Horticulture Training Manual

GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE IN

HORTICULTURE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING MANAGEMENT

A FARMERS’ TRAINING HANDBOOK

FOREWORD

The idea is driven by the realization that a smallholder farmers deal in diverse enterprises as a coping mechanism to diversify their livelihoods. Often horticulture production is that “alternative enterprise” as majority of the farmers grow one type of horticulture crop (vegetables & fruits) either for home consumption or alternative sources of income.

Like other agricultural enterprises, horticulture production bears the impact of climate change often causing considerable financial losses to farmers and driving the farmer out of production. Compared to other enterprises the horticulture crop too attracts the greatest food safety concerns due to high level of perishability that easily leads to microbial contamination and use of external inputs such as fertilizers and agrochemicals for yield increases and crop protection.

This handbook is intended to support smallholder farmers growing in horticulture enterprises to adopt practices to conserve the environment and cope with climate change to sustainably increase production and returns while ensure their safety and that of their customers in handling and consumption of the products from use of agrochemicals.

Gerald Makau Masila Executive Director EAGC

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The development and publication of this handbook has been made possible by the support provided to Eastern Africa Grain Council (EAGC) by the Global Affairs Canada (GAC) through the Trademark East Africa (TMEA) Supply Chain for Resilience, Relief and Recovery for cross-border food security project. Our gratitude to the two organizations for the supports that has enabled EAGC to produce the handbook that will be a valuable tool in increasing knowledge on Food safety and sustainability of horticulture enterprises.

EAGC gratefully acknowledges the guidance and inputs of the Executive Director Mr. Gerald Masila, by way of content review and the efforts of the authorship team led by Mrs. Penina Gichuru supported by Mr. Kipyegon Kipkemei for putting together the content.

The role of Mr. Kimwaga Mhando in the overall coordination of the project, the design work and reviewing of the content is highly recognized as is the efforts of Ms. Jacinta Mwau in the initial coordination of the team for knowledge products which led to the development of a training manual that has evolved into this publication.

Special recognition and appreciation to Wanja Mbugua for the time and efforts invested in the design work of the publication.

ABBREVIATIONS

CWE Current World Environment Journal

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GAP Good agricultural Practices

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

MOALF Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries

SHEP PLUS Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment & Promotion project for Local & Up-scaling

INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables sub-sector is an important subsector in the east Africa economies contributing between 20% and 36% to the agricultural GDP of East African economies. With their high nutrition and returns per unit, whether per unit of production area or per unit of weight in the market compared to many other staple crops, fruits and vegetables are a promising avenue for improved nutrition, increased incomes, and unemployment and ultimately increasing food security and poverty reduction for both rural and urban communities.

The EAC region has high potential for fruits and vegetable production and trade due to conducive climatic and soils conditions and availability of water for irrigation. However, this potential is far from being realized due to the challenges impeding the value chain that include.

- High post-harvest losses

- Low production due to low use of inputs

- Indiscriminate use and use of inappropriate inputs endangering human lives

- Fragmented markets

Whereas the fruits and vegetables have immense health, nutrition and economic benefits, their production and trade has been an area of concern in relation to food safety and environmental pollution including contamination of water bodies attributed to growing conditions, poor handling and heavy use of inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals. As the economic cost of food borne diseases can be significant and life threatening,

it is paramount that producers and handlers of fruits and vegetables practice Good Agricultural practices to protect their themselves, customers and the environment while ensuring sustainable fair returns for their investments.

This training manual provides highly summarized guides of good practices in the vegetable and fruits production and marketing for use by farmers, trainers, and other actor in the value chain. The key information presented covers principles for:

- Food safety

- Crop agronomy

- Climate change adaptation

- Personal protection

- Prevention post-harvest losses

OBJECTIVE OF THE MANUAL

The objective of the training manual is to provide a simple guide for farmers and other value chain actors to adopt good practices in production, harvesting, handling, storage and transport of fresh produce to achieve.

- Increased production

- Improve the safety and quality of food and agricultural products

- Mitigate the impact of climate change

- Access to market

- Reduce post-harvest losses

- Ultimately increase income

1. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are on agricultural processes and practices that address productivity, input efficiency, food safety and environmental sustainability. GAP should be considered at all stages of the value chain from seed selection to marketing and to some extent consumption as summarized below

- High yielding

- Early maturing

- Disease resistance

- Water efficient

- Market preference and demand

01 SEED SELECTION

- Ecological suitability

- Slope of the land

- Soil fertility

- Drainage

- Avoid site of same previous crop

- Timely ploughing

- Minimum soil disturbances

- Soil erosion management of sloppy field

- Flat nursery bed with fine tilth

- Soil rich in organic matter

- Raise seedling in trays where possible

- Protect seedbed from livestock

- Transplant on wellwatered fields

- Transplant at the right stage and spacing

- Use mulching on growing crops.

