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Bones are necessary to give a body its framework or shape, to protect vital parts like the heart and the brain, and to allow locomotion,but most people never realize the many functional roles played by the skeletal system Often people think that they need calcium in the diet to ensure that they will have strong bones and teeth. What most don’t realize is that the bony tissues are the reservoir for calcium and that the body needs calcium for every muscle contraction to occur and for transmissionof nerve impulses. Learning that bone is a living, dynamic organ, changing all the time and not just when it is broken and in need of repair, is often a big surprise to many students. Bone contains epithelium,connective tissues, vascular tissues, lymphatic tissues, and nervous tissues all working together to maintain homeostasis.
1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the various cell types found within developing and mature bone, how these cells contribute to the formation of compact bone and cancellous bone, and how these cells contributeto the structure and function of the periosteum and endosteum.
2. Compare and contrast the processes involved in the formation of bone and the growth of bone, and explain the factors involved in the regulation of these processes.
3. Describe the different types of fractures and outline how fractures heal.
4. Classify bones according to their shapes and give one or more examples for each type.
5. Explain how the normal functioning,growth, remodeling,and repair of the skeletal system is integrated with other systems of the body.
1. Lecture Ideas
a. Most students have a bone story. Ask students to share personal stories about breaks, ligament and tendon injuries, or joint problems. Make a list and discuss with the class what they know about names of bones or other facts. This provides you with a better understandingof how much students already know and helps students feel that they already have some anatomical knowledge. Topics to which students will likely relate include the following:
• various broken bones while growing up
• abnormal curvatures of the backbone
• osteoporosis,age, and diet of their grandparents
• developmental (congenital) abnormalities of the skeleton Then provide an overview of the beauty of engineering of bones, how their unique and recognizable shapes occur for very particular reasons, and that bones are not static organs theyare always changing and being remodeled.
b. While lecturing, walk among the students. This will give you an opportunityto interact directly with students by making eye contact, asking questions, and developing a realtime assessment of how well they are following your main points.
c. During your lecture, pause periodically and ask students to draw a figure or make a list or table of the topic being discussed. Walk around the class and provide suggestions to individual students regarding their progress on this activity. Reinforce this activity by showing the students a PowerPoint slide that covers the material of the activity they’ve just performed. Then, if time permits, have them perform the exercise again, either as part of a quiz or as an extra credit opportunity Learning anatomy is a dynamic process that is best accomplished by active learning opportunitieslike this one.
a. For the first 10 minutes of the lab, tell students to mingle with each other, and share a skeletal story (either about themselves or about someone they know). This allows each student to collect a list of all classmates and at least one story that they heard from each an “injury inventory,” so to speak. This helps break the ice within the lab and gets people more comfortabletalking to one another.
b. After demonstratingthe general structure of bones, set out boxes of miscellaneous bones, one for each lab group. Have each lab group arrange the bones into groups with similar characteristics.Walk around the classroom, and ask each group to explain the reasoning behind their arrangements.Then, describe to the students the generally accepted categories in the anatomy text: long bones, irregular bones, short bones, flat bones, sutural bones, pneumatized bones, and sesamoid bones. The student groups can then compare and contrast their groupings to the generally accepted categories. This activity helps students to see the logic behind the categories and helps them to remember more details about the skeletal system. Additionally,students can hold one of the long bones against their own bodies, trying to imagine that bone inside them, and working to understand why certain muscles produce a prominent bony projection. Emphasize the importance of repeated external pressures on bones. For example, repeated stresses associated with training and competition for the sport of rowing will reshape the bones according to the stresses involved. This is called remodeling, and includes the healing process following a bone break.
c. Provide small groups of students with a piece of paper, a paper plate, some type of paper-fasteningitems (e.g., tape, paper clips, stapler), and some heavy objects, such as rocks. Challenge students to suspend the heavy objects in the air without holding onto them with their hands. A good solution to this problem is to make a column with the piece of paper, place the plate on top of the column, and then place the heavy object on top of the plate. If no student comes up with this solution, go ahead and demonstrate it to the class on your own. Now show them either a real long bone, with the compact bone walls of the shaft and the spongy bone at the ends clearly visible, or a diagram
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that has a longitudinal view (such as Figure 5.2 in the textbook). Ask students the following questions:
• How does the long bone resemble the paper column that held up the heavy objects?
• Why is there a hollow center in the long bone?
• Why else might it be an advantage to have a space like the medullary cavity?
• What can be stored that weighs less than bone?
