Between Chaos and Control: The interface between land, sea, infrastructure and life.

Between Chaos and Control The interface between land, sea, infrastructure and life.

Watkin McLennan

Between Chaos and Control: The interface between land, sea, infrastructure and life A design thesis completed for the Masters of Landscape Architecture at The University of Melbourne, Melbourne School of Design Author: Watkin McLennan Supervisor: Gini Lee October 2018 2

Between Chaos and Control The interface between land, sea, infrastructure and life.

Watkin McLennan

Acknowledgments I would like to recognise the traditional owners of the land that is now the Western Treatment Plant, the Wathaurung people. Secondly, I owe great thanks to Gini for her help throughout this journey. Our chats helped me navigate through the abundant amount of information around this landscape. I would also like to thank my wonderful Claire for her warmth and calm. Also, thank you to my family who have alway been there for support. Finally, thank you to all those that contributed to the project. I was guided by several local experts along the way in this project. Their passion for birds, the farm, the water and the bay had great influence on this project.

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“Vision is not seeing things as they are but as they will be.”

— David Holgren, 2002.

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Contents

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Research Statement A Bird’s Eye View

10 12

The Farm

A Brief History Enriched Intertidal Traditional Response

24 28 30

Bay West Øresund

32 34

The Bay Expanded Coastline Literature Review Alive 29 Mile Rd Cut Stony Creek Backwash

36 38 40 42 44

Cocoroc Bird Park 2068 46 Mapping 50 Master Plan 52 Subtraction 54 Addition 56 Migration 58 Physical Testing 60 Physical Model 62 Terrain Evolution 64 Transverse Section 66

Bibliography

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9

Research Statement

As the sea rises intertidal zones must migrate landward or be squeezed to extinction. In Port Phillip Bay, a most valuable intertidal zone occurs by the Western Treatment Plant, south of Werribee.

Here, the intertidal landscape is the final step in the sewerage treatment train and the underpinning of an internationally recognized bird habitat.

Bay West, the proposed container port will bookend this intertidal zone and interfere with fragile coastal dynamics. In this design thesis, I explore alternative responses to sea level rise in the context of Bay West, in an effort to reinforce the qualities of the intertidal zone and infect the immensity of the infrastructure.

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A Bird’s Eye View

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Image source: www.nearmaps.com.au 13

A Bird’s Eye View

2009

2016

14

2010

2018

Image source: www.nearmaps.com.au

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A Bird’s Eye View

2010

16

2018

Image source: www.nearmaps.com.au

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A Bird’s Eye View

2010

2012

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“The coast is being hammered from the south. When ever there is a southerly, waves wash a bit more of the coast away.”

— K evin Gillett Melbourne Water, 40 years

2014

2018

Image source www.nearmaps. com.au

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A Bird’s Eye View

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Image source: www.nearmaps.com.au 21

A Bird’s Eye View

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Image source: www.nearmaps.com.au 23

The Farm

A Brief History The Western Treatment Plant was established in 1897 as the Metropolitan Farm at Werribee, “The Farm.” The Farm’s primary function was the processing of sewerage from a post gold rush Melbourne.

The site was chosen because of its proximity to the city and the sea - far enough away to avoid issues around smell and disease but not so far as to require excessive pipes and pumps. The site’s relative low rainfall was also seen as favourable.

Sewerage treatment technology in the late 19th century was simple. Paddocks were flooded with raw sewerage and the soil acted as a filter. Lush grass grew, fed by the effluent. Cattle and sheep would then graze the paddocks.

This process continued until a lagoon treatment system was introduced in 1936.

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Today 52% of Melbourne’s sewerage is treated across dozens of lagoons. This equates to 500 ML per day, and the Farm has the capacity to process 2000ML per day. The Farm produces outputs: biogas, biosolids, recycled water (suitable for irrigation) and class C water released into the bay.

The bio-processing of sewerage has led to the enrichment of the entire landscape and the evolution of a wetland ecosystem visited by international tourists and Siberian birds alike.

The site is a recognized RAMSAR wetland.

There have been more bird species recorded in the WTP than Kakadu National Park.

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The Farm

A Brief History 1000 BP Port Phillip Bay heads are blocked and the bay dries up to form Lake Phillip and the Nepean Bay Bar

1894 Town of Cocoroc Established.

Named the Wathaurung word for frog.

The town of Cocoroc with the Bay in the background.