- Avoid surface runoff by terracing.

- Irrigate where possible using drip system.

- Practice conservation Agriculture practices.

05 WATER MANAGEMENT

- Use proper soil management to maintain fertility and moisture

- Use recommended fertilizers and rate

- Apply fertilizer at the right stage and soil moisture to optimize uptake

- Properly prune, stake or trellish where necessary

- Scout for pests and disease always

- Apply recommended chemicals at the right time

- Read instruction before chemical application

- Wear protective clothing before spraying

- Clean spray equipment with soap and water

- Do not pour cleaning water near water bodies

- Harvest at the right maturity period

- Use clean containers

- Avoid contamination, and damage

- Store in a cool dry protected facility

- Avoid storing on bare ground

2. MARKET IDENTIFICATION

The starting point for successful horticulture enterprise should always be a good understanding of market. The following information will be required to determine what the farmer can sell in terms of crop, quantity, and quality to produce:

• Period of peak demand for the crop

• Price of the crop at peak demand

• Crop variety with highest demand

• Supply requirements (quantities and frequency)

• Mode of delivery to market (delivery to traders or collected from the farms

• Quality of market requirements

• The source of current supply

• Potential buyers and terms and modes of payment

As a good practice a farmer should always produce for a known market to get better returns and minimize losses

Causes of the contamination

Contamination may result from any of the following:

BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS

• Contamination from livestock ManureE. coli

• Lack of personal hygiene by workersCovid-19

• Poor storage handling e.g. for chili

• Contaminated irrigation water

CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS

• Wrong pesticides

• Incorrect dosage/ concentration

• Poor calibration of sprayers

• Spray drifts

• Spillage of chemical on produce

• Fuel spillage

• Use of contaminated containers

• Inadequate cleaning containers and equipment between uses

• Inappropriate use of produce containers to store pesticides, fertilizers, or oil

PHYSICAL CONTAMINANTS

• Dirty packaging material

• Harvested with the crop

• Inadequate inspection of field equipment and packing facilities

• Discarded rubbish

• Inappropriate working clothes

Source: FAO 2010

3. QUALITY AND FOOD SAFETY

3.1 WHY BE CONCERNED ABOUT QUALITY AND SAFETY OF FOOD

i. Better market access and prices leading to more income

ii. To meet the consumer demand

iii. Avoid food borne diseases and food poisoning

3.2 QUALITY

Food quality refers to all properties of and attributes of a food item that meet the customers preferences. The food quality attributes are determined by consumer’s. The quality attributes may be external or internal attributes and includes attributes such as size, colour, shape, defects, gloss etc while internal attribute may include taste, texture, odour.

Food quality is always defined by the consumer. Therefore, it is paramount that the farmer seeks to understand consumer preferences before engaging in production of any crop.

3.3 FOOD SAFETY

Food safety refers more to the chemical properties of the food that determines whether the food is harmful or not when consumed by human. Food safety relates to practices and processes of food handling that ensure proper hygiene and eliminates contaminants to make food safe for human consumption. Food can be contaminated by:

i. Disease causing organism such as those causing Cholera, Aflatoxins, Salmonella, etc

ii. Toxic chemicals pesticides including fertilizers, fungicides & pesticides and heavy metals in the following ways:

> Chemicals through the roots e.g fertilizers

> Chemicals sprayed on leave and fruits, pesticides, foliar feed

> Contamination during harvesting and post-harvest handling

4. CROP MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES

The management practices of the horticulture crop depend on the stage of crop. Each stage has its own set of management practices that are critical to ensure good yields and sustainability of the production system.

4.1 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION

As a good practice selecting production site should aim to achieve high and sustainable production, ensure minimal environmental degradation, improved the availability and uptake of water and nutrients and reduced pest and diseases build up. Key considerations for site selection include:

- Slope of the land- on sloppy sites incorporate soul erosion control measure e.g terracing

- Agro-ecological zone- Grow crops that are agro-ecologically suited

- Water source

- Previous crop grown on the site- ensure crop rotation

- Soil fertility – Use compost and fertilizer as recommended by soil tests

4.2 SOWING AND SEEDLING PRODUCTION

Seeds: The aim at this stage is to have a adequate healthy and vigorous seedlings at planting date to achieve good yields. Seeds variety should be carefully selected to meet the market preference, high yields, water efficiency and resistance to pests and diseases. Good seedling propagation is critical for high yields and good quality. The quantity of seeds to plant will be determined by the area to be panted and required spacing

Nursery: The nursery should be established on a flat area protected from direct sunlight, the prevailing winds, and livestock. The soil should ideally be healthy, rich, and flat with fine tilth.