Discuss the answers to these questions with the students. Remind students that the human body evolved over millions of years for hunting and gathering,and that agriculture and a more sedentary way of life are very recent in human history Lighter bones and storage for high-energyfuel like fat were a great advantage to nomads.
d. After giving students a chance to feel and see some bones, have them take a closer look at the internal anatomy of the bones. Point out the engineering differences between the bony tissue along the shafts or diaphyses of the long bones and the ends or epiphyses. If you choose to demonstrate or have students investigate weight bearing using the paper and rocks activity mentioned earlier, bring that into the discussion here as well. Ask such questionsas
• Why does spongy bone appear to be so different?
• How are forces on bones in the diaphyses different from those at the epiphyses?
• How does the dense or compact structure help the bone bear forces?
• How does the spongy or trabecular bone help with bearing forces?
• What problems could result if all bones were completely compact or dense?
Imagine how heavy legs would feel if they were formed from completely solid bone. Refer to the analogy of building construction that follows in Section 3a.
e. Be certain to indicate to students the two very different patterns of bone development. Encourage students to get well acquainted with Figure 5.2 in their texts. They should learn these diagrams inside and out, from the layers of connective tissue periosteum inward through the compact and spongy bone layers made up of circumferential, interstitial, and concentric layers of lamellae to the endosteum and medullary cavity
a. Remind students that bone is a connective tissue made of cells (in this case, osteocytes) that produce an extracellular matrix of ground substance (in this case, collagen fibers that become “cemented” in place by minerals hydroxyapatite). Bone is constructed much like concrete: The collagen acts as reinforcement like rebar (short for reinforcing bar) does in concrete construction,and the hydroxyapatite is like the concrete mix itself a mineralized deposit that hardens.
b. The shafts of the long bones, especially the bones of the lower limbs, bear a lot of weight. Thus, the cylinder of compact bone can bear longitudinal forces extremely well, like the studs in the walls of a house. At the ends of the bones, pressures may come from numerous directions because of the mobility of the joints. This requires support in many directions, not just longitudinal.The trabeculae are very much like the beams and joists in a roof of a house, providingsupport for forces from many directions.
c. Appositional bone growth means the bone has to be in a position next to existing bone in order to grow. When a blood vessel is also in contact with the bone, it stimulatesthe layers of bone to form around it in concentric circles, very much like tree layers forming tree rings.
d. When osteoblastsbecome surroundedby the osseous matrix, it is a bit like a painter painting himself/herselfinto a corner. The matrix solidifies, and the trapped osteoblast changes or matures into an osteocyte trapped into its lacuna, or “little lake.”
e. The central canal of an osteon is a bit like the water well in a small village. All the huts or houses are arranged around this central resource as the osteocytes are arranged around the central canal, the source of nourishment and life-giving water.
a. A valuable demonstration is to begin with a visual survey of actual bones, discussing both types of bones and the many bone markings. Pass around examples of different bones and point out the general terms for the various bumps (processes) and grooves or markings found on the bones. Emphasize that dedicating significant time to learning the bones very thoroughly now will pay off in the long run. Many muscles and other structures that students will have to learn later are named for the bones they attach to or are near. Tell them to make time now as much as it takes to really memorize and learn the bones and their processes. This early investment of time will pay off later. First, they will have a strong foundationto build on when studying muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. Second, they will learn how much time it really takes to master this new language.
a. Bone productioncan be very confusingto students. Initially, of course, bone must develop from existing nonbony cells. In utero, this can happen within mesenchyme or stem cell tissue or some type of fibrous connective tissue, referred to as intramembranous (within a membrane) or dermal (within the deep layer of skin) ossification. The alternative form of fetal bone development is replacement of cartilage with bone, known as endochondral(within cartilage) ossification.Endochondralossificationis more prevalent in heavier,weight-bearinglong bones; intramembranousossification is more common in the skull. Don’t forget that a third option exists. Bone can develop from existing bony tissue when growing or repairing. This is osteogenesisthrough appositional bone growth
b. Students often confuse lacunae and lamellae. Lacunae means “little lakes”; a shared Latin root is the reason for the shared “lak” sound. These are little pockets that house and protect the mature bone cells or osteocytes once the bone has ossified. Lamellae means “layers” or “leaves” (as in pages of a book); think of laminating, which requires several layers that must be sealed together. These are the layers of collagen fibers laid down in various directions that become cemented into layers as the bone ossifies.
c. Ossificationand calcificationsound alike and involve similar processes. Ossification is the hardening of bone due to deposition of calcium or calcification. Calcification from buildup of calcium deposits can happen in many tissues and organs; it is called ossificationonly when it produces bone.
a. Os, osseous, or osteo: all refer to bones. Look at Figure 5.1 in the textbook to visually see the differences in bone cells.
