYemeniorforimplementingwhatyoupromisedYemenis.You promisedus.Iremember.
Hercriticismbegsaquestionoftheinternationalcommunityanditsauthority:whatisit thatweareallsacrificingfor,andhowmuchdoesitmeanif,atanytime,itcanbecompromised byoneorafewmembers.Todate,anestimated350,000peoplehavediedinYemen,andthereis stillnoconsensuswithintheactinginternationalbodiesonwhattodo. Thesepowerfulcriticismsofinternationalauthoritybysocialactors,suchasinfluential leaderslikeKarman,createaninterestingtwo-foldphenomenon:thefirstisthatithighlightsthe inabilityofinternationalinstitutionstosufficientlyaddressglobalissuesandunderminesthe legitimacyoftheirauthority.Thesecondisthat,intime,however,astheentireinternational communitywrestswiththepurposeandfunctionsofinternationalinstitutions,weactually heightenourcollectiveawarenessoftheneedforstrongerinternationalauthorityandlaythe politicalwillforthetransformationofglobalgovernance.SocialscientistMichaelZürnrefersto thistwo-foldphenomenon,thesimultaneouscollapseandriseoflegitimacy,asa“parallelof declineanddeepeningofglobalgovernancearrangements”.Zürnarguesinhisbook, A Theory of Global Governance: Authority, Legitimacy, and Contestation,thatchallengestointernational authority(whathereferstoas“politicization”)actuallyprovideanopportunityforinternational organizationstocreatemechanismswhereitcanbothaddressandseeklegitimacydirectlyfrom civilsocietyratherthanthroughstates.
42
41 Karman, Tawakkol. Relations, www cfr org/event/yemen-crisis-conversation-tawakkol-karman
42 Zürn, Michael University Press, 2018
“Yemen in Crisis: A Conversation with Tawakkol Karman ” ATheoryofGlobalGovernanceAuthority,Legitimacy,and Contestation
Council on Foreign Oxford
InhisworkasDirectoroftheGlobalGovernanceunitattheBerlinSocialScienceCenter Zürn,heandhiscolleaguescollectandexamineempiricaldatathatdemonstratestheeffectof politicizationandchallengestointernationalauthoritybysocietalactors.InonecasestudyZürn andco-authorChristianRauhcomparethesocialresponsetofourinstitutionsthatstateshave transferred“formerlynationaleconomicpolicycompetencestofunctionsofwhatwenowcall globaleconomicgovernance..”Eachoftheseorganizations(theIMF,theWorldBank,theWTO, andNATO)hasachieveddifferentlevelsofpoliticalauthorityandhavewidenedthescopeoftheir authorityatdifferentmomentsinhistory.Theyhaveallalsobeenmetwithsignificantantiglobalizationprotestsbysocialactors.Theseprotestsweresosignificantthattheyare“oftenseen asthebirthofatransnational‘anti-globalizationmovement’contestingboththesubstanceand proceduresofglobaleconomicgovernance”.Thestudymeasuredpatternsandindicatorsthat measureactsofsocietalresistance(politicization),authority,andthetransmissionofalternative legitimizationnarratives,findingthatcriticismfromsocialactorsprovidedtheseinstitutionswith anopportunitytoengagethem.Eachinstitutiondevelopeddirectresponsesthatallowedongoing interactionswithcivilsocietyincludingpovertyandsocialimpactassessments,transparencyof organizationalculture,andprovisionsinhumanrightsprotection.Ultimately,theengagementby nonstateactorswhileatfirstcontroversial,broadenedtheopportunityforinternationalinstitutions toseeklegitimacybeyondstates.
Whilethelegitimacyofaglobalgovernancemodelhasdeepened,theflawsofthecurrent systemhavebecomemoreapparent.Particularly,itsinabilitytorespondquicklytogrowing socialconcernsandcriticism.Forexample,withtheadventoffast-pacedandpowerfulsocial mediamovements,stateandsocialactorscannowalsooutpacethemoretraditionalresponsesof theinternationalsystem.RecentpublicattentiontotheconflictsinUkraine,Palestine,andthe Congoshowthattheproblemisnotthathumanrightsnormshavelostpublicforce,butthat formalmechanismsliketreatybodiesandtheICCarebeingpoliticallyweakenedbystates.In response,theauthorityofhumanrightsisshiftingintothepublicsphere,wherepeopleusesocial
43Rauh, Christian, and Michael Zürn “Authority, Politicization, and Alternative Justifications Endogenous Legitimation Dynamics in Global Economic Governance ” Review of International Political Economy, vol 27, no 3, 2020, pp 583–611, https://doi org/10 1080/09692290 2019 1650796
44 Rauh,Christian,andMichaelZürn.“Authority,Politicization,andAlternativeJustifications:Endogenous LegitimationDynamicsinGlobalEconomicGovernance”ReviewofInternationalPoliticalEconomy,vol 27,no 3, 2020, pp 583–611, https://doiorg/101080/0969229020191650796 (Analyzes politicization of institutions and mentionsprotesteventslikethe1999BattleofSeattleandthe2000A16IMF/WorldBankprotests.)
mediatodemandcompliancefrombusinessesandpoliticiansandimposeconsequenceswhen theyrefuse.ThisisthebouncebackZürndescribes.Whenstatesundermineinternational institutions,internationalactorsareforcedtogostraighttopeopletorebuildlegitimacy,andthat directlegitimacybecomesthepoliticalfuelthatcanbuildinstitutionalauthorityandenable strongerenforcementinthefuture.Itmaybethatwithtimethismodelwillbeabletofindmore effectiveresponses,butZurnconcedesthatultimatelythesystemitselfendogenouslyproduces itsownlegitimacyissues,isfractured,andhasaseriouslackofchecksandbalancesofpower.
