History Magazine Vol 1
Hello everyone,
Welcome to the first edition of the school’s history magazine. Students in Year 12 have been contributing some amazing articles about a variety of monumental events and people that have shaped factors of the world we live in today.
Hopefully, you will be able to find an article that piques your interest and maybe even encourages you to do some historical research yourself.
Enjoy reading!
Articles: Michaelangelo and the Sistine Chapel
The Golden Age of Piracy
The Queen of Jhansi
The Fellowship of the Trenches
Forced
to Leave
The Siege of Constantinople
MICHELANGELO AND THE SISTINE CHAPEL In 1508, Michelangelo Buonarroti was already a renowned sculptor, having created masterpieces like the Pietà and the David He considered himself primarily a sculptor and had little interest in painting. Therefore, when Pope Julius II asked him to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo was reluctant and even tried to refuse
The commission was originally meant to involve a simpler design with geometric patterns and depictions of the Twelve Apostles, as at this time ceilings tended to be painted with more simple designs However, Michelangelo argued that this design was too modest for such an important space. He proposed a far more ambitious vision: a sweeping narrative of the Biblical story of creation, from the separation of light and darkness to the creation of Adam and Eve and the Great Flood. Despite his limited experience in fresco painting, Michelangelo was determined to tackle this enormous project.
Michaelangelo began by painting scenes of Noah over the entrance door and moved towards the altar in the direction opposite to that of the sequence of the Biblical stories. The first figures and scenes naturally show the artist reusing devices from his earlier works, such as the Pieta, since he was starting on such an ambitious work in an unfamiliar medium. These first figures are relatively stable, and the scenes are on a relatively small scale. As he proceeded, he quickly grew in confidence. Investigations of the technical processes used show that he worked more and more rapidly, reducing and finally eliminating such preparatory aids like complete drawings and incisions on the plaster surface The same growing boldness is apparent in the free, complex movements of the figures and in their complex expressiveness. The work was gruelling Michelangelo had to build elaborate scaffolding that allowed him to paint while lying on his back or bending at awkward angles. This took a severe toll on his body; he wrote in a poem to a friend:
“I’ve already grown a goitre from this torture, hunched up here like a cat in Lombardy… My paintbrush above me dribbles paint, making my face a richly decorated ceiling.”
On top of the physical strain, Michelangelo faced political intrigue and rivalries Some historians believe the project was offered to Raphael initially, rather than Michelangelo. However, believing Michelangelo was inexperienced in painting (specialising in sculpture), Raphael suggested Michelangelo compete this project, so to ruin his reputation. Instead, Michelangelo turned the challenge into one of the most celebrated achievements in art history, proving himself as an artist worthy of respect Despite their tensions, Michelangelo and Raphael likely influenced each other. Raphael visited the Sistine Chapel and adjusted his style after seeing Michelangelo’s work Michelangelo, though critical of Raphael, might have felt challenged to maintain his artistic dominance.
After four years of work, in 1512, Michelangelo completed the ceiling. The unveiling was met with awe and acclaim, silencing any potential critics. The ceiling’s centrepiece, The Creation of Adam, with its iconic depiction of God and Adam almost touching fingertips, remains one of the most famous images in Western art. Though many of you may have seen images of this work, you may have not noticed why the two subjects do not meet. In the work, God’s finger is stretched to the absolute maximum, however, Adam’s finger has the last contracted phalanx; if
he attempted to stretch more, he would have been able to reach The meaning of this is to convey that God is always present, but the decision to seek him belongs to man.
Even after completing the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo continued to clash with Pope Julius II, known as the “Warrior Pope.” Michelangelo was famously outspoken and once shouted at the pope over a delayed payment. Legend has it that Julius II threatened to have him thrown off the scaffolding, but Michelangelo’s talent always earned him the pope’s grudging respect. This story captures Michelangelo’s resilience and brilliance, turning a challenge, he did not want, into one of humanity’s greatest artistic achievements
By Kiana
The Decline of the Golden Age of Piracy A chronological evaluation of how shifting political priorities, advancing naval power, and coordinated investigations and punishments against pirates brought the Golden Age of Piracy to a decisive but violent end.
