The Impact of Blending Versus Separating Cultural Identities on Third Culture Kids: A Qualitative Analysis
Victoria Lopez de la Osa Franco
Supervised by Olivia Losiewicz, PhD Candidate
UCLA’s Anxiety and Depression Research Center
Abstract
Third culture kids (TCKs) are children who live in a culture that is not the culture of their parents (Pollock & Van Reken, 1999). They are faced with the challenge of navigating multiple cultural identities. Their lives are influenced by their parents’ culture, of which they may have limited first-hand experience, along with the culture(s) they are surrounded by. The result of the exposure to different cultures and mentalities develops into a unique “third” culture for these individuals. In this study, I explore how third culture kids (TCKs) navigate their multiple cultural identities and whether they blend or separate these cultures. For this study, I interviewed four TCKs about their lived experience of integrating their cultures. The interviewees in this study lived in one or two different countries other than their parents’ passport country. Through these interviews, I identified two different ways that the TCKs tried to resolve their two multiple cultural identities. Some of them integrated their cultural identity and others separated them. The results of this study indicate that TCKs who successfully blend their multiple cultural identities described a stronger sense of belonging Those who separated their identities also struggled with feelings of inauthenticity and insecurity, particularly in navigating complex social and cultural environments.
Literature Review and Background
The third culture kid (TCK) experience provides insight into how an internationally mobile childhood impacts cultural identity development and sense of self. TCKs are children who live in a culture that is not the culture of their parents (Pollock & Van Reken, 1999). They often have to navigate between different cultural worlds their family culture, peer culture, and school culture (Phelan & Davidson & Cao, 1991). The result of the constant exposure to different cultures develops into a unique “third” culture for the child. Increasingly, this “third” culture is further extended by the online global friendships students are able to maintain over time, long after they or their friends have moved to other places on the planet (Pollock & Van Reken, 1999).
TCK have a unique experience. TCK are different from immigrants as TCK move from country to country and do not settle in a single place. At the same time, they grow up expecting to return to their parents’ culture (which they may have limited first-hand experience with) and the culture (s) they have grown up surrounded by. With the flux of international business and an increasingly globally mobile population, the number of people living outside of their home countries has grown tremendously in the past twenty years (Magee, 2017), leading to more and more TCKs.
TCKs may develop a complex, blended cultural identity that does not fit neatly into one culture. They may struggle with questions of belonging and where "home" is. However, they may also face challenges with identity formation and grief from frequent transitions. TCKs' sense of identity and belonging is often more tied to relationships than physical places. They often develop early maturity, global mindedness, and cross-cultural skills (Fail & Thompson& Walker, 2004; Grimshaw & Sears, 2008; Greenoltz & Kim, 2009; Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011; Moore & Barker, 2012). Common characteristics of TCKs include openmindedness, flexibility, tolerance, and linguistic abilities. A notable example of a TCK is U.S.
President Barack Obama, who spent part of his childhood in Indonesia. Some are able to successfully manage transitions between these different worlds, while others find crossing boundaries hazardous or even insurmountable. They may feel most at home in transient international communities (Phelan & Davidson & Cao, 1991). They may also face challenges with identity formation and grief from frequent transitions.
Students who struggle to cross cultural boundaries may disengage from school. Their academic performance can suffer when school culture conflicts with family or peer culture. Classroom and school features can impact students' ability to navigate between cultural worlds. Supportive teachers and inclusive environments can help students bridge differences. The ability to navigate multiple cultural worlds is not tied to academic achievement and varies among all students. Understanding how students move between cultural worlds can help educators create more inclusive environments that support diverse students (Phelan & Davidson & Cao, 1991).
TCKs are often caught between integrating their multiple cultural identities into a cohesive whole or compartmentalizing these identities to fit different cultural contexts.
Cultural identity focuses on the elements of values, value systems, and perspectives that shape an individual’s way of life. The concept of cultural identity is particularly relevant for TCKs whose cultural identity is influenced by exposure to multiple cultures throughout their developmental years. The dilemma of developing a cultural identity is deeply rooted in the fluidity of their cultural experiences, which can create a fragmented self-concept if not adequately managed.