Image Source: Victorian State Library

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1897

1921

The Werribee Farm begins processing Melbourne’s sewerage

1936

The Werribee Farm declared animal sanctuary

First lagoon sewerage treatment takes place

Cocoroc abandoned due to increased mechanisation at the Farm so fewer employees.

Major upgrades to WTP Hastings vs Bay West State Election issue

1973

Ramsar Wetland declared

1983

2004 2014

Infrastructure Victoria release “Securing Victoria’s Ports Capacity” and advocate for Bay West

May 2017

2055 Existing Port of Melbourne forecast to reach capacity.

2100 0.8-1.1 meter sea level rise, 10-15% of WTP at risk of inundation

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The Farm

Enriched Intertidal Low Tide Treatment Lagoon Freshwater wetland

Road/Seawall

Intertidal Salt Marsh

Tidal Bird Migration

Road provides easy access for birdwatchers

High Tide Treatment Lagoon Freshwater wetland

Shore birds roost during high tide

Road/Seawall

Intertidal Salt Marsh

Tidal Bird Migration

Road acts as final barrier between sea and lagoon

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Salt marsh brackish water

Foredune

Intertidal Mudflat Birds migrate to the mudflats twice daily at low tide for feeding

Surface muds oxidized Nutrient rich “Class C Water” enriches tidal mudflats, a turbo-charged bird habitat results.

Foredune

Intertidal Mudflat Bioturbation and bioirrigation aid nutrient cycling

Foredune and storm breached overwash Nutrient Infiltration Nutrient rich “Class C Water” discharged from WTP into Port Phillip Bay mixing zone

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The Farm

Traditional Response The Sea Wall

Disperses energy poorly

Intertidal disappears as seafloor is eroded by ever increasing wave energy

The Groyne

Groynes intercept sediment as its moved up the coast by longshore drift

Accretion occurs on the up current side of the groyne

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Higher energy waves reach shoreline

Increased suspended sediment in water reduces marine plants’ access to light.

Erosion of the intertidal occurs on the down current side of the groyne

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Bay West

Background Melbourne’s container ports are forecast to reach capacity by 2055. In May 2017, Infrastructure Victoria released a report, Securing Victoria’s Port Capacity, that recommended transitioning much of Melbourne’s container freight to a new location - Bay West, off shore from the Western Treatment Plant.

Key considerations mentioned by the report include: • Close to existing and future land-based infrastructure.

• Shallow basalt less prevalent in Werribee River channel.

• Island tethered to land disrupts existing land use less.

• Island gives opportunity for dredge material to be repurposed.

• Island means less environmental impact.

• Location may protect WTP from further wave attack.

• Location disrupts WTP mixing zone least.

The container port proposed would be 6 times bigger than Webb Dock with a 4km long quay line on the 600m wide container terminal island.

Furthermore, Infrastructure Victoria recommend that the port be built in three stages across a 20 year period.

d an

ay Qu

e ag or St

g in ag st

g in ad Lo

y tr en

0m 67

k uc Tr

m 60 er sf an Tr r ne ai nt Co ne Li

m 30

r ne ai nt Co

0m 24

m 75

k uc Tr

m 55

0m 50

Left: Webb Dock, Melbourne’s most advanced container terminal Right: Infrastructure Victoria’s Bay West Proposal

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Princes Freeway

Exi sti ng Rai l l ine

Ea st

il Ra

bo un d

d an

ad Ro

ro ad

Submerged Werribee River Channel

co rr id or

or id r r co

1 Rail Sidings 2

Shipping Channel and turning basin

Port services 3 Container Island built in 3 stages (4km x 600m)

Prop o West sed Ou t e Road rn Rin er g

1m

2m

5m

“Australia’s ports are a potential terrorist target given their central role in Australia’s economy. If the Port of Melbourne were put offline due to an attack Melbourne would stop.”

Murray Newton Corporate Relations, Port of Melbourne

N 1:100,000

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Øresund

Peberholm/Saltholm Bridges connect. The Øresund Link is a connection between two countries - Sweden and Denmark. The Link was completed in 2000, but planning begun shortly after Sweden joined the EU. Therefore the link was a physical symbol of their union with Europe.

The idea of a bridge across Øresund first came about in 1936. WWII delayed the realization of the idea. It was then brought up again in the 1960s, where the 1973 Oil Crisis foiled the plans once again.

These original concepts considered the use of Saltholm as a staging area for a Bridge and Tunnel.