Source: MOALD/SHEP PLUS

Seedling trays

- The nursery should be established on a healthy, rich, and flat bed with fine tilth in an area protected from direct sunlight, the winds, and livestock and human traffic.

- Sowing in seed trays on prepared substrate a mixture of compost and sand is recommended. This technique has the advantage of:

> Avoiding planting infested soils or exhausted soils

> Healthy vigorous seedlings

> Little water required and low susceptible to water stress

> Roots remain intact during transplanting

- Seedlings should be transplanted at the recommended stage and spacing (check the label of the seed packet)

- Right spacing minimizes pest and disease incidences, eases farm operations such as weeding, and has the overall effect of improved productivity

- Avoid transplanting immature and overgrown seedlings as they will have poor take off

- Line planting/transplanting using a string makes field operations easier

BEST TRANSPLANTING PRACTICES

- Transplanting should be into a ready prepared planting holes or farrows of recommended depth

4.3 GOOD PRACTICES IN LAND PREPARATION

Land preparation is critical for the following:

- Removal of weeds and crop residues

- Achieving fine tilth for seeding

- Management of soil borne pests and diseases and

- Soil nutrient recycling

Land preparation methods should consider methods that ensure soil conservation, water resource management and environmental conservation. Good practices in the land preparation include:

Tillage practices

• Timely ploughing and exposure of pests to desiccation

• On slope land that is liable to wash away in heavy rains – especially when the soil is bare – terraces should be constructed to prevent this soil erosion

• Minimum movement of soil to check on soil erosion and spread of pests and diseases.

• Soil preparation should enable the root system to spread to a depth of 40 to 60 cm for shallow root crops to ensure good water and mineral supply to the plant (loose, fine soil).

• Levelling to prevents the accumulation of water that could suffocate the plants or cause the spread of diseases.

• Fields must be fenced to prevent livestock from entering the field

• Hoeing during weeding must be very shallow to avoid damaging roots near the surface

a) Mulching: Mulching is the protective layer of material that is spread on top of the soil between crop plants. Mulches can be decaying weeds, grass, rotten manure, or compost. Mulches have many benefits, they:

> Protect the soil from erosion.

> Reduce compaction from the impact of heavy rain.

> Conserve moisture, reducing the needs of the irrigation.

> Prevent weeds growth.

> Maintain soil temperature.

> Keep fruits and vegetables clean.

> Prevent disease spores splashing up on to the crop.

> Break the cycle of some pests that pupate in the bare soil, for example leaf miners.

Source: cwejournal.org

4.4 MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY

Good practices related to soil fertility improvement include maintaining and improving organic matter, appropriate crop rotation, manure application, rational mechanical and conservation tillage, maintaining soil cover, minimizing soil erosion losses by wind and water, and application of organic and inorganic fertilizers in amount and timing, and by methods appropriate to agronomic, environment and human health requirements. The practices include:

- Incorporating crop residue into the soil as a means of nutrient recycling

- Maintaining soil organic matter: This may be achieved through application com post, mulching and incorporating reside to the soil to increase nutrients, soil porosity, aerations and moisture retention as well as moderate soil temperature

- Minimum tillage: Minimum tillage, zero and conservation tillage are possible solutions in land preparation to maintain soil fertility.

- Crop rotation: Planting crops with different requirements in rotation, such as leguminous and cereals, intercropping deep-rooted crops with shallow-rooted ones.

- Soil Aeration – adequate ground cover and mulching to provide soil microorganisms and plant roots with oxygen to breathe.

- Drainage: Too much water can cause serious damage to the soil and plants; by applying mulching, adding humus to the soil and ridging can help prevent water logging.

- Protect the land from soil erosion and degradation through terracing, conservation tillage, planting bunch grasses, tree hedges, shelter strips and tree crops such as fruit trees with cover crops.