The integration of cultural identities allows TCKs to create a hybrid identity that incorporates elements from all cultures they have been exposed to, potentially fostering a sense of belonging and continuity across different cultural settings. However, this integration can also be challenging as it may require TCKs to navigate conflicting cultural norms and
values, leading to internal conflicts and a sense of being “in-between” cultures. On the other hand, compartmentalization, where TCKs switch between different cultural identities depending on the context, can provide immediate adaptability but may result in a fragmented self-concept and difficulties in maintaining a consistent sense of self over time. This ongoing struggle to reconcile these identities can lead to confusion, anxiety, and a diminished sense of belonging, which are critical factors influencing their psychological well-being and social functioning.
The decisions TCKs make regarding the management of their cultural identities have significant implications for their overall happiness and well-being. Research suggests that TCKs who manage to integrate their multiple cultural identities into a coherent whole tend to experience higher levels of self-esteem, life satisfaction, and emotional stability (Mosanya & Kwiatkowska, 2021). This positive outcome is linked to the development of a stable and consistent self-concept, which helps TCKs navigate the complexities of their multicultural experiences with greater ease and confidence. Integration fosters a sense of coherence and continuity in their identity, which is crucial for mental health and well-being.
Conversely, TCKs who choose to compartmentalize their identities may face challenges in achieving the same level of emotional well-being. Compartmentalization can lead to identity fragmentation, where the individual feels disconnected from one or more aspects of their cultural identity. This disconnection can manifest in feelings of isolation, confusion, and a lack of belonging, ultimately leading to lower levels of happiness and increased vulnerability to mental health issues. The struggle to maintain a consistent sense of self in the face of diverse and sometimes conflicting cultural expectations can result in chronic stress, which negatively impacts overall life satisfaction and happiness (Mosanya & Kwiatkowska, 2021). Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing interventions
and support systems that can help TCKs navigate their identity choices in ways that enhance their psychological well-being and promote a more positive, integrated sense of self.
Theories of Cultural identity
In the study of cultural identity, various theories explore how individuals navigate and reconcile the different cultural influences they encounter throughout their lives. Erikson’s psychosocial development theory and Social Identity Theory (SIT) by Tajfel and Turner offer insights into how identity is formed and maintained within different social and cultural contexts. These theories are particularly relevant when examining the experiences of TCKs, who grow up straddling multiple cultures due to their globally mobile upbringing. The way TCKs blend or separate their cultural identities can significantly impact their sense of self and overall well-being.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erikson’s psychosocial theory views adolescence as a critical period for identity formation, particularly the conflict of “identity versus role confusion.” The concept of “identity development” is used to describe the ongoing process of forming a coherent sense of self, which persists throughout the adult years. Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a useful framework for understanding the identity development of TCKs. The unique challenges and opportunities faced by TCKs, such as navigating multiple cultural identities and dealing with frequent transitions, can significantly impact their psychosocial development because their identity is a source of confusion. Understanding these dynamics can help in supporting TCKs as they form their identities, ensuring they successfully integrate their diverse experiences into a coherent and fulfilling sense of self (Sokol 2009).
The Social Identity Theory
The Social Identity Theory (SIT) is an interactionist social psychological theory of the role of self-conception and associated cognitive processes and social beliefs in group
processes and intergroup relations (Van Reken, 2011). Originally introduced in the 1970s primarily as an account of intergroup relations, it was significantly developed at the start of the 1980s as a general account of group processes and the nature of the social group (Mckeown, Reeshma, Ferguson, 2016). The experiences of TCKs can be well understood through the lens of SIT. TCKs navigate complex social identities, balancing multiple cultural affiliations, and constantly renegotiating their sense of self depending on context. While this can lead to a rich, multifaceted identity, it can also pose challenges, such as feelings of alienation or identity confusion. Social Identity Theory helps explain how TCKs’ cultural identities are formed and maintained through their interactions with different cultural groups and the ways in which they perceive and categorize themselves and others. This helps them adapt and maintain a sense of self across diverse environments (Van Reken, 2011).
Impact of Cultural Identity on Well-being
Cultural identity plays a significant role in shaping an individual's sense of happiness and well-being. It provides a framework for understanding oneself and one's place in the world, influencing values, beliefs, and social connections. People who feel strongly connected to their cultural heritage often experience a greater sense of belonging and purpose. In the same way it makes them feel better about themselves and their surroundings. This connection can serve as a source of strength and resilience during challenging times. However, cultural identity can also be a source of conflict, particularly in diverse societies where different cultural norms may clash.