Saltholm was also considered a suitable site for an

expanded Copenhagen airport. By the 1990s when the idea became a reality, Saltholm was considered too precious to transform in such a way. The legacy of the original bridge-tunnel concept stuck but an artificial island was built instead.

Peberholm compliments Saltholm. In this cute coupling of names, the public perception of the project is influenced and the value of Saltholm elevated. The naming is a way to create compassion and meaning for both Peberholm and Saltholm alike.

The naming is an example of inherent aesthetics.

Furthermore, the design of Peberholm was done with the creation of an ecology in mind.

Crescent Coastline

The sleek, constructed crescents of Peberholm are in contrast to Saltholm’s ever changing chaotic coastline.

Dredge utilization Dredge material from the tunnel was used to construct the island.

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COPENHAGEN

n de og Dr

el nn Tu SALTHOLM

PEBERHOLM

d un es r Ă˜

ge id Br

Image Source: http://krestenhillerup.dk/category/fotografi/page/12/

Successional ecosystem

No planting or seeding was carried out on Peberholm.

The designers anticipated an emergent successional ecosystem. This created uncertainty but also flexibility. The topography supported this decision, being inspired by regional topography.

Microtopography Peberholm mirrors a post glacial landform, subtle mounds between wet and dry. This is in contrast to Saltholms edited landform for agriculture, with drainage channels and fence lines.

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ee ib rr We

The Bay

r ve Ri

Expanded Coastline

Western Treatment Plant

y Ba

st We

Geelong

Corio Bay

Swan Bay

The Rip

This map depicts the expanded coast line.

The space between 2100 Projected Sea Level1, 15m water depth, water courses and flood zones.

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Church, John A., Peter U. Clark, Anny

Cazenave, Jonathan M. Gregory, Svetlana Jevrejeva, Anders Levermann, Mark A. Merrifield et al. “Sea-level rise by 2100.”

Science 342, no. 6165 (2013): 1445-1445.

Melbourne

Yarra

Hobsons Bay

5m

10m 15m

The Great Sands

Mud Island

“Ever since they dredged the heads people have noticed increased water flow, increased erosion and more fish and sea life in the Bay. Its a big place the Bay, but its all connected.”

— N ick Loschiavo Senior Precinct Planner, Parks Victoria 37

The Bay

Literature Review As Melbourne grows, the urban fabric wraps around its bay - Port Phillip. 4.5 million people live within the Bay’s 9694km2 and the 333km length of coastline hosts some of the most valued recreational, ecological and commercial land in the city.

The Bay has a rich history, but is also relatively young as a body of water. During the last ice age, up to 10,000 years ago, sea levels were 100m below current levels. The Bay was dry, it was apart of a delta system created by Melbourne’s rivers. As sea levels rose the Bay flooded but the river channels remained, submerged. However, 1000 years ago, the Bay once again dried up. This time, the Nepean Bay Bar was responsible. Holdgate1 suggests storms may have blocked the entrance to the Bay. Without the free flow of water between Bass Straight and the Bay, the Bay evaporated into a lake, Lake Nepean.

This event ended once again as the Bay Bar broke, flooding the land.

Today the Bay continues to flood albeit by a different process. Due to rising temperatures and melting ice the Bay’s water level has risen 20cm in the last 140 years. It is forecast to rise an additional 80-110cm by 21002.

The Bay is alive. Birds, fish, seals, seaweed, sea grass and other sea-creatures live in the Bay’s dynamic waters. Nitrogen and other nutrients are a constant external input to this living system. The organisms and physical dynamics are in a constant dance called the nitrogen cycle. This dance is delicate but vital to the water quality of the Bay. Over half of the Bay’s nutrient loading is from the Western Treatment Plant3. Most of these nutrients are processed within the intertidal and beyond by benthic ecosystems within a few hundred meters of the shore.4 This processing system is inextricably linked to the intertidal.

The intertidal locks up sediment and therefore preserves water clarity. This allows for marine vegetation to photosynthesis and therefore cycle the incoming nutrients.

Bay West is located off the shore of the Western Treatment Plant, within this most valuable nutrient cycling region and most vulnerable coastline of Port Phillip Bay.

Holdgate, G. R., B. Wagstaff, and S. J. Gallagher.

“Did Port Phillip Bay Nearly Dry up between 2800 and 1000 Cal. Yr BP? Bay Floor Channeling Evidence, Seismic and Core Dating.” Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 58, no. 2 (March 2011): 157–75.