Morethananissueofchecksandbalancesofpower,however,isthelackofbalance betweenmasculineandfemininenotionsofpoweringlobalgovernance.Thecurrent internationalorder,however“liberal”,attemptstorewardenforcementthroughsomestateswith poweroverothers.Thebehavioralpatternofstateswithinthecurrentinternationalsystemhas fosteredastudyofglobalgovernancethatunderstandsstatesasanarchicsystemsofchaosonly abletobebroughtintocooperationthroughself-interestorforce.However,socialscientistslike Zurnunderstandtheveryflawedfundamentalissuescreatedbyasystemthatseekstobring peacefulinternationalorderthroughthemightandwillofcompetingstates.Indeed,Zurneven beginstostudyrisingnormsthatwouldsuggestthegreatpossibilityenvisionedbymanysocial scientistsofthetranscendencetoasystemwithmorecosmopolitanintent,asystemdesignedto recognizehumanityasasinglecommunitywithsharedmoralandeconomicinterests.Arguably, thepresenceofthesenormsnotonlyexist,buthavebeenexemplifiedinthesocialspheresof women.Agenderedlensisimportanttostudyingthecapacitytomovebeyonda“cooperation” modelbecausewomenhaveoperatedinsocialfunctionsanddevelopedsocialtechnology-often inresistancetotheoppressiveconditionssufferedundertheruleofmen-thatrelyondeeper andmorecomplexinteractionsthanjustcooperationofpower.
Tobeclear,thecapacityofpeaceisnotanatomicaltoonegenderoranotheranda securityframeworkthatincorporatesafeministperspectivedoesnotshifttheroleofherofrom mentowomenoraskthatanyonepersonorgroupfunctioninthatway.Instead,thisframework wouldseektostudyandreframethepowerrelationshipamongallpeople,groundedina genderedunderstandingofsecuritythatplacesthemarginalizedatthecenterofitscare.That shiftalsoincludesincorporatingtheneedsofmenwhoareapartofaminoritygroupandeven theneedsofallmenandboyswhohavebeenmarginalizedinthecurrentparadigm.Aspolitical scientistGaliaGolandescribesinakeynoteaddress:theessenceoffeminismisthestudyof
powerandpowerrelationships,itderivesfromagenderedperspectivethatalwaysasks“whereare we inthis,wheream I inthis”.....Golanexplainsthatinthefirstwavesoffeminism,womensought tocreateequalitybygainingpositionswithinahierarchydevelopedbymen;however,astimewent on,itbecameclearthatequalitycannotbereachedwithinasystemthatnevercontemplatedthe positionorconditionof“others”.
Thecurrentsocialorder-nomatterhowmanywomendoctors,lawyers,politicians, peacekeepers-provideslittleshiftintheactualstruggleofwomentobeequalintheireveryday livesbecauseitdoesnotcontemplatetheirdifferencesorthedifferencesofthepeoplethey traditionallytakecareof.Shegivesexamplessuchastheschooldayendingatatimethatimagines allwomenwouldbeathometocarefortheirchildrenoranexampleofpublictransportation schedulesdesignedwithoutconsiderationthatwomenarethemainusers.Newstudieshavebegun towondernotjustaboutthesocialbuteventhephysicalarchitectureoftheworldfromagendered perspective.Forexample,manyarchitectshavecriticizedthelackofcitiesdesignedbywomen. Severaldynamicvideostakeitfurtherbyillustratingwhatcitiesmaylooklikeiftherewereone designedbywomen.Fromshorterfountainsforchildren,morebathroomsforwomen,andmore benchesfortheelderly,womenshowedanextensivecontemplation,community-wideresearch, andconsultationonhoweachpersonusesspacedifferently.Thisstudydemonstratesanoften overlookedfunctionoffeminismthatGolanhighlightsinherspeech,whichisthatfeminismisnot justastudyofpowerandrelationshipsbutastudyofwhyandhowtochangeit.