The impact of cultural identity on happiness can vary depending on the individual's circumstances and environment. For those living in multicultural societies, navigating multiple cultural identities may lead to increased stress and identity confusion (Baumert & Becker & Jansen & Köller, 2023). Conversely, it can also foster adaptability and a broader worldview. Cultural practices and traditions often provide a sense of continuity and stability,
contributing to overall life satisfaction. However, rigid adherence to cultural norms may sometimes limit personal growth and self-expression, potentially affecting happiness (Gamage & Dehideniya & Ekanayake, 2021).
Ultimately, the relationship between cultural identity and happiness is complex and multifaceted, influenced by numerous factors. One important factor is the level of acceptance and recognition of one's cultural identity within the broader society. When individuals feel their cultural background is respected and valued, it can significantly enhance their sense of belonging and self-esteem (Latif, 2020). Conversely, experiences of discrimination or marginalization based on cultural identity can lead to decreased happiness and mental health issues (Pascoe & Richman, 2009). The ability to integrate aspects of different cultures, known as cultural hybridity, can also contribute to personal growth and increased life satisfaction, allowing individuals to draw from diverse perspectives and experiences. TCKs exemplify the complex interplay between cultural identity and happiness. Growing up in multiple cultures, TCKs often develop a unique cultural identity that blends elements from various backgrounds. This can lead to increased adaptability and a broader worldview, potentially enhancing their overall happiness. However, TCKs may also struggle with feelings of rootlessness and a lack of belonging, which can impact their well-being. The ability to navigate and integrate multiple cultural identities becomes crucial for TCKs in fostering a sense of happiness and fulfillment. As societies become increasingly interconnected, the ability to navigate diverse cultural contexts becomes a valuable skill. This cultural agility can contribute to greater happiness by enabling individuals to form meaningful connections across different groups and adapt to various environments. However, it also underscores the need for support systems and resources that help people maintain a strong sense of self while embracing cultural diversity (Radu, 2023).
The Present Study
One limitation of research on third culture individuals is that most studies have been done with adults, when, in reality, the root of the problems of these adult TCKs may result from the impact of both childhood and teenage experiences. The purpose of this study is to explore how either blending or compartmentalizing multiple cultural identities affects the happiness and well-being of TCKs. For this study, I interviewed four TCKs about their lived experience of integrating their cultures. The participants in this study lived in one or two different countries other than their parents’ passport country. In this study, I will explore how TCKs in Monaco manage their cultural identities whether by blending them into a cohesive whole or maintaining separate cultural personas and their levels of happiness and life satisfaction.
Research Design
For this study, I recruited individuals through personal networks. Once participants agreed to do an interview, they were sent an information form that involved a description of what the purpose of the study was, the right to voluntarily withdraw at any point, and the protection of confidentiality. I selected students with different ethnicities, though threequarters of the interviewed students live in Monaco, primarily because of the cosmopolitan nature of the region, reflecting over 140 nationalities. Several national communities number in the hundreds, including, for example, Belgian, Swiss, German, and American communities. All recorded files were deleted once the interviews were transcribed, and all data files were deleted at the conclusion of the research. Also, no names are used below. The analysis of the participant interviews brings an in-depth look into the experiences of the four interviewed participants and how they navigate their cultural identities. The goal of the analysis was to identify core themes from the interviews related to the process of cultural blending and adaptation.
Participants
The participants’ selection was based on two main criteria. The first criterion is that participants had to be over 18 years of age The second criterion is that they had to live outside of the passport or their parents’ passport country for a minimum of two years. The group of four participants represent a socio-economically privileged group who all moved as children because of their parents’ career choices. The four TCKs interviewed speak seven languages fluently: English, Russian, Swedish, Spanish, Italian, Kazakh, and French. The participants speak an average of 3.8 languages each, with four participants speaking four languages fluently. A description of each of the participants is provided below.
Participant 1
Participant 1 was born in Russia to a Kazakh father and a Russian mother. They lived in Russia for five years before relocating to Monaco, driven by Russia’s economic challenges and Monaco’s tax benefits. Despite having lived in Monaco longer, Participant 1 maintains a strong connection to their Russian heritage, which they consider their primary cultural identity. Early on, they adapted to Monaco’s language and culture with the help of French cartoons, though they still feel more aligned with Russian people as they share similar values.