Methods:

> The crop residues should be incorporated to a depth of 30 cm at least 2 months before planting to allow decomposition

> Residue should be chopped into smaller pieces to hasten the decomposition process

> Do not incorporate reside from diseased materials

Source: MOALF/SHEP PLUS

4.5 FERTILIZER APPLICATION:

Many types of fertilizers are available in the markets from basal fertilizer, topdressing fertilizer and foliar feeds providing different nutrients requirements to the plants. Good practice in fertilizer application should ensure that:

- Fertilizer application is based on the recommendations from soil analysis. A soil analysis should be conducted every three years.

- Fertilizers must be applied appropriately in terms of: timing; type and quantity; and the method

- Inorganic fertilizers (DAP, CAN, TSP etc.) should thoroughly be mixed with the soil to avoid scorching of plant or leaching and runoff by rain water.

- Application should be in small doses applied at intervals.

- Fertilizers should not be applied during periods of heavy rain, waterlogging or when they cannot be immediately taken up by the plant e.g in dry conditions

- Fertilizers should be stored separately from food, seeds, pesticides, and animal feeds.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN SOIL FERTILITY AND CROP MANAGEMENT

> Fertilizer application must maximize the use of organic manures

> Avoid contamination of water bodies.

> Apply chemicals using recommended application techniques

> Surplus agrochemicals and used containers must be stored or disposed of in ways that protect soil, water and biological habitats.

> Crop residues are used or disposed in ways that strengthen natural habitats including incorporating into the soils.

4.6 WATER MANAGEMENT

The aim of soil management it is to ensure that the plant has adequate moisture throughout the growth period to ensure high yields of good quality produce. Efficient water management can be achieved by:

• Use of irrigation to supplement rainwater. Drip irrigation is usually recommended to achieve maximum water use by plants.

• Maximize water infiltration and minimize unproductive outflow of surface water from crop fields.

• Surface water harvesting techniques to direct runoff water into the farm.

• Manage ground and soil water by proper use, or avoidance of drainage where required.

• Improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter content to increase soil water retention.

• Establish permanent cover such as mulching to reduce evaporation.

4.7 GOOD PRACTICES IN MANAGING PESTS AND DISEASES

4.7.1

Integrated Pest management

Good Agricultural Practices recommend use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to manage pest and diseases and avoiding over-reliance of agrochemicals. IPM incorporates many different methods and practices which include cultural, biological, physical and chemical methods.

Cultural methods: involve practices such as:

> Crop rotation

> Sowing date

> Trap crops

> Destruction of crop residue

> Tilling time

> Resistance varieties.

Biological control: involves the use of natural enemies such as predators and parasites to suppress the pest infestation.

Physical methods involves killing or preventing pests from reaching the crops by physical means such nets, insect traps, trap crops and hand picking etc.

Chemical methods use chemicals to kill the pests and prevent or cure diseases. This may be manufactured pesticides or natural extract from plants such as neem and pyrethrum

A farmer in Majani Laikipia showing a waterpan for water storage

5. SAFE USE OF AGRO-CHEMICALS

5.1 SELECTING A CHEMICAL:

In selecting agrochemicals the farmers need to consider the following:

- Effectiveness for the condition or pest its being applied for

- Safety to human and animals

- Method of application

- Pre-harvest intervals

- Number and frequency of application

- Cost of the product

Note: Always use a pesticide for the purposes or crops that it was approved for, and in correct doses, application method and interval.

5.2 GOOD PRACTICE IN APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES

Pesticides application has been linked to environmental degradation, public health and food safety concerns and should be used as a last resort. When using pesticide consider the following:

• Chemical Applicators must first protect themselves by ensuring they are dressed in the recommended application gear before handling the chemicals.

• All is important to follow label instructions for the mixing, loading and handling of the specific pesticide being used and the actual conditions of use.

• Do not spray pesticide during high winds, high sun and when it is raining to avoid drifting into surrounding areas and crops.

• The amount of pesticide concentrate needed to treat a specific site should be calculated.

• Special attention should be paid to spray equipment, pumps and nozzles used to apply pesticides.

• To minimize the potential for over or under treatment, accidents and spills, equipment should be calibrated for accuracy and checked frequently for malfunctions.

• Spray equipment should be thoroughly washed with soap and water.

• Erect warning signs on recently treated fields.

5.3 PERSONAL PROTECTION DURING APPLICATION

• Personal protection equipment (PPE) should be worn during mixing, filling and cleaning/ maintaining the sprayer.

• Protective included gloves or plastic bags for hands, goggles for eye protection, cotton overall, waterproof apron or large plastic bag to cover the front of the body, boots or shoes that cover the feet, a hat, mask

• Remember to keep children, pregnant women, and animals at a safe distance during the spraying.