• Osteocytes are bone cells mature and functional.
• Osteoblasts are early or immature bone cells; the suffix blast means “early,” so tell students to think “baby” bone cells. Osteoblasts are “bone builders.”
• Osteoclasts are destroyers. The suffix clast means “to destroy,” and these cells digest matrix to release calcium and other minerals phosphorusand potassium intothe blood. Some students may have heard of an iconoclast, which destroys a cultural or religious icon, or a cataclysm, which may have come from the same root word. Think of a clash. Osteoclasts are “bone breakers.”
• Osteoprogenitorcells are the earliest bone cells. Here’s a good candidate for a word dissection: osteo means “bone,” pro means “early,” and genitor means “maker” (think Genesis in the Bible). These are essentially stem-type cells.
b. Trabeculummeans “little beam” or “little strut.” This is a good term to learn now as it appears again later in regard to the heart: trabeculae carneae (“meaty little struts”), and trabeculae of the lymph glands. Trabeculae are also referred to as spicules (or “little spikes”).
c. To help understandthe differencesbetween periosteum and endosteum, remember the differencesin the prefixes. Peri means “around,” as in the perimeter of a geometric shape or measurementall the way “around” it (or a perimeter fence on a piece of property). Therefore, the periosteum surrounds the outside of bone. Endo as a prefix means “within” or “inside” and refers to the innermost layer of bone. Endoscopic surgery is surgery done from within the body with tiny cameras inserted through very small incisions or by simply entering the body through an existing opening like the ear, nose, or throat. Peri will appear again with the outer coverings of muscle bundles perimysium; nerve bundles perineurium;and so on. Endo also will appear frequently as in the covering of muscle cell/fibers endomysium; nerve fibers endoneurium; and so on.
d. Additional Latin lessons are helpful at this point. The plural forms of some of the parts and processes of bone can sometimes be confusing. The singular of epiphysis has the is ending and sounds like “iss”; to pluralize it, change is to es, which is usually pronounced “ease ” Students also sometimes struggle with foramen (singular for “hole”) and its plural foramina. You may need to reassure students that these are just the singular and plural forms, and they should not let this throw them off. Remember, the longer the suffix that is added in Latin, the smaller the object usually is; so canaliculi are the smallest canals.
Abh Ber K Zool Anthr Ethn Mus Dresden 1896/7 Nr 6 Meyer, Säugethiere Celebes-Philippinen Taf IX
Abh Ber K Zool Anthr Ethn Mus Dresden 1896/7 Nr 6 Meyer, Säugethiere Celebes-Philippinen Taf X
Abh. Ber. K. Zool. Anthr. Ethn. Mus. Dresden 1896/7 Nr. 6 Meyer, Säugethiere Celebes-Philippinen Taf. XI
1 S c i u r u s t o n k e a n u s A. B. Meyer c. ¾ n. Gr. 2 S c i u r u s l e u c o m u s Müll. Schl. unter ⅓ n. Gr. 3 S c i u r u s r o s e n b e r g i Jent c ⅓ n Gr 4 S c i u r u s t i n g a h i A B Meyer c ⅗n Gr
1–2 P h l œ o m y s c u m i n g i Wtrh 3–6 C r a t e r o m y s s c h a d e n b e r g i (A B Meyer) n Gr
Abh. Ber. K. Zool. Anthr. Ethn. Mus. Dresden 1896/7 Nr. 6
Meyer, Säugethiere Celebes-Philippinen Taf. XIV
⅓–¼
Abhandlungen und Berichte des Königlichen Zoologischen und Anthropologisch-Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden Bd. VII 1898/99
Nr. 7
Säugethiere vom Celébes- und PhilippinenArchipel II
Sarasin von A. B. Meyer Anhang
J. Jablonowski: D i e l ö f f e l f ö r m i g e n
Tafelerklärung V
Alphabetischer Index VII
Addenda VIII
Einleitung 1
Primates
1. M a c a c u s m a u r u s F. Cuv. Taf. I und II 2
a c a c u s t o n k e a n u s n. sp.