Participant 1 says they navigate a blend of Russian, Kazakh, and European cultures, often feeling the need to adapt their behavior based on their social interactions. For example, during a class debate on the USSR, they found themselves defending a Russian perspective, shaped by their family’s viewpoints, while feeling the cultural divide with Western Europeans. This automatic need to adapt to different cultural contexts has made them question their authenticity, though they report that this does not significantly impact their overall happiness. Their parents have encouraged them to assimilate into French culture to avoid exclusion, but, in moments of conflict, they tend to align more with their Russian identity. As
a TCK, they value the multilingual abilities they have gained, speaking French, Russian, English, and some Spanish, which they view as beneficial for future professional opportunities. They feel more understood within Russian circles, and they plan to reconnect with both their Russian and Kazakh roots by spending time there for education.
Participant 2
Participant 2 is 18 years old. Their mother is from Sweden and their father is connected to Italian and New Zealand culture. They have lived their entire life in Monaco, where they were born and raised. Despite being exposed to multiple cultures, Participant 2 feels most connected to their Swedish heritage, as they spend summers and Christmas holidays in Sweden. Their mother enforced speaking Swedish at home, while their father encouraged Italian, resulting in a mixed cultural household.
Participant 2 identifies as an international person with a broad worldview. They observe key differences between Swedish and Italian cultures, noting that Swedes are often seen as “distant and reserved,” while Italians are “open and friendly.” For instance, in Sweden, it is customary to split the bill at meals, whereas in Italy, social interactions are more generous. Participant 2 adapts their behavior based on the culture of the country they are in, ensuring they align with local customs and social norms. Although they speak both Swedish and Italian fluently, Participant 2 feels a bit insecure when in Sweden or Italy because they do not speak as effortlessly as the locals. They find it easier to interact with international people who share their perspective. Proud of their diverse cultural background, Participant 2 does not feel the need to separate their cultures, except for an instance in Turkey where they avoided speaking Swedish due to political tensions.
As a TCK, Participant 2 speaks and understands multiple languages, including Swedish, Italian, French, Spanish, German, Norwegian, and English. However, they feel that no single language fully belongs to them, given their exposure to many from an early age. To
connect more deeply with their Scandinavian heritage, they plan to study in Sweden, further exploring their Swedish identity.
Participant 3
Participant 3 is 18 years old, with a Danish mother and an Italian father. Though their family has connections to several countries, they feel a strong sense of belonging to Spain, where they spend a lot of time. Additionally, they lived in New York for a year due to their father's work and spent the first two years of their life there. Participant 3 grew up in London from ages 2 to 18, and they are now planning to study in Spain, which further deepens their connection to this cultural environment. They consider all these countries their home.
Participant 3 has found that, over time, they have adapted to the cultures and routines of each country they have lived in. They carry aspects of these cultures with them wherever they go, integrating them into their everyday life. However, when their friends from different countries meet, they sometimes feel uncertain about how to navigate the situation, especially if their friends do not get along due to cultural differences, resulting in a sense of discomfort for them. On the other hand, when their friends do get along, they feel a great sense of joy, as their “two worlds” come together in a positive way.
In terms of separating their cultural identities, Participant 3 often finds themselves thinking a lot about which cultural attitude to adopt in different settings. For instance, in Spain and England, social interactions and attitudes are very different, which can make them feel conflicted. They sometimes avoid mentioning aspects of one culture, like their English customs, around their Spanish friends for fear they may not understand. While their family successfully blends the best aspects of each culture, Participant 3 finds it challenging to do the same, often feeling disappointed when others do not fully understand their cultural perspective. This makes them feel like they have to choose one cultural identity over another, though they acknowledge that both will always be a part of them.
In their reflections, Participant 3 believes that having multiple cultural identities has been largely positive, allowing them to understand people better and gain a broader view of the world. They see their experiences as enriching and believe that their multicultural background has helped them adapt to different situations. Although they occasionally feel uncomfortable when immersed in only one culture for an extended period, they ultimately feel grateful for their TCK experience. It has enabled them to see the world from various perspectives and has contributed to their personal growth.