1

Marine & Coastal Environment Group Geoscience Australia, 2011, http://www.ozcoasts. gov.au/climate/Map_images/Melbourne/mapLevel2.jsp

2

Harris, G., G. Batley, D. Fox, D. Hall, P. Jernakoff, R. Molloy, A. Murray, B. Newell, J. Parslow, and G. Skyring. “Port Phillip Bay Environmental Study Final Report,” 1996.

3

Hirst, Alastair J, Randall Lee, and Douglas Greer.

“Developing Tools for the Management of Nutrient and Sediment Interactions with Sea grass Ecosystems in Port Phillip Bay: Broad-Scale Modeling.”

Unpublished, 2015. https://doi.org/10.13140/ rg.2.1.4114.5200.

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Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, Victorian State Government, “Port Phillip Bay Environmental Management Plan 2017-2027,” 2017

Harris, G., G. Batley, D. Fox, D. Hall, P. Jernakoff, R. Molloy, A. Murray, B. Newell, J. Parslow, and G. Skyring. “Port Phillip Bay Environmental Study Final Report,” 1996.

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The Bay

Alive

Port Phillip Bays Nutrient processing system

Seagrass Microphyto -benthos

Seaweed

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Reef

Observations from the Western Treatment Plant. The intertidal is the link from land to the marine.

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The Bay

29 Mile Rd Cut In 2010, segments of a road were excavated to introduce tidal waters to an old treatment lagoon in the WTP’s south. This was done to create critical habitat for the endangered Orange Bellied Parrot.

Islands were created to isolate the Orange Bellied Parrot from predators.

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High Tide

Orange Bellied Parrots feeding in a coastal salt marsh. Their vibrant plumage seems to be camouflage amongst the halophytes.

The birds are critically endangered with fewer than 200 remaining in the wild.

Image source: http://www.birdlife.org.au/ bird-profile/orange-bellied-parrot

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The Bay

Stony Creek Backwash In 1986 15,000 mangroves were planted in the Stony Creek Backwash.1 The site had never had mangroves growing in it and its muds were polluted. Several of the mangroves dies soon after planting but enough survived. Today, 30 years later, an established mangrove has established.

Mangroves, although not currently growing at the WTP are an important intertidal vegetation. They stabilize shorelines by locking in sediment between

their roots. In Western Port Bay mangroves have been measured to accumulate 3mm of sediment per year.2 Furthermore, there is a close relationship between salt marsh and mangroves. Salt marsh consistently grows on the landward side of mangroves above the high tide mark.3 At Stony Creek, salt marsh has established serendipitously.

High Tide

Mangrove roots trap sediment causing accretion of up to 3mm per year.

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1

“Mangroves.” n.d. Accessed October 27, 2018.

https://www.portplaces.com/mangroves/.

2

Kirkman, H, Paul I Boon, and Western Port Seagrass

Partnership. 2012. Review of Mangrove Planting Activities in Western Port 2004-2011. Mount Waverley, Vic.: Western Port Seagrass Partnership.

3

Saintilan, Neil, and Robert J. Williams.

1999. “Mangrove Transgression into Saltmarsh Environments in South-East Australia.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 8 (2): 117–24. https:// doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00133.x.

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Cocoroc Bird Park

2068

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The year is 2068 The Cocoroc Bird Park - A park for birds, for the intertidal, at the interface between people and nature, land and sea, infrastructure and ecology. At the Cocoroc Bird Park above all else, the intertidal landscape, critical to the wellbeing of hundreds of bird species, is carefully considered.

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Cocoroc Bird Park

2068

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“My favourite is the bartailed godwit. It is about the size of a whiteboard eraser and this little guy flies non-stop all the way from Siberia to Summer in Werribee” — N ancy Joyce Birdwatching Enthusiast

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Cocoroc Bird Park

Mapping

Intertidal Landscape 2068 N 1:175,000

Salt Marsh Mud Flat

Water Qualities Primary Treatment Lagoons Secondary Treatment Lagoons N 1:175,000

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Ecological Treatment Lagoons Effluent Mixing Area

Access Mixed use trail Road N 1:175,000

Access to water Attraction

Land Use Cocoroc Bird Park Sewerage Treatment N 1:175,000

Container Port Agriculture

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Cocoroc Bird Park

Master Plan

le tt Li r ve Ri

le t Mi Cu 29 ad Ro

Lake Borrie

The Spit

201 8 C oas tli ne

Treated Sewerage Mixing Zone

Cocoroc Bird Park utilises three strategies for working with and creating the intertidal; subtraction, addition and migration. These strategies are based on observations of the present coastline, how the intertidal operates and the important relationships.