• While spraying, spray downwards of your body and move upwards on the crop to avoid touching or breathing the spray, move at a steady speed.

• Use water or soft brush to clean blocked nozzles, never blow into the nozzles or use the sharp stick, nail, or knife.

• The applicator should be knowledgeable in use and application pesticides.

• They should be aware of the dangers that can result from improper handling and use of the product.

• They also should be trained in the use of safety equipment and application devices

• Always have soap and water available to clean spilled pesticide off the skin.

• Field workers should be reminded that adverse health effects caused by pesticides are often not noticeable in the short term but can develop over time if exposure is not reduced.

• Sprayed field should be clearly marked to prevent people from entering until safe to do so.

• If pesticide is spilled on the skin or in the eyes, wash it off quickly with clean water.

Chemical applicator in protective gear

5.4 MANAGING TREATED FIELDS AND PRODUCTS

Cleaning and maintaining the sprayers

1. After use, all equipment should be carefully washed in soapy water and rinsed with clean water at the special designated area to avoid contamination.

2. Washing and the remains from spraying should be poured in a special designed soak pit; NEVER pour washing water into the rivers / streams or any other water body.

3. Cleaned sprayers should be kept in the safety store and personnel involved in the spraying must take a shower immediately.

4. Protective equipment should be inspected periodically and kept clean and in good condition.

5. Care should be taken not to remove the protective clothes or gloves until you are through with the washing.

a) Re-visiting the field: Some pesticide requires a time interval between the spray and visiting the field to allow chemical resides fall to acceptable level. Users of pesticides should ensure they read instructions to be aware of this waiting period. In instances where no such period is specified in the label allow at least 24 hours.

b) Pre-harvest intervals – (PHI): The label must specify, according to the product, the waiting period between the last spray and harvesting date. This period must be strictly observed so that the residue level does not exceed the acceptable limits.

5.5 PESTICIDE STORAGE

The pesticides should be:

• Under lock and key always

• Accessed by authorized adults only;

• Be Away from children, animals, and all water sources;

• Away from fire, direct sunlight, rain.

• Kept pesticides in their original containers.

• Not be kept near foodstuff or animal feeds

• Have clearly visible signs forbidding entry to the cabin where pesticides are stored.

• Never decant pesticides into beverage or oil bottles.

PRINCIPALLY ENSURE SAFE AND EFFECTIVE USE OF PESTICIDES BY:

• Wearing protective clothing,

• Using recommended pesticides and appropriate doses,

• Observed recommended re- entry and pre harvest

• Proper storage

• Cleaning of equipment and clothing used for pesticides application

• Ensure proper disposal of pesticides and pesticides containers

6. HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING

6.1 HARVESTING

Harvest and Post-harvest handling greatly influence the produce quality, shelf life and post-harvest losses. Fruits and vegetables must be harvested at the correct stage of maturity to maintain its quality and shelf-life. Prematurely harvested produce is highly susceptible to shrivelling and mechanical damage while over-matured produce may have poor cooking quality and fibrous be fibrous, Moreover, correct harvest techniques are essential in ensuring the integrity of harvested produce and preventing rejections. Wounding during harvest can provide entry points for pathogens, therefore causing decay.

Recommended good harvesting procedures

- Harvest the crop at the right time and weather conditions.

- Use clean harvesting containers.

- Handle the produce carefully to avoid damage-do not throw but gently place produce into container.

- Use correct equipment and harvesting techniques.

- Avoid behaviour that can lead to produce contamination and compromise food safety e.g stepping on produce, having contact with soil, handling chemical when harvesting or sneezing, urinating, or coughing near nonprotected fruit and vegetables.

6.2 STORAGE MANAGEMENT

- Do not store beyond the shelf life to avoid spoilage.

- Protect harvest damage by animal and human traffic.

- Keep commodity in cool dry facilities.

- Do not store harvested produce on bare ground.

REFERENCES

i. FAO, 2010: Good Agricultural practices (GAP) in Horticulture Production for Extension staff in Tanzania

ii. JICA 2016: General Horticultural Crop Production and Post-Harvest handling techniques GHCP&PHHT) 20; Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment & Promotion Project for Local and Up-Scaling (SHEP PLUS)

iii. Manjeet et al, 2020: Mulching techniques to conserve soil water and advance crop protection; Straw mulching in vegetable fig 16

iv. EAGC, 2020: !0 best practices in climate change mitigation ad adaptation in the grain value chain

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