4. Ta r s i u s f u s c u s Fisch.-Waldh. Taf. III Fig. 1–2 4
Chiroptera
5. P t e r o p u s w a l l a c e i G r. Taf. IV Fig. 1
6. P t e r o p u s a l e c t o Temm.
7. P t e r o p u s h y p o m e l a n u s Temm.
9. X a n t h a r p y i a m i n o r (Dobs.)
Ve s p e r u g o p a p u a n u s o r i e n t a l i s n. subsp. 14
19. Ve s p e r u g o m i n a h a s s a e n. sp. Taf. IV Fig. 3 14
20. Ve s p e r t i l i o m u r i c o l a Hdgs. 16
21. N y c t i n o m u s s a r a s i n o r u m n. sp. Taf. IV Fig. 4–6 und Taf. X Fig. 3, 4 und 28, und Taf. XI Fig. 2 und 2a
N y c t i n o m u s a s t r o l a b i e n s i s n. sp. Taf. X Fig.
19 und 30, und Taf. XI Fig. 6
Insectivora
22. C r o c i d u r a f u l i g i n o s a (Blyth)
Carnivora
24. P a r a d o x u r u s h e r m a p h r o d i t u s (Schreb.)
25. P a r a d o x u r u s m u s s c h e n b r o e k i Schl.
Rodentia
26. S c
42. C e r v u s m o l u c c e n s i s Q. G. 29
Marsupialia
43. P h a l a n g e r u r s i n u s (Temm.) 31
44. P h a l a n g e r c e l e b e n s i s (Gr.)
Anhang: D i e l ö ff e l f ö r m i g e n H a a r e d e r M o l o s s i von Dr. J. J a b l o n o w s k i , Assistenten am Museum. Hierzu
31
Taf. X und XI 32 [V] [Inhalt]
Tafel I M a c a c u s m a u r u s F. Cuv. vom Pik von Bonthain, Süd Celébes, mas sen. Circa ⅓ nat. Grösse
Tafel II Schädel von M a c a c u s m a u r u s F. Cuv. vom Pik von Bonthain, mas sen. 1 norma facialis, 2 norma lateralis, 3 norma verticalis, 4 norma basalis. ¾ nat. Grösse.
Tafel III 1–2 Ta r s i u s f u s c u s Fisch.-Waldh. von Nord Celébes. 1 mas ad., nat. Grösse; 2 juv., circa ⅔ nat. Grösse.
3 Ta r s i u s s a n g i r e n s i s A. B. M. von Siao, Sangi Inseln. Circa ½ nat. Grösse.
Tafel IV 1 P t e r o p u s w a l l a c e i Gr. von Nord Celébes. Nat. Grösse.
2 Kopf von Ve s p e r u g o p e t e r s i n. sp. von Nord Celébes. Doppelte nat. Grösse.
3 Kopf von Ve s p e r u g o m i n a h a s s a e n. sp. von Nord Celébes. Doppelte nat. Grösse.
4–6 N y c t i n o m u s s a r a s i n o r u m n. sp. von Central Celébes. 4 nat. Grösse. 5 Kopf in doppelter nat. Grösse, 6 Tragus in vierfacher nat. Grösse.
Tafel V S c i u r u s s a r a s i n o r u m A. B. M. von Central Celébes. 1 nat. Grösse, 2 ½ nat. Grösse.
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Tafel VI 1 M u s m u s s c h e n b r o e k i Jent. von Seite 23
Nord Celébes. Nat. Grösse.
2–10 M u s x a n t h u r u s Gr. von Nord
Celébes. 2–8 nat. Grösse, 9 und 10 circa fünffache nat. Grösse.
rechter Vorderfuss von unten rechter Hinterfuss von unten
Schädel in der norma lateralis
Schädel in der norma verticalis
Schädel in der norma basalis
linke obere Zahnreihe in derselben Orientirung wie der Schädel
linke untere Zahnreihe, desgleichen
Tafel VII 1 M u s c a l l i t r i c h u s Jent. von Nord
Celébes. Nat. Grösse.
2–10 M u s h e l l w a l d i Jent. von Nord
Celébes. 2–8 nat. Grösse, 9 und 10 circa siebenfache nat. Grösse.
rechter Vorderfuss von unten rechter Hinterfuss von unten
Schädel in der norma lateralis
Schädel in der norma verticalis
Schädel in der norma basalis
linke obere Zahnreihe in derselben Orientirung wie der Schädel
linke untere Zahnreihe, desgleichen
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Tafel VIII L e n o m y s m e y e r i (Jent.) von Nord Celébes. Nat. Grösse.
linker Vorderfuss von unten
linker Hinterfuss von unten
Tafel IX C r a u r o t h r i x l e u c u r a (Gr.) von Nord
Celébes. Nat. Grösse.
linker Vorderfuss von unten
linker Hinterfuss von unten
Tafel X und XI H a a r e d e r M o l o s s i . Seite 32 fg. Siehe nähere Erklärung Seite 53 des A n h a n g e s von J. J a b l o n o w s k i . [VII] [Inhalt]
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