SUBTRACTION

N

1000 52metres

ADDITION

MIGRATION

Out e Rin r Metr g R oad opolit an

“How do we protect this marvelous place? We need people to love it and the best way for people to love the place is for them to visit.”

— J ohn Barkla Western Treatment Plant Biodiversity Conservation Advisory Committee Chairman

Princes Fr eeway

Cocoroc

Mixed use trail Public Road / Sea Barrier

ee ib r r We

r ve Ri

Werribee South

Sewerage Treatment

Werribee Foreshore Reserve Migration Benches

Cocoroc Spit Park Cocoroc Bay

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Cocoroc Bird Park

Subtraction Based on an intervention already underway in the western treatment plants south. Roads that currently create a grid network separating treatment lagoons from each other and the Bay are subtracted. Cuts are made to open up the lagoons to the tidal flux of the bay and transform freshwater wetland lagoons into tidal salt marsh.

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Cocoroc Bird Park

Addition Inspired by beach nourishment of Werribee South Foreshore Reserve. Dredge spoil from maintaining Bay West’s shipping channel is used to create Cocoroc Spit Park. A park where people can swim, walk, ride and experience the immensity of the container port up close.

View Spot

Dredge Spoil from shipping channel maintenance

Swimming Pier

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Migration Bench

Mainland

Public Marina

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Cocoroc Bird Park

Migration Migration consists of three habitat benches that slope between the 2m deep marine environment to 4m above mean sea level, the proposed height of the container port.

Cocoroc Spit Park nd sla ras g / nd dla Woo

TR

Cocoroc Marina LS

ve ro ng Ma

t Sal h s r a M

l da ti t r a te In Mudfl

Cocoroc Bridge Section

Cocoroc Bridge Section

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Western Treatment Plant

Migration Benches

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Cocoroc Bird Park / Migration

Physical Testing I tested different micro topographies to see how they evolved with inundation and wave attack. I tried several different forms including; linear, concave crescent, convex crescent, serrated, terraced and several staggered variations.

These different forms led me to discover that a staggered form with subtle dips and rises choreographed the hypercomplex erosion process. In a similar vain to the River Aire naturalization project in Switzerland, the terrain changed in a predictable yet unknowable way.

Small creeks, slacks and dunes began to form analogous to the micro topography found around the spit where 20cm of elevation change has huge implications for the habitats that form.

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I used a transparent container, sand a water. I was able to add water gently to simulate riseing sea level then add wave energy using a trowel.

Linear

Staggered form #1

Staggered form #2

Convex Crescent

Staggered form #3

Serrated

Terrain evolution observations

One of the staggered forms stood out because it seemed to consistently lead to the formation of small humps and pools connected by creeks. This reminded me of the microtopography observed around the 29 Mile Road cut and The Spit Wildlife Reserve.

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Cocoroc Bird Park / Migration

Physical Model

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Cocoroc Bird Park / Migration

Terrain Evolution

Instead of the classic conception of the coastline that fusses over length, here the migration bench favours width.

This generous 1200m long 1:200 slope gives the intertidal room to migrate landward as the sea rises.

The topography is terraced. This mimics foredunes which create a barrier between twice daily inundation, characteristic of mudflats and mangroves and less frequent inundations required by salt marsh.

Longitudinal Section (LS) The different intertidal habitats are closely linked to the tidal flux and therefore subtle changes in elevation have large implications. The gentle slope of the migration bench allows for these different vegetation communities to find their niche and migrate landward as the sea rises.

Marine (below low tide)

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Intertidal Mudflat (low tide - mean sea level)

Mangrove (mean sea level - mean high tide)

Salt Marsh (mean high tide highest tide)

A staggered form with subtle dips and rises choreographs the hypercomplex erosion process.

High and low points to create wet and dry areas analogous to the micro topography found around the spit where 20cm of elevation change has significant implications for the habitats that form.

Longitudinal Section 1:1900

Woodland/grassland (terrestrial)

Extruded Longitudinal Section 1:1900 (hor), 1:190 (vert)

Highest tide +0yrs

Highest tide +50yrs

Highest tide +100yrs

Highest tide +150yrs 65

Cocoroc Bird Park / Migration

Transverse Section (TS)

Nankeen Kestrel

Red-necked Stint Welcome Swallows

Rises are dryer and less salty

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Dips become brackish ponds and slacks

Microtopography erodes and evolves in an predictable but unknowable way.