By Ilina
The Golden Age of Piracy was an era spanning from 1650 to 1720 in which more than 5,000 pirates were active, notable figures of which include ‘Calico’ Jack Rackham, Henry Morgan, and the notorious Blackbeard (otherwise known as Edward Teach). This age is called as such because the “Golden Age” refers to the fact that piracy flourished during this time, where multiple circumstances made piracy particularly viable and profitable – and as a result, it became a relatively popular profession Although piracy flourished in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea in the 1800s, with there still being pirates active today in some parts of the world, the Golden Age ended in the early 1720s onwards.
Conflicts like the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) and the peace treaties they ensued pushed the Golden Age of Piracy into a steep decline. During the War of the Spanish Succession (painted above), the concluding Treaty of Utrecht left many privateers – who were licensed by governments to attack enemy ships – unemployed, and as a result, many turned to piracy. Although this initially swelled the ranks of active pirates, it pushed European nations to impose stricter measures on piracy as increased numbers of pirates caused the pillaging of more ships, putting a greater strain on trade all across Europe. In response, the nations responded by reinforcing their own navies, offering greater protection to merchants and giving them resources to hunt down and punish pirates, thus causing numbers of pirates to decline rapidly. th
In the early 18 century, pirates were especially active in the Atlantic, where triangular trade routes flourished, carrying manufactured goods from Europe to Africa, slaves from Africa to North America, and plantation crops from North America Back to Europe. The disruption of the trade of these goods threatened the economic stability of many countries, especially Great Britain. In response, colonial authorities-initiated crackdowns to solve the problem of piracy In September 1717, King George I of England issued the Proclamation for Suppressing of Pirates, which meant that any pirates who surrendered (which they were given a year to do) would be royally pardoned and allowed to keep his goods. This weakened the networks that had sustained the Golden Age of Piracy and
reduced morale among pirates, contributing to its downfall, as many pirates, including notable figures such as Benjamin Hornigold, surrendered and retired from piracy in fear of punishment
After the one-year timeframe offered to pirates to surrender, the Proclamation allowed for severe punishment of pirates who were hunted down. Early in the Golden Age, some pirates received a pardon if caught, especially if they were young men or minor members of the crew. However, the crime of piracy grew harsher as the Golden Age progressed, ultimately almost always a death sentence by public hanging by the end of the Age. Other punishments victims of piracy faced when captured included lengthy prison sentences, ceremonies of public humiliation, or transportation to work in the dangerous conditions of African mines This harsh deterrence of pirates contributed significantly to the decline of the Golden Age of Piracy by reducing the number of active pirates, also undermining their morale and cohesion.
In 1717, the British government appointed Woodes Rogers, a former privateer, as the royal governor of the Bahamas The capital of the Bahamas, Nassau, was considered a secure haven for pirates during the Golden Age – the pirate population grew to over 2,000 and was home to notable figures such as Blackbeard (illustrated on the left). This lawless area quickly became a thriving area for not only pirates, but former slaves, escapees, and mercenaries Governor Rogers’ arrival in these pirate headquarters in 1718 abruptly ended its role as a pirate stronghold as he granted pardons to those pirates who wanted it and then set out to violently capture and punish the pirates who refused to surrender. With Rogers driving out the pirates, the pirates were increasingly unable to find safe refuge, forcing them into open conflict with the stronger British naval forces which Rogers had called in Within a few years, these naval forces were able to completely destroy this former pirate haven, with the remaining pirates there being killed in battle or captured and hanged, causing a dramatic fall in pirate ranks and contributing to the decline of their Golden Age
By the 1720s, the crackdown on piracy had become more violent, resulting in the captures of notable pirates such as Blackbeard and Bartholomew Roberts (illustrated on the right) Blackbeard was shot five times and cut 20 times by sword before he fell in November 1718. His capturer, Lieutenant Maynard, beheaded Blackbeard and then put his head on the prow of his ship as a brutal warning to other pirates, showing the violence towards the end of the Golden Age of Piracy. Bartholomew Roberts, another key pirate leader, was killed in action in February 1722, shot in a battle with a pursuing British warship off the Guinea coast of Africa The severity of the threat of capture against the pirates was so severe that to avoid his corpse being captured and caged, Roberts instructed his men to dispose of his body at sea. The deaths of these highprofile pirate leaders acted as immense factors in the decline of the Golden Age.