Participant 4
Participant 4 is 19 years old and holds Spanish and Italian passports. They have lived in Monaco their entire life. They identify strongly with Italian, Spanish, and French cultures, though they feel a slightly greater connection to their Italian heritage as Italian is spoken at home. Participant 4 sees cultural identity as the customs and traditions they follow, and they naturally blend their multiple cultural backgrounds. When spending time with friends from different cultures, such as Spanish, they tend to integrate both Italian and Spanish traditions, believing it shows respect and makes their friends feel included. They also have friends from different cultures such as Arab culture and view adapting to other cultures as a sign of respect.
Participant 4 feels happiest when blending their cultural identities, as it reflects how they live daily. Although they are comfortable separating their cultures for a short time, such as during holidays, they find it harder to maintain this separation for extended periods. At times, they follow Italian traditions more closely than Spanish ones, which they do not mind unless it conflicts with their values, which rarely happens. They believe blending cultures makes them feel more accepted and true to themselves, and they feel uncomfortable if others think they are being inauthentic.
Their family naturally blends cultural identities, which comes easily and brings them happiness. While their friends come from different backgrounds, they usually have similar
cultural experiences, which makes blending easy. Occasionally, Participant 4 chooses between their Spanish and Italian identities depending on which family members they are with, but this does not bother them, as their family also adapts to their culture. They appreciate how well their cultures complement one another and how Monaco allows them to balance their Italian and Spanish sides without feeling like an outsider. In their reflections, Participant 4 does not face many cultural challenges in Monaco but sometimes feels overwhelmed when traveling to places with unfamiliar cultures. However, they believe that being used to blending cultures helps them incorporate new ones temporarily. They expect their identity to evolve when they attend university in Scotland, anticipating an initial difficulty in adapting to the new culture, though they believe it will become easier over time. As a TCK, Participant 4 feels they can understand and respect other cultures, even if they do not fully agree with them, and they find comfort in knowing they can rely on others who share their cultural background.
Results
All four participants have experienced living in multicultural environments, which shaped their identities in complex ways. While each participant reported connecting to multiple cultures, the degree of attachment to their "home" cultures varied. Participant 1, for instance, expressed a strong connection to their Russian culture, describing Russia as their "motherland" despite living in Monaco for most of their life. This contrasts with Participant 2, who, despite their Swedish, Italian, and Kiwi heritage, felt more connected to their Swedish side due to their frequent visits to Sweden.
Participant 3 reported feeling uncomfortable when their friends from different cultures interact, as they are uncertain which cultural identity to display in certain contexts. This internal conflict depicts the struggle many TCKs face in blending multiple cultural influences.
Participant 4 also reported this tension but highlighted how blending their Spanish and Italian cultures brings them a sort of “comfort” and sense of acceptance.
A recurring theme across the participants’ interviews is the need to adapt to the local culture or, in some cases, put on a "mask" to fit into their environments. Participant 1 described the effort it takes to adjust their personality based on the people they interact with in Monaco, which leaves them feeling vulnerable despite not significantly impacting their happiness. Participants 1, 2, and 3 also acknowledged adapting to the norms and social expectations of the countries they visit or reside in, especially in terms of politeness and social interaction.
Participant 1 for example, felt like they had to conceal parts of their Russian identity in certain political situations, particularly when interacting with Western Europeans. Participant 2 experienced similar tensions, avoiding speaking Swedish while in Turkey due to political conflicts between the countries. This "masking" behavior they mentioned often arose out of a desire to avoid conflict or exclusion.
All four participants are fluent in multiple languages, which they all perceivd as an advantage, especially in terms of future career opportunities. Participant 1, for instance, appreciated their fluency in Russian, French, and English, which they believed would benefit them professionally. Participant 2 also mentioned that being multilingual allows them to connect with international people more easily. Participant 2’s ability to speak several languages (Spanish, Italian, and English) had similarly advantages in their interactions in diverse settings. However, multilingualism also has its challenges. Participant 2, for example, pointed out that while they speak many languages fluently, they do not feel like any language truly belongs to them, which creates a sense of insecurity. The lack of a dominant or "native" language can, at times, contribute to a sense of displacement.
The participants had mixed feelings about the emotional impact of blending or separating their cultural identities. Some, like Participant 4, felt happiest when blending their cultures, as it allowed them to feel more authentic and included in social interactions. That participant emphasized the importance of respecting and blending different cultures, especially when interacting with friends from varied backgrounds. That participant’s ability to seamlessly switch between their Spanish and Italian cultures became a point of pride.