200 Orange Bellied Parrots remain outside captivity. Victorian salt marsh is their wintering home.

“I love paddling near a winding coast where there is plenty to look at. The city is completely different from the water. As if you’re looking down from a plane you can get a real sense of how and why the city is laid out the way that it is.”

— J ock Gunn Kayak Enthusiast

Brolgas Pied Cormorant Orange Bellied Parrots Pelicans

Fairy Penguins

Pied Oystercatcher Fairy Tern

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Bibliography

Church, John A., Peter U. Clark, Anny Cazenave, Jonathan M. Gregory, Svetlana Jevrejeva, Anders Levermann, Mark A. Merrifield et al. “Sea-level rise by 2100.” Science 342, no. 6165 (2013): 1445-1445.

Clément, G., Morris, S., and Tiberghien, G. A., “The Planetary Garden” and Other Writings. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.

Corner, James. “Terra Fluxus.” In The Landscape Imagination: Collected Essays of James Corner 1990-2010, edited by James Corner and Alison Bick Hirsch, 305–18. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.

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Dam, Torben Ebbesen. “Reading Constructed Landscapes.” In The International Symposium on Water Landscapes 2009, 93–104. KIT Scientific Publishing, 2010.

Inaki, Echeverria, and Gutierrez Margarita. “Soft Engineering.” In Design in the Terrain of Water, edited by Anuradha Mathur and Dilip da Cunha, 170– 77. University of Pennsylvania: Applied Research+ Design Publishing, 2014.

Infrastructure Victoria, Advice on securing Victoria’s Port Capacity, May 2017.

Kirkman, H, Paul I Boon, and Western Port Seagrass Partnership. 2012. Review of Mangrove Planting Activities in Western Port 2004-2011. Mount Waverley, Vic.: Western Port Seagrass Partnership.

Latz, Tilman. “Engineered Waters.” In Design in the Terrain of Water, edited by Anuradha Mathur and Dilip da Cunha, 178–85. University of Pennsylvania: Applied Research+ Design Publishing, 2014.

“Mangroves.” n.d. Accessed October 27, 2018. https://www.portplaces.com/mangroves/.

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Marine & Coastal Environment Group Geoscience Australia, 2011, http://www.ozcoasts. gov.au/climate/Map_images/Melbourne/mapLevel2. jsp

Harris, G., G. Batley, D. Fox, D. Hall, P. Jernakoff, R. Molloy, A. Murray, B. Newell, J. Parslow, and G. Skyring. “Port Phillip Bay Environmental Study Final Report,” 1996.

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Hill, Kristina. “Shifting Sites.” In Site Matters, edited by Carol Burns and ANDREA KAHN, 130–55.

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Prominski, Martin. “Andscapes: Concepts of Nature and Culture for Landscape Architecture in the ‘Anthropocene.’” Journal of Landscape Architecture 9, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 6–19. https://doi.org/10.10 80/18626033.2014.898819.

Hirst, Alastair J, Randall Lee, and Douglas Greer. “Developing Tools for the Management of Nutrient and Sediment Interactions with Sea grass Ecosystems in Port Phillip Bay: BroadScale Modeling.” Unpublished, 2015. https://doi. org/10.13140/rg.2.1.4114.5200.

Holdgate, G. R., B. Wagstaff, and S. J. Gallagher. “Did Port Phillip Bay Nearly Dry up between 2800 and 1000 Cal. Yr BP? Bay Floor Channeling Evidence, Seismic and Core Dating.” Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 58, no. 2 (March 2011): 157–75.

Holmgren, David. “Permaculture: principles & pathways beyond sustainability.” 2002.

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Raxworthy, Julian R., and Jessica Blood. The MESH book: landscape/infrastructure. RMIT Publishing, 2004.

Saintilan, Neil, and Robert J. Williams. 1999.

“Mangrove Transgression into Saltmarsh Environments in South-East Australia.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 8 (2): 117–24. https://doi. org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00133.x.

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One should never deny the context of a manmade landscape. If a landscape is manmade, do not try to hide it, but express it. — Roel van Gerwen, 2004

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“Fixed designs are only understood as a necessary means for communication. Just like a photograph of a fire, static images are merely a reference to many processes that change over time.”

— Iñaki Echeverria & Margarita Gutiérrez, 2014.

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