The Queen of Jhansi The story of the Queen of Jhansi, also known as Rani Lakshmibai, is an inspiring tale of determination, patriotism and courage in Indian history. She was one of the leading figures in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and became a symbol of resistance against British imperialism. Her legacy continues to inspire, representing the spirit of India’s struggle for Freedom against the British Empire.
She was born on November 19, 1828, in Varanasi and grew up in a progressive household. Her father raised her like a son. She received training in swordsmanship, horse riding and military tactics, which were unusual skills for a girl of her time. She went on to marry Maharaja Gangadhar Rao
Newalkar who was the ruler of Jhansi and became Rani Lakshmibai. They adopted a son after the death of their biological child. However, disaster struck when the Maharaja passed away in 1853.
Following the death of her husband, the British East India company attempted to take possession of Jhansi under Lord Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse which was a policy that allowed the British to seize control of princely states that did not have a direct male heir. Therefore, although Rani Lakshmibai made formal appeals to protect her kingdom, the British dismissed her efforts and annexed Jhansi in 1854.
When the Indian rebellion of 1857 began, she rose as one of its most prominent leaders. She took command of Jhansi and assembled an army of both men and women to stand against the British forces. Her leadership was defined by remarkable military skills and relentless courage She led her troops into battle herself, inspiring them through her fearless example. She fought valiantly but was forced to flee to Kalpi to regroup with other rebel leaders
In June 1858, she made her last stand at the Battle of Gwalior. She led her troops into battle against the British whilst disguised as a man. Historical accounts describe her fighting with unmatched fearlessness into the heart of the conflict on horseback Despite her bravery, she was fatally wounded whilst fighting and passed away. Despite her defeat, her sacrifice left a lasting legacy on India’s struggle for freedom Even her opponent, British officer Hugh Rose acknowledged her courage stating, “Here lay the woman who was the only man among the rebels”. Her legacy transcends her time as she is remembered in Indian literature and art as a symbol of bravery and resistance. She remains a source of inspiration for both men and women, exemplifying resilience, leadership and selflessness Her story remains a powerful testament to the transformative power of courage and conviction. In India’s struggle for freedom, she stands as a lasting symbol of the nation’s unyielding resistance.
By Heer
The Fellowship of the Trenches: Tolkien and Wilfred Owen By Sofia What do hobbits have in common with war poets? Admittedly, not much. However, connections are found in the most unlikely places Although Tolkien and Wilfred Owen never met, their work features shared influences, and more recently, an even stronger link was discovered between the two writers, regarding a particular mental hospital in Edinburgh.
Tolkien graduated Oxford in 1915 then enlisted in the army and joined the Lancashire Fusiliers. The First World War affected him deeply and surfaced occasionally in his writing; The Dead Marshes and Mordor are often said to be influenced by the destruction he witnessed at the Battle of the Somme. Although he was adamant that his work should not be taken allegorically, Tolkien’s experiences were inevitably reflected in his writing, albeit unconsciously. In contrast, Owen made a conscious effort to face the horrors of the trenches head on, both in his poetry and in reality. However, accused of cowardice by his commanding officer, he was hastily shut away in 1917 in Edinburgh’s Craiglockhart mental hospital It is here that the lives of Tolkien and Owen curiously intersect.