While cultural blending, adaptation, and multilingualism are generally seen as advantageous, they also come with challenges and social insecurities. Participants 1 and 2 talked about losing their "authentic selves" when blending cultural identities. Participant 1 felt tension between their different cultural selves and worried that adapting to their environment might distance them from their true personality. Participant 2 also mentioned that spending too much time in one culture makes them miss the other, creating a constant internal war. Most participants recognized the value of being TCKs and mentioned it gave them the ability to unconsciously switch from one culture to another without any struggle.
Discussion
The interviews with the four TCKs in this study reveal the complexities of blending or separating multiple cultural identities. Each participant provided insights into how they navigate their cultural identities. The core themes from this study related to cultural blending, adaptation, and the emotional consequences of these experiences.
All four participants discussed the challenge of balancing their cultural identities in different social settings. For example, some identify strongly with one culture over the other; they spoke about feeling the need to adjust their personality depending on the context. They also described that they feel more at home with people coming from their “motherland” country due to shared values and cultural norms. However, this adaptation created a sense of vulnerability, as they had to “change” in order to fit in. For some, this made them question
their authenticity. While they appreciated the broader perspective their multicultural background provided them, some often felt uncertain about which cultural identity to adopt in mixed-cultural settings. This reflects the TCK dilemma of whether to blend or separate their identities, which can cause social anxiety and insecurity.
A notable finding from the interviews is that participants viewed their multilingual abilities as a significant advantage. The participants highlighted how speaking multiple languages allowed them to navigate different cultural contexts with ease. However, they also noted that there was no single language they could call their own, leading to a sense of insecurity. This aligns with the literature, which suggests that multilingualism can contribute to both adaptability and feelings of displacement, as individuals may lack a "native" cultural or linguistic identity (Pollock & Van Reken, 1999).
The emotional consequences of blending or separating cultural identities is a common theme among the participants. Some participants reported feeling happiest when blending all three of their cultures as it allowed them to act authentically and respectfully in different contexts. They emphasized how blending their identities made them feel more accepted, which contributed to their sense of well-being while still being empathetic with the person they’re dealing with and making them feel at ease. This experience is supported by the literature, which suggests that integrating multiple cultural identities into a coherent whole leads to greater life satisfaction and emotional stability (Veenhoven, 2024). In contrast, Participants 1 and 2 expressed concerns about losing their authentic selves when adapting to different cultural environments. This sense of loss or inauthenticity can result from the compartmentalization of identities, leading to feelings of alienation and confusion, as discussed in Social Identity Theory (McKeown, Reeshma & Ferguson, 2016).
Overall, the participants demonstrated a deep understanding of the benefits of being TCKs, including adaptability and cultural awareness. However, they also highlighted the
emotional challenges associated with navigating multiple cultural identities. These findings reflect the tension between multicultural identity and identity confusion, a dilemma that is central to the TCK experience.
Limitations
This study has some limitation. The study mainly focused on TCKs living in Monaco. This context may not fully represent the experiences of TCKs in culturally diverse settings. Future research could involve a larger and more diverse sample of TCKs to provide better insights. Erikson’s psychosocial theory views adolescence as a separate developmental stage. The study focused on young adults (aged 18-21). As which might limit the applicability of the findings to TCKs at other stages of life, such as childhood. Another limitation is all the participants have socioeconomic privilege which gives them the chance to have experiences like going back to their parents’ country for visits. The experiences of these participants might not apply to other groups.
Conclusion
This study explored how the blending versus separation of cultural identities affects TCKs. Most participants reported a positive sense of self when they blended their cultural identities, as it allowed them to act more authentically and comfortably in various social contexts. Blending cultures helped them feel more accepted, secure, and fulfilled, particularly in multicultural environments. TCKs who managed to blend their cultural identities often experienced higher self-esteem, emotional stability, and a greater sense of belonging. While there was difficulty involved in switching between cultural personas, participants often found compartmentalization to be an adaptive strategy that helped them fit into diverse social contexts. In some cases, this compartmentalization provided the flexibility needed to navigate complex cultural dynamics. Whether a participant blended or separated their cultural selves
depended on the specific environment, social group, and cultural expectations they encountered.