Astudyofwhyandhowwomenofcolorhavebeeneffectiveatresolvingintractable conflictsandcreatingmoresustainablepeaceshouldnotjustcreatemorewomenpeacekeepers butshouldinformtherevisionofoursecurityframework.Asmanywomenpeacekeepershave displayed,therearepowerfulmethodstocreatepeaceandsecuritythatwomenemploythat traditionallywouldnotbeacceptedinmale-dominatedsocialorders.Forexample,thenotionof surrendering,toceaseresistanceortosubmittoanauthority,canbeseenassociallyand
45 “Women in the World: Time for a New Paradigm for Peace keynote speakers.” The Bahá’í Chair for World Peace, University of Maryland, 2025, https://www bahaichair umd edu/blog/a-smallstep introducing emily a bah chair for world peace in tern 3esdd gkjl5 t875s cztzz lm3nc sx947 rkm4z
46BBC News What Would a City Designed by Women Be Like? 29 Nov 2019, https://www bbc com/news/av/world-50269778
politically “weak”. Yet women have developed a tactful social technology around the concept of surrender and readily use it as a source of power to mitigate potential harm during conflict. Many studiesalsoshowthatwomenmaynegotiatedifferentlythanmenoftentimes findingmorevalueintheprocessofconsultationinstead.Consultationemphasizeslistening, thinkingbeyondourselves,findingvalueinthecombinationofideas,andrelationship-building ratherthanimmediateoutcomes.AtapanelheldatWhartonSchoolofBusinessonthe negotiationapproachesbywomenandmen,legalandbusinessethicslecturerRachelKrol’s commentshighlightthenuancesofthesedifferences:“Sometimeswefeellikewhoeveris dominatingtheairwavesiscontrollingthenegotiationandthespace...Yetresearchonthemost effectivesalespeople,forexample,revealsthatwhenmeetingwithaclienttheyonlytalkabout 30%ofthetime.Therestofthetimetheyarelisteningoraskingquestions.It’s counterintuitive...butlisteningcanbeapositionofstrength.”Thissimpleexampleillustrateshow ineffectivethemodelofcooperationcanbewhenitreliesonbeingheardratherthanlistening.
Truecollectivesecuritydoesnoteliminatetheveryimportantprocessofbuilding consensusonwhattodowhenthereisathreattopeace;itjustasksformanyofthosequestions tobecontemplatedbeforehand.Whilecarefulnottohavemisguidedexpediency,ittugsbackthe reinsontakingsevenyearstomakepoliticaldecisions,whilehundredsofthousandsofpeople arekilled.Revisitingoursecurityframeworkrequiresanapproachofoneness,arecommitment tothefoundationthatweareonehumanfamily,andavitalrecognitionofourresources,rights, andresponsibilitiesasshared.Incommittingtothatcorefoundationofoneness,theinternational communitycannotcontinuetogivethemostpowerfulnationsmorepowerindecisionmaking. Thecurrentpowerdynamicswillconsistentlydelegitimizehardwonpeaceinfragilestates.As longas,inrealtime,thepartywithmorepowerandleveragecanpushitsnationalinterestsonto therestoftheglobalcommunity,then,evenincrisis,thefocuswillbeondeal-breaker conversationsratherthanadeeperexplorationofhumanitarianconcerns.Inpractice, administrationswillcontinueto“de-linkthehumanrightsdialoguefromthesecurity-support dialogue”inmajorpeaceandsecuritydiscussions,usingtheseopportunitiestoadvancepolitical positions.
47 Knowledge at Wharton Staff. “Women and Negotiation Are There Really Gender Differences?” Knowledge at Wharton, 26 Oct 2015, https://knowledge wharton upenn edu/article/women-andnegotiation-are-there-really-gender-differences/
Centraltoafeministapproachtorevisingoursecurityframeworkisdevelopinga collectivetreatythathascontemplatedthesecurityofallbeingsandthatisprotectedbyall states.Whenweexaminethesuccessfulpeaceoperationsofintractableconflictssuchastheone inLiberia,itwastheformationofonecollectivewill,developedfromunanimousagreementand enforcedthroughcompleteparticipation,thatwasabletocreatepeace.Atthemoment,each countryhasadifferentthresholdforviolence,adifferenttoleranceforintervention,therefore howcanweexpecttocreateaneffectiveplantostopwarwhenwedonothaveunityinthat purpose.
Developingamorebalancedsystemofglobalgovernancerequiresadeepercollective willthantheoneoriginallycapturedintheformationofthecurrentglobalorder.Thecurrent treatyiscodedinmasculinelanguageandmilitaristicperspectives,ithasbeendevelopedinthe absenceofwomen,intheabsenceofpeopleofcolor,andanabsenceofscrutinyofthe relationshipofpowerbetweenthestatesandtheinternationalorder’sabilitytostopmass violence.Thisrevisionrequiresdeepconsultationwithnationsonsubjectstheywouldnothave beenwillingtoengageinattheformationoftheinternationalorder,includingaprocessfor globaldisarmament,howtomanageanddistributeglobalresources,howtoendnuclearthreats orrespondtotyranny.Thedeep-seatedgroundworkhasindicatedaripenessfromthe constituentsofthesestatestoengagethesediscussions.Peopleunderstandandwantan internationalauthoritythatiseffectiveatstoppingmassivedeathandsuffering.Ratherthanjust awardingmedalstowomenwhohavebeenparticularlyeffectiveatstoppingthisviolence throughinterfaithandintercommunitywork,stateswithintheinternationalsystemmustdothe hardworkthemselvesandbegintheformationofacollectivewilltobuildasecurityframework fromthatsamespiritofoneness.