During his time at Craiglockhart, Owen became the editor of the hospital magazine, the Hydra, for six issues in late 1917. It was in the Hydra that his poems first appeared in print as a result of encouragement from Siegfried Sassoon, who, despite his blatant disdain for the hospital (he called it ‘Dottyville’ in his letters), also contributed a number of poems to the magazine. These magazines are a unique record of life at Craiglockhart, reporting on meetings, hobbies, lectures, and entertainments (Digital copies can be read here: https://portal.sds.ox.ac.uk/projects/Publications of War The Hydra/204174 ) Most issues of the Hydra survived All but three, which were feared lost forever
A schoolfriend of Tolkien also spent time at Craiglockhart. George Henry Bonner, who was sectioned on the 30 of November 1917, edited the Hydra for the first three months of 1918. Although Tolkien denied him a place in his Barrovian Society (Tolkien’s inner circle. Members were the first to read his first ever ideas about Middle Earth), he remained a focal point for Tolkien researchers due to his involvement in the early period of Tolkien’s life. In 2003, Tolkien biographer John Garth sought to research Tolkien’s early life, and began to investigate Bonner, who, being a relatively close friend of Tolkien and also a successful journalist, was bound to have kept records on the subject
Family records seemed a dead end, and it was not until 2009 that Garth was able to track down Bonner’s son Although he had some of Bonner’s papers, no personal correspondence with Tolkien had survived What was discovered lurking in his attic, however, were two of the three missing issues of the Hydra These contained extensive information about life at the hospital and included fragments of previously undiscovered poetry by Wilfred Owen. These issues of the Hydra have proved invaluable to Wilfred Owen researchers, and so, by coincidence, research on Tolkien led to unlikely discoveries about Wilfred Owen nearly a hundred years later These issues have since been added to the Oxford Digital Archives, and now there remains only a single missing issue of the hospital magazine hiding somewhere in the world This simply goes to show that decades later, new connections are being formed between people long dead, a testament to the unifying power of writing throughout the course of history.
Forced to Leave: Idi Amin’s 1972 Expulsion of Uganda’s Asian Community By Avni
Idi Amin, the military dictator of Uganda from 1971 to 1979, is infamous for his brutal regime, marked by widespread human rights abuses and economic mismanagement One of the most controversial and devastating decisions of his rule was the expulsion of Asians from Uganda in 1972. This event not only altered the demographic and economic landscape of Uganda but also had far-reaching effects on the expelled community and the countries that received them.
Background
By the 1970s, Uganda had a significant population of South Asians, primarily of Indian descent Many of them were descendants of workers brought to East Africa during British colonial rule to build railways and support the colonial administration Over time, they became a prominent business class, dominating Uganda’s trade, commerce, and small industries Despite their economic contributions, they faced resentment and hostility from sections of the African population and leadership, who viewed them as outsiders monopolising wealth
The Expulsion
In August 1972, Idi Amin issued a decree giving approximately 60,000 South Asians 90 days to leave Uganda. The expulsion targeted individuals of Indian descent, many of whom held British citizenship, as part of Amin’s campaign to "Africanise" Uganda’s economy. He accused Asians of economic exploitation and claimed they were sabotaging Uganda’s development. Amin claimed to be acting on divine inspiration, reportedly stating that God had told him to expel them. The move was chaotic and brutal. Asians were forced to leave behind businesses, homes, and possessions, with little or no compensation. Many faced harassments, violence, and looting during this time
Impact on Uganda
The expulsion had severe consequences for Uganda’s economy. The Asian community had played a vital role in commerce and trade; their departure left a void that the regime attempted to fill by redistributing their businesses and properties to Ugandan nationals. However, many of the new owners lacked the expertise to manage them, leading to economic decline, shortages, and mismanagement.
Impact on Expelled Asians
The expelled Asians dispersed across the world, with many settling in the United Kingdom, Canada, and India. The UK received the largest number of refugees, as many held British passports. Despite initial struggles, the community rebuilt their lives, excelling in business, education, and other fields. They have since been credited with significant contributions to the economies and societies of their host countries.
Legacy
The expulsion of Asians is remembered as a tragic episode in Uganda’s history and a stark example of ethnic scapegoating. While Idi Amin justified the move as a step towards economic liberation for Indigenous Ugandans, it highlighted the dangers of populist policies driven by prejudice and xenophobia.
After Amin’s fall in 1979, some Asians returned to Uganda, reclaiming their businesses and properties However, the scars of this expulsion remain a reminder of the human cost of divisive policies
The Siege of Constantinople
The Ottoman siege of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, which had lasted for 1,123 years Constantinople had stood as a symbol of the Byzantine Empire’s strength and the centre of Orthodox Christianity The siege proved to be a great victory for the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Mehmed II, who transformed the city into the Ottoman capital and renamed it ‘Istanbul ’
By the mid-15th century, the Byzantine Empire had become extremely weak in comparison to its past glory The city's population had decreased from hundreds of thousands at its peak to around 50,000. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire was expanding rapidly. In February 1451, Mehmed II, at the age of 19, inherited the Ottoman throne. Although many doubted him due to his youthful age, he was determined to capture Constantinople and make it the capital of his growing empire.
This was strategic due to its location between Europe and Asia, which would allow Mehmed to control important trade routes that would benefit and strengthen his empire.
To achieve this, Mehmed spent two years preparing for the siege, assembling a massive army of over 80,000 soldiers and investing in new military advancements One of Mehmed’s most crucial preparations was when he appointed a Hungarian engineer named Orban to create massive cannons capable of firing 1,200-pound stone balls over a mile, the largest of their kind at the time. These cannons were key weapons in breaching the walls of Constantinople, which had been considered impenetrable and had protected the city for centuries. The Ottomans also built a fortress, Rumeli Hisarı, on the European side of the Bosporus Strait in 1452. This later allowed them to cut off supplies to Constantinople and tighten their stranglehold on the city, ensuring that no reinforcements could reach the Byzantines The siege began on April 6, 1453, with Ottoman forces surrounding the city by land and sea. Mehmed’s navy of approximately 100 ships blockaded the Golden Horn, but Byzantine defenders initially prevented them by using a large chain to block access to the harbour. Inside Constantinople, Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos assembled 7,000 defenders, including 2,000 mercenaries. Mehmed’s army outnumbered the Byzantines. Constantinople’s famous triple-layered Theodosian Walls had withstood numerous sieges before, but this time the Ottomans brought a variety of advanced weapons, including Orban’s cannon. For nearly two months, the Ottoman forces bombarded the city’s walls relentlessly. Despite being outnumbered, the defenders fought bravely, using innovative tactics such as Greek fire to destroy Ottoman ships and equipment, and repairing damaged walls when it was dark to remain hidden Meanwhile, Mehmed’s fleet blockaded the city from the sea, cutting off supplies and reinforcements. For weeks, Ottoman artillery bombarded the Theodosian Walls,
creating breaches that defenders worked tirelessly to repair while simultaneously defending against the Ottomans. Despite this, the defenders were outnumbered and outgunned.
On May 29, 1453, after 53 days of relentless bombardment, Mehmed launched a decisive final assault. By night, troops of Ottoman soldiers launched a series of intense attacks. After hours of fierce fighting, they breached the Theodosian walls near the Gate of St Romus, allowing them to break through. It is reported that Emperor Constantine XI fought to the death alongside his soldiers, refusing to flee. The city had fallen, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans had taken control of the city, and Mehmed II entered Constantinople later that day, declaring it the new capital of his empire.
After the conquest, Mehmed allowed his troops to loot the city for a single day instead of the customary three, aiming to limit destruction. He quickly began rebuilding the city and restoring order. He then entered the city and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, renaming it Istanbul Hagia Sophia, the grand cathedral of the Byzantine Empire, was converted into a mosque, symbolizing the shift in power.
Mehmed worked to repopulate and rebuild the city by relocating Muslims, Christians, and Jews from other parts of the empire to settle there
The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the medieval world and the beginning of the Renaissance, as many Greek scholars fled to Western Europe, bringing with them ancient texts that empowered a golden age of learning. It also disrupted trade routes between Europe and Asia, which prompted European explorers to search for alternative paths, ultimately leading to the Age of Exploration
By Aliza